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Fibrous Filter Media
Oleh Elsevier Science
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Fibrous Filter Media comprehensively covers the types, manufacture, applications, performance, and modeling of fibrous filter media. Part I introduces the principles of gas and liquid filtration, while Part II presents an overview of the types of fibrous filters, including details of fiber types, fabric construction, and applications.
Part III covers a variety of filtration applications in which fibrous assemblies are used, with examples ranging from filtration for improving air quality, to medical filters, to industrial waste-water filtration. Finally, Part III covers the properties and performance of fibrous filters, including chapters on filter performance and simulation.
With its expert editors and international team of contributors, this important book provides information on fibrous filters relevant to fiber and textile scientists, and is also ideal for academics and industry professionals working in the field of filtration.
Dr. Philip Brown is Sweetenburg Professor of polymer and textile engineering at Clemson University, USA. Dr. Christopher Cox is Professor of mathematical sciences at Clemson University, USA.
Systematic and comprehensive coverage of the trends and new technologies being developed in the field of fibrous filter media Focused on the needs of the textiles and filtration industries, with a clear emphasis on applied technology Contains contributions from an international team of authors edited by an expert in the fieldTindakan Buku
Mulai MembacaInformasi Buku
Fibrous Filter Media
Oleh Elsevier Science
Deskripsi
Fibrous Filter Media comprehensively covers the types, manufacture, applications, performance, and modeling of fibrous filter media. Part I introduces the principles of gas and liquid filtration, while Part II presents an overview of the types of fibrous filters, including details of fiber types, fabric construction, and applications.
Part III covers a variety of filtration applications in which fibrous assemblies are used, with examples ranging from filtration for improving air quality, to medical filters, to industrial waste-water filtration. Finally, Part III covers the properties and performance of fibrous filters, including chapters on filter performance and simulation.
With its expert editors and international team of contributors, this important book provides information on fibrous filters relevant to fiber and textile scientists, and is also ideal for academics and industry professionals working in the field of filtration.
Dr. Philip Brown is Sweetenburg Professor of polymer and textile engineering at Clemson University, USA. Dr. Christopher Cox is Professor of mathematical sciences at Clemson University, USA.
Systematic and comprehensive coverage of the trends and new technologies being developed in the field of fibrous filter media Focused on the needs of the textiles and filtration industries, with a clear emphasis on applied technology Contains contributions from an international team of authors edited by an expert in the fieldPratinjau Buku
Fibrous Filter Media
States
Preface
Philip J. Brown and Christopher L. Cox, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
The histories of mankind, fibers, and textiles are so intricately woven that their separation is indistinguishable. It is well established that approximately 7000 years ago man developed the ability to produce yarn, and subsequently fabric, from cellulose-based plants such as flax and cotton, followed in subsequent centuries by the evolution of silk and woolen fabrics. However, the laborious method of hand production still prevailed as recently as 200 years ago, which only changed with the onset of the industrial revolution in the late 1700s and the rise of the textile factory system that allowed the production of massive quantities of goods.
On a human level the need to create textiles for filtration can be traced to the early days of mining. In this instance to reduce mine dust inhalation and for darker more insidious reasons such as the primitive powdered chemical warfare agents previously proposed by Leonardo da Vinci for enemy asphyxiation. Leonardo’s counter measure (or at least a partial solution) was to protect people with what is essentially a wet woven cloth mask, i.e., a filter, an all too frequently utilized familiar counter measure today.
In the last 150 years, great scientific advances have been made. Specifically, the fields of polymer and fiber science, chemistry and engineering have forged the way for new fibers and textiles. Systematic approaches to understanding have enabled us to address the potentially vast requirements that modern filters must meet.
In his book Anticipations of the Reaction of Mechanical and Scientific Progress Upon Human Life and Thought (1902), Herbert George H.G.
Wells speculates and forecasts the future of the next century in a frank and sincere manner. We cannot presume to predict what the next 100 years will hold for humanity, especially given the advances witnessed in the last 20 years. However, we can perceive what future benefits fiber-based filtration will have for humanity. We can safely say that fibrous filter media will continue to improve human life by enabling (among other things) cars to drive, planes to fly, higher water quality, cleaner air, houses to be built, and overall a healthier global environment to live in. These benefits will be achieved by scientific and engineering advances in the subject area.
