A Manual of Water Plants
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About this ebook
W. Vivian De Thabrew
Born in Balapitiya, Sri Lanka, Vivian De Thabrew received his formal education at Royal College, Colombo, Sri Lanka, and obtained his first and postgraduate degrees in the UK. He has travelled in many Southeast Asian countries, such as Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam, and has made a special study of Buddhist history, architecture, and the iconography of Buddhism. This interest and his knowledge of Pali and Sanskrit have also led him to produce an abridged translation and adaptation of stories from the “Dhammapada.”
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A Manual of Water Plants - W. Vivian De Thabrew
AuthorHouse™ UK Ltd.
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Bloomington, IN 47403 USA
www.authorhouse.co.uk
Phone: 0800.197.4150
© 2014 W. Vivian De Thabrew. All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means without the written permission of the author.
Published by AuthorHouse 01/06/2014
ISBN: 978-1-4918-8927-5 (sc)
ISBN: 978-1-4918-8926-8 (hc)
ISBN: 978-1-4918-8928-2 (e)
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Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Classification of Aquatic Plants
Aquatic Plants
Glossary
Bibliography
Dedication
To my parents
Preface
The subject of aquatic plants is interesting in many respects. As opposed to terrestrial plants, aquatic plants normally begin their life in water and grow completely emersed or submersed. This is governed by the environmental conditions which they encounter. There are some species which adapt themselves to bog or marsh conditions. Species of both types are dealt with in this book. There are probably more than a million species of true and marginal aquatics in the plant world. Therefore it is impossible to cover even a fraction of these species in one single or even a series of treatises. However, we can get a glimpse of some of the better known species we encounter in our surroundings.
This book is only an attempt to give those interested in aquatic flora some basic understanding of the subject, and I have attempted to include selected species from many regions. I have been fortunate enough to be able to observe some species in their natural habitats and also to receive live specimens from very knowledgeable plant collectors. These I have examined and studied, and recorded the information gleaned from them in my books on this subject. I have also noted and gratefully collected some information from authorities who have spent their working lives collecting material, carrying out field studies and disseminating their valuable knowledge.
The names of plants follow the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. The plants are categorised under five names these are: Family, Genus, Species, Variety and Form. Due to ongoing research, occasionally some genera are moved from their original family to another. Therefore it is necessary to be vigilant about the changing nature of the nomenclature. Common names vary from region to region.
In this manual I have included the species which are found in my previous three books, with certain modifications. In no way do I claim this to be a definitive work on the subject. However, I hope that the reader will find this a useful manual with which to embark on an enjoyable and serious study of the subject.
Acknowledgements
My grateful thanks are due to Coral De Thabrew for editing my manuscript and processing all the material physically and electronically, without whose efforts this book would not have been possible.
A special thanks to my publishing consultant Eugene Libres of Author House Publishers for giving his advice and full assistance in the process of the preparation of this book.
My appreciative thanks are also due to the staff of Author House, Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.A., for all their guidance and work involved in producing this volume.
Introduction
Aquatic plants grow under varying conditions throughout the world. Most of them grow completely submerged and flower under water. Some root at the bottom and produce aerial leaves which float on the surface and flower above the surface. Some aquatic plants float on the surface forming thick blankets or colonies. These reproduce by means of spores which become plantlets attached to each other and multiply. These plants develop and spread so quickly that they block waterways and completely cover the surface areas of still waters, and hence fall into the category of troublesome pest weeds.
Others grow in semi-aquatic conditions on bog-land or marshes. These are the marsh plants, which are capable of surviving underwater for short periods of time when their habitat is flooded due to heavy rains. As the water subsides, the emerse plants adapt themselves to terrestrial conditions for survival. The leaves become tough and often leathery and the stems robust and sturdy, capable of withstanding even conditions of drought.
Like terrestrial plants, aquatic plants require the right ecological and environmental conditions for survival and regeneration. Climatic conditions, such as having sunlight and shade, temperature, rainfall and all other factors are of prime importance. The correct environmental combination of these has resulted in the establishment of regional zones of habitation. These regional zones can be clearly defined as Tropical, Sub-tropical and Temperate. Plants growing in one particular regional zone can, through seed, spore or vegetative dispersal spread to other zones; for example, the Echinodorus species endemic to South America, especially the Amazon region, has spread to the temperate regions of North America. However, there are some species which are strictly confined to their zones of origin, such as the Aponogeton and Cryptocoryne species, which are confined to Tropical Asia and Africa.
Many species of aquatic plants have been introduced by man from their natural zones to alien ones, especially for the purpose of utilising them in ponds or aquaria. Some of these have therefore over the years established themselves or become naturalised and have even given rise to new strains with modified physiological characteristics, especially regarding reproductive behaviour.
