Scramjets: Fuel Mixing and Injection Systems

Scramjets

Fuel Mixing and Injection Systems

Mostafa Barzegar Gerdroodbary

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol, Iran

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1. Main structure of scramjets (Ramjet to supersonic combustion ramjet)

1.2. History of Scramjet

1.3. Compressible flow

Chapter 2. Basic principle of supersonic combustion chamber

2.1. Governing equation

2.2. The shape of the combustion chamber

2.3. Main flow feature of combustion chamber

2.4. Fuel types

2.5. Significant parameters and nondimensional numbers

Chapter 3. Injection and mixing of single fuel jet in SCRAMJET engine

3.1. Transverse sonic porthole injection

3.2. Cavity-based flameholding for chemically reacting supersonic flows

3.3. Strut-equipped supersonic combustors

Chapter 4. Multi techniques for fuel injections

4.1. Transverse multi fuel-jets

4.2. Transverse air and fuel jet

4.3. Shock generator on the multimicrojets

4.4. Multimicrojets in cavity flameholder

4.5. Strut in the cavity flameholder

Chapter 5. Numerical procedures and simulation

5.1. Transverse jet

5.2. Cavity flameholder

5.3. Strut injection

Chapter 6. Modern techniques for fuel injections

6.1. Transverse multijets

6.2. Cavity flamholder

6.3. Strut flameholder

Index

Copyright

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Abstract

In this chapter, the main challenges for the invention of the scramjet engine is fully presented. The primary configurations for achieving the recent scramjet engine are also reviewed. The non-dimensional parameters are presented and the main advance centers for the development of the scramjet engine are introduced. Besides, the main parts of the scramjet engine is introduced and their roles on the scramjet engine is determined. In addition, required fuel types for different flight ranges are described.

Keywords

Fuel type; History of scramjet; Ramjet; Shock interaction; Supersonic jet

1.1. Main structure of scramjets (Ramjet to supersonic combustion ramjet)

In 1913, Ren'e Lorin introduced the concept of ramjet as the first efficient air-breathing system with a simple operating mechanism [1]. To develop the gas turbine engine for the high-speed range, the internal geometry and design of this engine are developed to obtain high air compression, which enables the engine to operate in high Mach number. Since the performance of the ramjet is not good enough for subsonic flight due to low dynamic pressure, it is not a reliable engine for takeoff conditions.

Prior to the focus on details of combustion systems, however, the types of specific engines, along with their limits, should be initially introduced. Fig. 1.1 illustrates the schematic of four different types of ramjet. The subsonic combustion ramjet works can operate at a subsonic speed as well as supersonic speed within Mach 2–4.5. However, the supersonic combustion ramjet mainly works at a velocity more than Mach 4, and it cannot operate at subsonic speeds.

A conventional can type of liquid-fueled ramjet (LFRJ) or gaseous-fueled ramjet (GFRJ) is illustrated in Fig. 1.1A with a tandem booster. To produce static and low speed thrust, a tandem booster is obligatory. In this model, M0   >   M1   >   1, and a normal shock system before reaching station 4 allows the air to reach a subsonic speed. Prior to reaccelerate through a geometric throat (M5   =   1) and exit nozzle (M6 >1), fuel is released and burned with the air at low subsonic velocity.

A common combustion chamber for both the boost and sustained phases of flight is a more recent technique for the advance of the previous one, and it is usually denoted as an integral rocket ramjet (IRR). This mostly involves a dump-type rather than a can-type combustor; however, the cycle operation of the ramjet is identical. Fig. 1.1B exemplifies this model for a liquid-fueled IRR, and a solid-fueled version (SFIRR) is demonstrated in Fig. 1.1C. Since the fuel system of solid-fueled ramjets is simpler, they are commonly desired over LFRJs or GFRJs when fuel-throttling necessities are insignificant. Fig. 1.1D demonstrates that the air-ducted rocket (ADR), revealed in its IRR form, is an additional ramjet model. In this type, a fuel-rich propellant is applied to produce a low-to-adequate pressure gaseous fuel supply for the subsonic combustor. The selection of an ADR is mostly based on a compromise between the fuel supply simplicity of the SFIRR and the unlimited throttle ability of the LFRJ or GFRJ.

Figure 1.1 Schematic of ramjet: (A) conventional can combustor ramjet (CRJ); (B) integral rocket/dump combustor ramjet (LFIRR); (C) solid-fueled ramjet (SFIRR); (D) air-ducted rocket (ADR) [2].