Currently, fibrous filter media comprise a myriad of materials for use in both gas and liquid applications. The subject is multifaceted in many ways: highly interdisciplinary, significantly diverse with respect to materials, products, and applications, and is still ripe for further innovation. The need for filters is unquestionable and the demand is untiring. The disciplines represented by the contributors to Fibrous Filter Media include textile science, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and at least four engineering branches. These authors come from academia, industry, and government laboratories, and are scattered over four continents.
Part I introduces the principles and methodology of gas and liquid fibrous filtration. The first chapter, Gas filtration, begins with a history of fibrous air filters, then a theoretical background is provided, including governing equations used in modeling fibrous filtration of gases. An overview of liquid filtration from an industry perspective is the focus of Chapter 2, Industrial liquid filtration equipment, along with a detailed description of three types of equipment used in solid–liquid separation. The theory underlying fibrous filtration of liquid aerosols is elucidated in Chapter 3, Fibrous filtration of liquid aerosols. Experimentally validated modeling is also presented, along with many references for further reading. A methodical exposition of the theory behind charged electret filters is provided in Chapter 4, The charging and stability of electret filters, plus a discussion of production methods and an extensive literature background on the subject.
In Part II, an overview of types of fibrous filters is provided, including details of fiber types, fabric construction and applications. Chapter 5, Knitted fibrous filter media, focuses on knitted fibrous filter media, with a discussion of theory and experiment underlying a subject that until now has not received the attention it deserves. The theory, production methods, and applications of nonwoven fabric filters are featured in Chapter 6, Nonwoven fabric filters, along with many supporting references. Shaped fiber filtration for airborne particulates is the subject of Chapter 7, Simulation of filtration in shaped fiber media, with the presentation of a modeling approach adaptable for fibers of any cross-sectional shape. Both theoretical and experimental aspects of plasma textile fibrous filters, in which electrostatic charging and electret filtration are combined to form a tunable
nanoparticle filter, are discussed in Chapter 8, Plasma textiles as fibrous filter media.
Part III covers a variety of filtration applications in which fibrous assemblies are used. The separation of water and diesel fuel using electrospun nanofiber filters is described in Chapter 9, Nanofibers for coalescing filter media for water–diesel separation, through an introduction to the process along with a discussion of experiments and experimental results. Chapter 10, Air filtration in aero engines, presents the critical role played by an engine inlet barrier filter for aeronautical applications and includes a discussion of simulations used in the design of these filters. An informative treatment of drinking water filtration is provided in Chapter 11, Filtration of drinking water, including materials used, a description of the RO process, economic factors, and future trends. Chapter 12, Application of nanofibrous membranes and their suitability for membrane bioreactor processes in wastewater treatment, presents nanofibrous membrane bioreactors for wastewater treatment and includes a discussion of performance, production, applications, and future directions for the technology.
Altogether, this book is designed to provide the reader with an overview of fibrous filtration principles, materials, and applications. The vastness of the subject precludes any claim of an all-encompassing treatment of the topic. As noted above, several of the chapters include a thorough literature search and suggestions for further research. Our hope is that this book will help to spur on new discoveries in fibrous filtration that will improve the quality of life for many people. We gratefully acknowledge the authors who contributed their expertise in the compilation of this book.
