Passive and Low Energy Architecture: Proceedings of the Second International PLEA Conference, Crete, Greece, 28 June-1 July 1983

1983

Part I

Case Studies

Outline

Chapter 1: New Buildings

Chapter 2: Rehabilitation and Retrofit

Chapter 3: Vernacular Architecture

Chapter 4: Planning and Urban Design

Chapter 1

New Buildings

Outline

BIOCLIMATIC ARCHITECTURE UNDER MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE

PASSIVE AND LOW ENERGY DESIGN

TOWARDS A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF CLIMATE RESPECTING DESIGN

THREE SOLAR BUILDINGS: PASSIVE AND LOW ENERGY ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN FRANCE

44 BIOCLIMATIC FLATS AT RIGNANO SULL’ ARNO IN TUSCANY

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A COCOONED OFFICE BUILDING IN A COLD CLIMATE INTEGRATING PASSIVE SOLAR TECHNIQUES WITH MODERN TECHNOLOGY

PASSIVE AND LOW ENERGY RESIDENTIAL/OFFICE BUILDING FOR USE AS A SOLAR DEMONSTRATION FACILITY AT ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY

THREE SOLAR AIR HEATED HOUSES AT PETERBOROUGH WITH SUNSPACES

SOLAR HOUSE FOR HOT AND HUMID CLIMATE

PHOTOVOLTAIC EQUIPPED PARKING AND SHADE STRUCTURE KING ABDULAZIZ INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT JEDDAH, SAUDI ARABIA

LYKOVRYSSI - A SOLAR VILLAGE NEAR ATHENS

A PASSIVELY HEATED, COOLED AND LIT NURSERY SCHOOL IS COMPLETED FOR THE CHILDREN OF THE BANK OF GREECE

SOLAR ENERGY: A NEED FOR A NEW MENTALITY

A MEDITERRANEAN LATENT HEAT SOLAR HOUSE IN LE TIGNET

THE CONCEPTUAL PROCESS OF PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN: BALANCING CONTEMPORARY TECHNOLOGY WITH A LOW TECHNOLOGY APPROACH

A PASSIVE SOLAR RESIDENCE IN PORTUGAL

HUNGARIAN EXPERIMENTAL PASSIVE SOLAR HOUSE

DESIGN OF A LOW ENERGY HOUSE NEAR CHANIA, CRETE, EMPLOYING PASSIVE DESIGN PRINCIPLES

A BIOCLIMATIC MULTI-STOREY BUILDING IN SICILY

RESIDENCES USING PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS AT DRAPANIAS, CRETE

BIOCLIMATIC ARCHITECTURE UNDER MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE

Architect. Michel Gerber,     CLEA, Climat-Energie-Architecture, Les Perdrigals, 11510 FITOU FRANCE

ABSTRACT

Our work started in 1976 with the rehabilitation of an ancient building in mediterranean climate. At that time, the main concern was to integrate the passive solar architecture in the socio-cultural context, e.g., Les Perdrigals. Another aspect of our work is designing greenhouses for new buildings or retrofits. In a mountain climate, a two storey greenhouse will be presented. The use of sun as natural lighting and energy source is demonstrated in a partly underground single family dwelling. First example of a low cost housing program is described. Our project for the new Préfecture in Montpellier focused on extensive utilization of daylighting systems. The approach of this project will be presented.

KEYWORDS

Bioclimatic

passive solar architecture

greenhouses

low cost housing

daylighting systems

INTRODUCTION

New technology has freed man from the constraints of his environment. He has been able to take advantage of the technological advances to improve not only his living conditions but also to escape the restrictions imposed by the environment. The result has been modern architecture which totally neglects problems of energy. Its aim has been mainly to develop standardized industrial techniques which can be applied anywhere to create an international type of architecture. Rising costs of energy may lead us to a salutary reexamination of this trend. Faced by such problems, we took a look at vernacular architecture. In the beginning, when the function of shelter was to serve only the very basic needs of life, environment was the overuling factor of the morphology of a dwelling. Physical, geographical, climatic and geological parameters were the determining factors in the choice of the type of shelter with the materials available for its construction. These various factors associated with the socio-economic and cultural characteristics of an area produced what is recognized now as regional architecture. Our first work was strongly influenced by the vernacular architecture of our region (Languedoc), and we will show then how it evolved.

LES PERDRIGALS

Our approach for the first house, Les Perdrigals, was to take into consideration environmental and socio-economical factors. To these, we added our concern for energy conservation by looking in depth at geographic and climatic factors, (insolation, wind, temperature), including a priority for solar energy collection in our design. Analysis of the regional architecture demonstrated the following main characteristics: a- protection against the prevailing wind by the choice of orientation and morphology of the building, b- organization of outside protected areas, c- use of natural cool air systems by cross ventilations, d- seasonal internal migrations. These components were applied together with devices to optimize solar gains and minimize heat losses. The architectural result is actually very close to the regional architecture (fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Les Perdrigals. View from East.

THE SOLAR GREENHOUSE

Another aspect of our work is designing greenhouses for new buildings or retrofits. We shall attempt to show constraints and needs to be taken into consideration when constructing a solar greenhouse by describing the steps followed in the planning and the construction of retrofit greenhouses. Our approach is based on 3 main aspects: function, architecture and thermal control. Of these the most important is the first.