Aquatic habitats include ponds, lakes, rivers, water-courses, ditches and stagnant water areas. These can be natural or man-made. Within these habitats the water-level and the nutrient content found at the bottom determine the favourable conditions suitable for the varying species.
Most plants grow on the muddy bottom and develop dense rosettes and multiply by means of underground stolons, thus colonising vast areas. Flowering also occurs submerged. Others grow at the bottom pushing forth aerial leaves which float on the surface, producing flowers above the water.
Another group of plants roots at the bottom but develops all the leaves on the water-surface. These multiply very rapidly and cover vast areas of the habitat. Plants belonging to the next group simply float freely on the surface. Species like Azolla, Lemna, Eichornia and Salvinia spread so rapidly that they completely block water-courses, rivers, ponds and lakes. For this very reason they are considered as pest weeds, and their control is constantly being carried out by the affected countries.
All these aquatic plants require various nutritional levels and conditions which are prevalent in their habitats. It should be noted that a considerable number of plant species are used for aquaria, ponds and ornamental features throughout the world.
Classification of Aquatic Plants
Acanthaceae
Dianthera americana
Hygrophila angustifolia
Hygrophila difformis
Hygrophila polysperma
Hygrophila salicifolia
Nomaphila stricta
Synnema triflorum
Acoraceae (Araceae)
Acorus calamus var. angustifolius
Acorus calamus var. foliis variegatis
Acorus calamus var. pusillus
Acorus gramineus var. foliis variegatis
Alismataceae
Alisma gramineum
Alisma gramineum var. submersum
Alisma natans
Alisma plantago aquatica
Alisma ranunculoides var. repens
Caldesia oligococea
Caldesia parnassifolia
Echinodorus amazonicus
Echinodorus amphibius
Echinodorus andrieuxii
Echinodorus angustifolius
Echinodorus austroamericanus
Echinodorus berteroi
Echinodorus bleherii
Echinodorus bracteatus
Echinodorus brevipedicellatus
Echinodorus cordifolius
Echinodorus fluitans
Echinodorus grisebachii
Echinodorus horemanii
Echinodorus intermedius
Echinodorus isthmicus
Echinodorus latifolius
Echinodorus longistylis
Echinodorus magdalensis
Echinodorus major
Echinodorus martii
Echinodorus muricatus
Echinodorus nymphaefolius
Echinodorus opacus
Echinodorus paniculatus
Echinodorus parvifolius
Echinodorus portoalegrensis
Echinodorus quadricostatus
Echinodorus radicans
Echinodorus ranunculoides
Echinodorus ridleyi
Echinodorus tenellus
Echinodorus trialatus
Echinodorus tunicatus
Echinodorus uruguayensis
Hydrocleis nymphoides
Limnocharis flava
Limnophyton obtusifolium
Sagittaria eatonii
Sagittaria engelmanniana
Sagittaria filiformis
Sagittaria graminea
Sagittaria guayanensis
Sagittaria isoetiformis
Sagittaria lancifolia
Sagittaria latifolia
Sagittaria longiloba
Sagittaria macrophylla
Sagittaria montevidensis
Sagittaria natans
Sagittaria papillosa
Sagittaria platyphylla
Sagittaria sagittifolia
Sagittaria subulata
Sagittaria teres
Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera philoxeroides
Alternanthera rubra
Alternanthera sessilis
Amaryllidaceae
Crinum natans
Crinum purpurescens
Aponogetonaceae
Aponogeton bernieranus
Aponogeton crispus
Aponogeton distachyus
Aponogeton echinatus
Aponogeton elongatus
Aponogeton fenestralis
Aponogeton henkelianus
Aponogeton leptostachyus
Aponogeton loriae
Aponogeton natans
Aponogeton rigidifolius
Aponogeton ulvaceus
Aponogeton undulatus
Araceae
Anubias congensis
Anubias lanceolata
Anubias nana
Calla palustris
Cryptocoryne affinis
Cryptocoryne balansae
Cryptocoryne beckettii