As the velocity of the vehicles increases beyond M   =   4, the supersonic combustion engine is the only choice for efficient flight. Fig. 1.2 demonstrates a standard scramjet engine with two hybrid alternatives. As shown in Fig. 1.2A, air at supersonic or hypersonic velocity is entered to a lower, although still supersonic, speed at station 4 in the traditional scramjet engine. Fuel is then released from the walls (holes, slots, cavities, pilots, etc.) and/or in-stream protrusions (struts, tubes, pylons, etc.), where it combines and burns with the air in a largely diverging area combustor. Different from terminal normal shock system in the subsonic combustion ramjet, the hybrid impacts of heat accumulation and diverging area in the combustor of scramjet as well as the lack of a geometric exit nozzle throat and create a shock train placed at and upstream of the combustor entry. Its strength varies between the equivalent of a normal shock and no shock.

Figure 1.2 Schematic of scramjet: (A) supersonic combustion ramjet, (B) dual combustor ramjet (DCR), (C) ejector scramjet (EJS) [2].

Fig. 1.2B presented the schematic of the most advanced of these ideas as the dual combustor ramjet (DCR). All of the features of the scramjet remained in the DCR except a section of the air is diverted to a small. By more uniform fuel distribution, a near-stoichiometric, flame can be preserved, and the released energy preserves fuel into combustible products when they arrive the supersonic combustor, even at Mach 3 flight velocity.

The last supersonic combustion cycle, which is a development of the gas-generator-type cycle, is the ejector scramjet revealed in Fig. 1.2C. Dissimilar to other types of supersonic combustion engine cycles, it can provide static thrust using axial injectors fed by high-pressure supersonic gaseous fuel or fuel/oxidizer. This high-pressure/velocity fuel-rich ejector propels air into the supersonic combustor where combustion occurs, creating static thrust. Since nozzle throat does not exist in this model, combustion occurs at the lower speeds in a mixed subsonic/supersonic flow. Before exiting of the flow from the combustor, it moves along a thermal throat, that is, it works as a dual-mode scramjet.

As the flight speed goes beyond Mach 2, the compressor as the central part of a turbojet is not required to increase the pressure. Since the velocity of the inlet flow is high enough, the application of the inlet and diffuser could manage the pressure and velocity of the main inlet stream in the combustion chamber. For higher Mach number (M   >   3), due to the formation of the terminal shock resulted from subsonic, the considerable pressure loss as well as high-temperature flow increase the energy loss of the mainstream. To increase the engine performance, it is recommended to preserve the mainstream in the supersonic speed and increase the temperature of the mainstream within the combustion chamber. To compare the operating condition of various available engines for high-speed vehicles, Fig. 1.3 illustrates the range of performance of the different engines for a wide range of velocity. It is clearly demonstrated that another system of propulsion is required for the takeoff condition of the ramjet or scramjet.

Fig. 1.4 schematically compares the structure of the ramjet engine with scramjet one. As shown in the figure, the main difference between these two engines is the subsonic condition in the section of the combustion. Ferri [3] compared the main characteristics of these two engines for the specific flight condition where the Mach is 12   at the altitude of 40   km, and the fuel is hydrogen with a stoichiometric ratio of an inlet air stream. According to his results, the stagnation pressure recovery of the scramjet is more than 30 times higher than ramjet as the subsonic engine. This advantageous is due to a lack of terminal shock in the scramjet. Besides, the high-temperature region is observed in the vicinity of the entrance of the subsonic combustion chamber.

One of the significant characteristics of the subsonic combustion chamber is a large quiet temperature at the entrance. Hence, severe dissociations occur in the combustion chamber, and recombination reactions could not follow in this section. Since dissociations occur in this section as well as the expansion process in downstream of the fuel nozzle, the temperature declines. To recover the heat loss in the nozzle, obtaining chemical equilibrium inside the nozzle is essential to gain the required kinetic energy. It is clear that the thrust rate is changed as the ratio of the nozzle throat to the exhausted area, and this is highly effective on the inlet airflow within the engine. In the scramjet, a thermal throat is used instead of the mechanical one to recover required static pressure by heat release when the flow rate is low. Consequently, this significantly declines the structural load on the channel within the engine and enhances the efficiency of the system.

Figure 1.3 Operating condition of different engines. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scramjet

Figure 1.4 Schematic of subsonic and supersonic combustion ramjet engines.

In the scramjet engine, there are several technical issues associated with operational conditions, and they are highly active on the other sections of the primary vehicles. In the following, the main challenges are briefly explained to demonstrate the main advantages and disadvantages of the scramjet engine.

Since the residence time of the main air stream inside the scramjet is highly limited, the mixing of the fuel with the main stream is the primary challenge in this type of engine. The mainstream residence time is in the order of milliseconds from the entrance to exit nozzle; this limited the molecular mixing inside the scramjet. On the other side, the momentum loss increases when accelerate mixing occurs in the engine, and consequently, this is effective on the overall efficiency.