The conditions required by plants are different from those of man. Temperature and hygrometry will vary as a function of whether the greenhouse will be semi-habitable or strictly for horticulture. Therefore the first step is to clearly define the function of the greenhouse since this will greatly influence its conceptualization. Architectural design is the next important factor, because the greenhouse must be adapted to the existing building while still facing south. The morphology and aspect of the building will influence those of the greenhouse. Moreover, the choice of materials will be based on its design. Thermal control within the greenhouse, the third parameter to be studied, is not only related to the use, but also to such factors as climate. Ensuing problems are essentially overheating and cooling, ventilation, stratification and energy storage.

The Maison du Lac greenhouse was built as a part of the renovation of an old house. It was essentially designed for habitation. The 2 level area connects externally with the old building between the family room on the ground-floor and the living room on the first floor. The old walls, insulated from the outside (except for those directly adjacent to the greenhouse) form the storage element. The greenhouse is built from redwood with single glazing and the solid portions are insulated pressed board panels. The greenhouse does not have nocturnal insulation, fluid insulation has been considered but not implemented. Caloric input of the greenhouse is manually controlled by the inhabitants (doors, windows on both levels), (fig. 2)

Fig. 2 Maison du Lac. View from South.

THE ANHOUR-EOLE HOUSE

This house is a reflection of the evolution of our present research. We designed a compact plan for energy efficiency. The sun entering the house is used as a source of heating, (direct gain), and as a mean of lighting (indirect gain). The dwelling is located in a pine grove, on a south-facing slope. We took adavantage of a natural clearing in which to build the house. The desire to integrate the building into its environment led to a house completely buried on the north side and partially buried on the East and West. This results in efficient protection against temperature losses due to prevailing noth-west wind. The building steps down to the South which despite its compact plan allows sunlight and energy into every level of the building, (fig. 3). The house is built in cast-in-place concrete with exterior insulation. Special care has been given to the finish carpentry work, especially windows and skylights. These are equipped with insulated movable shutters which reflect sun outside in the summer and inside in winter.

Fig. 3 The Anhour-Eole House. Section and view from East.

LOW COST HOUSING

So far, we described individual dwellings, where motivated people, concerned about energy saving, had the necessary funds to realize their ideas. If this situation was a chance for designers to improve their skills, it nevertheless became clear rapidly that energy conscious design should cover a much larger housing market. Well-integrated buildings using solar energy had also to be designed for low income housing. The idea was promoted by the deciders, the politics and the administration. The Office Public d’HLM de l’Aude (Public Office of Low Income Housing) has made pioneering work in that direction. They launch a program for bioclimatic low cost housing with 3 objectives:

a- to promote the development of small clusters of low cost housing using bioclimatic design criteria, integrated to villages and towns of the administrative region.

b- to revitalize the local building trades by this new market well adapted to their structures.

c- to improve architectural and thermal quality of low cost housing. The first project we designed was for a small community and fullfilled these objectives: the rather compact building takes advantage of the south-west slope of the site. The small programm could be handled by qualified local enterprises. And the thermal characteristic of the heat losses (coefficient g) is of 0.9 and that of energetic needs (coefficient b) is of 0.4, when the maximal required legal values are respectively 1 and 0.7.

Direct gain systems were used, partly as clearstory with inside automated insulated shutters. The garages are part of the building and protect the entrance airlock and hall. The domestic hot water systems work on thermosyphon separately for each apartment, yet are grouped together on the south elevation, (fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Low Cost Housing Project. Views of Model.

THE USE OF NATURAL DAYLIGHTING IN ADMINISTRATIVE BUILDINGS

Studies undertaken during the last ten years for administrative buildings in Europe and the United-States have revealed that energy consumption for daylighting represents 50 to 60 % of energy costs. Artificial daylighting in public buildings during the summer has the added drawback of increasing the need for air conditionning. Such findings have recently spurred the search for new systems for improving natural lighting in these buildings.

Within the context of a national contest for the design of the new Préfecture of Montpellier, our team (1) wished to apply this new concept of daylighting. We applied our research to the project keeping in mind the following goals: a- integration of urban development and environment requirements, b- keeping with the demands imposed by the overall construction project while maximizing functional potential, c- demonstration that the preferential use of bioclimatic architecture in Languedoc-Roussillon region, where solar energetic resources are frequently overlooked, would contribute to reducing the region demands on imported energy supplies.

Architectural responses

1 -. Site integration: in the design, incorporation of variations in site configuration as the existing wooden areas (and some to be planted) protect the building from the predominant north-west and north-north-east winds. In addition, the design of a low and compact building recessed into the ground will help reduce heat losses.

2 -. Orientation: in spite of the land configuration and orientation, building lay-out resulted in a significant portion of south elevations. This enables good winter exposure and easy protection from the sun during the summer. The east and south-east elevations presented problems for direct sun exposure and natural lighting which were solved by placing horizontal sunshadings.

