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Douglas D-558: D-558-1 Skystreak and D-558-2 Skyrocket
Oleh Peter E. Davies dan Adam Tooby
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Mulai Membaca- Penerbit:
- Bloomsbury Publishing
- Dirilis:
- Oct 31, 2019
- ISBN:
- 9781472836229
- Format:
- Buku
Deskripsi
Both series of D-558 were well-designed, strong and efficient aircraft which enabled test pilots to tackle the unknown in comparative safety. Though delayed by their innovative but troublesome power-plants, and limited by the cost of their air-launched sorties, they went well beyond their original Mach 1 speed objective and continued to generate information that provided design solutions for a whole generation of supersonic combat aircraft. Although the final stage of the D-55 programme, the USN's 'militarized' D-558-3, never happened, the Navy was able to apply the lessons of the programme to its much more practical combat types such as the F8U Crusader and F3H Demon.
Supported by full-colour artwork including three-view plates of the two D-558 models and a technical view of the D-2 cockpit, this authoritative text offers a comprehensive guide to the record-breaking Navy research craft.
Tindakan Buku
Mulai MembacaInformasi Buku
Douglas D-558: D-558-1 Skystreak and D-558-2 Skyrocket
Oleh Peter E. Davies dan Adam Tooby
Deskripsi
Both series of D-558 were well-designed, strong and efficient aircraft which enabled test pilots to tackle the unknown in comparative safety. Though delayed by their innovative but troublesome power-plants, and limited by the cost of their air-launched sorties, they went well beyond their original Mach 1 speed objective and continued to generate information that provided design solutions for a whole generation of supersonic combat aircraft. Although the final stage of the D-55 programme, the USN's 'militarized' D-558-3, never happened, the Navy was able to apply the lessons of the programme to its much more practical combat types such as the F8U Crusader and F3H Demon.
Supported by full-colour artwork including three-view plates of the two D-558 models and a technical view of the D-2 cockpit, this authoritative text offers a comprehensive guide to the record-breaking Navy research craft.
- Penerbit:
- Bloomsbury Publishing
- Dirilis:
- Oct 31, 2019
- ISBN:
- 9781472836229
- Format:
- Buku
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Douglas D-558 - Peter E. Davies
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
As the performance of fighter aircraft steadily advanced during World War II, pilots began to face increasing difficulty in controlling them at high speeds. A diving chase after an enemy machine by a pilot flying a fighter such as a P-38, P-51, or late-series Spitfire could often develop into a terrifying situation where the flying controls would not work, the aircraft began to vibrate severely, and (with luck) it might finally pull out of the dive, but at a dangerously low altitude. It was an experience that NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) test pilot John Griffith described as trying to operate a control column that felt like it was cast in about two feet of concrete.
Pilots Lt Col Marion Carl and Cdr Turner Caldwell with the Crimson Test Tube,
the record-breaking Skystreak. The D-558-1’s fuselage surface was made as smooth as possible by using heavy magnesium skin of 0.1in. thickness and countersunk rivets. The crimson paint was then lacquered and polished to showroom
condition. (US Navy via Terry Panopalis)
Pilots were encountering the phenomenon known as compressibility, which had been studied theoretically for many years following wind tunnel work on propeller airfoils by Frank Caldwell and Elisha Fales at the Army Air Service Engineering Division in 1918. Their findings were confirmed by Dr Lyman Briggs and Dr Hugh Dryden in 1926, but only experienced in flight when aircraft began to exceed 400mph. The problem had been taken as evidence of the impossibility of traveling faster than the speed of sound because the symptoms of compressibility and loss of control began to appear when the airflow, passing over wings at air speeds exceeding 450mph, actually reached supersonic speed locally over some areas of the wings.
When it became clear in 1942 that Germany was developing high-speed jet aircraft, Gen Henry H. Hap
Arnold, chief of the USAAF (United States Army Air Force), engaged a Scientific Advisory Board led by the respected and persuasive Hungarian high-speed aerodynamics expert Dr Theodore von Kármán of the California Institute of Technology to explore the possibility of building a military aircraft that could achieve supersonic flight and beat the compressibility hazard.
At NACA’s Langley Laboratory, its Director of Aeronautical Research, Dr George Lewis, noted that the British S.6B seaplane had exceeded 400mph in level flight for the first time in 1931, but he believed that aircraft using contemporary design concepts could never exceed 500mph. At that time British scientist W. F. Hilton asserted that a supersonic aircraft would require an engine of 30,000hp and he described the speed of sound as a barrier against future progress.
Undaunted, John Stack, aerodynamicist at NACA’s Langley laboratory, proposed a very small aircraft with a 2,300hp Rolls-Royce piston engine and a very slender, fully streamlined fuselage, confident that it could attain 566mph.
