Performance Exhaust Systems: How to Design, Fabricate, and Install: How to Design, Fabricate, and Install

INTRODUCTION

The exhaust system is a vital component of engine package, but all too often exhaust system design, components, and function are an afterthought. Owners arbitrarily bolt on a header, resonator, catalytic converter, and muffler combination that may or may not be suited to the chassis or properly tuned to deliver the best performance. When building a high-performance engine application, you need to consider the function and operation as an integrated system. In particular, the carb, intake, and cam directly dictate how much fuel is put into the engine. Moreover, the air/fuel mixture that is put into the engine must be evacuated from the engine. The engine needs to evacuate exhaust gas from the combustion chamber efficiently and quickly. However, it also effectively scavenges and returns unburned to the combustion chamber during the scavenging process. An exhaust system that’s ill suited to the engine degrades performance pure and simple.

The book is your hands-on guide to achieve the ultimate in exhaust performance. It’s not a guide that provides advanced physics and flow dynamics to explain theory and function of exhaust. Instead, it provides practical advice and easy-to-understand math so you gather all the right components for your engine. It allows you to understand your engine’s exhaust system and select exhaust system components, with regard to function and engine performance as well as appearance. The discussions include exhaust header design and sizing, exhaust pipe sizing, exhaust pipe crossovers, bending, flanges, clamping and hanging, muffler designs, catalytic converter design, troubleshooting and break-in, exhaust component materials and specialty coatings, exhaust system math, exhaust design and sizing for turbocharging and supercharging, cylinder head exhaust valves and port design, the intake system that affects exhaust output, camshaft design that affects the exhaust pulse, and more.

Complete engine-to-tip systems are available for most popular vehicle applications.

Choosing an aftermarket performance exhaust system, or individual system components, such as headers or mufflers, can be a daunting task because of the wide range of offerings. This book makes the process of selecting individual components or a complete system much easier. Whether you’re assembling an exhaust system using off the off-the-shelf components or designing an exhaust system for special applications, the goal of this book is to guide you from planning stage to final installation so you have a properly designed, well tuned, and safe exhaust system.

Specifically, this book delivers insight regarding how exhaust headers, pipes, and mufflers are designed and manufactured, how various engine components affect the exhaust stream, and tips on selecting system pieces as well as various installation tips. It provides a thorough explanation of engine design, function, airflow, and of course exhaust flow.

I delve into the principles of exhaust gas flow so you understand the function and purpose of each component and can apply them to your particular project. I also discuss each component in the exhaust system, its function, and how it relates to other components in the system. I show you down-to-earth math so you can determine the ideal exhaust system and components for your particular application. Keep in mind that all components are interrelated and to achieve max performance all the components need to be compatible and complementary.

I show you how to plan, fit, bend, and fabricate pipes to fit a particular engine and chassis combination. Exhaust gases are routed into the headers as they immediately leave the engine, and header design, tube length, and tube diameter have an immense impact on performance. Resonators, catalytic converters, and mufflers are all part of the high-performance exhaust equation, and I reveal each pertinent aspect of selecting the best exhaust components for your particular system.

Chapter 1 provides a comprehensive overview and explanation of engine components that are involved in intake and exhaust flow, including discussions of intake air, carburetors, EFI throttle bodies, mass airflow sensors, fuel injector sizing, cylinders head design and function, camshaft technology (including explanations of such areas as intake and exhaust valve lift, duration, lobe separation angle, centerline, cam timing), and an explanation of special-firing-order camshafts. Also included in this chapter are discussions of exhaust manifolds, an explanation of engine pumping losses, engine intake, exhaust, compression and power stroke events, and information regarding oxygen sensors.

Chapter 2 focuses on exhaust system components, including exhaust manifolds and tubular headers, exhaust pipe, mufflers, and catalytic converters.

Chapter 3 offers specific information about exhaust pipe sizing and bending, including an understanding of various bending methods such as crush bending, wrinkle bending, and mandrel bending, as well as various bending methods such as CNC and machine-assisted manual bending. This chapter also includes a discussion of dual-exhaust system crossovers, exhaust pipe support hangers, and pipe connections, as well as helpful information regarding conversions from a single- to a dual-exhaust system.