Part I
Principles of Fibrous Filtration
Outline
1 Gas filtration
2 Industrial liquid filtration equipment
3 Fibrous filtration of liquid aerosols
4 The charging and stability of electret filters
1
Gas filtration
Thad J. Ptak, AO Smith Corporation, Milwaukee, WI, United States
Abstract
Filtration of particles from the gas stream is one of the main classes of particulate air cleaning devices. The filter medium is the most essential component of every cleaning device based on filtration principle. The effectiveness of a cleaning device is determined by the type of filter media. A wide range of different filter media can be utilized, including fibrous filter media, packed bed, and fabrics. Fibrous filter medium can be defined as a permeable material composed of sparsely distributed fibers upon which particles are deposited by the different filtration mechanisms. A conceptual way to think of a fibrous filter medium is as a significant number of layers, each with randomly populated fibers resulting in an open three-dimensional network. The primary task of a fibrous filter medium is to cause a separation of particulates from the gas stream with the minimum energy consumption. Fibrous filter media can be characterized by many different chemical and mechanical properties. It can be considered as a system of randomly oriented fibers with a preferred orientation across the direction of flow, with packing density in the range of 0.01–0.15 (porosity 85%–99%) and fiber diameter 0.1–50 μm.
Keywords
Air filtration; filtration efficiency; filtration mechanisms; single-fiber efficiency; pressure drop; fibrous media
1.1 Introduction
Filtration of particles from the gas stream is one of the main classes of particulate air cleaning devices. The filter medium is the most essential component of every cleaning device based on filtration principle. The effectiveness of a cleaning device is determined by the type of filter media. A wide range of different filter media can be utilized, including fibrous filter media, packed bed and fabrics. Fibrous filter medium can be defined as a permeable material composed of sparsely distributed fibers upon which particles are deposited by the different filtration mechanisms. A conceptual way to think of a fibrous filter medium is as a significant number of layers, each with randomly populated fibers resulting in an open three-dimensional network. The primary task of a fibrous filter medium is to cause a separation of particulates from the gas stream with the minimum energy consumption. Fibrous filter media can be characterized by many different chemical and mechanical properties. It can be considered as a system of randomly oriented fibers with a preferred orientation across the direction of flow, with packing density in the range of 0.01–0.15 (porosity 85%–99%) and fiber diameter 0.1–50 μm.
The main objective of the theory of filtration is to calculate the number of particles of a given size, deposited on a unit length of fiber depending on the air velocity, fiber diameter, packing density, and thickness. The particle deposition on clean, dust free fibers represents the main subject of the classical theory of filtration of aerosols. Another important objective is the calculation of the pressure drop, since the initial efficiency and the pressure drop are the primary criteria for selection of appropriate filter media.
The removal of particulate matter (PM) from gases by filtration has been shown to be combination of the mechanism of interception, diffusion and inertial impaction, and other mechanisms such as gravitational or the action of electrostatic. In general, fibers with smaller diameter are more effective collectors than coarse ones because of their larger inertial impaction and interception parameters, as well as their provision of a larger aggregate surface area per unit volume for diffusion to take place. Denser packing of fibers also tends to increase particle collection because of favorable fiber interference effects.
In order to determine the physical mechanisms by which the filtration is accomplished, several models were proposed to simulate the structure of fibrous filter media. In such a filter medium, the characteristic spacing between fibers is much larger than the size of the particles being collected. For this reason, the mechanisms of particle collection are not simply sieving; but more exactly, the removal of particles occurs by the transport of particles from the gas to the surface of a single fiber. One of the conventional approaches to model fibrous filter media is to view them as assemblages of cylinders. Even though the fibers are somewhat oriented in all directions, from a theoretical point of view the system is treated as if every fiber is transverse to the gas flow. Based on this model, the filtration mechanisms in fibrous filters can be analyzed in terms of a single cylinder, allowing their description in considerable theoretical details.
This chapter presents some historical aspects of air filtration and the development of classical and modern filtration models. Collection mechanisms as well as pressure drop across fibrous filter media are presented and discussed for the single fiber model as well for the fan model.
1.2 History of air filters
The history of air filtration and protective respiratory devices can be traced as far back as the 4th century BC when Hippocrates mentioned toxicity of lead dust in the mining industry. The mining environments and its impact on worker health were recognized by Romans resulting in the development of the first respirators. Pliny the Elder in the book on Metallurgy included in the Natural History (77–79 AD) (Pliny the Elder) has recognized health risk to workers handling materials such as lead, mercury, sulfur, and other materials. To protect workers from exposure to dust and fumes a face mask made of animal bladder skin was used.
