Pests, Diseases and Disorders of Garden Plants

Copyright

William Collins

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This updated and revised eBook edition published by William Collins in 2014

Copyright © S. T. Buczacki and K. M. Harris 2014

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Source ISBN: 9780007488551

eBook Edition © 2010, 2014 ISBN: 9780007387168

Version: 2015-02-27

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

How to use this book

General Introduction

Symptoms

biology

treatment

natural control factors

non-chemical treatments

hygiene

cultivation

rotation

resistant plants

hand-picking

barriers

repellent and scaring devices

traps

biological control

chemical treatments

pesticides

the law and garden plant health

A-Z Key to symptoms

PESTS

Eelworms

Slugs and snails

Earthworms

Enchytraeid worms

Millipedes

Symphylids

Woodlice

Springtails

Crickets

Bush crickets

Grasshoppers

Stick insects

Earwigs

Cockroaches

Lace bugs

Capsid bugs

Froghoppers

Leafhoppers

Psyllids

Whiteflies

Aphids

Adelgids

Phylloxerids

Scale insects

Mealybugs

Thrips

Caterpillars

Flies

Sawflies

Gall wasps

Ants

Wasps

Leaf-cutter bees

Bumble bees

Burrowing bees

Beetles

Mites

Birds

Mammals

DISEASES

Rusts

Smuts

Downy mildews

Powdery mildews

Sooty moulds

White blisters

Needle casts

Wilts

Cankers and diebacks

Galls, witches’ brooms and leaf curls

Scabs

Bulb, corm and tuber rots

Flower and bud rots

Fruit and vegetable rots

Root and foot rots of herbaceous plants

Tree and shrub rots

Stem and leaf rots of herbaceous plants

Spots

Slime mould

Lichens

Algae

Harmful flowering pants

Specific replant effects

Root nodules

Mycorrhiza

Viruses and ‘virus-like organisms’

DISORDERS

Mineral nutrient deficiencies

Nitrogen

Phosphorus

Potassium

Calcium

Magnesium

Iron

Manganese

Boron

Copper

Molybdenum

Non-nutritional disorders

Drought

Flutuating temperature

Frost

High temperature

Light

Lightning

Precipitation

Water-logging

Wind

Disturbed growth phenomena

Genetic disturbances

Mechanical injuries

Pollutants

Picture Section

Sources of further information

Glossary

Index

Picture Credits

Acknowledgements

About the Publisher

Preface

This is a practical guide to the pests, diseases and disorders that commonly affect fruit, vegetable and ornamental plants growing in gardens in Britain and northern Europe. At first sight it may seem a depressingly morbid catalogue of plant failures but we believe that a good understanding of the many different causes of such failures provides the best basis for successfully avoiding them or limiting their effects. Our main aim therefore is to improve plant health and to ensure that gardeners derive maximum enjoyment from the plants that they grow. It is unfortunately inevitable that all gardeners will encounter some pests, diseases and disorders sooner or later but we hope that no single gardener will ever have the misfortune of seeing all the afflictions recorded here!

This book is a revised version of the third edition (2005), incorporating changes to the section on chemical controls, necessitated by the withdrawal of many chemicals from garden use as a result of legal and commercial changes. In addition, new pests and diseases have been added and new sources of information have been included. As in the case of the previous version of this publication, it is a guide book rather than an encyclopaedia, since the subject matter is too great to be dealt with in the limited space available, but it is in fact more comprehensive than any similar book of this type. Although primarily intended for gardeners, it will therefore also be of use to professional horticulturists and to teachers, students and naturalists.

Most of the information on pests, diseases and disorders that is readily available to gardeners consists of relatively brief items in general gardening books, in magazines and commercial promotional literature, in television programmes and, to an increasing extent, online. This is often limited in scope and detail and information in specialist textbooks and scientific journals, which would provide more information, is not always readily accessible. We have therefore gathered information from all available sources to provide accurate and concise details of the symptoms, biology and control of the pests, diseases and disorders that we consider to be of greatest importance to gardeners. In making this selection, we have consulted many publications, have taken advice from colleagues and have been influenced by our own professional experience. Gardens in the UK are our main concern but most of the included pests, diseases and disorders occur throughout northern Europe, and often much further afield. We have not attempted a wider coverage to more southerly regions as different, more Mediterranean, climates favour other species of pests and diseases that are beyond the immediate scope of this book.

The effects of climate change through global warming may eventually result in northern extensions of the ranges of some of these pests and diseases. The recent establishments in the UK of the horse chestnut leaf mining moth and the rosemary beetle are examples of northern extensions of the ranges of southern European species.

How To Use This Book

This book has been specially planned so that gardeners with little technical knowledge can quickly identify and treat the pests, diseases and disorders that commonly affect their plants. Problems are therefore approached from the point of view of a gardener dealing with a particular plant or group of plants.