Progress was certainly made in October 1935 at the Volta Congress on High Speeds in Aviation in Italy, which focused on supersonic flight. Delegates were shown the new Guidonia Laboratory wind tunnel, which was intended to allow testing at speeds up to Mach 2.7. Von Kármán, inspired by the presentations, asked unsuccessfully for a similar wind tunnel to be built in the USA. America thereby fell behind Germany, which constructed a Mach 4.4 tunnel at its Peenemünde research facility in 1941.
Also at the Volta Congress was German scientist Adolph Busemann, an energetic proponent of wing sweep-back, or arrow wings.
Although the concept had been employed since 1911, when John Dunne built swept-wing, tailless biplanes to improve stability, Busemann realized that wing sweep would delay the rise in drag that occurred at transonic speeds – the velocity range that extended from Mach 0.75 to Mach 1.2 – thereby increasing the speed margin at which vibration and buffeting would occur. His research paper was of great use to wartime German designers but generally ignored elsewhere. Fortunately, aerodynamicist Robert T. Jones at NACA had come to similar conclusions on wing sweep independently before 1945 while working on early unmanned, jet-powered bombs. He also favored very slender wing sections for high-speed flight.
NACA’s pragmatic visionary, John Stack. A proponent of high-speed research aircraft since 1933, he became a key figure in the development of the D-558 and XS-1. A D-558-1 model is posed to his left, but he is contemplating a Skyrocket-like swept-wing version that was wind-tunnel tested in December 1945. NACA recommended a straight wing for the first three D-558s, as the available power from a turbojet was insufficient to test a swept wing usefully at high transonic speeds. (NASA)
In the absence of substantial data on supersonic flight aircraft, designers turned to the Army Ballistics Research Laboratory, where Lt Col H. Zornig had explored various shapes for bullets and projectiles and studied their drag coefficients at high Mach numbers. Ezra Kotcher of the Army Air Corps Engineering School related these findings to various aircraft profiles and was convinced that a suitably shaped aircraft could pass through the sound barrier,
since the rise in drag at transonic speed appeared to be limited to two or three times the subsonic drag value. Reporting to Gen Arnold in 1939, he advocated jet or rocket propulsion and the use of a flight research program combined with extensive full-scale wind tunnel testing. The Heinkel He 178 made the first turbojet-powered flight at that time, but it was another two years before jet propulsion was taken seriously in the USA.
Theodore von Kármán was a powerful influence on America’s progress towards supersonic flight. He advocated high-speed wind tunnels in 1935 and promoted the idea of pure research aircraft. He was also involved in the development of jet-assisted take-off (JATO) for early, low-powered jet aircraft. It became vital for the first D-558-2 Skyrocket’s take-offs. He is seen here (center) explaining JATO to Dr Clark Millikan, Dr Martin Summerfield (left), and Dr Frank Malina and Capt Homer Boushey (right). Boushey was the first US pilot to make a JATO take-off. (NASA)
America’s first jet fighter, the Bell XP-59A Airacomet, used two British Power Jet W.1 engines (modified by General Electric) that Gen Arnold had requested in 1941. The fighter achieved limited production of 50 examples for service use. Its 4,000lb total thrust gave it a top speed of only 413mph and its large, straight wing and conventional structure meant that its performance offered no significant improvement on existing piston-engine types and was inferior to many. The US Navy quickly rejected it for use on aircraft carriers. It was clear that far more research was needed before a military aircraft could be developed to provide better performance. Wind tunnels capable of simulating transonic conditions were still not available in the USA and several test pilots in Britain and the USA had lost their lives trying to dive their military aircraft through violent compressibility.
In 1941 Lewis and Stack pressed for a full-scale research aircraft in the absence of suitable wind tunnel facilities. Building such types that were not prototypes of production combat aircraft was not the usual practice in the USA, but Gen Arnold supported the idea. Stack had already constructed a 500mph tunnel at Langley for propeller research, and wind-tunnel research at the laboratory had enabled the P-38 Lightning to survive near-supersonic dives by using a dive flap. From mid-1942 onwards Stack’s team explored various possible configurations, including jet- or rocket-powered types. Some had swept wings and landing skids and one short-lived experiment used a Campini engine, in which a piston engine drove a compressor with a crude afterburner system.
In December 1943 the argument for turbojet propulsion in a transonic aircraft was given new impetus by Robert A. Wolf of Bell Aircraft Corporation, one of the designers of the XP-59A and a powerful advocate of the British advances in jet propulsion, which he had studied first-hand. The British had sanctioned the manufacture of a supersonic research aircraft in the form of the Miles M-52 (canceled in 1946), and it seemed appropriate for the USA also to take up that challenge. He suggested that the USAAF, USN (United States Navy) and NACA should define a suitable design, which would then be tested by NACA. Lewis felt that the aircraft should be turbojet-powered, although by January 1944, when the USAAF approved the development of a craft to investigate aerodynamic phenomena in the range 600–650mph,
it was known that Germany was well ahead in using rocket and jet power
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