3 -. Light-shelves: they are architectural elements designed for capturing sunlight and controlling its way into the buildings as a function of season changes. They are designed to avoid direct lighting in working areas. In winter, the curved portion of the light-shelf reflects slightly inclined sun-ray towards the center of the building. The rays hitting the horizontal part are immediately reflected into the slanted ceiling. In spring and autumn, sunlight penetrating the center of the building remains constant but that which falls on the horizontal portion is reflected several times to decrease its intensity. During summer, heat and light are in excess and the light shelf is designated to deflect most of the incident light towards the outside, (fig. 5).

Fig. 5 View of Passageway and Simulation model.

4 -. Light-passageways: they are created by a centrally located passageway in each building and covered by a transparent vault. They provide the main communicating passage which links the ground-floor of the various buildings to the vertical axes of circulation (i.e. staircases, elevators). Reflectors from the light-passageways provide natural light for the central areas of the building. In winter, warm air stratified in the upper part of the light-passageway isrecovered and blown into the slab between the ground-floor and the first floor, thereby conserving excess calories. During summer, large openings in the transparent vault produce rapid evacuation of heat from the building by natural convection. Efficiency was enhanced by thermo regulation offered by the massive concrete structure of the light-passageway which also can be ventilated at night to dischargeexcess heat from the building, (fig. 5).

Design tools

The design of the windows on south, east and west elevations and their solar protection was based on graphic studies using the angle of isotransmission and the tracings of the obstructions on the sun’s course at the given latitude. This resulted in hourly and monthly recordings of direct energy transmitted during a theoretical day (clear sky conditions).

The light shelves were designed after a complete review of the state of art in natural lighting (Proceedings of the VIth National Passive Solar Conference, 1981).

This was followed by a trial study using a 1/50 model of building. This model was useful in determining the configuration of the building i.e. the central patio, its covering and the office space. This was analyzed to ensure the compatibility with the available height beneath the floors, the slope of the ceiling and the exterior projection of the south wall light-shelf. Test trials were performed under natural sky conditions.

For accurate determination of heating and air conditionning needs and a precise prediction of energy consumption, we used the american CALECO-DOE 2 program presently available in France. This program seemed the most suited for simulating large buildings and public buildings. It responds to changes in the internal load (people, lighting, equipment) and intermittent use of such buildings. The simulation has shown that approximately 50 % of the building needs are supplied by solar energy in form of direct gain and daylighting for the winter season. No air conditionning equipment is needed for the office space except those with special equipment.

REFERENCES

Proc. of the VIth National Passive Solar Conference,(1981), Vol. 6, Eds. Hayes J. and Kolar W., SERI, U.S.A.

(1)The SOLERGIE team, architects: Blanc, Dauvergne, Rigaill, Rey, Caremoli, Miramond, Gerber, Pous, Wursteisen, Knyszewski.

PASSIVE AND LOW ENERGY DESIGN

Dominic Michaelis,     Dominic Michaelis, Dominic Michaelis Associates, Bay 8 16 South Wharf Road, London W2 1PF

Solar Energy Developments is a consultancy working closely with an architectural practice Dominic Michaelis Associates but also at times working with other architects and engineers. This paper illustrates work carried out over the past ten years by the combined practices.

Solar Energy Developments was set up in 1974, by Steven Szokolay, Giovanni Simoni and myself. Steven had designed the active system for the first Milton Keynes Solar House, whereas I had designed a passive solar house in France, near Avignon.

The practice rapidly developed, under a contract from a gas company, the Calor Group, to investigate the possibility of developing active systems for the typical U.K. house. These studies, backed by the U.K. Department of Energy and the building contractor John Laing, led us to construct a monitored group of nine houses, three monitored, three with 20m² of panels and heat pumps and three with 40m² of collector and a 2m³ water storage system.

In parallel with this, we developed an air handling system for space heating and this system was employed in two houses in France, one in Italy and also in a greenhouse in Italy.

Our experience with active systems led us more and more to see that the inherent complexities of these were costly and unreliable because never properly understood, and possibly understandable by the end user, the householder.

In 1976, we initiated a parallel program with a large U.K. construction company to investigate the potential of passive solar energy to the typical U.K. house. The project showed very favourable results, theoretically on a par with present day active systems, and was to investigate the four recognised passive solar modes: direct gain, trombe wall, water wall and conservatory. The scheme was approved by the EEC and the U.K. Department of Energy but because of administration tangles, never got built and could therefore never be assessed.

We did however, manage to build three passive solar houses, L shaped with conservatories, next to our previous development in Milton Keynes, and hope to get some comparative results.

Before leaving Milton Keynes, I should describe the hybrid solar house that we designed for the exhibition called Homeworld ‘81. This house comprises of a strong passive component, in the North buffering, and South glazing to a conservatory, protected from summer sun by louvres and a planted screen. The two level conservatory provided a substantial contribution to the heat of all the living and bed rooms, whilst the active panels are above the louvres and are linked to a heat of fusion store. In this house, passive has priority as it always shall whilst active is the back-up, here already chemical, and in its next generation, one hopes, interseasonal.

And before leaving the U.K., I would like to illustrate an industrial passive solar project which we have just completed in Stockport. The micro-chip industry is heavy on R & D and management and its production areas are relatively small. We planned all offices to the south, and with services, around the perimeter. A fan driven system takes any excess solar heat from the office spaces to heat the production space. In summer, the system becomes a forced recirculation, fresh air ventilation system.