Chapter 4 contains detailed information that reveals the correct system and exhaust header type for your engine. This includes primary tube sizing and length, tubing materials and bending, port matching and exhaust header scavenging, the use and advantages of specialty exhaust header coatings, and more.

Chapter 5 delves into the muffler and catalytic converters that are suitable for particular systems and applications. In this chapter I examine specific technology, materials, and intended muffler and catalytic converter application.

Chapter 6 covers exhaust system design and applications specifically for forced-induction applications such as turbocharging and supercharging.

Chapter 7 offers a variety of relative mathematical formulas so you can determine the correct design, size, and components of your exhaust system.

At the end of the book, a Source Guide lists selected manufacturers of automotive performance exhaust systems and components.

CHAPTER 1

THEORY, DESIGN AND PRINCIPLES

The components involved in the engine’s air and fuel intake, combustion, and exhaust process are revealed in this chapter. In order to better understand the function of the exhaust system, it helps to first understand how the air and fuel charge enters the engine and how it is influenced by the chain of events that include intake air, carburetor or throttle body, intake manifold, fuel metering, cylinder heads, camshaft, exhaust manifold or tubular headers, and the engine’s intake, compression, power, and exhaust strokes.

A rule of thumb is to determine engine intake volume and then approximately match this volume for the exhaust. This begins by selecting the appropriate intake manifold and carburetor size, as well as other variables such as cylinder head intake port volume, camshaft profile, and compression ratio. Factors such as these can affect your choice of header primary tube diameter and exhaust pipe diameter. In simple terms, as you generate more cylinder pressure and horsepower, additional exhaust volume likely needs to increase in order to accommodate the engine’s capability to breathe.

Intake Air

Cool intake air is denser than warm air. Higher air density means more oxygen molecules, which provides more intake air charge and more power. Obviously, the more air you can draw into an engine the more horsepower it generates. A cold-air intake refers to an air inlet system that feeds from air that is cooler than the air inside the engine compartment. The farther away from the engine’s heat, or the more isolated the air is from engine heat, the cooler the air that’s available to feed the engine.

A cold-air filter connects to the engine intake with ducting, relocating the filter element farther away from the engine heat source, placing the filter close to a colder fresh-air source. Cold-air systems are offered for specific vehicle applications, with a cold-air shroud that helps to capture more air directly to the filter. (Photo Courtesy K&N Engineering)

One often-ignored aspect is using a cold-air intake. It is an open-element air filter that’s located close to the ground, but it runs the risk of creating a hydrolock in the engine. This can occur if the air filter is exposed to excessive water (for instance, when driving though high-standing water where water may be drawn directly into the intake system). If water enters the engine and makes its way to the combustion chambers, it is possible for the water to build to the point where it prevents the pistons from reaching top dead center (TDC), creating a hydraulic lock. Remember that while you can compress air, you can’t compress a liquid. If hydro-lock occurs, it can take the engine out in a big way, including bent connecting rods, destroyed rod bearings, busted pistons, and more. Unless the vehicle is to be street driven only in dry weather, or used only on a drag strip, locating the air filter(s) low and close to the ground isn’t an issue. If you plan to operate in wet conditions, be aware of this.

The air intake system on this drag-race car’s LS7 engine, built by Hutter Engineering in Chardon, Ohio, is both efficient and gorgeous. The ducting that feeds air to the throttle bodies is fabricated using carbon-fiber tubing. Cold air is routed from the nose of the car directly to the engine, with no engine-bay hot air entering the intake airstream.

A cone- or barrel-style air filter may also allow establishing a cold-air intake for universal applications, such as in race car engine bays. While still within the confines of the engine bay, this filter has been located farther away from the engine.