IDENTIFICATION

Correct identification of the cause of trouble is the first and most important step towards successful treatment. Careful consideration of the symptoms and circumstances will usually result in a positive diagnosis and, since different plants are generally affected by different ranges of pests, diseases and disorders, the quickest way of achieving this is to use the plant as the starting point. This is done by consulting the first main section of the book (here) which consists of an alphabetical listing (A–Z) of the most important plants and groups of plants that are grown in British gardens and that are commonly affected. Under each of these plant entries we indicate the symptoms produced by the most likely causes of trouble and the reader is then referred to entries in the main section of the book where detailed descriptions and illustrations can be used to confirm or reject the diagnosis. Once the diagnosis has been confirmed, information on biology and treatment can be used to determine the best course of action. For example, if tightly rolled leaflets are seen on rose plants, look in the A–Z under Rose (here). The entry there will refer to Rosa (here), which is the correct botanical name for the genus, and there you will find that the entry against ‘Leaves with leaflets tightly rolled along their length and drooping’ leads to ‘Leaf-rolling Rose Sawfly’ here. A description of the symptoms is given there, with reference to photographs (Pls. here and here), followed by details of the biology of this pest and recommendations for treatment. Similarly, if large, irregular, solid swellings are found on the roots of brassicas, look under Brassicas in the A–Z and the entry against ‘Roots with irregular swellings not containing caterpillars or holes’ will lead to ‘Club Root’ here, where a detailed account of the symptoms, biology and treatment of the disease is given, with references to relevant photographs. There are separate entries in the A–Z for 280 different plants or groups of plants. Fruits and vegetables are listed under their common names (apples, pears, parsnips, turnips, for example) and ornamental plants are listed under the botanical name for the genus (Dahlia, Euonymus, Rhododendron, for example) with cross-references from non-botanical names when necessary (Busy Lizzie – see Impatiens; Rubber Plant – see Ficus, for example). It is impracticable to list all garden plants in the A–Z but if a plant is not listed by name it may be found under one of the group entries (Alpine and Rock Garden Plants/ Aquatic Plants/ Bedding Plants/ Bulbs, Corms, Rhizomes and Tubers/ Cacti and Succulents/ Climbing Plants/ Conifers/ Ferns/ Glasshouse and House Plants/ Hedges/ Lawns/ Perennials/ Seedlings/ Shrubs/ Trees). Correct diagnosis of most common conditions will usually be easy, but atypical symptoms sometimes develop and symptoms of different conditions are occasionally confusingly similar. Since incorrect diagnosis will result in wrong treatment, it may then be necessary to consult other sources of information (here) or to refer doubtful cases to specialist advisers (here).

INFORMATION

Detailed information about each condition is given in the three main sections on Pests (here), Diseases (here) and Disorders (here), which bring together similar groups of problems, so avoiding unnecessary duplication. Within the Pests section these groupings are of closely related organisms (eelworms, slugs and snails, aphids, beetles, flies, mites, birds, mammals, for example). This arrangement works well for pests, since related species generally damage plants in similar ways, but it does not work so well for fungi, bacteria and other disease organisms, since unrelated organisms may cause very similar symptoms. The Disease section is therefore organised more on the basis of symptoms (cankers, rots, diebacks, for example), rather than on close relationships of the causative organisms, except for a few types of fungi and for viruses, which are sufficiently distinct to be treated as separate groups. Disorders are simply grouped under the main factors causing them (physiological, mechanical, climatic, nutritional, for example).

A brief introduction to each of these main sections, and to each of the subsidiary groups, summarises general information on structure, size, symptoms, biology and, where appropriate, general methods of treatment. These introductions are then followed by detailed accounts of particular pests, diseases and disorders. The common English name is given for each pest or disease and is followed by the currently correct scientific name. General distribution, frequency of occurrence and approximate size are indicated, where appropriate, and for the more important entries information is then summarised under subheadings covering Symptoms, Biology and Treatment. Disorders are dealt with in a similar fashion but they do not have scientific names since they are not caused by living organisms. The arrangement of entries within the main sections varies. In the Pests section the pests of fruit and vegetables are dealt with first, followed by pests of ornamentals. There is of course some overlap, since some pest species may affect fruits, vegetables and ornamentals. In the Diseases and Disorders sections the arrangement is different and entries are presented in alphabetical order of their common names.

Additional information and advice, especially on chemical and non-chemical treatments (including biological control) and on legal requirements is given in the General Introduction (here), which should be read before making detailed use of the rest of the book. Sources of further information (here) lists books and pamphlets and some of the main advisory services and also contains details of general and specialist journals, magazines, radio and television programmes and other media, including online sources of information, that keep gardeners informed of changes, such as the occurrence of new pests and diseases or the development of new methods of treatment.

Technical terms have been used sparingly and those that have had to be used are defined in the Glossary (here), which is followed by a comprehensive Index (here).

NOTE:

The advice contained in this book is given in good faith but so many factors affect local conditions that the authors cannot guarantee the success of all of their recommendations, nor can they accept liability for any consequence of their use. They stress that the supplier’s instructions for all proprietary products should be strictly observed and that expert advice should be sought if any doubt about their correct use arises.

General Introduction

Pests are animals that damage cultivated plants; diseases result from infections of plants by certain bacteria, fungi, Oomycetes, viruses or phytoplasmas (collectively termed pathogens), and disorders are malfunctions caused by inanimate factors such as nutrient deficiencies, drought, soil conditions, weather or pollutants. The many different pests, diseases and disorders that affect cultivated plants are of course only a very small part of the extremely complex system of interactions between all living organisms and their environments and it should be realised that most of the organisms that live on or in plants do no harm and are not pests or pathogens. Indeed many are positively beneficial, good examples being the predaceous and parasitic insects that feed on pests or the root-nodule bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi associated with roots on some plants.

Deciding whether a pest, disease or disorder should be classed as important may be very much a matter of opinion, especially in garden situations. In commercial horticulture and agriculture it is possible to assess financial losses caused by particular pests, diseases or disorders and so determine whether the expenditure of time and money on investigation and treatment is economically justifiable. In gardens it is not so easy since most gardeners grow plants for their beauty and interest rather than for financial gain. The importance attached to a particular pest, disease or disorder must then be decided by the individual gardener in the light of his or her own experience and circumstances.

We have selected the pests, diseases and disorders that we consider to be of general importance in Britain and northern Europe. There will not be complete agreement about this selection, even among experts, but we have based it on our own experiences in advising gardeners during the past forty years and we have included most conditions that we know are common causes of concern, even if some of them do not cause appreciable damage. Many uncommon conditions have been left out in order to keep the book to acceptable limits and we stress that it is a guide, not an encyclopaedia. If more information is needed, it may be obtainable from the various sources of additional information summarised towards the end of the book (here).

Many (but by no means all) of the problems that arise when plants are cultivated result from disturbances of the natural relationships between the plants and their native environments. In natural circumstances plants have evolved gradually over millions of years and have become well adapted to soil, seasons, weather and other local environmental factors. In the wild, most plants grow as individuals dispersed in mixed communities with other species and this dispersion often limits the effects of potential pests, diseases and disorders. Insects or mites that feed on a particular host plant will tend to spend much time searching for the right plants and will therefore have less time for feeding and breeding. Similarly, diseases that spread by direct or close contact will not spread so rapidly and even disorders, such as nutrient deficiencies, will not have so marked an effect in mixed communities where different plant species will have different nutrient requirements and will often obtain them from different depths in the soil.