The production space is lit by diffused south lighting rather than the conventional energy losing north light. The client firm J.E.L. Energy Conservation Services Ltd., specialises in energy control systems and considerable energy savings are expected from zone temperatures control, light modulation etc. We feel that this system has considerable replication potential.

The lack of solar funds in the U.K., more than the illusory lack of solar energy led us to work abroad principally in France and Italy.

In France, our solar work came through competition. With Gilles Bouchez, we won the French Department of the Environment competition HOT 5, with our Solstice 1 house. Four prototypes have been built in the new town of Melun Senart. It is an assisted green house system, with excess heat stored in a rock store central drum, which also houses the fireplace and boiler with their flues so that it recovers their waste heat and forms the hot core of the house.

The green house folds away in summer to give way to a ground patio and Loggias.

With Gilles Bouchez again, we entered the 5000 Solar House and our entry with Kaufman and Broad as contractors, Solstice 2, was accepted. This is an L shaped house planned around a two storey covered court again, totally glazed to the south. This collector is also the focus of the house, which thermally acts as the store. The system had to be capable of providing 30% of the thermal requirements of the house. We hope to build some Solstice 2 houses during this coming year.

In Italy, we were nominated as consultants to AGIP - Jacorossi and in particular worked with Ing. Luigi Cuozzo of their energy saving agency APRE.

We were commissioned to design some low cost housing units in Pisa and Sienna, to conform to the very strict regulations of the Instituto Autonomo Casa Populare. Our prototypical design was in Pisa for a group of two slabs orientated in a southerly direction and spaced so that the overall overshadowing during the year was minimised and that all principal rooms faced south, staircases and service rooms facing north. The south facade was treated like a continuous greenhouse, the upper part sliding away in summer to form a glazed balcony.

The first building in Pisa is now commissioned and about to be occupied. It comprises of 50 flats. The Sienna building is on site.

At lower latitudes, the other problem is not only heating but also cooling. We have designed a house currently on site in Marrakech, Morocco, where we are using local construction, but introducing solar induced draughts in hollow outer walls to insulate and cool the house by drawing dry air through humid porous clay pipes. This evaporative cooling, combined with the double envelope construction together with traditional Riad planning is already proving to be effective in creating a cool environment in an arid climate. In winter, the hollow walls are used as heaters and linked to the house.

Thermosyphon solar panels are used for hot water, swimming pool and Hammam.

JEL Factory Stockport

Linford Houses (John Laing Contractor)

HOT Competition Solstice 1

Homeworld House, Milton Keynes

TOWARDS A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF CLIMATE RESPECTING DESIGN

P.A. Page,     County Architects Department, Essex County Council, U.K.

ABSTRACT

This paper describes in outline the principles and attributes of energy conscious design in two school buildings given as case studies:

(i) a new-build low energy Primary School (St.Johns) at Clacton, Essex where a solar selective approach combined with a ground water-to-water heat pump installation supplying underfloor and controlled ventilation heating system has strongly influenced the resulting design:

(ii) an extended (4 to 6 forms of entry) and refurbished Secondary School, Thorpe Bay High, Essex where courtyard infill techniques and glazed canopies with selective glazing combine with conventional conservation measures to reduce the energy consumption value by 20%.

KEYWORDS

Solar passive design

selective mode

dynamic thermal analysis

multi-variate decision-making

optima selection

ground water-to-water heat pumps

solar-convector wall

ventilation heat recovery

covered courtyards

conservatories

atria

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate by way of example options open to the designer to take a solar selective approach in two different school design situations relative to U.K. experience:-

(i) In new-build where options theoretically are relatively open subject to energy economics and budgetary constraints and

(ii) in existing building stock where options are constrained by earlier decisionmaking invariably of the ‘exclusive’ kind.

In (i) the extent to which in practical terms a solar passive approach could be adopted for a new Primary School without compromising users’ expectations is examined.

For (ii) where built form and orientation have been pre-determined by way of an earlier non-selective cammitment, falling school rolls, the rationalisation of accomodation together with refurbishment, allow energy sensible redesign to be under-taken by way of retro-fit, in which some aspects of ‘selective’ solar design can be made to contribute to the overall improvement of the performance of the building. The integration of new accomodation with that existing, particularly courtyard enclosures, discrete infilling techniques with glazed corridors offer mutual energy benefits, new with old, serving to upgrade the overall thermal performance of the whole, reducing conventional energy demand.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Climate respecting principles are not new. They are implicit in the ‘timeless way of building¹ and are to be found in Marcus Vitruvius Pollio’s dictum on Climate as Determining the Style of the House, ‘how we ought to make our houses conform to the physical qualities of nations with due regard to the course of the sun and to climate’.²

To make buildings less energy dependent in conventional terms these principles need to be adopted a priori in order to design building envelopes capable of modifying the thermal effect of the external environment as optimally as possible, achieving at the same time desired standards of environmental comfort as efficiently as possible with only that plant necessary acting as fine control over fluctuations in the internal climate. In this way the passive elements of the design minimise the call for additional heating and cooling requirement over fortuitous losses and gains.

