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Granular Filtration of Aerosols and Hydrosols
Oleh Chi Tien dan B.V. Ramarao
Tindakan Buku
Mulai MembacaPanjangnya: 907 halaman
- Penerbit:
- Elsevier Science
- Dirilis:
- Apr 18, 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780080547206
- Format:
- Buku
Deskripsi
Granular filtration is a technique used extensively in the water and sewage industries, and we would all be quickly aware if it did not work properly. Designing and building an effective granular filter is a science and an art: this book covers both aspects. The theoretical basis of design is given considerable exposure, as are the behavioural characteristics of particles and fluids. This new edition contains extra material on stochastic simulations and the Lattice Bolzmann approach for studying deposition in granular media; more on prediction methods for collection efficiency, and a chapter on the various available software programmes.
Written by the world's leading expert on depth filtration
Fully updated to include the latest approaches to studying granular filtration
Tindakan Buku
Mulai MembacaInformasi Buku
Granular Filtration of Aerosols and Hydrosols
Oleh Chi Tien dan B.V. Ramarao
Panjangnya: 907 halaman
Deskripsi
Granular filtration is a technique used extensively in the water and sewage industries, and we would all be quickly aware if it did not work properly. Designing and building an effective granular filter is a science and an art: this book covers both aspects. The theoretical basis of design is given considerable exposure, as are the behavioural characteristics of particles and fluids. This new edition contains extra material on stochastic simulations and the Lattice Bolzmann approach for studying deposition in granular media; more on prediction methods for collection efficiency, and a chapter on the various available software programmes.
Written by the world's leading expert on depth filtration
Fully updated to include the latest approaches to studying granular filtration
- Penerbit:
- Elsevier Science
- Dirilis:
- Apr 18, 2011
- ISBN:
- 9780080547206
- Format:
- Buku
Tentang penulis
CT![]()
Chi Tien (BSc., National Taiwan University, 1952; MSc., 1954; PhD., Northwestern University, 1958) is professor emeritus of chemical engineering at Syracuse University. During his teaching career, Professor Tien also taught at the University of Tulsa, University of Windsor, National University of Singapore, and Nanyang Technological University. In addition, he had visiting appointments with University of Leeds, Karlsruhe University, and University of Duisburg-Essen. For over 60 years, Professor Tien has been actively engaged in fluid/particle separation and adsorption research and has published widely. He authored and coauthored a number of books including Granular Filtration of Aerosols and Hydrosols, 1st Ed. (Butterworths), Adsorption Calculations and Modeling (Butterworths-Heinemann), Kinetics of Metal Ion Adsorption from Aqueous Solutions: Models, Algorithms, and Applications (with S. Yiacoumi, Kluwer Academic Publisher), Introduction to Cake Filtration: Analyses, Experiments, and Applications (Elsevier), Granular Filtration of Aerosols and Hydrosols, 2nd Ed. (with B. V. Ramaro, Elsevier), and Principles of Filtration (Elsevier).
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Granular Filtration of Aerosols and Hydrosols - Chi Tien
Ramarao
PREFACE
The first edition of Granular Filtration of Aerosols and Hydrosols was published in 1989 and has been out of print for some time. Interest in the book, in spite of the elapse of time, remains strong and commercial transactions of its used copies have been active in recent years. In view of this interest and the advances of the subject made since the publication of the first edition, we are pleased to have the opportunity of revising the book and present its second edition to our readers through Elsevier Advanced Technology.
The purpose and function of the new edition remain the same as that of its earlier version – to present the principles underlying the various phenomena associated with granular filtration in a systematic way and to prepare those who are seriously interested in research or advanced engineering work in granular filtration. Thus we have retained and applied the same structure and framework of describing granular filtration as before. However, considerable changes have been made through the introduction of new materials, condensation/deletion of information no longer relevant as well as a certain amount of rearrangement in order to provide a clearer presentation. Generally speaking, changes made in the first three chapters are modest. In contrast, considerable new information and data are incorporated in the other chapters. A supplement of example problems and their solutions is added to illustrate the practical use of some of the results presented in the text and their possible extensions.