In the Middle Ages, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1518) recommended that wet woven cloth to be used as a protection for sailors from a fumes and powder used in warfare. In 1556, Georg Bauer, known as Agricola, published his book De Re Metallica which dealt with the diseases of miners and preventive measures. He recommended mine ventilation and worker protection.
The predecessor to the modern respirator was invented by Haslett (1849), and was an air purifying respirator which utilized valves and a filter made of moistened wool or other similar porous substance. For this invention, L.P. Haslett received the first US patent for a respirator in 1849. Following Haslett’s patent, a large number of patents were issued for air purifying devices with improved performance including the use of activated carbon, cotton filters, and improved design such as an eyepiece.
In 1868, John Tyndall developed a mask with attached filter cartridge with particulate filter made of three layers of packed cotton with lime, charcoal, and wool soaked with glycerin in between each layer. Filtration efficiency of this type of filter media was relatively low for fine aerosols. During the World War I, gaseous and aerosolized toxic chemicals were used as chemical warfare. Germans understood the limitation of particulate filters utilized in masks, and searched for ways to penetrate the filter with the smoke of chemical agents. It was discovered that small particles, approximately 0.2–0.5 μm, penetrated fibrous filter more efficiently than smaller or larger particles. After the war, research continued on the development of chemical agents with smaller particle size, resulting in new methods of aerosol generation which allowed scientists to achieve particles with diameters of 0.2–0.3 μm. Particles in this size range were able to penetrate particulate fibrous filters very effectively.
Due to this development, a significant pressure to develop fibrous filters with improved filtration efficiency of fine particles was applied on researchers in the countries participating in the war. During this time, the first attempts to understand the filtration process and to develop filtration models for fibrous media were made by German scientists. Parallel to the development of filtration theory, an extensive research has led to the development of more efficient filter materials based on mixture of asbestos and wool. Filter media containing asbestos featured high filtration efficiency due to small diameter of asbestos fibers and were widely used until the 1970s when it was discovered that asbestos fibers are highly carcinogenic. This rapid development of particulate filters, gas masks, and filtration theory were widely, associated with military applications.
Another breakthrough in the development of fibrous filters was the discovery of the first electret filter made by Hansen in 1930. This was a very significant innovation having impact on current filter media widely used in numerous air filtrations. Hansen is credited for the development of the electret filter; however, the first electret was produced by Eguchi (1919), who found that the electrical conductivity of specific waxes increases with temperature and in the liquid state is much higher than in the solid state. Hansen’s filter was made by combination of wool fibers and resin, which was melted and solidified in a strong electric field, this ensured an electrostatically enhanced (charged) filter was fabricated.
Another important advancement in air filtration, which was also associated with military applications, was the development of high efficiency filter media for military masks and other filters. During the World War II, the US Army Chemical Warfare Service Laboratories were able to analyze and reproduce particulate filter media from the German gas mask. Newly developed filter material was made on conventional papermaking equipment using mixture of cellulose fibers, cotton, and crocidolite asbestos. This period of time resulted in significant US advances in the filter media technology, testing and theory of aerosol filtration. Based on Langmuir’s (1942) theoretical model and followed by experimental results, it was concluded that combined effect of filtration mechanisms would be minimal for particles with diameter approximately 0.3 μm. Langmuir recommended testing filter media and gas masks with smoke of this particle size.
Pleated filters made of filter media used for gas masks were constructed for protection of military buildings against chemical warfare agents. High efficiency filters were made and supplied to the Manhattan Project and to the US Atomic Energy Commission to confine airborne radioactive particles. These filters, with very high filtration efficiency, were also known as absolute filters and super efficiency filters. Later, the most widely used name was HEPA filters, an acronym for high efficiency particulate air
filter (Langmuir, 1942). Test method for testing HEPA filters was issued in 1950 (Gilbert, 1961).
In the 1950s, HEPA filters were commercialized, and over the next five decades, HEPA technology evolved as technological breakthroughs in industries where demand for high level of filtration and air cleanliness is critical.