In agriculture, forestry, horticulture and gardening these natural circumstances have often been changed. Plants are grown with many individuals of the same species in close proximity, or even in direct contact, so the spread of pests and diseases is encouraged and the risks of extensive disorders are increased. Additionally, in the course of cultivation most plants have been changed by selection and breeding to produce higher-yielding, showier, improved cultivars (varieties) that may have lost natural immunities or tolerances of pests, diseases or disorders that were present in their wild ancestors. It may be possible to reintroduce and enhance useful levels of tolerance and immunity by further selection and plant breeding but the considerable research effort that is necessary means that this is generally only undertaken for commercial crops.

Further complications have been caused by international movements of plants by man during the past few centuries. Many plants that have been moved by land, sea or air have inevitably carried pests and diseases into areas where they did not previously occur. Good examples of such pests are the woolly aphid of apples, introduced to Europe from North America about 1787; the Colorado beetle, introduced from North America to Europe about 1922; the rhododendron whitefly, introduced to Europe, probably from the Himalayas, about 1926, and the many species of mealybugs, scale insects, thrips and mites that have been accidentally introduced into European glasshouses from various parts of the tropics and sub-tropics. One notable example of a disease that has spread in this way is that of the virulent strain of the Dutch elm disease fungus, introduced to Britain from North America with imported elm logs in the late 1960s, with subsequent disastrous effects on our native elms. Other good examples are fireblight, a bacterial disease that arrived in Britain from North America in 1957 and has since caused major problems on fruit trees; carnation rust, which came to Britain from Europe about 1890, the very serious chrysanthemum white rust, which was brought to Europe with plants imported from Japan in 1963 and, most recently, the dieback disease of ash (here).

Examples of recently introduced alien pests are: the horse chestnut leaf mining moth, Cameraria ohridella, which spread into southern England from mainland Europe and is now well established; the rosemary beetle, Chrysolina americana; the berberis sawfly, Arge berberidis; the fuchsia gall mite, Aculops fuchsiae, and the oak processionary moth, Thaumetopoea processionea. This influx of alien species into the UK has escalated during the past decade, and may be at least partly attributed to enhanced international movements of plants and/or to climate change.

It would seem therefore that man’s disturbance of natural circumstances has opened a Pandora’s box of plant ills, but this is far from true. Man’s increasing involvement and dependence on cultivated plants, which started about 10,000 years ago, has developed into our modern systems of agriculture, forestry, horticulture and gardening and most of the plants that are cultivated in these unnatural conditions are in fact remarkably healthy. Our concern in this book is with unhealthy plants, but they are a small minority of all the plants that grow in gardens every year.

SYMPTOMS

Many pests, diseases and disorders produce characteristic symptoms that make it possible to diagnose the causes of trouble with a fair degree of certainty. These symptoms are described in detail later in the book and the most important or the most typical of each type are illustrated in the colour plates. In all cases we have described the symptoms that are most likely to be noticed by gardeners and we have tried to describe the most typical symptoms. There is bound to be considerable variation in the manifestation of symptoms on different plants, in different seasons and places and on different cultivars, so the relatively brief descriptions given should not be taken to be absolutely exact for all circumstances. Although many diagnoses are simple and certain, there are also many cases where diagnosis is difficult. If in doubt, seek expert advice from advisory services provided by gardening journals or institutions (see here), since wrong diagnosis and wrong treatment will waste time and money.

Symptoms are often conspicuous and may give a clear indication of the severity of damage. Good examples of this category are the sudden wilting and collapse of whole plants caused by cabbage root fly on recently transplanted brassicas, by wilt diseases on tomatoes, or by severe frost on potato plants in spring and autumn. In other cases, such as eelworm attacks, virus infections or nutrient deficiencies, symptoms may be less obvious and must be looked for carefully. In all cases it is important to look out for the first signs of symptoms developing since early diagnosis and treatment may make it possible to prevent or minimise damage. Different pests, diseases and disorders affect different parts of plants and symptoms may therefore appear on roots, bulbs, tubers, corms, rhizomes, stems, buds, leaves, flowers, fruits or seeds. In the detailed descriptions reference is made to the main parts affected and, where appropriate, to the time of year when symptoms normally appear. Where pests are involved, brief descriptions of adult and immature stages are given if they are likely to be easily seen on damaged plants but detailed descriptions are not given for those stages, such as adult moths or flies, that are unlikely to be seen. Descriptions of diseases similarly emphasise the gross symptoms produced and do not describe microscopic details of the causative organisms. Sizes of organisms or symptoms where relevant, are indicated by approximate measurements but these give only a rough guide, since there may be considerable variation, even within a species.

BIOLOGY

Relevant information about the biology of pests and diseases and about the biological basis of disorders explains how and why plants are damaged and is also most useful in deciding what methods can be used to prevent or limit this damage. Much information has been published about most major pests, diseases and disorders and from the scientific literature we have prepared summaries of the essential facts about overwintering stages and sites, development during the growing season, methods of reproduction and dispersal, host ranges and geographical distribution, and many other topics. There are considerable differences in the general biology of the major groups of pests (eelworms, mites, insects, birds, mammals) and of disease organisms (fungi, bacteria, viruses and phytoplasmas) and these are summarised at the beginning of each relevant part of the book. Similar summaries are also given for important groups of insects (aphids, caterpillars, flies, sawflies, beetles), and for certain groups of fungi (rusts, smuts, downy mildews, powdery mildews).

This arrangement takes advantage of the fact that closely related groups of organisms tend to live, feed and breed in similar ways and it is relatively easy to write about them in general terms. Even so, there is much variation within these restricted groups and most generalisations are subject to some exceptions.

