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Principles of Colour and Appearance Measurement: Object Appearance, Colour Perception and Instrumental Measurement
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Mulai MembacaDeskripsi
Colour and appearance perceptions are very complex psychological phenomena. Written by one of the foremost authorities in the field, Principles of Colour and Appearance Measurement is a major two-volume work addressing the key topics required to understand the issues and manage colour effectively. The book addresses how objects appear to viewers, how viewers perceive colour, and the major types of instrumentation used to measure colour.
Chapters detail the characteristics of light sources and object colour and appearance attributes. They encompass the complexities of human visual perception, including the various causes and types of colour blindness, and other unusual visual phenomena. The book also covers colour measurement instruments and methods, as well as fluorescence and whiteness.
Principles of Colour Appearance and Measurement is a comprehensive resource for designers, colour technologists, colour quality inspectors, product developers, and anyone who uses colour in their work.
Addresses the key topics required to understand the issues of colour measure and management Examines how viewers perceive colour and how objects appear to them Reviews the major types of instrumentation used to measure colourTindakan Buku
Mulai MembacaInformasi Buku
Principles of Colour and Appearance Measurement: Object Appearance, Colour Perception and Instrumental Measurement
Deskripsi
Colour and appearance perceptions are very complex psychological phenomena. Written by one of the foremost authorities in the field, Principles of Colour and Appearance Measurement is a major two-volume work addressing the key topics required to understand the issues and manage colour effectively. The book addresses how objects appear to viewers, how viewers perceive colour, and the major types of instrumentation used to measure colour.
Chapters detail the characteristics of light sources and object colour and appearance attributes. They encompass the complexities of human visual perception, including the various causes and types of colour blindness, and other unusual visual phenomena. The book also covers colour measurement instruments and methods, as well as fluorescence and whiteness.
Principles of Colour Appearance and Measurement is a comprehensive resource for designers, colour technologists, colour quality inspectors, product developers, and anyone who uses colour in their work.
Addresses the key topics required to understand the issues of colour measure and management Examines how viewers perceive colour and how objects appear to them Reviews the major types of instrumentation used to measure colourTentang penulis
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Principles of Colour and Appearance Measurement - Asim Kumar Roy Choudhury
Choudhury
1
Characteristics of light sources
Abstract:
This introductory chapter discusses the importance of light sources in visual perception. Various radiometric and photometric measures of illumination have been explained. The characteristics of various incandescence and discharge lamps are discussed and compared. Colour temperature, luminous efficacy, colour rendering and colour preference indices of light sources are also discussed. Theoretical light sources or illuminants are explained.
Key words
light sources; illuminants; radiometry; photometry; black body; colour rendering index; colour preference index
1.1 Introduction
According to the International Lighting Vocabulary, the definition of light is: ‘Any radiation capable of causing a visual sensation directly’. Light, or visible light, is electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye and responsible for the sense of sight (CIE, 1987). Visible light has wavelength in the range of about 380 nanometres (nm) to about 740 nm, with a frequency range of about 405–790 THz. In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not (Kumar, 2008).
Light is everywhere. Light is at once obvious and mysterious. We are showered with yellow sunlight during daytime, and saved from the darkness by incandescent and fluorescent lamps. We need light to see the objects surrounding us. It carries information from the world to our eyes and brains. Colours and shapes are indispensable parts of nature, yet light is a perplexing phenomenon when we study it more closely. The brain and eyes act together to make our visual perception extraordinary powerful. We see movies as sequences of still pictures and the pictures as arrays of dots. We catch glimpses of its nature when a sunbeam angles through a dust-filled room and when a rainbow appears after a storm. Light acts as particles that stream from a source. This explains how shadows work. Light also acts like waves – ripples in space. This explains how rainbows work. In fact, both are light. This ‘wave–particle duality’ is one of the most confusing and wonderful principles of physics (Greiner, 2001). Many scientists have spent lifetimes developing physical, biological, chemical, and mathematical explanations for these principles.