1.3 Principles of gas filtration
1.3.1 Single fiber efficiency
During the last century, research on aerosol filtration has progressed in three directions: theoretical studies on air flow around fibers and mechanisms of particle collection, filter media testing and experimental validation of theory, and filter media development. Filtration processes in fibrous filters is very complicated and the filtration theories were developed by analyzing this process at its elementary level, the particle deposition on an individual fiber. Fibrous filters can be considered as loosely packed fibers with a preferred orientation across the direction of flow, and with spacing between fibers much larger than the size of particles being collected. Typical fibrous filter media are relatively sparsely packed, with packing density in the range of 0.01–0.1 (porosity 90%–99%) and fiber diameter 0.1–50 µm.
Due to complex structure of fibrous filters, simplified filter models were used to develop filtration theories. The methodology was to consider a single fiber, position perpendicularly to the air flow, and study the flow field around the fiber as well as mechanisms by which particles are collected on the fiber.
The classical theory of filtration is based on the flow field around an isolated fiber without consideration of the other fibers. In 1931, Albrecht calculated flow around an isolated fiber using the equations of potential flow, nonviscous, and applied these results to estimate filtration efficiency due to inertial mechanism. Potential fluid flow was also used by Kaufmann (1936) to calculate particle deposition for three mechanisms; inertial, diffusion and interception. The potential fluid flow is governed by the inertial of the fluid and flow around the fiber can be considered as potential at very high Reynolds numbers (Ref>1000). Kaufmann’s calculations have demonstrated clearly the presence of a maximum of particle deposition, and despite being incorrect due to assumption of a potential fluid flow; his work represented a significant conceptual progress.
The principles of the modern theory of filtration were formulated by Langmuir (1942). His equations for particle deposition due to interception and diffusion mechanisms were based on the viscous flow around an isolated fiber. Numerical solutions of these equations allowed for the calculation of filter efficiency for various particle sizes using different fiber diameters, packing densities, and filter thickness. Langmuir also proposed to take into account the effect of gas slip as well as the effect of neighboring fibers on the filtration efficiency.
The modern single fiber theory is based on similar approach as the classical theory, but it is based on the laminar flow around system of fibers and takes into account the effect of neighboring fibers. An array of parallel cylindrical fibers transverse to the flow was used as a model of real filters. The Navier–Stokes equations were solved, and the flow field was calculated for a set of parallel cylinders transverse to the flow at Reynolds number Ref<1 (Happel, 1959; Kuwabara, 1959). The concept of fluid cells was introduced for filters consisting of parallel fibers, spaced randomly transverse to the direction of the flow. It was assumed that every fiber with diameter Df was surrounded by a coaxial cylinder to form a cell with a radius determined from the ratio of the fluid to the fiber volume in the fibrous filter. The cell models attempt to take into account the interference effect of neighboring fibers. Several different hydrodynamic factors were proposed for different flow models; however based on experimental results it was confirmed that the best representation of flow conditions in fibrous filters is the Kuwabara solution with the hydrodynamic factor, Ku:
(1.1)
where β is the packing density and β=(fiber volume)/(total volume).
For the majority of fibrous filters, the packing density is in the range 0.01 < β < 0.1 and the corresponding hydrodynamic factor:
Based on studies on the potential flow around fibers, three distinct collection mechanisms can be identified:
• Interception
• Brownian diffusion
• Inertial impaction
Electrostatic attraction can be another extremely important collection mechanism when either particles or fibers, or both possess a static charge. This mechanism is frequently neglected unless fibers are deliberately charged during manufacturing process of fibers, or particles acquire charge during filtration process.
1.3.1.1 Interception
Collection by interception takes place when a particle follows the gas streamline of flow around a cylinder and the streamline is within a distance Df/2 of the cylinder. Under these conditions, the particle collides with the cylinder and is captured, as is shown in Fig. 1.1. It is assumed that particles follow the streamline, and they possess negligible inertia and Brownian motion.
Figure 1.1 Collection by interception.
The single fiber collection efficiency, ER, due to interception depends on the dimensionless interception parameter, NR and is given by:
(1.2)
(1.3)
where Dp and Df are the particle and fiber diameter.