We have received generous assistance from colleagues and friends during the course of the revision. In particular, we would like to thank Prof. Renbi Bai; Prof. Y.I. Chang, Prof. C.-U. Choo, Prof. Rolf Gimbel, Prof. Y.-W. Jung, Prof. R.D. Letterman, Prof. A.C. Payatakes, and Prof. R. Rajagopalan for the materials and information they supplied as well as their criticisms and suggestions. We are particularly grateful to Renbi Bai for the information he gave us in organizing the Supplement.
Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to Kathy Datthyn-Madigan who, once again, offered her supreme keyboard skill to organize the manuscript. We would also like to thank our former and present editors at Elsevier Advanced Technology, Geoff Smaldon and Jonathan Simpson for their assistance in expediting the publication of this new edition.
Chi Tien and B.V. Ramarao, Syracuse, New York
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
The information explosion our society is experiencing is, almost by necessity, accompanied by a mushrooming of publications all seeking to document, explore, or clarify our newfound knowledge. In this environment, the author of material dealing with what appears to be a familiar subject is often challenged to justify his or her work, to defend against the charges of simply adding another volume to the plethora that already exist on the topic. In preparing this book, I have been spared this requirement. A casual search of the library and of publication catalogues reveals that no publication focusing on granular filtration is presently available. It is interesting to note that this void stands in contrast to the fact that granular filtration is not only an engineering practice of long standing but has also enjoyed resurgent attention of late, evidenced by the numerous recent studies of its research and development.
This book is concerned with the fundamental aspects of granular filtration of both liquid and gas suspensions. In writing this book, I have attempted to present systematically the principles underlying the various phenomena associated with granular filtration, especially those which can be used to provide a rational basis for predicting the dynamic behavior of granular filtration in its entirety. I have also tried to demonstrate that by using relatively simple and familiar knowledge from the basic engineering sciences, one can indeed examine the granular filtration process in some detail and it is not always necessary to treat a filter as a magic black box as is often done.
Furthermore, in the hope of gaining a wider audience, I have deliberately kept to a minimum the background in formation necessary to comprehend the material presented. In fact, the level is consistent with what is taught in an accredited BSc degree program in chemical, civil (environmental), or mechanical engineering. Thus, I hope the book will be useful to those beginning research or development work in granular filtration. One could also adopt the book as a text or part of the text for graduate courses dealing with separation technology although it is not strictly written as a textbook.
On a phenomenological level, granular filtration involves the transfer of mass (small particles) from a mobile to a stationary phase and is, therefore, a fixed-bed process. On a more detailed level, problems such as particle deposition or filter clogging all arise from the flow of suspension through porous media; their analysis requires combined knowledge in fluid mechanics, particle mechanics, solution chemistry, and the surface sciences. From any of these perspectives, there is no fundamental difference between aerosol and hydrosol filtration. For this reason, this book takes a unifying approach in its treatment of the topic. Chapters 2–6 provide material which is equally applicable to both systems. Even in Chapter 9, where individual case studies are presented, the methods developed are in most situations useful to both aerosols and hydrosols.
It is well recognized that a unified approach to the treatment of granular filtration of aerosols and hydrosols does not necessarily conform to current practice. Investigators of granular filtration are invariably identified as either deep-bed people (hydrosols) or aerosol scientists (aerosols). Admittedly, the difference between certain relevant physical properties of water and air may indeed become significant under certain circumstances. I have recognized and acknowledged these differences, for example, by handling separately the discussions on collection efficiency for aerosols (Chapter 6) and hydrosols (Chapter 7). Furthermore, because of the tradition of treating aerosols and hydrosols separately, different terminologies have been developed to describe essentially the same phenomena; for example, both the concept of filter coefficient and that of collector efficiency are used to describe filtration rate. To avoid further confusion, however, I have adhered to this tradition as much as possible throughout the text.
This book is really an outgrowth of the lecture notes I have assembled during the past 15 years of my graduate teaching at Syracuse University. Some of these notes were also used for two special courses I taught at the University of Leeds, England, in the fall of 1976 and at Karlsruhe University, West Germany, in the summer of 1982. In this connection, I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Colin McGreavy (Leeds) and Prof. Heinrich Sontheimer (Karlsruhe) for inviting me to lecture at their respective institutions.