Accepting that ‘every building is a solar building’ the extent to which any building accepts or rejects solar influence depends upon the energy balance established at the external surface of the building. The skill with which a designer can utilise solar heat to advantage lies in the manipulation of form, fabric and fenestration of the building. Exposure of surfaces to the solar path controls ultimately the degree of solar contribution. The balance between day-time gains and night-time losses will depend upon the storage and stabilisation characteristics of the building fabric. Whether the daytime collection system is beneficial or not depends upon external temperature, sunshine levels and the thermodynamic properties of the collection system combining to exceed or fall short of the indoor temperature requirements.

Factors governing the energy consumption of a building can for convenience be classified under the following headings - Climate, Shape and Orientation, Volume, Area and Position of Glazing, Insulation Standard and Thermal Capacity, Ventilation, Internal Heat Gains, Pattern of Use, Comfort Levels, Efficiency of Heat Generation and Utilisation.

Guidelines for environmental design and fuel conservation in Educational Buildings in England and Wales have been laid down by the Department of Education and Science in Building Bulletin 55, together with a calculation technique for instantaneous energy design evaluation related to an annual energy consumption value measured in primary energy units (PEU) set out in Design Note 17. This technique ignores the influence of solar radiation income and can only be used for comparative purposes. However Building Bulletin 55 does state for a typical school that ‘if the building and system of heating could be designed to capture and make use of all available solar radiation, it would appear that about 30% of heating requirements could be provided in this way’. It does not state how this might be done.

Steady-state evaluation ignores the transient characteristics of the building as a dynamic climate modifier. All the inaccuracies of the maximim rate calculation fall out on the safe side,

To attest solar income as insolation, where as much as 40–50% of energy requirement might be attributable directly to orientation, dynamic thermal analysis is a prerequisite. Only in this way can the properties of thermal diffusivity be represented and the impact upon design evaluated. For this purpose the County Architects Department uses the Response Factor Tas° (Thermal Analysis System) Program³ with Kew 1966 weather data.

For ambient energy gains, both radiant and convective, deriving from solar, occupants, lighting and other miscellaneous sources to be of value in low-energy buildings they must be both of a suitable magnitude and duration, occurring when and where they are wanted or be capable of being transferred, To capture these adventitious gains both the building and associated plant must be able to respond sensitively and efficiently. Expectations of such gains for a typical school of 1500 sq. m. (300 pupils) are given in Table 1.

TABLE 1

Ambient Energy Gains in a Typical School for 300 pupils.

Percentage heat losses for a typical school are given in Figure 1.

Fig. 1 Heat loss components as comparative ratios for a typical school.

Solar Availability

Crude solar viability indices for Essex, 51°30’ − 52°N by 0° − 1°15’E, may be taken between figures given for East Anglia and the Thames Valley in Table 2. Viability figures are obtained by dividing solar radiation available by degree days for the area of interest. The figures are given as a scale of reference only for comparative purposes. The method is used by Oppenheim (1981) as an indexing system for the U.K.⁴ noting that a European Index should be available in the near future. The 20-year average heating season degree day total for Essex is 2148.

TABLE 2

Solar Viability Figures for Essex

The heating season total therefore for Essex might be taken as about 125 with an average daily total of global radiation on a horizontal plane in January of 0.6 kWh/m². The winter climate reference is mild.

Within this context a design brief was formulated for a new primary school on a green-field site, with a specified design objective that the form and fabric of the resulting building must be capable of maximising the beneficial aspects of the radiative environment, at the same time minimising the disbenefits, within acceptable cost - limits and user constraints, the total system meeting an energy design value no greater than 85 w/m² (floor area) PEU - almost half that allowed by the maximum value criterion set by the DES.

CLACTON (ST. JOHNS) NEW PRIMARY SCHOOL. CASE STUDY I. 51°47’N. 1°08’E (S.E. England, coastal)

The project herein described represents the first instalment (240 place) of a 420 place Primary School.

Accepting the EDV (energy design value) target as set, the form of the initial concept depicted in Figure 2 was that of an earth sheltered building with those elements of higher energy dependency in the plan exposed to the influence of the sun path and others less demanding located on the protected NE and NW flanks, the S facing flank acting as a solar wall. In exploring a viable solar passive envelope the designers accepted the conclusions of an earlier study by Cole (1974)⁵ for the DES that (a) the use of solar radiation in conjunction with other fortuitous gains as the only means of heating a school building is not a viable proposition (given the allowable cost limits and permissible user regimes) (b) solar radiation input should not be made a critical feature in the design (c) the manner in which collection of solar radiation is incorporated with the design should be simple.

Fig. 2 Initial Earth-sheltered Concept

Evaluation of the earth-sheltered approach in energy cost benefit terms showed savings in the order of 30% per annum, however the capital on-costs for support and fabric protection for the building compared with an ‘above ground’ building could not be substantiated. The earth-protected evaluation, dynamically predicted, did provide a model for exploring different construction types in the search for an equivalent ‘above ground’ building with corresponding attributes. With the form established, thermal modelling ranged from ‘heavyweight’ to ‘lightweight’ solutions.

Detailed evaluation has been given by King (1981) elsewhere.⁶

Model annual consumption estimates on a comparative basis are given in Figure 3.