TREATMENT

Recommendations for treatment are given in the detailed entries in the pest, disease and disorder sections but there are some general principles that are best summarised here. Our aim in making recommendations for treatment has been to select methods that are safe, practicable and effective when used in gardens. Commercial situations are usually quite distinct, since different criteria apply, and we have not tried to cover them.

Firstly, we emphasise that choice of treatment must be personal. Only the individual gardener can decide what monetary, aesthetic or sentimental value is to be placed on his/her plants, what levels of perfection he/she wishes to achieve, and what methods are feasible in his/her circumstances. Some gardeners will prefer to rely entirely on natural controls; others will use varying degrees of non-chemical and chemical control. We have tried to indicate the range of possible effective treatments that are available and have also tried to provide sufficient biological information to indicate when and why treatment may be necessary and how it can best be achieved. Many recommendations made elsewhere in the gardening literature will not be found here and in most cases they will have been omitted because we are not convinced that they are effective and/or safe.

Secondly, we recommend the use of non-chemical methods whenever possible. Chemicals are generally a poor substitute for good gardening, are expensive, and may also have harmful side-effects. There are, however, some cases where chemicals offer the only possibility of prevention and cure and the gardener’s choice must then be between the use of chemicals or the risk of serious damage and possible loss of plants.

NATURAL CONTROL FACTORS

Before discussing the many artificial treatments that can be used to check pests, diseases and disorders, it is worth considering the general background of natural control factors that operate independent of man’s intervention and limit many pests and diseases and some disorders. Populations of all organisms tend to increase at rates that would quickly outstrip the resources of their environments if they were not checked and it is the natural control factors that generally ensure that this does not happen. Taking the very simple, but by no means extreme example of a species of animal that reproduces sexually once a year, the females laying an average of 100 eggs each. If we assume that all of the eggs hatch; that all the young survive to maturity; that individuals do not live more than a year and that the sex ratio averages 50♂ : 50♀; then the population increase from a single pair of individuals over four years will be as follows:

If the population of this species is to remain constant from year to year, only two of every 100 eggs may develop through to sexually mature adults, which means that the mortality must be 98%. If three eggs survive, the population will be increased by 50% and if four win through it will be doubled. Many pests, especially insects and mites, go through the above process in weeks rather than years and some are able to reproduce asexually, so that the whole population consists of females. Under these conditions truly astronomical increases are possible. To take a familiar example, a single black bean aphid alighting on a broad bean plant in early June could theoretically give rise to a population of 2,000,000,000,000,000 aphids by the end of August, which would be about a million tons of aphids! Similar statistics may be quoted with respect to pathogens: a single honey fungus toadstool may liberate around 10,000,000,000,000 spores in the course of a few days while as many bacterial cells may be present in a single drop of bacterial slime. Fortunately this vast reproductive potential is never fully realised since many natural factors reduce the numbers of individuals surviving to maturity and so keep populations within reasonable limits most of the time. The most important of these factors for pests are climate, quantity and quality of food, and the effects of predators, parasites and diseases. Similarly only a few pathogenic spores survive to alight in the right place and at the right time to infect another plant. Climate often determines whether or not a species can exist at all in a particular area and is therefore most important, especially in northern temperate countries where conditions are quite unsuitable for the survival of many tropical and sub-tropical pests and diseases. Even the native and introduced pests and diseases that are well adapted to survive the winter in a dormant state may suffer heavy mortality in the early spring if a mild period, sufficiently warm to break dormancy, is suddenly followed by cold weather. In addition, the life processes of insects, mites and other invertebrate pests and those of all disease organisms are directly affected by temperature so that rates of movement, growth and reproduction increase when temperatures rise, and fall when they drop.

Humidity is also an important climatic factor, since many pests and disease organisms (especially fungi) are soon desiccated and die or become dormant when humidity is low. Hot, dry periods may therefore check pests, such as caterpillars, leatherjackets or slugs, and diseases such as downy mildews and many rot-inducing fungi.

Rainfall affects humidity but may also have a direct battering effect on some pests, which are knocked off plants and may not be able to regain them. Rainfall is also important in aiding the dispersal of pathogens; bacterial slime or soil containing fungal spores for instance may be splashed considerable distances by heavy raindrops. Sunshine has a direct effect on the activity of many adult insects, such as narcissus flies or cabbage white butterflies, so that more eggs are likely to be laid in sunny periods. The effects of seasonal changes of climate are fairly obvious but there can also be local differences of climate within a garden, possibly caused by the position of a hedge or wall, the removal of trees, construction of a pond and so on, which may have an important effect on pests and diseases. In addition, the artificial climate maintained in houses and heated glasshouses makes it possible for tropical and subtropical pests and diseases to survive in our cold climate.

Food is another important factor affecting pests and diseases. There may be insufficient food available so that individual organisms must compete for it while, even if the quantities are adequate, the quality may not be. All pests and disease organisms have certain basic nutritional requirements and although they may be able to survive long adverse periods, they will reproduce most rapidly only when the right combinations of nutrients are available to them in sufficient quantities. Gardens often provide the ideal combination of food plants, both in quantity and quality, and this is one of the reasons why pests and diseases thrive, at least until the food supply starts to give out.

Pest populations may also themselves be checked by various diseases, caused by bacteria, fungi and viruses, and by many different predators and parasites. Epidemic diseases, such as myxomatosis in rabbits or certain bacterial diseases of caterpillars, have dramatic effects, especially when pest populations are high, but less obvious chronic diseases also take a steady toll, as do many predators and parasites of pests. Predators are abundant in most habitats. They hunt or trap prey and each individual predator usually eats many adult or immature stages of the pest. Spiders, birds, fish, frogs and hedgehogs are familiar examples but there are very many more, such as certain mirid (capsid) bugs that may kill three to four thousand fruit tree red spider mites each; anthocorid bugs that can kill fifty red spider mites a day; ladybird larvae that eat up to five hundred aphids each during the three weeks of their development or hover-fly larvae that can kill as many as twenty large aphids in twenty minutes and may consume about a thousand aphids each during their development. Parasites are usually less conspicuous and more subtle. They generally develop within the bodies of their hosts and one individual host usually provides all the food needed for one or more parasite larvae to complete their development. Many such parasites are the larvae of Hymenoptera, tachinid flies or other groups of insects and, although they are seldom recognised by gardeners, they do play an important part in limiting populations of aphids, caterpillars and other pests. It is, however, unusual for any parasite or predator to eliminate completely a pest species in natural circumstances since this would result ultimately in the extinction of the parasite or predator species itself and would be a form of biological suicide. What usually happens is that a balance is maintained between the interacting organisms, with parasites and predators reaching peak populations only after pest populations have also reached a peak. Rapid collapse of the pest population is then followed by gradual recovery, which may take two or more years. Because of this cycle, years when a particular pest is unusually abundant are often followed by a number of years when it is at too low a level to cause appreciable damage. Plant diseases are also similarly affected by interactions with other organisms that feed on them or compete with them but the microscopic size of the organisms involved makes it extremely difficult to observe and interpret what is happening in any particular circumstance.