For very small fibers the expression for Ku must include the effect of slip at the fiber surface. Interception is the only collection mechanism that does not depend on the air velocity. The ER increases with the increase of the interception parameter, NR; however, it cannot exceed the maximum theoretical value:
(1.4)
Examples of calculated values of ER are shown below:
1.3.1.2 Diffusional deposition
The diffusional deposition of inertia-less particles on a single fiber placed transverse to the flow is a relatively simple problem to solve. The Brownian motion of particles with diameter smaller than 0.5 µm greatly enhances the probability of their collision with fibers and contributes to deposition on filter fibers. The trajectory of particle is shown in Fig. 1.2. This contribution increases as the particle size decreases. The single fiber efficiency due to diffusion, ED, is a function of the dimensionless number called the Peclet number, Pe:
(1.5)
where V is the air velocity and D is the particle diffusion coefficient.
Figure 1.2 Collection by impaction.
The coefficient of diffusion, D, is based on the Einstein’s theory of Brownian motion and is function of particle diameter. For the cased when Pe > 1 and NR < 1 the particle diffusion to a single fiber was solved numerically and the following expressions for collision efficiency were obtained:
(1.6)
(1.7)
(1.8)
The last equation is an interaction term, EDR which takes into account the enhanced collection due to interception of particle diffusing to the fibers. The impact of this term on the fiber efficiency is relatively low. Single fiber efficiency due to interception and diffusion can be calculated using Eqs. (1.3), (1.6), (1.7), and (1.9).
Examples of calculated values of ED are shown below for β=0.05; Df=2 µm and V=0.1 m/s:
1.3.1.3 Inertial impaction
Inertial impaction of a particle, with sufficient inertia, on a fiber occurs when particle does not follow the rapidly changing streamline around the fiber and continue to move along a straighter path and collides with the fiber. Collision is caused by the particle’s momentum since particles possess mass, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
Figure 1.3 Collection by diffusion.
Single fiber efficiency due to interception is increased if the inertia of particles is considered. The dimensionless parameter which governs the inertial impaction mechanism is the Stokes number, Stk.
(1.9)
where ρp is particle density and Cu is the slip correction factor.
Single fiber efficiency for impaction, EI, is generally obtained from numerical calculations. Particle deposition due to inertia in a system of parallel cylindrical fibers was calculated for different flow models (Yeh and Liu, 1974; Kirsch and Stechkina, 1977; Stenhouse and Harrop, 1971). Single fiber efficiency for inertial impaction with superimposed interception mechanism for Kn≠0 can be calculated from the following expression (Yeh and Liu, 1974):
(1.10)
where
(1.11)
Impaction is the most important mechanism for large particles; however large particles usually have large efficiency due to interception.
Examples of calculated values of EIR are shown below for β=0.05; Df=2 µm; V=0.1 m/s and particle of unit density:
1.3.1.4 Electrostatic attraction
Collection of neutral particles in charged filters is a very important type of filtration due to popularity of electrostatically enhanced filters (charged) widely used in air filtration applications. This mechanism is based on the electrostatic interaction between particles and individual charged filter fibers. This interaction can be approximated by (Natanson, 1957):
(1.12)
where εp is the dielectric constant of particle and Q is the charge of fiber per unit length.
Deposition of neutral particles in charged filters is caused by the polarization forces between fiber charge and the induced dipole. Dimensionless parameter, NPQ, and the single fiber efficiency, EPQ, to polarization forces can be expressed as (Brown; Lathrache and Fissan, 1986; Pich, 1978):
(1.13)
(1.14)
1.3.1.5 Effect of slip factor
Stokes’s law is a solution to Navier–Stokes equations and has wide application to the study of aerosols, and it is based on the assumption that the relative velocity of the gas at the surface is zero. This assumption is not met for particles with diameter approaching the mean free path of the gas (for air at T=20°C and 1 atm pressure λ=0.066 µm). Particles with the diameter similar to the mean free path, settle faster than predicted by the Stoke’s law due to slip
at the surface of particles. To take into account this effect Cunningham (1910) derived a correction factor, which was later modified using experimental measurements. The modified equation is referred as the slip correction factor and expressed
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