Cryptocoryne blassii
Cryptocoryne ciliata
Cryptocoryne cordata
Cryptocoryne costata
Cryptocoryne griffithii
Cryptocoryne johorensis
Cryptocoryne legroi
Cryptocoryne longicauda
Cryptocoryne lucens
Cryptocoryne lutea
Cryptocoryne nevillii
Cryptocoryne parva
Cryptocoryne petchii
Cryptocoryne purpurea
Cryptocoryne retrospiralis
Cryptocoryne spiralis
Cryptocoryne thwaitesii
Cryptocoryne undulata
Cryptocoryne versteegii
Cryptocoryne walkerii
Cryptocoryne wendtii
Cryptocoryne willisii
Lagenandra lancifolia
Lagenandra ovata
Lagenandra thwaitesii
Lemna gibba
Lemna minor
Lemna paucicostata
Lemna trisulca
Orontium aquaticum
Pistia stratiotes
Wolffia arrhiza
Wolffiella floridana
Wolffia microscopica
Araliaceae (Umbelliferae)
Hydrocotyle leucocephalis
Hydrocotyle sibthorpiodes
Hydrocotyle verticillata
Hydrocotyle vulgaris
Boraginaceae
Myosotis palustris
Myosotis scorpiodes
Cabombaceae
Brasenia schreberi
Cabomba aquatica
Cabomba australis
Cabomba caroliniana
Cabomba caroliniana var. paucipartita
Cabomba caroliniana var. pulcherrima
Ceratophyllaceae
Ceratophyllum demersum
Ceratophyllum echinatum
Ceratophyllum submersum
Characeae
Nitella capillaris
Nitella flexilis
Nitella gracilis
Nitella opaca
Crassulaceae
Crassula aquatica
Crassula recurva
Cruciferaceae
Cardamine hirsuta
Cardamine lyrata
Rorippa amphibia
Rorippa aquatica
Subularia aquatica
Cyperaceae
Eleogiton fluitans
Eleocharis acicularis
Eleocharis dulcis
Eleocharis parvula
Eleocharis vivipara
Droseraceae
Aldrovanda vesiculosa
Elatinaceae
Elatine alsinastrum
Elatine hydropiper
Elatine macrocarpa
Elatine triandra
Fontinalaceae
Fontinalis antipyretica
Gentianaceae See Menyanthaceae
Haloragaceae
Laurembergia coccinea
Myriophyllum alternifolium
Myriophyllum brasiliense
Myriophyllum elationoides
Myriophyllum heterophyllum
Myriophyllum hippuroides
Myriophyllum indicum
Myriophyllum oguraeme
Myriophyllum scabratum
Myriophyllum spicatum
Myriophyllum ussuriense
Myriophyllum verticillatum
Proserpinaca palustris
Hydrocharitaceae
Blyxa echinosperma
Blyxa octandra
Blyxa oryzetorum
Blyxa radicans
Elodea callitrichoides
Elodea canadensis
Elodea densa
Elodea nuttallii
Elodea occidentalis
Hydrocharis morsus-ranae
Hydrilla verticillata
Lagarasiphon madagascariensis
Lagarasiphon major
Lagarasiphon muscoides
Limnobium laevigatum
Limnobium spongia
Limnobium stoloniferum
Najas baldwinii
Najas falciculata
Najas flexilis
Najas graminea
Najas kingii
Najas liberiense
Najas marina
Najas microdon
Najas minor
Nechamandra alternifolia
Ottelia alismoides
Ottelia ulvaefolia
Stratiotes aloides
Vallisneria americana
Vallisneria asiatica
Vallisneria gigantea
Vallisneria neotropicalis
Vallisneria spiralis
Hydroleaceae (Hydrophyllaceae)
Hydrocera triflora
Hydrolea zeylanica
Hypnaceae
Vesicularia dubyana
Isoetaceae
Isoetes echinosperma
Isoetes lacustris
Isoetes malinverniana
Isoetes setacea
Isoetes velata
Labiatae
Mentha aquatica
Leguminosae
Neptunia oleracea
Lentibulariaceae
Utricularia exoleta
Utricularia intermedia
Utricularia minor
Utricularia vulgaris
Leptodictyaceae
Leptodictyum riparium
Lobeliaceae
Lobelia cardinalis
Lobelia dortmanna
Lobelia zeylanica
Lycopodiaceae
Lycopodium inundatum
Lythraceae
Lythrum salicaria
Peplis diandra
Rotala indica
Rotala wallichii
Trapa bicornis
Trapa bispinosa
Trapa natans
Marsileaceae
Marsilea crenata
Marsilea drummondii
Marsilea hirsuta
Marsilea pubescens
Marsilea quadrifolia
Pilularia globulifera
Pilularia minuta
Mayaceae
Mayaca fluviatilis
Mayaca vandellii
Menyanthaceae (Gentianaceae)
Nymphoides aquatica
Nymphoides aurantiacum
Nymphoides cordatum
Nymphoides humboldtiana
Nymphoides indicum
Nymphoides parvifolium
Nymphoides peltata
Nelumbonaceae
Nelumbium nucifera
Nymphaeaceae