This, briefly, is the basis of the natural control of pests and diseases. Breaking it down into separate factors is of course a gross oversimplification, since most factors interact to varying degrees, producing an exceedingly complex dynamic system which is often referred to as the balance of nature. It is against this complex background that we try to impose our own artificial systems of pest and disease control.

NON-CHEMICAL TREATMENTS

The many different types of treatment that have been devised to prevent or limit pests, diseases and disorders can be classified in several ways but the simplest general distinction is between non-chemical and chemical treatments. We use this distinction as we wish to stress the importance of non-chemical treatments, most of which aim at preventing trouble, rather than curing it, although there are some, such as hot water treatment, that can, in the right circumstances, effect better cures than chemicals. It almost goes without saying that plants are most likely to be healthy if they are grown correctly in the right soil, at the right time and in the right way. Detailed discussion of this aspect of preventive treatment is not possible here, since it would involve virtually the whole subject of gardening, but we would recommend that care be taken to grow plants in situations that suit them. This will not always ensure that they remain free from trouble but it will at least give them the best possible chance of thriving. Plants growing in unfavourable circumstances are less likely to thrive but they too may respond to special care.

HYGIENE. The best way to avoid many problems is to prevent their initial establishment in the garden and this can certainly be done for many diseases and some pests. Always obtain new plants from reputable suppliers and scrutinise all new introductions immediately on arrival to ensure that they are free from obvious signs of trouble. If possible, keep new plants in quarantine in a remote part of the garden for a time so that symptoms of incipient trouble may develop and become apparent. Be especially careful when buying bulbs, corms and tubers and glasshouse and house plants, all of which can easily carry pests and diseases, and ensure that new plantings of bush, cane and tree fruits are healthy, preferably by purchasing certified stocks where these are available. Be ruthless with suspect plants and if they are seriously affected by incurable diseases or intractable pests destroy them by burning or by burying them deeply. Alternatively, use locally acceptable methods for garden refuse disposal by tying them up in plastic bags and either putting them in dustbins (binning) or taking them to a rubbish dump. Do not leave vegetable crops in the ground longer than necessary, since this helps to carry pests and diseases from one crop to the next or from one season to the next and, for the same reason, always dispose of prunings from fruit and other trees and shrubs as soon as possible, preferably by shredding them and adding them to a compost heap. A garden is more likely to be healthy if it is neat and tidy than if it is cluttered with rubbish and debris. Hygiene is particularly important in glasshouses where the protected environment enables many potentially harmful organisms to flourish. Scrupulous clearing away of plant debris and regular cleaning out of water tanks and rain butts is essential. The compost, pots and boxes used to raise seedlings must also be checked; it is not safe to assume that all commercially prepared seedling compost is sterile and small quantities can be sterilised quite easily by ‘cooking’ them in a domestic oven for about one hour at 150°C (gas regulo 2) or microwave oven at full setting for seven minutes per kilogram of material. Pots and boxes should be washed and scrubbed thoroughly after each batch of plants has been raised, and then when all soil has been washed off, rinsed again in a proprietary disinfectant before rinsing in clean water.

CULTIVATION. Always cultivate ground as thoroughly and frequently as possible since this will reduce populations of soil pests, such as leatherjackets, wireworms and cutworms, and will also keep down weeds, which may harbour pests and diseases. This is particularly important where land is newly broken for the cultivation of vegetables but also applies to the preparation of land for fruit and to the maintenance of beds and borders of ornamental plants.

ROTATION. The repeated growing of the same or related plants on the same site can cause build-up of soil-borne diseases and pests and may also deplete nutrients. It is possible to avoid some of the more obvious hazards by planning adequate rotations of annually grown plants and this is normal practice when cultivating vegetables. The small size of many modern gardens makes it difficult to rotate plants as often as may be desirable but three groups of plants are particularly important in this respect. If at all possible, potatoes, tomatoes and other solanaceous plants should not follow each other, nor should cabbages, cauliflowers and other brassicas or onions, leeks, shallots and chives. A 3–4 year break is generally sufficient to prevent trouble but once certain pests, such as eelworms, or diseases such as clubroot or onion white rot have become established, it will be necessary to refrain from growing susceptible plants for much longer. Additionally, with some pest and disease problems it may be wise to avoid growing certain plants in close proximity. Such instances are indicated, where appropriate, in the text.

RESISTANT OR TOLERANT PLANTS. Some plants are almost completely unaffected by pests and diseases whereas others are notoriously susceptible. These varying degrees of susceptibility may result from genetically inherited differences in thickness, waxiness or hairiness of the cuticle; chemical composition of the sap and tissues; early maturity; exceptional vigour and many other characters. In theory therefore it may be possible to avoid trouble by growing non-susceptible plants but it is not always easy to give definite advice on this matter, partly because information may not be readily available and partly because resistance or tolerance is seldom absolute and may break down in some circumstances. It is generally easiest to obtain information about commercially grown plants since plant breeding and selection has developed cultivars that carry genetically based resistance or tolerance to some important pests, diseases and disorders. This is the case with a number of vegetables, such as canker resistant parsnips and root aphid resistant lettuces; some fruits, such as spur blight resistant raspberries and a few ornamentals, such as eelworm resistant chrysanthemums, mildew resistant roses and rust resistant antirrhinums. We have indicated the situations where the use of resistant or tolerant cultivars is feasible and additional information can be found in some seed and nurseryman’s catalogues or obtained from specialist plant societies.