A substantial part of the material presented here is the results of various research investigations on granular filtration carried out at Syracuse since 1968. Both Profs C.S. Wang and R.M. Turian collaborated with me during parts of this period and I am indebted to them for their contributions and their friendships. I must, of course, acknowledge my former coworkers, particularly Profs A.C. Payatakes (University of Patras), R. Rajagopalan (University of Houston), H. Pendse (University of Maine), H. Emi (University of Kanazawa), H. Yoshida (University of Hiroshima), K. Ushiki (Kyushu Institute of Technology), T. Takahashi (University of Nagoya), J. Tsubaki (University of Nagoya), S. Vigneswaran (Asian Institute of Technology), B.V. Ramarao (SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry), Drs R. Gimbel (Engler–Bunte Institute, Karlsruhe), M. Beizaie (University of California, San Diego), F.J. Onorato (Celanese Research Company), R.C. Tsiang (E.I. DuPont), H.W. Chiang (Atomic Energy of Canada, Ltd), and my present graduate students, R. Vaidyanathan, Y. Jung, S. Yiacoumi, C. Choo, and C. Yao, who as is customary, have carried out or are conducting the brunt of these research activities.
Finally, I would like to thank Anne Coffey Fazekas, of Word-Wrights, Inc., for her invaluable editorial help; S. Yiacoumi and C. Yao for their proofreading; and Kathleen J. Datthyn-Madigan, who with her fine keyboard skills and unusual ability to decipher difficult material and nearly unintelligible handwriting, typed and retyped the entire manuscript.
Chi Tien, Syracuse, New York
1
INTRODUCTION
Granular filtration is a fluid–solid separation process commonly applied to remove minute quantities of small particles from various kinds of fluids. This engineering practice is interesting historically as well as contemporarily. Both Sanskrit medical lore and Egyptian inscriptions give clear evidence that granular filtration was used for water treatment (as early as 200 BC), as detailed in Baker’s book, The Quest for Pure Water (1949). At the same time, there is hardly a segment of the process and chemical industries that does not use granular filtration today. The significant number of patents granted in recent years to liquid- and gas-cleaning processes based on granular filtration attests to its enduring utility.
The versatility of granular filtration is evident from its scope of application as well as from the manner in which it is carried out. Either liquid or gas fluid streams can be treated. Besides water or air, systems which may be treated by granular filtration include such diverse substances as flue gas, combustion products, molten metal, petrochemical feedstocks, polymers, alcoholic, or nonalcoholic beverages. (For convenience, whenever distinction is necessary, granular filtration will henceforth be referred to as hydrosol filtration or aerosol filtration, depending on whether liquid or gas suspension is involved.) While in most cases granular filtration is carried out in the fixed-bed mode, it may also be conducted in moving-bed or fluidized-bed mode so that the operation can be carried out continuously.
The basic principle of granular filtration remains the same regardless of the system being treated, the medium used, or the manner in which filtration is conducted. The suspension is made to pass through a medium composed of granular substances (granular medium) under pressure or gravity. As the suspension flows through the medium, some of the particles present in the suspension, because of the various forces acting on them, move toward and become deposited on the surface of the granules of which the medium is composed. The extent of deposition throughout the medium, in general, cannot be made uniform; however, the entire medium is intended to be used for particle collection.
The purpose of this monograph is to present a systematic and rational treatment of deposition and other problems arising from the flow of fluid–particle suspensions through granular media. Whenever possible, both aerosol and hydrosol systems are treated as a single entity. Although the problems considered in this text by no means constitute granular filtration research in its entirety, their studies represent an important segment of this research field, and the information obtained is essential to the modeling, design, optimization, and control of granular filtration systems.