Fig. 3 Model Annual Consumption Estimates

Thermal model 3, earth-protected with interior insulation, provided the best annual consumption value of the eight construction types tested. It was towards meeting this performance standard that the surface solution was directed.

With the general distribution of spaces acceptable to the client, occupation, lighting and heating patterns could be established in sufficient detail to simulate the school in operation. Teaching spaces, organised in pairs - an educational requirement range along the southern flank of the building, each having a sunny aspect. The less important areas are located on the sheltered NE and NW sides. The hall, very much a focal point, is located in the middle. Figure 4 shows the finished plan form and an axonometric view.

Fig. 4 Plan and Axonometric View

Consideration could then be given to the finer points of affordable insulation standards for walls, roof and floor and the design of fenestration on a comparative basis.

The dominance of the south facing flank offered the greatest potential for the positive collection of solar energy arriving at the building. The wall is designed as a fully integrated cladding system in patent glazing, inclined to the low-angle sun, part solar wall (40%), part normal glazing for daylight (10%), part conservatory (50%). The solar wall performs as a rapid response passive collector (as opposed to the heat store approach) in order to identify quickly the energy collection and introduce beneficial gains during the time of greatest need when occupied. During summer the wall is designed to work in reverse as a solar powered extraction system. When beneficial, solar heated air from the conservatories is transferred to the adjacent teaching spaces. In the other walls losses are reduced by restricting glazing, improving the insulation standard and keeping entrances to a minimum with draught-proof lobbies. The roof area is insulated to a high degree with SE and SW facing rooflights to admit sunlight and natural lighting to the deeper planned spaces.

From site investigation it was found that ground water suitable for extraction was available at a depth of six metres. This presented an attractive low grade energy source suitable for heat pump application having a relatively stable and reasonable temperature around 8–10°C. A water-to-water heat pump installation was also attractive in the context of developing experience, air-to-air systems having been installed at Roach Vale County Primary School⁷ and an air-to-water application at Walton The Gunfleet School⁸. Low flow temperatures acceptable to the heat pump system were sympathetic to a split heating system, underfloor providing the radiant component and warm air the convective part. The latter afforded the opportunity for heat recovery from the ventilation air while elevated fabric temperatures associated with underfloor heating offset radiant chill effects, the response of the system being closely matched to the response of the building. Figures 5 and 6 show schematics of the system under wintertime and summertime conditions.

Fig. 5 WINTERTIME: Combined Radiant & Convective Heating

Fig. 6 SUMMERTIME: Full Mechanical & Natural Ventilation

The calculated EDV (DES formula) for the design adopted achieved 79 w/m² (floor area) PEU which more than met the target value of 85 w/m² (floor area) PEU as the design objective. The school, not yet to design occupancy, has experienced its first heating season and appears capable of living up to design expectations.

Ventilation requirements and energy demand are being studied by the Building Research Establishment, Garston, under the U.K. Department of Energy (ETSU) Demonstration Project Scheme.

THORPE BAY HIGH SCHOOL. CASE STUDY II. 51°32’N. 0°48’E (S.E. England, coastal)

The Thorpe Bay High School development results from the rationalisation of Secondary School accommodation in the Southend Area where the decision has been taken to amalgamate one School (Southchurch Hall Boys) with another (Dowsett High for Girls) by extending the Dowsett premises from 4 F.E. (forms of entry) to a 6 F.E. co-educational Comprehensive School.

Exploiting this situation a number of opportunities arise for making energy savings -

(i) assuming the Authority does not retain the Southchurch Hall premises for another use, a direct saving results from the closure of a thermally inefficient school with a heating bill of £9000 per annum,

(ii) for the application of normal energy conservation measures, - improved fabric insulation, draught stripping, better controls, zoning, improved plant efficiency - to the existing Dowsett School with a current heating bill of £15,000 per annum,

(iii) to redesign the Dowsett accommodation and make the extra provisions in an ‘energy sensible’ manner.

Adverse features of the Dowsett School can be identified as follows

- Pavilion planning with unprotected internal courtyards

- High external wall-to-floor ratios

- Excessive glazing levels

- Unprotected external circulation areas leading to high infiltration rates

- Lack of zone control.

Ignoring the potential of (iii) a totally exclusive approach could have been made by extending the pavilion planning principle already adopted in order to satisfy the additional accommodation wanted. This would have denied the mutuality of protection afforded by adopting an ‘infill technique’ in the existing courtyards, three of which are contained on all four sides by single-storey teaching accommodation, the fourth, a large open cross-circulation space, flanked on the NW side by a two-storey teaching block. Benefits from infill and courtyard protection must arise from improved fabric insulation and reduced infiltration.

The Dowsett School (before remodelling) provided 5140 sq. m. of teaching accommodation for 600 pupils with a calculated heat load of 715 kW.

The Thorpe Bay School (after remodelling and extension) will provide 6548 sq. m. of teaching accommodation (excluding 400 sq. m. of glazed unheated courtyard and circulation spaces) with a calculated heat load of 706 kW and a new Sports Hall of 65 kW giving a nett reduction of 9 kW (excluding the Sports Hall) achieved by ‘insertion’ of the new teaching accommodation with basic energy conservation measures undertaken to improve the existing Dowsett fabric. With engineering improvements such as optimum start, circuit pumps and controls, weather compensation and local controls it is confidently expected that the fuel consumption of the Thorpe Bay provision including the Sports Hall will not exceed that of the former Dowsett School. From this the value of the engineering measures can be assessed as a 56 kW load saving. The calculated load breakdown is given in Table 3.