Air filter elements ideally should be as large (in terms of surface area) as possible, limited primarily by the confines of the engine bay. Inexpensive air filters sometimes provide excessive restriction. Even if they offer acceptable flow, cheap paper elements may not provide much in the way of usable life. It’s best to buy superior filters when the budget allows. Some filters are designed to be reusable; they require washing and drying before placing them back into service. (Photo Courtesy K&N Engineering)

The intake system, including air intake and carburetor (or fuel injection system), has a direct impact on airflow through the engine and subsequently the flow capabilities of the exhaust system. Always keep in mind that what enters the engine also needs to leave the engine. Engine analysis software tools, such as Ricardo and others, provide assistance in developing a system to determine cross sections and volumes from the air filter inlet to the exhaust collector outlet.

Carburetors

A carburetor’s job is to deliver the air/fuel mixture that the engine requires for any given state of engine operation. The carburetor mixes fuel and air in the correct ratio, or proportion. In order to create combustion, the fuel charge needs to be mixed with air to atomize the mixture.

A carburetor’s inlet system features a fuel bowl, where a specific amount of liquid fuel is stored. A float inside the bowl features a tapered needle that engages into a seat orifice. The adjustment level of the float, along with fuel pressure, maintains the correct fuel level in the bowl. As the fuel level drops, the float drops; this moves the needle away from its seat, allowing fuel to enter the bowl. When the fuel level rises to its adjusted setting, the float rises, moving the needle toward its seat. This simple float-activated needle and seat system maintains the required level of fuel within the bowl, providing the adequate amount of fuel to be delivered to the carburetor’s metering system.

Fuel inlet pressure, the pressure created by the fuel pump, directly affects float level. If too much fuel pressure is present, the float rises, causing the engine to run too rich, with excess fuel spilling/venting into the carburetor’s air inlet. If fuel pressure is too low, the float drops and lowers the bowl fuel level, resulting in decreased fuel delivery to the main jets, promoting a lean condition.

A fuel-injected system requires a high fuel pressure, often in the 30- to 40-psi range, in order to provide instant fuel delivery when the injectors open. On the other hand, a carbureted fuel system requires a relatively low fuel pressure, commonly in the 4- to 6-psi range. In a carbureted system, too-high fuel pressure overwhelms the float, causing the float to rise too far. Whenever an electric fuel pump is used, you need to pay attention to its rated pressure output. If the pump is rated to produce in excess of about 6 psi, a fuel pressure regulator must be installed in the fuel line. The best setup is to use an adjustable pressure regulator along with a pressure gauge, to allow you to adjust and verify fuel pressure.

A 4-barrel, or secondary-type, carburetor offers more fuel than a 2-barrel when the secondaries are opened. The primary side is used for light throttle demands and the secondaries deliver maximum air/fuel delivery for heavy acceleration.

From the bowl area, fuel flows through main jets, which control the flow of fuel into the carburetor’s metering system. Main jet sizes are based on venturi size, atmospheric pressures, and ambient operating temperatures. The venturi provides a point of constriction for incoming air, acted upon as the down-stroke of the pistons creates a vacuum signal. As air runs through the venturi, it increases speed and then creates a pressure drop as it exits the venturi. This pressure drop promotes fuel from the bowl into this vacuum pull, pulling fuel through the discharge nozzle in the boost venturi. The mixture of fuel with air atomizes the fuel.

A passage in the carburetor applies vacuum to a power valve located between the bowl and metering system. At engine idle speed, vacuum is highest. At idle, high vacuum keeps the diaphragm in the power valve closed. As the throttle opens during increased demand, vacuum drops, which allows the spring inside the power valve to overcome vacuum and opens the diaphragm. This allows added fuel to flow through the valve, richening the fuel mixture to accommodate the increase in throttle-opening air demand. In other words, when you open the throttle, the power valve provides added fuel.

An accelerator pump, located at the bottom of the bowl, serves as a mechanically operated fuel injector that supplies an extra shot of fuel when the throttle is opened suddenly/quickly. This added shot of fuel reduces or eliminates the chance of a stumble or lag upon sudden throttle opening. The accelerator pump features a lever that is actuated by the throttle linkage.