1.1 GRANULAR FILTRATION AS A FLUID–PARTICLE SEPARATION TECHNOLOGY
Fluid–particle separation technology, as the name implies, refers to a collection of processes for removing (as contaminants or impurities), separating (suspended particles from suspending fluid or one type of particles from a mixture of particles), and concentrating and recovering (as products) particles from fluid–particle suspensions. As a technology, its age is probably second only to that of crushing and grinding of solids (Purchas, 1967). While the processes classified as fluid–particle separation are too numerous to be cited individually, it is generally accepted that fluid–particle separation encompasses cake filtration, granular and fibrous filtration, cartridge and membrane filtration, cycloning, thickening, flocculation, dewatering and expression, scrubbing, and electrostatic precipitation. The technology is basic to a large number of manufacturing industries (chemical, mineral, and food and beverages) as well as to pollution abatement and environment control (e.g., clean rooms). In fact, it is difficult to find any important engineering enterprise in which fluid–particle separation is not involved.
The relationship among the various fluid–particle separation processes can be seen from the classification scheme proposed by Tiller (1974) for liquid–solid separation. This scheme, shown in Fig. 1.1, is based on Tiller’s idea that solid–liquid separation can be viewed as a system consisting of one or more stages: (1) pretreatment, to facilitate the operation of subsequent stages; (2) solids concentration, to increase the solid content of suspensions; (3) solids separation, to separate solids and the suspending liquid; and (4) posttreatment, to improve the quality of the recovered products (either solid or liquid).
Fig. 1.1 Stages of solid–liquid filtration (Tiller, 1974) (reprinted with permission).
The diagram shown in Fig. 1.1 is useful in delineating the function and field of application of granular filtration; that is, the process is used primarily for clarifying dilute suspensions using the granular media as collecting bodies for particles present in the suspension. In contrast, cake filtration is used to recover solid products from relatively concentrated slurries. The difference between cake filtration (a subject often included in basic engineering texts) and granular filtration is the manner in which they operate. In the former case, the medium (or the bulk of it) through which the treated suspension flows is composed of the solids to be recovered. The resistance (i.e., pressure drop) to suspension flow increases with time as a direct result of the increase in filter-cake thickness. For granular filtration, deposition occurs throughout the entire medium, and the pressure drop increase results when the medium is clogged.
The differences between cake and granular filtration and the mechanisms they use to separate solids from liquid do not imply that the two processes embody totally separate and distinct physical phenomena. Because particles present in a slurry to be treated by cake filtration invariably cover a wide size range, the finer particles are, to a large extent, removed by mechanisms like those operating in granular filtration. Similarly, while the purpose of conducting granular filtration is to ensure that particle collection takes place throughout the entire filter medium, the extent of deposition within a granular filter cannot be made uniform. In fact, excessive pressure drop often results from the formation and presence of filter cakes near the entrance of a granular filter. Thus, understanding the conditions leading to filter-cake formation is important to properly design granular filtration systems.¹
1.2 GRANULAR FILTRATION VERSUS FIBROUS FILTRATION
Fibrous filtration, generally speaking, refers to the process in which the removal of particles from gas streams is effected by passing the streams through fibrous media of various kinds. Depending on the manner in which the filter media are constituted, particle retention takes place in the form of filter cakes either at the media surface or throughout the media. In the former case, the fibers (natural or chemical fibers, cellulose, metal or glass fibers) are pressed together in felt or spun or woven into cloth (fabric) such that the filter media pores are relatively small (as compared with the size of the particles to be removed). Most of the particles are separated in the form of filter cakes at the surface of the media, which are then removed intermittently when the pressure drop becomes excessive. This type of fibrous filtration, in a sense, is similar to cake filtration used to separate particles from solid–liquid slurries. Baghouse filters used in power utilities are a typical example of this type of operation.