HAND-PICKING. Removal and destruction of pests by hand is an effective method of control if done thoroughly and regularly, and provided that the number of plants to be examined is not too great. Egg batches and young larvae of many pests can often be dealt with simply by crushing them and, although this procedure may seem cruel, it is in fact much quicker and certain than death through slow poisoning by insecticides. House plants and glasshouse plants can easily be scrutinised and aphids, scale insects, mealybugs and other pests located and removed with a soft piece of cloth or a fine brush dipped in soapy water. Outdoors, search and destroy operations can be mounted against slugs, snails, leatherjackets, chafer grubs, cutworms, tortricid and other caterpillars (including those of many sawflies), egg masses of vapourer moth, lackey moth, cabbage white butterflies, larvae and pupae of leaf-miners in celery, chrysanthemums, cinerarias and other plants. It may also be possible to check the spread of some diseases, such as apple powdery mildew, by removing and destroying affected leaves or other parts at an early stage but this is less effective than the removal of pests.

BARRIERS. Physical barriers can be used to prevent or limit damage caused by some of the larger pests, especially mammals and birds. Correctly designed fences and gates will exclude deer, rabbits and hares from gardens and permanent cages can be used to protect fruit and vegetables from attack by birds and squirrels. Temporary caging or netting of susceptible plants can also be effective, if used in good time, before the main attack can develop. It is usually quite difficult to erect barriers that will effectively protect plants from insects, mites, eelworms and other small invertebrates but there are a few cases (chrysanthemum eelworm, winter moth, cabbage rootfly) where this can be done and these are dealt with in the appropriate pest entries. In some cases fine mesh or fleece can be used effectively to exclude egg-laying adult insects and in other cases grease-bands or barrier glues may be applied to tree trunks and other surfaces to exclude crawling insects, such as ants.

REPELLENTS AND SCARING DEVICES. Many different chemical repellents and various mechanical, visual and psychological scaring devices have been used to prevent pest damage. Some may work for a time but they are mainly used against birds and mammals and these pests quickly become accustomed to most scaring devices and often ignore chemical repellents when food is short. Battery or low-voltage mains-operated electronic scaring devices are marketed for use against some pests, especially cats and moles, and various mechanical scaring devices have been developed to deter birds. The most effective techniques are noted in the sections dealing with particular groups of pests.

TRAPS. Trapping can reduce local populations of mice, rabbits, moles and some other mammals but usually requires special knowledge and experience, combined with patience and persistence. Some other pests (earwigs, codling moth caterpillars, weevils, cockroaches and wasps for example) can be trapped fairly easily but large numbers must be killed before there is any noticeable reduction in populations since trapped individuals are soon replaced by others moving in from adjoining areas. Birds should not be trapped since all species are legally protected and although exceptions can be made for some pest species, they are so mobile that local trapping is unlikely to have any real effect. Pheromone traps are useful against some pests. These release a synthetic pheromone that attracts male insects, which are then caught on a sticky surface. Such traps are specific to a particular pest species and are available for use against codling moth (here), plum fruit moth (here), pea moth (here), carnation tortrix moth (here), and raspberry beetle (here). They control the target species by disrupting mating and the traps may also be used to monitor pest activity so that insecticide applications can be precisely timed.

In glasshouses and conservatories sticky traps hanging above plants may be used to attract and trap some pests, such as whiteflies. Yellow traps are generally most attractive to pests but it should be realised that beneficial insects, such as predatory ladybird beetles or parasitic wasps, may also be caught and this may interfere with the use of biological control agents.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL. This method of control involves the active management of natural enemies (predators, parasites or pathogens) to increase their impact on pest populations and so reduce the damage that pests cause. In its simplest form it can be practised in a small garden by creating habitats that attract and encourage natural enemies, such as hoverflies to control aphids or hedgehogs to control slugs, but in its more sophisticated form it involves international collaboration in exploration, research and implementation programmes which may run for many years before they are successful. Successes involving the transfer of selected biological control agents from one continent to another have often been spectacular and, with increasing expertise, the proportion of successful introductions is increasing. The greatest use of biological control has been against certain pests, diseases and weeds in agriculture, horticulture and forestry, especially in the tropics and sub-tropics, but gardeners are now benefiting from recent developments and an increasing range of biological control agents is available to them.

The idea of biological control is an old one and horticultural use dates from at least the thirteenth century, when Chinese farmers put nests of ants into citrus and litchi trees to protect them from pests. The first great modern success was at the end of the nineteenth century when a predatory Australian ladybird beetle, Rodolia cardinalis, was introduced into California to control the fluted scale, Icerya purchasi, which had become a serious pest in citrus orchards. An equally famous success was the eradication of prickly pear cactus, Opuntia stricta, from about 25 million hectares of Australia by the introduction of 2,750 caterpillars of a South American moth, Cactoblastis cactorum, in 1925. More recently, the cassava mealybug, a serious pest of a major food crop in Africa, has been effectively controlled by introduction of a small parasitic wasp, Epidinocarsis lopezi from South America. Other successes have been less spectacular but equally effective. They have usually involved extensive research, followed by transportation of live parasites, predators or pathogens from an area where the pest species is indigenous to an area where it has been accidentally introduced. Sometimes a single introduction is sufficient but in other cases repeated introductions are necessary.

The main advantages of biological control over chemical methods are that it does not cause environmental pollution or (if correctly executed) ecological disruption; it may achieve long-lasting control without additional effort; there are no phytotoxic effects on plants or health hazards to people, and it is extremely unlikely that pests will develop resistance to biological control agents. Although all organisms are attacked by a range of natural enemies, it is not expected that biological control can be used against all pests. Nevertheless, there is much potential still to be developed.