TABLE 3

Dowsett/Thorpe Bay Heating Loads (kW)

Had the additional accommodation been provided in pavilion plan form to the existing Dowsett standard the total heat load would have been in the order of 900 kW.

Estimates of energy costs and the savings likely to be achieved using the infill technique providing (a) better fabric insulation and improved space utilisation are given in Table 4 and (b) the benefit of reduced infiltration rates due to rationalisation of external doors and protection from courtyard covering in Table 5.

TABLE 4

(a) Energy Costs and Savings related to Dowsett Fuel Bill as Design Base: Type 1.

².Dowsett remodelled to include courtyard covering.

³. plus occupied courtyard.

⁴. " plus insulation of low level glazing.

TABLE 5

(b) Energy Cost Savings relating to Reduced Air Infiltration

The figures give measures of improvement based on undertaking design assumption 2 – 4.

Introducing accommodation into the courtyard spaces not only reduces the amount of external wall area but is an economic way of creating new accommodation. Where courtyard spaces are covered with translucent roofs and the enclosures remain unheated, the quality of the internal environment needs careful examination to determine the actual usefulness in the context of resultant conditions.

Detailed dynamic analyses of the performance of the glazed links in conjunction with the surrounding spaces were done using the Tas° Program. Although calculations show only small energy savings attributable, in the order of 1%, the probable reduction in air change rates in winter will inevitably result in higher space temperatures with correspondingly reduced heat losses from the surrounding rooms as a result of warmer infiltration air. This would be consistent with Baker’s (1982) findings in his paper on ‘Mass Optimisation in Conservatories’, that for a ‘low energy’ dwelling in a temperate climate, the main role of the conservatory will be in providing ventilation pre-heating.⁹ Summertime overheating conditions are given in Table 6.

TABLE 6

Glazed Links: Summertime Temperatures °C. A - Main Spine, B - Corridor

To control summertime overheating the use of reflective solar control glass is proposed in conjunction with natural and mechanical ventilation giving air change rates between 3 and 20 ACH.

ACH) gave the lowest energy demand. Summer environmental conditions can be managed with solar control glass using mechanical ventilation with 4–10 ACH capacity extracting at temperatures 28 – 33°C and natural ventilation from 23 – 28°C. Class bases adjacent can have openable courtyard windows to provide first stage ventilation with second stage through ventilation provided by external windows. In integrating the new accommodation with the existing, the new work upgrades the existing in many respects. Using the infill technique the external wall area (excluding the Sports Hall) has not been increased, both the aspect and wall-to-floor ratios have been improved and no additional heat generation plant is required. Approximately 400 sq. m. of glazed, protected circulation area have been achieved with better than ambient conditions during the heating season. The contract is due to be completed September 1983 with amalgamation complete September 1984.

In looking for the contribution¹⁰ of atria or courtyard enclosure to the energy budget of an existing building many factors impinge, not least the quality of space desired by enclosure, the thermal properties of the existing building and the solar sensitivity of the geometry that can be employed.

Fig. 8 Thorpe Bay School 6 F.E. Plan

Both the energy benefit and other attributes are the subject of a pilot study to be funded by the SERC and conducted by the Martin Centre, University of Cambridge in conjunction with Essex County Council under the heading ‘Courtyards, The Case for Enclosure’.

Summary

Fig. 7 Dowsett School 4 F.E. Plan

Fig. 9 Thorpe Bay School: Axonometric View Showing Courtyard Enclosures, Glazed Spine and Corridor Links

In Case Study I, although a ‘selective’ approach to the form and fabric specification minimises the applied energy requirement in the first instance, the overall efficiency of the system is dependent upon engineering performance to achieve the energy saving defined by the criterion standard. (This has been recognised in the CIBS Journal’s Building Services Award 1982 for Energy Use in Buildings.) However the extent to which energy economy should be systems’ dependent is an arguable point.

In Case Study II, the ‘exclusivity’ of the original design curtails the extent to which a wholly ‘selective’ approach can be taken, but opportunities do exist in which energy, technical and organisational benefits can result.

As in all energy conservation matters relating to user-response unless all user expectations are adequately met then to use Koestler’s words ‘there is a degree of misery where all quantitative comparisons cease to mean anything.’

REFERENCES

Baker, N., (1982). Mass Optimisation in Conservatories. Proceedings Cannes Symposium.

Baker, N., (1982). The Thermal Performance of Large Glazed Spaces. Proceedings Cannes Symposium.

Cole, R.J.Feasibility Study for a Low Energy School. Research and Development Project Office, The Welsh School of Architecture UWIST, 1974. [(unpublished)].

Department of Education and Science (1977). Energy Conservation in Educational Buildings. Building Bulletin 55. H.M.S.O. London.

Department of Education and Science (1979). Guidelines for Environmental Design and Fuel Conservation in Education Buildings. Design Note 17, 1981. H.M.S.O. London.

Hawkes, D. (1981). Building Shape and Energy Use in The Architecture of Energy 22–34. Martin Centre Conference Proceedings. Construction Press.