If the fibrous media are formed by packing fibers loosely such as those used in ventilation and air-conditioning applications, particle retention mostly takes place within the interior of the media. This second type of fibrous filtration is very similar to granular filtration. As the physical laws governing the flow through either type of media are the same, the methodologies used to describe either type of filtration become almost interchangeable. This strong similarity, of course, does not imply that they are identical. In addition to the obvious difference in the geometries of the entities constituting the filter media (e.g., granules or spheres in granular media vs. fibers or cylinders in fibrous media), there are also significant differences in packing densities (or porosity), collector sizes, and mechanical strength. In terms of filtration performance, because of its small collector size (i.e., fiber diameter) and high porosity, fibrous filters enjoy the advantages of higher single (or unit) collector efficiency and lower pressure drop. Granular filters, on the other hand, can be easily regenerated in contrast to the difficulty of removing deposited particles for individual fibers. Furthermore, because of the relative abundance of granular substance which are temperature-and corrosion-resistant, granular filtration is more suitable in treating high-temperature and/or corrosion gaseous streams.
1.3 GRANULAR FILTRATION VERSUS FIXED-BED ADSORPTION
By common understanding and usage, adsorption is referred to as the process in which certain components in a fluid phase are removed by transferring these components from the fluid to the surface (mainly interior) of a solid but highly microporous adsorbent. Usually the small granules of adsorbent are placed in a fixed bed, and fluid is passed through the bed until the effluent concentration reaches a certain critical value (when breakthrough occurs) or until the adsorbent granules become nearly saturated. Thus, the operation of fixed-bed adsorption is very similar to that of granular filtration (namely both are semicontinuous). Furthermore, there is reason to believe that the same types of interaction forces may be responsible for both adsorption/desorption and deposition/re-entrainment. Thus, many similarities exist between adsorption and granular filtration processes, in terms of equipment configuration, mode of operation, and the respective underlying phenomena.
Because of these similarities, the words adsorption and filtration have been used interchangeably. The removal of colloidal particles from a fluid phase to a solid phase can be described as either adsorption or filtration (Hirtzel and Rajagopalan, 1985). In water treatment, granular carbon columns used to remove soluble organic compounds from drinking water supplies are sometimes referred to as carbon filters. Similarly, cartridges filled with adsorbents to remove toxic gases from ambient air are called charcoal filters.
Despite these similarities, the analogy between granular filtration and adsorption is somewhat limited. While both processes are concerned with separating or removing certain species present in a fluid stream, the sizes of these species, in general, differ greatly. The dissolved species to be removed in adsorption are of the order of Angstrom, in molecular size, while particles to be separated in granular filtration are often of submicron or micron sizes (10−7 m or greater). This size difference implies that the mechanism for transporting adsorbates from the fluid phase to the interior surfaces of adsorbents in adsorption differs significantly from the mechanism used to transport particles from the suspension to the exterior surface of filter grains in granular filtration. The transfer rate of adsorbates is controlled by diffusion, which is characterized by the relevant adsorbate diffusivity. On the other hand, the movement of particles toward filter grain surfaces in granular filtration is influenced by the various forces (most of them being deterministic) acting on the particles. This distinction becomes less clear, however, when particles become small and the dominant force is the Brownian diffusion force. Under such condition, particle transport in the fluid may indeed be treated as a mass-transfer process.
To distinguish granular filtration and adsorption, a better criterion locates where deposition (or adsorption) occurs. For adsorption to function effectively, adsorbents must have large specific surface areas (i.e., surface area per unit mass of adsorbent) which should be in the order of 10³ m²/g. To provide such a large value of the specific surface, solid adsorbents are microporous in structures, with most of the available surface areas attributed to relatively small pores (with pore sizes in the order of Angstroms). On the other hand, deposition of particles occurs only in the external surface of filter grains. Even colloidal particles are too large to penetrate into the interior of a filter grain (or adsorbent pellet).