1.2 Process of visual perception
Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment by processing information that is contained in visible light. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight or vision. The various physiological components of vision are referred to collectively as the visual system. All creatures have the ability to sense the surrounding world, but in various ways and degrees. We may envy the bloodhound’s exceptional nose, but humans possess visual prowess that is unsurpassed in its ability to detect and make sense of patterns (although it does not match the eagle’s sight in distance). Our eyes and brains work as a team to discover meaningful patterns that help us make sense of the world.
There are three ingredients or elements in the process of visual observation of an object as shown in Fig. 1.1. They are:
• a light source
• an object
• a human observer.
1.1 Object colour and appearance recognition process.
All three factors influence the colour and appearance visualised by the observer. A source illuminates the object and is characterised by the emitted energy at different wavelengths, which is denoted by the term spectral power distribution (SPD). When light falls on an object, the light beam is modified by absorption, scattering and other physical processes, depending on the physical and chemical construction of the object. Ultimately, the light reaches the eye of the observer in the form of reflected or refracted light. Photosensitive pigments in the eye absorb the light energy. This gives rise to nerve impulses which are transmitted to brain. The human eye–brain mechanism makes rapid and continuous evaluation of object appearance and colour. The light, which enters our eyes, contains the characteristic imprints of both the light source and the object.
1.3 Optics
Optics is the branch of physics dealing with the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter, and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light (McGraw-Hill, 1993). Practical optics is usually done using simplified models. It is broadly divided into three fields based on their method of theoretical treatments:
• Geometric optics deals with the geometric aspects of propagation and interaction of light, i.e. the rectilinear aspect of light. It treats light as a collection of rays that travel in straight lines and bend when they pass through or reflect from surfaces.
• Physical optics is a more comprehensive model of light, which includes wave effects. Phenomena such as diffraction and interference cannot be explained by geometric optics. Historically, the ray-based model of light was developed first, followed by the wave model of light. Progress in electromagnetic theory in the nineteenth century led to the discovery that light waves were in fact electromagnetic radiation.
• Quantum optics applies quantum mechanics to optical systems for explaining both wave-like and particle-like properties. When considering light’s particle-like properties, the light is modelled as a collection of particles called ‘photons’.
1.3.1 Quantum or corpuscular theory
The absorption and emission properties of light can be best explained by the concept that light exists as a series of energy packets known as photons, and its inherent energy may be expressed as follows:
[1.1]
where h is Planck’s constant (6.6254 × 10−27 erg sec).
1.3.2 Wave theory
In physical optics, light is considered to propagate as a wave. Sir Isaac Newton held the theory that light was made up of tiny particles. In 1678, Dutch physicist, Christiaan Huygens, believed that light was made up of waves vibrating up and down perpendicular to the direction the light travels, and therefore formulated a way of visualising wave propagation. This became known as ‘Huygens’ Principle’. Huygens’ theory was successful as a theory of light wave motion in three dimensions. Huygens suggested that light wave peaks form surfaces, like the layers of an onion. In a vacuum, or other uniform media, the light waves are spherical, and these wave surfaces advance or spread out as they travel at the speed of light. This theory explains why light shining through a pin hole or slit will spread out rather than go in a straight line. Newton’s theory came first, but the theory of Huygens better described early experiments. Huygens’ principle lets us predict where a given wave front will be in the future, if the present location of the given wave front is known.
A large number of optical phenomena can be explained by assuming that light consists of waves. Maxwell (J. Clerk Maxwell, 1831–79) first proposed a definite relation between light and electricity. Wave theory describes how electromagnetic radiation propagates in the form of waves. The phenomenon of interference, diffraction and polarisation can be explained by this theory. The electromagnetic theory of light was established on the basis of the relation between electricity and magnetism. Light was proposed to be a type of electromagnetic radiation.
1.3.3 Electromagnetic radiation
Electricity and magnetism are two components of electromagnetism: a changing magnetic field produces an electric field, and a changing electric field produces a magnetic field. This connection was first explained by Faraday and Maxwell – Einstein saw electricity and magnetism as frame-dependent aspects of a unified electromagnetic force. An accelerating charge produces electromagnetic waves (radiation). Both electric and magnetic fields can transport energy. Electric field energy is used in electrical circuits, e.g., released in lightning. Magnetic field carries energy through a transformer.
Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is a form of energy emitted and absorbed by charged particles, which exhibit wave-like behaviour as they travel through space. EMR has both electric and magnetic field components, which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation. Some key features of EMR are:
1. Electromagnetic (EM) waves are special since they do not need a medium to propagate through.
2. All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed through space (the speed of light).
3. When something creates energy it also emits radiation. Depending on the amount of energy, the object will emit different types of electromagnetic radiation.
4. Gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet waves, light, infrared rays, microwaves, and radio waves are all electromagnetic waves with different wavelengths.
5. Some substances absorb EM waves, some reflect them, and others transmit them.
In a vacuum, EMR propagates at a characteristic speed, the speed of light. Light has a very high but finite speed (c). In vacuum it travels at a speed of 186 000 miles.s−1. The speed reduces as light travels through a medium and is inversely proportional to the refractive index of the medium. The velocity of any wave can be expressed by the following equation:
[1.2]
where f = frequency i.e. the number of complete waves that occur in a second, and λ = wavelength i.e. the distance after which the curve repeats.
Since the frequencies of light are awkwardly large numbers, spectroscopists sometimes use an equivalent quantity called the wave number. It is the number of waves per cm path in vacuum, and varies roughly from 15 000 to 25 000 in going from red to violet visible light:
[1.3]
It is customary to express most forms of radiation, particularly ultraviolet (UV) and visible light, in terms of their wavelengths. Frequency, which is directly related to energy, is not used in expressing radiation, probably because it is measured indirectly i.e. via wavelength measurement. It is not convenient to use the same unit for wavelength throughout the entire range of electromagnetic radiation. Radio wavelengths are expressed in metres (10² cm), infrared in microns (1 μ = 10−4 cm), visible and ultraviolet in nanometres (1 nm = 10−9 m = 10−7 cm), and X-rays in angstroms (1 Å = 10−8 cm) units.
The wavelength distribution of different electromagnetic radiations is shown in Plate I (see colour section between pages 208 and 209). EMR, in increasing order of wavelength or decreasing order of frequency (i.e. energy content), is as follows:
Gamma rays → X-rays → ultraviolet (UV) → visible light → infrared (IR) → microwaves → radio waves
Waves of different wavelengths have different uses:
• Longer wave radio waves are used for radio and television communication. Radio waves are reflected from the ionosphere in the Earth’s upper atmosphere. This allows them to be sent further.
• Microwaves pass easily through the atmosphere and are, therefore, used to send information to and from satellites. They are used in mobile phone networks. Microwaves of a certain frequency cause water molecules to vibrate and are, therefore, used in microwave ovens for cooking.
• Infrared radiation is used for heating, remote control of electric and electronic apparatus, and for night vision apparatus such as a camera.
• Visible light is used for visual perception of objects and colour. It is used to send information via optical fibres. Optical fibres can carry more information with less weakening of the signal than electric cables.
• UV radiation is used in sunbaths and fluorescent lamps. It may pass through the skin to deeper tissues, creating cancerous cells. Brown coloured melanin in the skin absorbs UV, thereby protecting us from cancer.
• X-rays are used to check bone fractures. They are also used for screening luggage at airports. Metals, bones and other dense objects absorb X-rays, while softer materials let X-rays go through.
• Gamma (γ) rays, emitted from radioactive substances, are shorter than X-rays. Gamma radiation is used to sterilise surgical instruments and kill bacteria in food. Gamma radiation passes through soft tissues, but some is absorbed by cells. High doses of UV rays, X-rays and gamma radiation can kill cells. Smaller doses can causes cells to become cancerous.
1.3.4 Visible light
Visible light is that aspect of radiant energy of which a human observer is aware through the visual sensations that arise from the stimulus of the retina of the eye (Wyszecki and Stiles, 1982). Visible light covers an almost insignificant fraction of the whole electromagnetic radiation. The wavelengths of visible light extend between about 4 × 10−5 cm (400 nm) for extreme violet and 7.2 × 10−5 cm (720 nm) for deep red. However, light waves are usually considered to include infrared waves (0.7–300 μm) and ultraviolet waves (10–400 nm) also. The colours of individual wavelength sectors are as follows:
• Violet: 380–450 nm
• Blue: 450–480 nm
• Blue-green: 480–510 nm
• Green: 510–550 nm
• Yellow-green: 550–570 nm
• Yellow: 570–590 nm
• Orange: 590–630 nm
• Red: 630–750 nm.