A 4-barrel, or secondary-type, carburetor broadens the power output potential by adding more air and fuel delivery when engine demands require more delivery. A secondary-type carburetor is essentially two carburetors in a single package. Both the primary and secondary sides feature their own metering systems. The primary side is used for light throttle demands; the secondary side is designed to operate when additional or maximum air/fuel delivery is required. The secondary side activates either mechanically, via the carburetor throttle linkage, or by vacuum, utilizing a diaphragm that opens the metering circuit based on engine vacuum. A vacuum-operated secondary-type carburetor is more forgiving because the secondaries open only as required according to the engine’s vacuum signal. Therefore, this type of carburetor offers more latitude, allowing the use of a slightly larger CFM rating in contrast to a mechanically operated secondary that is controlled by the driver’s throttle control.

Choosing Carburetor Size

Many are tempted to run a bigger carburetor, in terms of CFM rating, assuming that this automatically results in added power. Some even choose a larger carburetor simply for bragging rights. Like so many other engine components, bigger isn’t necessarily better. The volume of the carburetor must be matched to the engine’s needs. You need to match the carburetor according to the engine’s volumetric requirements.

Volumetric efficiency (VE) refers to the engine’s ability to breathe. VE represents a ratio of the weight of the incoming ambient air to the theoretical volume of air that the engine can consume at the anticipated engine RPM at which it makes maximum torque. VE is expressed as a ratio of these two factors. A stock, low-performance engine likely features about 80-percent VE at its maximum torque range, while a modified, better breathing performance engine may feature a VE in the 85- to 90-percent range. If you refer to carburetor CFM size for a given engine displacement and peak-torque RPM, you can determine what size carburetor is appropriate, based on a theoretical 100-percent VE. You then multiply peak RPM by the engine’s VE in order to determine what the actual carburetor size should be.

This chart aids in selecting a carburetor size for anticipated wide-open throttle (WOT) at the engine’s lowest RPM. (Photo Courtesy Holley Performance Products)

This chart aids in carburetor selection based on engine-operating RPM. For example, a 400-ci engine theoretically requires about 800 cfm when operating at about 6,800 rpm. Factors such as cylinder head, intake manifold, and cam specifications are variables that come into play. The chart provides a good starting point for carburetor selection. (Photo Courtesy Holley Performance Products)

The higher the engine’s VE, the bigger the carburetor it can utilize. VE can be increased by increasing the engine’s breathing, which can entail using a camshaft with more duration, choosing a more efficient and freer-flowing intake manifold, improving the exhaust system flow, cylinder head porting, and reducing the engine’s parasitic losses by accurizing all clearances, achieving proper cylinder bore surfaces finish, enhanced rotating assembly balancing, and taking advantage of specialized anti-friction and oil drain-back coatings, etc.

In the most basic terms, the larger the engine displacement and the higher the engine speed, the more air it can consume; therefore, the larger the carb can be.

Simple Carb Formula

The following formula may be used to roughly determine carburetor size based on engine displacement and maximum engine speed:

Maximum Carb CFM = (CI ÷ 2) × (maximum RPM ÷ 1,728)

Where:

CFM = cubic feet per minute

CI = cubic inches of displacement

RPM = revolutions per minute (engine speed)

1,728 = math constant

As an example, a 403-ci engine produces peak power at a maximum of 6,500 rpm. Using the formula:

[(403 ÷ 2) × (6,500 ÷ 1,728)] 201.5 × 3.76 = 757.64

Here, a carburetor size of 700 to 750 cfm is appropriate.

A vacuum-secondary carburetor is somewhat forgiving, allowing you to use a slightly larger carburetor. A carburetor with mechanical secondaries is not so forgiving. If in doubt when deciding between two sizes in the required range, it’s often better to choose the smaller carburetor. Selecting a mechanical secondary carburetor that features a double-pumper design that is too large for the application can result in sags or bogs upon acceleration if the engine uses up the pump shot before the main fuel shot is delivered.

Forced-induction engines utilizing either supercharging or turbocharging can take advantage of larger carburetors, since forced-induction can typically increase VE to a point well over 100 percent.

EFI Throttle Bodies

EFI is an active system that adjusts fuel delivery according to the operating conditions of the engine while a carburetor is a passive system that controls both air and fuel intake. The engine