In Britain and northern Europe the most important instances of the application of this method in commercial horticulture are the use of a small parasitic wasp, Encarsia formosa, to control glasshouse whitefly (see here) and the use of a South American predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, to control glasshouse red spider mites (see here) but there are now many other biological control agents available for garden use. There is considerable potential for the further development of this technique.

The most important groups of natural enemies and the biological control agents currently available to gardeners are noted in the following section. Biocontrol agents are chosen to work selectively against a specific pest or related group of pests and instructions for correct use of these agents should be carefully studied, preferably before live consignments are ordered. In particular, gardeners should note the need to stop using chemicals, which will kill off biological control agents, and the fact that most biological control agents currently available are for use mainly on glasshouse or house plants or on limited areas outdoors. Some may be effective over larger areas outdoors but the vagaries of the weather mean that it is not so easy to control releases or to monitor subsequent establishment.

Parasites

Parasites (more correctly termed parasitoids) are organisms that feed externally (exoparasites) or internally (endoparasites) on their hosts and eventually kill them before completing their own development. This type of parasitism has evolved in many different groups but is especially prevalent in some insects, notably the parasitic wasps (Hymenoptera).

PARASITIC WASPS. These are very small to medium-sized hymenopterans, sometimes barely visible without magnification and often less than 1–2 mm long. They should not be confused with true wasps which are much larger. They usually target one particular species or a few closely related species and many breed asexually, which enhances their rate of reproduction. The main species and genera available to amateur gardeners are: Encarsia formosa for glasshouse whitefly control (here), Metaphycus helvolus for scale insect control (here), Aphidius for aphid control (here), Dacnusa, Opius and Diglyphus for control of leaf miners (here) and Anagrus for control of glasshouse leafhopper (here).

Predators

Most groups of animals contain some predatory species and they range in size from microscopic mites to some of the largest vertebrates, such as lions and great white sharks. They prey on their chosen hosts, eating large numbers of individuals, and play an important part in limiting populations of the host species on which they feed. Among the well-known groups that include predators on garden pests are frogs, birds, spiders, ladybirds and hoverfly larvae, but there are many others. Most are general predators which feed on a range of hosts that may incidentally include some pests but some are more specialised and feed mainly on pest species.

PREDATORY MITES. These are small, relatively active mites which move over plant and soil surfaces in search of their prey. The best known species in horticulture is Phytoseiulus persimilis which gardeners may use to control glasshouse red spider mite (here). Species of another genus, Amblyseius are now available for use against thrips and another species of mite, Hypoaspis miles, may be used against fungus gnats.

PREDATORY FLIES. Larvae of cecidomyiid midges are small, up to 3 mm long, and inconspicuous. One species, the aphid midge (Aphidoletes aphidimyza) has been widely used in commercial horticulture for the control of many different species of aphid and is now available for use by gardeners (here).

PREDATORY BEETLES. Ladybirds are the best-known predatory beetles in gardens as both adults and larvae feed openly on aphid-infested plants. One species, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri is available for use against glasshouse mealybugs (here) and another beetle, Delphastus, is now available for use against glasshouse whitefly. Other groups of beetles, notably certain ground beetles (carabids) are of importance as predators on slugs, on eggs and larvae of cabbage root fly and on other pests of garden plants.

Pathogens

Pests are susceptible to diseases caused by various pathogenic bacteria, fungi, viruses and other organisms. The myxomatosis virus that affects rabbits is one well-known example but there are many more, although none are available for garden use in the UK.

PATHOGENIC NEMATODES. These nematodes are microscopic and therefore very difficult to observe and monitor. Development of the use of nematodes in biological control is comparatively recent but they are proving useful against many different pests and a few are now available to gardeners. They act indirectly by introducing bacteria into their hosts which then die within a few days. The nematodes then reproduce within the dead hosts and disperse to infect healthy hosts. Commercial formulations of two main species are currently available for use by gardeners: Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita have been developed for use against slugs (here) and Heterorhabditis megidis for use against vine weevil (here). Another species, Steinernema carpocapsae is effective against some garden soil pests, such as chafer grubs, leatherjackets, cutworms, cabbage root fly and vine weevil. There are many other species of nematode that occur naturally in soil and attack various insect pests.

The number of specific biological control agents available to gardeners is still relatively small but the general principles of biological control can be applied in any garden simply by encouraging and conserving the parasites and predators that are there already, especially the many groups of beneficial insects (ladybirds, lacewings, ground beetles, hoverflies, tachinid flies, ichneumonids, braconids, chalcids, spiders, for example). Much can be done by restricting the use of insecticides. Both parasites and predators are easily killed by insecticides, especially those that persist on or in plants for days or weeks. There is a tendency to use these chemicals when pest populations are at their peak. This is the time when plants have already been damaged and the pest population is about to collapse as a result of the activities of predators, parasites and pathogens and other natural control factors. Use of insecticides at this stage can in fact prolong pest infestations and it is much better to try to detect and control pests before this stage has been reached, preferably by using a non-persistent or a selective chemical.

In addition, it is possible to attract some beneficial insects, such as hoverflies, ichneumon, braconid and chalcid wasps, by growing suitable flowers near crops. Adults of many species feed on flowers and will be attracted by those that produce abundant pollen and nectar, especially certain species belonging to the families Apiaceae (= Umbelliferae) and Asteraceae (= Compositae).

COMPANION PLANTINGS. Planting various combinations of plants has often been recommended as a means of controlling pests. Examples of such companion plantings include garlic under peach trees to prevent peach leaf-curl, nasturtiums with tomatoes to control whitefly, caper spurge to repel moles or plantings of Tagetes or other marigolds for general control of eelworms and many other pests. Occasionally there may be some partial justification of these recommendations but many have been shown to have no scientific basis.