The eye fails to respond beyond this visible range. The limits depend partly on the individual. Most people can see an image with light of wavelength as short as 3 × 10−5 cm, but this is due to fluorescence in the retina. Such light appears bluish grey in colour and is harmful to the eye (Jenkins and White, 1957). Table 1.1 shows the wavelength, frequency and energy distribution of visible light along with far-UV (short wave), near-UV (long wave), visible light and IR radiation. The intensity of light can be measured in two ways:
1. Radiometric method and
2. Photometric method.
Table 1.1
Wavelength, frequency and energy distribution of ultraviolet, visible and infrared radiations
Note: (a) 1 petahertz (PHz) = 10¹⁵ Hz and 1 THz = 10¹² Hz. (b) By definition, electron-volt (eV) is the amount of energy gained by the charge of a single electron moved across an electric potential difference of 1V. 1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19joule, 1 meV = 0.001 eV.
1.4 Radiometry
Radiometry is the science of measuring light in any portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. In practice, the term is usually limited to the measurement of infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light using optical instruments. The radiometric practice involves the scientific instruments and materials used in measuring light, including radiation thermocouples, bolometers, photodiodes, photosensitive dyes and emulsions, vacuum phototubes, charge-coupled devices, and many others. Radiometric theory is such a simple topic that most texts on physics and optics discuss it in a few paragraphs. Unfortunately, they rarely discuss the topic in enough detail for it to be useful (Ashdown, 2002).
1.4.1 Radiant energy
Electromagnetic radiation transports energy through space. When light is absorbed by a physical object, its energy is converted into some other form. A microwave oven, for example, heats a glass of water when its microwave radiation is absorbed by the water molecules. The radiant energy of the microwaves is converted into thermal energy (heat). Radiant energy (denoted as Q) is measured in joules.
1.4.2 Spectral radiant energy
A broadband source such as the Sun emits electromagnetic radiation throughout most of the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to gamma rays, though most of its radiant energy is concentrated within the visible portion of the spectrum. A single-wavelength laser, on the other hand, is a monochromatic source; all of its radiant energy is emitted at one specific wavelength. From this, we can define spectral radiant energy, which is the amount of radiant energy per unit wavelength interval at wavelength λ. It is defined as:
[1.4]
Spectral radiant energy is measured in joules per nanometre.
1.4.3 Radiant flux or radiant power
It is the radiant energy transferred per unit time and is measured in joules per second, or watts. A laser beam, for example, has a certain number of milliwatts or watts of radiant power. Light ‘flows’ through space, and so the radiant power is more commonly referred to as the ‘time rate of flow of radiant energy’, or radiant flux. It is defined as:
[1.5]
where Q is radiant energy and t is time.
The flow of light through space is often represented by geometrical rays of light. They can be thought of as infinitesimally thin lines drawn through space, which indicate the direction of flow of radiant energy (light). They are also mathematical abstractions – even the thinnest laser beam has a finite cross-section. Nevertheless, they provide a useful aid to understanding radiometric theory. Radiant flux is measured in watts.
1.4.4 Spectral radiant flux
Spectral radiant flux is radiant flux per unit wavelength interval at wavelength λ. It is defined as:
[1.6]
and is measured in W nm−1.
1.4.5 Radiant flux density
Radiant flux density is the radiant flux per unit area at a point on a surface. The flux can be arriving at the surface (Fig. 1.2a), in which case the radiant flux density is referred to as irradiance. The flux can arrive from any direction above the surface, as indicated by the rays:
[1.7]
where Φ is the radiant flux arriving at the point and dA is the differential area surrounding the point.
1.2 (a) The radiant flux arriving at the surface (irradiance) and (b) leaving the surface due to emission and/or reflection (radiant exitance).
The flux can also be leaving the surface due to emission and/or reflection (Fig. 1.2b). The radiant flux density is then referred to as radiant exitance.
As with irradiance, the flux can leave in any direction above the surface. It is defined as:
[1.8]
where Φ is the radiant flux leaving the point and dA is the differential area surrounding the point.