The major difference in formulating the theoretical framework for describing fixed-bed adsorption as opposed to that of granular filtration is where deposition (or adsorption) occurs. Since adsorption takes place primarily within the interior surface of the pellets, diffusion of adsorbates within the pellet is of importance in determining the rate of adsorption. At the same time, saturation of adsorbent pellets does not change the dimension of the pellets (even though the pellets may gain considerable weight as a result of adsorption). Thus, the pressure drop necessary to maintain the flow through an adsorption column remains essentially constant throughout the operation. On the other hand, in granular filters, significant deposition means a decrease in the filter porosity as well as a change in the structure of the filter medium. The change in pressure drop required to maintain a given flow rate through a granular filter is, in fact, a major problem in the designing and operating granular filtration systems, as shown in later chapters.²
1.4 GRANULAR FILTRATION VERSUS CAKE FILTRATION
Both granular filtration and cake filtration are used for separating particles from fluid–particle suspensions. Separation is effected through the application of filter medium but with different medium functioning. In the case of granular filtration, particles are removed by their deposition onto the medium surface throughout the entire medium (thus leading to the use of deep-bed filtration or depth filtration for its description). In contrast, in cake filtration, separation is effected through the retention of particles with cake formation at the surface of the medium which allows only the passage of the suspending fluids, therefore the use of cake filtration or surface filtration.
This difference in operating principle has led to different applications of these two processes. Granular filtration is commonly used for clarifying suspensions of dilute particle concentration. In contrast, cake filtration is applied to suspension or slurries of high particle concentration. Both the retention of particles throughout the medium and the formation and presence of filter cake at medium surfaces cause increase of the hydraulic resistance of fluid flow, although the increase in the case of granular filtration is less pronounced.
Conventional cake filtration is operated by passing suspensions to be treated normal to the medium surface, with feed and filtrate flowing in the same direction. The extent of cake formation can be easily related to the filtration rate. In more recent years, with advances in membrane technology, applying membrane modules for water and waste water treatment has become popular. For the so-called crossflow membrane filtration, feed stream under pressure flows along membrane surface, with permeation of filtrate taking place across membrane and cake formation at membrane surface. Crossflow membrane filtration by definition is, therefore, a cake filtration process but differs from the conventional cake filtration by the fact that the direction of the feed flow is normal to that of the filtrate flow.
The crossflow feature has the advantage of reduced cake formation. This advantage as well as the more complete barrier effect
displayed by membranes makes crossflow membrane filtration attractive for water treatment especially from public health consideration. We will return to this point in Section 1.5.
1.5 GRANULAR FILTRATION AND OTHER CLARIFICATION PROCESSES
The term, clarification,
is usually applied to the removal of small concentration of solid particles from fluids. The amount of particles present and to be removed is typically less than 1% and is often as low as or lower than 100 parts per million (ppm). The particle size, however, may vary significantly, ranging from the larger particles, which can be easily removed by sedimentation, to those of colloidal size. For solid–liquid systems, Purchas (1967) classifies these processes according to the type of driving force applied: (1) gravity, (2) vacuum, (3) pressure, and (4) centrifugal force. According to this classification, granular filtration may be operated with either gravity or pressure. Alternatively, one may characterize a clarification process by the size of particles it is capable of removing. The limit of clarifying power of various filter media given by Purchas is shown in Fig. 1.2.
Fig. 1.2 Limit of clarifying power of filter media (Purchas, 1967).
One can more clearly differentiate between granular filtration and other clarification processes for solid–liquid suspensions by comparing their respective particle-deposition mechanisms. Except for centrifuge processes and granular filtration, most clarification processes operate on the principle of exclusion; in other words, the dimensions of the pore spaces of the filter media are such that particles present in the liquid are excluded. Such a particle-deposition mechanism is known as straining or sieving (see Chapter 4 for more discussion). Analogous to cake filtration mentioned earlier, the use of these devices leads to the formation of filter cakes, although the thickness of filter cakes formed may be very thin. On the other hand, in granular filtration for hydrosols, particle deposition in the medium is effected through interception, sedimentation, and Brownian diffusion, with deposition taking place throughout the medium. (For this reason, granular filtration of hydrosols is often referred to as deep-bed filtration or depth filtration.)
This method of differentiation, however, is not exact. Particle deposition may occur simultaneously both by exclusion and by depth filtration. For example, in cartridge filtration with a filter medium composed of loose fibers or sintered metals, both mechanisms may be operative, with the dominance of either mechanism depending on the relative size of the particles to be removed and the dimensions of the pore openings.