CHEMICAL TREATMENTS

The regular use of chemicals to control pests and diseases dates from the second half of the nineteenth century and some of the chemicals used then, Bordeaux mixture and natural pyrethrum for example, are still in use today. At first the range of materials was restricted but since the 1940s, when the remarkable insecticidal properties of DDT were discovered, an extensive range of synthetic chemicals has been developed, (mainly for commercial agriculture, horticulture and forestry), some of which have been made available to gardeners. Now there are chemicals to kill insects (insecticides), mites (acaricides), slugs and snails (molluscicides), nematodes (nematicides), rats and mice (rodenticides), fungi (fungicides), bacteria (bactericides or antibiotics), as well as the many different weed killers (herbicides), growth regulators and fertilisers that are beyond the immediate scope of this book.

Much has been written about the relative advantages and disadvantages of chemical methods of pest and disease control, with claims being made for and against their use. Chemicals have disadvantages, many of which were not immediately apparent when they were first introduced. People have been poisoned, usually by avoidable accidents; birds, fish and other wild animals, notably bees and other pollinating insects, have been seriously affected, usually through lack of knowledge, and some pests and diseases have become resistant to certain groups of chemicals. On the other hand, it has been possible to control pests and diseases that were previously uncontrollable and, as a direct result of the use of chemicals, the lives of many millions of people have been saved, (especially by controlling insect vectors of human diseases), and yields of crops have been increased substantially. Public and private debate of the major issues has produced positive improvements in the safe use of chemicals and has also hastened reassessments of the relative importance of chemical and non-chemical treatments. The general conclusion is that best use should be made of all possible methods that will limit pests and diseases to acceptable levels without harmful side-effects on man, on wildlife, on the general environment, or on plants. This approach is now often referred to as integrated pest management (IPM). Assessment of the many factors that must be considered when selecting chemical pesticides for use in gardens is difficult. Guidance for commercial growers is given by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), especially through advisory literature and other publications, which include codes of practice for the safe use of pesticides. However, much of this information is not directly relevant to garden use and is not readily available to gardeners.

Pesticides

We use the term pesticides to refer to all chemicals (insecticides, acaricides, fungicides) that are used to control pests and diseases. It is sometimes used in a narrower sense, referring only to chemicals used to control pests, and may also be used in a wider sense, to include weed killers.

For various technical, legal and commercial reasons, the number of different chemical pesticides officially approved and available for use by gardeners in the UK and mainland Europe has been reduced substantially over recent years and is likely to be further reduced in the future. Implementation of the EU Plant Protection Products Directive, originally introduced in 1993, ensures that the EU and UK have one of the strictest systems of pesticide regulation in the world and, as a result, approval of many active ingredients for garden use has been withdrawn. In addition, the increasing costs of submitting applications for official approval of ingredients and for particular uses tend to make the development and marketing of products for gardeners unprofitable. In these changing circumstances we recommend that chemical controls should be used only when absolutely essential and only after seeking expert advice on the current situation. This can be obtained from various online sources, including the Royal Horticultural Society (www.rhs.org.uk), the Crop Protection Association (www.cropprotection.org.uk and www.garden-care.org.uk) and the Health and Safety Executive’s Chemicals Regulations Directorate (www.pesticides.gov.uk), which maintains a database covering garden and home use of pesticides. We indicate in the text where chemical controls may be available but generally do not specify active ingredients.

MODES OF ACTION. Pesticides may act in a number of different ways and these different modes of action affect their possible uses. Most insecticides act by direct external contact with the target organisms, either immediately on application or within a few days. Some insecticides, especially those that kill biting and chewing insects, leave a persistent residue on treated plants, and others are used as persistent poisons in baits (for example, slug or ant baits) which attract pests to them. Fungicides may act in an eradicant fashion by killing pathogens already existing on the plant or as protectants on healthy tissues when they form a barrier that prevents fungal development and penetration. A few insecticides and fungicides act as fumigants and some insecticides and fungicides are absorbed into the sap of treated plants and have a systemic action, which is particularly effective against pests that feed on sap or against fungi that permeate plant tissues.

Such systemic materials have the added advantages that usually they are required in much smaller quantities, do not suffer from washing off by rain, as the externally acting pesticides do, and, because they are absorbed into the plant’s tissues and moved within, do not require such accuracy in application. Most pesticides can act in more than one way, so that differences in mode of action are not always clear-cut.

SELECTIVITY. Pesticides also vary considerably in their relative toxicity to different groups of organisms. Some may be highly selective, only killing a restricted group of pests or diseases, while others, said to have broad spectrum activity, can act against many different groups of pests or even against both pests and diseases. Selectivity is a most useful property when there is a need to check aphids without harming predators and parasites, but is less useful when attempting to control mixed infestations of aphids, whiteflies, caterpillars and mites, which is a common situation on glasshouse and house plants. In such cases a broad-spectrum insecticide would be more appropriate since it will kill most insects (aphids, capsids, whiteflies, thrips, ants, caterpillars, beetles, flies) and some non-insect pests (woodlice, millipedes). Similarly, among fungicides, penconazole, which mainly controls rusts, and mancozeb, which mainly controls rusts and blights, are highly selective while myclobutanil is much less selective, being able to control most types of fungi.

These varying degrees of selective action must of course be considered when choosing the most suitable material to control a particular pest or disease, since choice of an ineffective chemical will waste time and money. It should be noted however, that some manufacturers market pesticides in mixtures so that one product may be used to control a number of problems. Caution should be exercised with mixtures that claim to control everything and gardeners should not themselves mix different materials together unless the manufacturers state specifically that this may be done.

PERSISTENCE. Another way in which pesticides vary is in the length of time for which they can persist on plants or in soil before they break down into inactive residues. During the early development of insecticides, long-term persistence was considered a useful characteristic since a single application of a very persistent pesticide could protect plants from pests or diseases for months or even years. It is now known that such persistence leads to widespread, insidious contamination of the environment, with resultant toxic effects on wildlife, (mainly by accumulation and concentration of chemicals in food chains), and possible long-term effects on human health. Use of the very persistent organochlorine compounds, especially aldrin, dieldrin and DDT, is illegal. Most pesticides now available to gardeners are therefore either non-persistent, breaking down after a few days or even a few hours, or moderately persistent, breaking down after a few weeks. This lack of persistence means that more frequent applications may have to be made but it is also a definite advantage when treating