Kasabov, G.Buildings, The Key to Energy Conservation. London: RIBA Energy Group, 1979.

King, B.Optimisation in Building Design. Architect’s Department, Essex County Council, 1981. [Internal Report.].

King, B. Computer Aided Energy Conscious Design: Primary School. Essex County Council, Design Technology Group, County Architect’s Department. The International Journal of Ambient Energy. 1981; 2(No. 1):23–30.

King, B.Preferred Heating Systems for Energy and Comfort - C.A.D. Analysis. Architect’s Department, Essex County Council, 1981. [Internal Report.].

Jones, A.M. TasO - Thermal Analysis System. Cranfield, Bedford, England: Jones Cassidy Mellor Limited, Wharley End, 1981.

Oppenheim, D.Small Solar Buildings in Cool Northern Climates. London: The Architectural Press Ltd., 1981.

Page, P.A., & A.M. Jones, (1979). Energy Conservation and Management in Building Design - Schools. In (Ed. K. Johnson) Proceedings of the Second International CIB Symposium on Energy Conservation in the Built Environment. Danish Building Research Institute, Copenhagen.

Page, P.A. & B. King (1982). Energy Conscious Design: Case Study of a Low Energy Design Project for Clacton St. John’s County Primary School. In Proceedings of CIB W57 Third International Symposium, Vol.V. An Foras Forbatha, Dublin.

Yannas, S., & G. Wilkenfeld (1979). Energy Management for Schools. Research Paper in conjunction with Essex County Council, Design Technology Group, County Architects Department.

¹Alexander, C., (1979) The Timeless Way of Building, Oxford University Press, New York.

²Vitruvius. (1 BC) Book VI The Ten Books on Architecture.

³Jones, A.M., H. Mellor and P. Cassidy Jones Cassidy Mellor Ltd., Wharley End, Cranfield, Bedford.

⁴Oppenheim, D., (1981) Small Solar Buildings in Cool Northern Climates. The Architectural Press Ltd., London.

⁵Cole, R.J., Feasibility Study for a Low Energy School. UWIST. (Unpublished).

⁶King, B., (1981). Computer-aided Energy-conscious Design: Primary School. The International Journal of Ambient Energy, Vol. 2. No. 1., 23–30.

⁷For brief descriptions see - In, Kasabov, G, (1979) (Ed.) Buildings the Key to Energy Conservation, Issues and Case Studies The RIBA Energy Group, London, pp. 40–42.

⁸For brief descriptions see - In, Kasabov, G, (1979) (Ed.) Buildings the Key to Energy Conservation, Issues and Case Studies The RIBA Energy Group, London, pp. 40–42.

⁹Baker, N., (1982) Mass Optimisation in Conservatories, Cannes Symposium.

¹⁰Simplistic model evaluations of Atria Performance are given by Baker, N., 1982 Fig. 8. in The Thermal Performance of Large Glazed Spaces, Cannes Symposium Proceedings.

THREE SOLAR BUILDINGS: PASSIVE AND LOW ENERGY ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN FRANCE

APOSTOLOS THOMAS,     ARCHITECT D.P.L.G, URBANISTE, 11, AVNUE DU 18ÈME R.I, 64000 PAU, TÉL: (59) 82.93.89 FRANCE

ABSTRACT

Our research has been to evolve simple methods of using solar energy by adapting architectural design rather than using complex mechanical systems which cost more to give the same performance.

KEYWORD

Bioclimatical architecture direct using of solar energy

thermic inertia outside insulation

trombe walls glass houses

architectural design

PRIMARY SCHOOL FRANCE PAU

HEDAS’S BUILDING FRANCE PAU

BENCOOO FRANCE PAU

PRIMARY SCHOOL AND NURSERY LAND : FRANCE TOWN : PAU

ARCHITECTS:Apostolos THOMAS - Max BOISROBERT THERMICIEN: Michel LAVILLE Jean Paul LOUBES - Daniéle FOURCADE LAOQ 64000 FRANCE, 11 av du 18éme R.I. 64000 PAU(59) 82 . 93 . 89

This project consists of a nursery school, a primary school and a children’s centre, grouped together on a large piece of land (10 000 sq. metres) in the town centre. This central location enables the school buildings to be in close communication with the other public facilities of the district: town hall, parks, post office, church and shops.

The buildings are constructed on the northern part of the land, leaving the space to the south clear for the playgrounds, a pedestrian street, two workshops built under a bank of earth and a bank planted with trees to act as a sound barrier running along the railway. This arrangement opens up a space whichis extremely valuable in an urban environment (adventure playground, kindergarten, etc …). The main outline of the project was decided upon after consultation with local councillors, parents„ teachers and other social and cultural workers in the course of preparatory work sessions with the architects.

The nursery school consists of three classrooms (=525 sq. m.) and a multi-purpose hall. The primary school consists of 6 classrooms (745 sq. m.), spread out over three split-levels, and a multi-purpose hall. It includes the children’s centre (280 sq. m.). Theses two sites of buildings are arranged around a patio and it is possible to go from one to the other by way of the first-floor library and teachers offices. A concrete structure supports lamellates arches which form the vaults and triangular wooden trusses for the main