Radiant flux density is measured in watts per square metre:
[1.9]
[1.10]
Spectral radiant flux density is measured in watts per square metre per nanometre.
The surface can be real or imaginary (i.e., a mathematical plane). This means that radiant flux density can be measured anywhere in three-dimensional space. This includes on the surface of physical objects, in the space between them (e.g., in air or a vacuum), and inside transparent media such as water and glass.
1.4.6 Solid angle (ω)
A plane angle is well known: one full revolution is 360° or 2π radians. The solid angle expands this concept over the surface of a sphere. The solid angle (Fig. 1.3), as seen from the centre of a sphere, includes a given area on the surface of that sphere. The value of the solid angle is numerically equal to the size of that area divided by the square of the radius of the sphere.
[1.11]
1.3 The concept of solid angle.
The maximum solid angle is ~ 12.57, corresponding to the full area of the unit sphere, which is 4π. Mathematically, the solid angle is unitless but, for practical reasons, the steradian is assigned. The unit of solid angle is the steradian (sr), just as radians and degrees are units of (plane) angle. Another unit of solid angle is the square degree. It is an imaginary square on e.g. the celestial sphere, having a side of 1°.
1.4.7 Radiance
Radiance is simply the infinitesimal amount of radiant flux contained in the ray of light arriving at or leaving a point on a surface in a given direction. A more formal definition of radiance requires that we think of a ray as being an infinitesimally narrow (‘elemental’) cone with its apex at a point on a real or imaginary surface. This cone has a differential solid angle dω that is measured in steradians. The concept of radiance leaving a specific projected source area in a specific direction and within a specified solid angle is shown in Fig. 1.4. If the area of intersection with the surface has a differential cross-sectional area A, the cross-sectional area of the ray is A cosθ, where θ is the angle between the ray and the surface normal. It is called the projected area of the ray–surface intersection area A.
1.4 The concept of radiance and solid angle.
With these preliminaries in mind, we can imagine an elemental cone with solid angle ω containing a ray of light that is arriving at or leaving a surface. Radiance is defined by:
[1.12]
where, L is the observed or measured radiance (W·m−2·sr−1), in the direction θ, d is the differential operator, Φ is the total radiant flux or power (W) emitted, θ is the angle between the surface normal and the specified direction, A is the area of the surface (m²), and ω is the solid angle (sr) subtended by the observation or measurement.
The approximation only holds for small A and ω where cos θ is approximately constant. In general, L is a function of viewing angle through the cos θ term in the denominator as well as the θ, and potentially azimuth angle, dependence of dФ/dω. For the special case of a Lambertian source, L is constant such that dФ/dω is proportional to cosθ.
Unlike radiant flux density, the definition of radiance does not distinguish between flux arriving at or leaving a surface. Radiance is measured in Wm−2 sr−1. Spectral radiance (Lλ) is radiance per unit wavelength interval at wavelength λ:
[1.13]
It is measured in Wm−2 sr−1 nm−1.
1.4.8 Radiant intensity
An infinitesimally small point source of light may emit radiant flux in every direction. The amount of radiant flux emitted in a given direction, i.e. radiant intensity, can be represented by a ray of light contained in an elemental cone:
[1.14]
where dω is the differential solid angle of the elemental cone containing the given direction:
[1.15]
where the differential surface area dA is on the surface of a sphere centred on and at a distance r from the source, and E is the irradiance of that surface. More generally, the radiant flux will intercept dA at an angle θ. This gives us the inverse square law for point sources:
[1.16]
where I is the intensity of the source in the given direction and d is the distance from the source to the surface element dA.
We can further imagine a real or imaginary surface as being a continuum of point sources, where each source occupies a differential area dA. Viewed at an angle θ from the surface normal n, the source has a projected area of dA cosθ. Combining the definitions of radiance (Equation [1.12]) and radiant intensity (Equation [1.14]) gives us an alternative definition of radiance:
[1.17]
where dI is the differential intensity of the point source in the given direction. Radiant intensity is measured in W sr−1.
Spectral radiant intensity is radiant intensity per unit wavelength interval at wavelength λ. It is defined as:
[1.18]
It is measured in W sr−1 nm−1.