The second primary challenge for the development of the current scramjets is flame stability. To resolve this issue, various flame holders are introduced to increase residence time in scramjets. The induction of large temperature and composition gradient are the main significant characteristic of the flameholding region. One of the critical factors for achieving the stable region in the flameholder is to manage and control the fuel–air ratio for diverse ranges of operating conditions such as different flight speed and engine-throttling situations.

Finally, the takeoff flight condition is known as the main challenge for the development of both ramjet and scramjet since the speed is lower than the cruise condition. Indeed, it is ineffective to participate in numerous distinct propulsive systems that work in a definite order. Meanwhile, due to the formation of the low shock wave angles in hypersonic speed, the whole part of the forebody section becomes the engine intake system. To conquer this problem, the variable nozzle is applied after the burner to increase the performance of the scramjet engine by controlling the airflow.

The cooling of the scramjet engine is essential for a long time flight of supersonic vehicles. Among various available cooling options, the fuel jet is the most appropriate choice to preserve the temperature of the domain within the limited range. However, in high-speed flight with Mach more than 10, cooling via hydrocarbon fuel jet is not efficient, and other fuels such as hydrogen could do the same performance inside the engine.

According to the mentioned details, fuel injections and mixing play crucial roles in the development of both ramjets and scramjets. Control of the fuel jet is a simple technique to manage the performance of the scramjet engine. Therefore, considerable researches have been performed to improve the fuel mixing within the scramjets.

1.2. History of Scramjet

In 1950, the conventional ramjet engine (CRJ) was developed to speed up the missiles applications. Scientists and scholars have considerably tried to enhance the performance of ramjet engine to reach high-speed vehicles. Among the various companies, Lockheed Corporation was the pioneer company for the development of the ramjet engine in the high Mach 3–4 regime. The primary literature survey in the advancement of the ramjet combustion was initially presented by Dugger [4] and Weber [5] in 1959. They thoroughly explained the progress in the CRJ as an efficient hydrocarbon-fueled engine and discussed various design methods to achieve high flight speeds. However, some researchers [6,7] criticized the ability of the conventional ramjet engine for high Mach number (M   >   5).

Due to the high feasibility of the ramjet engine, researchers have tried to offer new modifications for the development of this engine for the various operating conditions. Roy [8] presented the technique of standing wave to add heat directly to the supersonic stream in 1946. Then, the effect of the stable detonation wave in the supersonic mainstream of the air and hydrogen was proposed by Nicholls et al. [9] and Gross and Chinitz [10]. The primary progress from ramjet to supersonic combustion ramjet (scramjet) was initially made by Ferri [11] and Swithenbank [12]. In 1958, Swithenbank [12] studied the effect of fuel injection, inlets, combustion process, and exhaust nozzles for development scramjet engines for Mach range within 10–25. Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute is known as a pioneer center for the development of the supersonic combustion chamber, and Ferri [10] expansively explained about the main advances in the development of this center.

In 1958, Weber and MacKay [13] reported new details on the performance of both ramjet and scramjet engines in a wide Mach range of 4–7. According to their findings, the performance of the scramjets is considerably higher than CRJ engines with hydrogen fuel when the flight speed range exceeds more than M   =   7. They tried to determine the main technical challenges for the advancement of the scramjet. They widely defined these factors, such as mixing and injection of fuel, complex interaction phenomena, and the impact of the nozzle on the performance of the engine. They anticipated a diverging channel for the shape of the combustor, similar to elude the restriction of heat addition when the duct area is constant.

Dugger [14] also performed several experimental examinations in Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University to evaluate the performance of the scramjet and CRJ with kerosene fuel. His findings published in 1961 confirm the results obtained by Weber and MacKay [13]. Dugger studied the combustion chamber with a constant area, and it was revealed that the performance of the ramjet is highly lower than scramjet when the mainstream Mach number exceeds 6. Avery and Dugger followed this topic and focused on nonequilibrium impact of the flow in the nozzle on the performance of the engine. One of their significant results was the recognition of probable detonation waves that may increase the performance of the scramjet engine.

Since the performance of the hydrogen-fueled scramjet engine is high, this engine is known as a potential engine to reach near-orbital speeds. Hence, researchers have extensively focused on hypersonic cruise missions of the single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) aerospace plane concept. In the 1960s, US Air Force financially supported space studies such as the development of the hydrogen-fueled scramjet. Among various researchers, Ferri [2] is recognized as a pioneer scientist who supervised and organized different scholars and students at the Aerodynamics Laboratory of the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (PIBAL). In 1964, he published review papers to declare and explain problems associated with the application of supersonic combustion [15]. He had