The difference in deposition mechanisms, to a large degree, underscores the respective applications of these different processes. The filtrate quality is better assured when a clarification process is based on the exclusion principle. Consequently, these processes are more likely to be applied in the posttreatment stage (see Fig. 1.1) or to systems with relatively high unit values and/or stringent quality requirements. On the other hand, granular filtration may be applied to suspensions of large quantities at relatively low cost but with perhaps a greater tolerance regarding the extent of particle removal, as in the case of water treatment.
In addition to granular filtration, processes which may be used to clarify solid–gas suspensions include fibrous filtration, fabric filtration (baghouse filters), centrifugal separation (cyclones), wet-scrubbing, electrostatic precipitations, and membrane filtration. Both fabric filtration and membrane filtration operate on the exclusion principle as mentioned previously. Particle removal in fibrous filtration, similar to that of granular filtration, is effected by particle deposition throughout the entire filter medium.
As compared with all other gas-cleaning processes, granular filtration is characterized by its relatively high collection efficiency for particles covering a wide size range. In addition, heat- and corrosion-resistant granular substances that can be used as filter media are abundant and readily available. Therefore, granular filtration is considered a valuable process for hot-gas cleaning in connection with coal combustion and power generation.
1.6 GRANULAR FILTRATION FOR WATER TREATMENT
The most commonly known application of granular filtration is the use of sand filters for water (and, in more recent years, waste water) treatment. While sand filters have been used to purify drinking water for the past four centuries, sand filtration was not seriously considered for mass-scale water treatment until the early part of the nineteenth century. The development of sand filtration for water treatment provides a most interesting chapter in the history of technology. Baker’s (1949) detailed account of the development is briefly summarized below as background information.
Efforts aimed at developing large-scale sand filtration of water involved independent activities of several countries (principally, Great Britain, France, Germany, and the United States), but there was also a remarkable degree of technology transfer among their independent efforts. These activities ultimately led first to the development of the so-called slow sand filter,³ then to the rapid sand filter, which is the mainstay of the present water treatment technology. James Simpson (1799–1869), an engineer of the Chelsea Water Co., London, is commonly credited with designing the first successful large-scale sand filters to provide water of acceptable quality from river water. The experimental filter he designed from 1827 to 1828 had a top surface of 1000 ft² and a filter medium composed of 2 ft of sand and 2 ft of gravel. The filter’s capacity was 40 000 gal/24h or 90 gal/ft²/day. A sketch of Simpson’s filter is shown in Fig. 1.3.
Fig. 1.3 James Simpson’s experimental filter 1827–1828 (from drawing in possession of Charles Leddell Simpson, previously reproduced in Proc. Inst. M.E., April 1919, p. 300 and Baker, 1949).
The success of Simpson’s experiment led to the widespread use of slow sand filters throughout Great Britain in the nineteenth century. Efforts to adapt this technology in the United States were slow, however, and not particularly successful. By the end of the nineteenth century, the new technology of rapid sand filtration proved to be so viable that several varieties of rapid sand filters were manufactured and marketed by a number of commercial companies (Baker, 1949).
The milestone in the development of rapid sand filtration technology is the Louisville Experiments of George W. Fuller. The experiments tested the feasibility of employing several then commercially available rapid sand filters for large-scale water treatment. The Fuller Report summarized the test results, which showed that the three rapid filters used in the test functioned properly. The experiments also suggested the important role of pretreatment in achieving satisfactory performance. Based on the results of the experiment, a filtration system capable of producing 25 million gallons per day of drinking water was constructed and put into operation. A schematic diagram of the plant is shown in Fig. 1.4b.
Fig. 1.4b Plans and longitudinal sections of proposed filter plant. (from Engineering News – Record, 45, 52 (1901))
Because drinking water is of utmost concern to public health, codification of the design and operational standards of water works was inevitable. In the United States and Canada, the Ten States’ Standard (actually a set of recommendations agreed to by 10 US states and a Canadian province: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin and the province of Ontario) is usually adhered to by most water works.⁴ This standard provides detailed specifications for the design and operation of water works including, of course, rapid sand filtration. The most recent standards for rapid rate gravity filters promulgated under this agreement is summarized in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1
Summary of specification on rapid rate gravity filters according to the Ten States’ Standard (2003 Edition)
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