1.5 Photometry
Photometry is the science of measurement of visible light in units that are weighted according to the sensitivity of the human eye. It is a quantitative science, based on a statistical model of the human visual response to light, that is, our perception of light under carefully controlled conditions. The sensitivity of the human eye to light varies with wavelength. A light source with radiance of 1 W m−2-sr of green light, for example, appears much brighter than the same source with a radiance of 1 W m−2-sr of red or blue light. In photometry, the wattage of radiant energy is not measured. Rather, it is an attempt at measuring the subjective impression produced by stimulating the human eye–brain visual system with radiant energy.
However, the task becomes immensely complicated due to the non-linear response of the eyes to light. It varies with several parameters, such as wavelength, the amount of radiant flux, whether the light is constant or flickering, the spatial complexity of the scene, the adaptation of the iris and retina, the psychological and physiological state of the observer, and a host of other variables.
Nevertheless, the subjective impression of seeing can be quantified for ‘normal’ viewing conditions. In 1924, the Commission Internationale d’Eclairage (CIE), or International Commission on Illumination, asked over 100 observers to visually match the ‘brightness’ of monochromatic light sources at different wavelengths under controlled conditions. The statistical result, the so-called CIE photometric curve, shows the photopic luminous efficiency of the human visual system as a function of wavelength. It provides a weighting function that can be used to convert radiometric into photometric measurements.
Photometric theory does not address how we perceive colours. The light being measured can be monochromatic, or a combination or continuum of wavelengths; the eye’s response is determined by the CIE weighting function. The only difference between radiometric and photometric theory is in their units of measurement. In photometry, luminosity is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to as luminance, which is the density of luminous intensity in a given direction. The SI unit for luminance is cd m−2. The luminosity function, also known as luminous efficiency function, describes the average visual sensitivity of the human eye to light of different wavelengths. There are two luminosity functions in common use (Starling and Woodall, 1956).
1.5.1 Luminosity function
Luminosity, or luminous efficiency, is a measurement of brightness based on a standardised model of the sensitivity of the human eye. The rod and cone cells, present in the retinas of our eyes, are responsible for our visual sensation. However, they serve two somewhat different functions in vision. Vision mediated by cones at moderate and high levels of intensity of light is called ‘photopic vision’. Cones detect fine details of objects, probably by serving as individual receptors each largely independent of its neighbouring elements. The complete mechanism for colour vision involves only cone receptors since colour vision is excellent in the fovea where only cones are present. At a low level of illumination, only the rods are active and they produce the sensation of brightness and no colour sensation. Such a vision is termed ‘scotopic vision’.
Our eyes can detect light of some wavelength more easily than others. Luminous efficiency function or luminosity function is the visual efficiency of detecting lights of different wavelengths. The eye is most sensitive to light at 555 nm for photopic vision and at 507 nm for scotopic vision. The sensitivity of the eye to all wavelengths, luminosity functions V(λ) and V′(λ) for both photopic and scotopic vision respectively are shown graphically in Fig. 1.5. The V(λ
(λ). The luminosity function was adopted by CIE in 1924. A subsequent modification for wavelengths below 460 nm was proposed by Judd in 1951. The luminosity function can be measured in two ways:
• Cascade method: the observer checks for equal luminance of two adjacent fields, one illuminated by reference light of particular wavelength and the second by a test light of nearby wavelength (i.e. close in colour). The observer can change the intensity of the second wavelength until the difference in luminance is at a minimum. The second wavelength is then used as a standard and is compared with a third wavelength, and so on. This step-by-step procedure is continued for the entire spectrum.
• Flicker photometry method: a screen is illuminated alternately by two wavelengths in rapid succession, and the observer adjusts the relative energies to minimise visual flicker.
1.5 Spectral luminosity functions.
1.5.2 Luminous intensity
In photometry, luminous intensity is a measure of the wavelength-weighted power emitted by a light source in a particular direction per unit solid angle, based on the luminosity function. Photometry deals with the measurement of visible light as perceived by human eyes. The human eye can see light only in the visible spectrum, and has different sensitivities to light of different wavelengths within the spectrum. When adapted for bright conditions (photopic vision), the eye is most sensitive to greenish-yellow light at
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