6

A
,
, .
, ,
,

.

.

.
6.1:

G ( s)

1
s 1

u (t ) = sin(10t ) :
:

L u (t ) sin(10t )

10
s 102
2

Y (s)

1
10
.
2
s 1 s 102

A
A s + A2
1
10
= 0 + 21
2
2
s + 1 s + 10
s
s + 102

121

A0 s 2 + A0102 + A1s 2 + A2 s + A1s + A2

( s + 1)( s 2 + 102 )
( A + A1 ) s 2 + ( A2 + A1 ) s + ( A0102 + A2 )
= 0
.
( s + 1)( s 2 + 102 )

=

A0 + A1 = 0
A1 + A2 = 0
A2 + 102 A0 = 10

A0 =

10
,
101

A1 = - A0 ,

A2 = A0 ,

Y (s) =

10
1
10
s
10
1

2
+
2
2
101 ( s + 1) 101 ( s + 10 ) 101 ( s + 102 )

10
1
1
10
10
s

+
2
2
2
101 ( s + 1) 101 ( s + 10 ) 101 ( s + 102 )
s
10
1
1
10
1
10
.
=

+
2

- 2

2
2
101 ( s + 1)
101 ( s + 10 ) 101 ( s + 10 ) 101

Y (s) =

10 -1 1
1 -1
10

+
L
L 2
2
101
( s + 1)
101 ( s + 10 )
10 -t
1
1
=
e +
sin(10t )
- cos(10t )
101
101
101

y (t ) =

1
s
10
- L-1 2

2
( s + 10 ) 101
101
10
.
101

1 10

+
=1
101 101

cos(b ) =

1
,
101

sin(b ) = -

10
,
101

sin(10t )

1
10
- cos(10t )
= sin(10t ) cos(b ) + cos(10t ) sin(b ) .
101
101

122

y (t ) =

10 -t
1
e +
sin(10t + b ) .
101
101

b = tg -1 (-10) -84, 20
,
y (t ) = y1 (t ) + y2 (t )
10 -t
e
101
1
y2 (t ) =
sin(10t + b ).
101
y1 (t ) =

y1 (t )
, y2 (t ) .
y2 (t ) u (t )
,

b.
6.1
.
6.1().
.
0.25

1
0.8

0.15

0.4
0.2

0.1
Izlaz

Amplitude izlaznog i ulaznog signala

0.2

0.6

0.05

-0.2
0

-0.4
-0.6

-0.05

-0.8
-1

-0.1

5
Vreme [s]

10

5
Vreme [s]

10

()
()
. 6.1 6.1: )
, ) .
6.1()

. 6.1()

123

.
y1 (t ) .
,
G ( s) u (t )
, w0 :
u (t ) = A sin(w0t ) .

(6.1)

L u (t ) A sin(0t )

A0
s 0 2

(6.2)

, ,

Y (s) G(s)

A0
.
s 0 2

(6.3)

, 6.1,
.

y (t ) = AM sin(w0t + b )

(6.4)

M , b .

M = G ( j w0 ) = G ( s ) s = j w =
0

{Re[G( jw0 )]}

Im [G ( jw0 ) ]
= G ( jw ).
b = tan -1
0

Re
(
)
G
j
w
[
]
0

+ {Im [G ( jw0 ) ]} ,
2

(6.5)
(6.6)

G ( jw )
s = jw G ( s ) .
,
.

.
.
, ,

124

,
.

Y ( jw0 ) = AY e j ( w0t +b ) ,

U ( jw0 ) = AU e j ( w0t )

(6.7)

w0
G ( j w0 ) =

AY e j ( w0t +b )
= Me jb .
AU e j ( w0t )

(6.8)

M (w0 ) =

AY
.
AU

(6.9)

,
.
. M (w )
b G ( jw ) .
M (w ) b (w ) ,
,
w. ,
w , ,
log(w ).

G ( jw ) db = 20 log10 G ( jw ) .

(6.10)

,
.

. ,
,

G ( jw ) = G1 ( jw )G2 ( jw ),

(6.11)

125

G ( jw ) e jb ( w ) = G1 ( jw ) e jb1 ( w ) G2 ( jw ) e jb2 ( w ) .

(6.12)

log G ( jw ) + jb (w ) log e = log G1 ( jw ) + log G2 ( jw ) + j (b1 (w ) + b2 (w )) log e .

, M (w ) b (w )
M (w ) = log G1 ( jw ) + log G2 ( jw )

(6.13)

b (w ) = b1 (w ) + b2 (w ) .

(6.14)

20
.
, ,
.
decibel.
Bel

P
1[ Bel ] = log10 2
.
P1
P =10 P
2

(6.15)

100 2 Bel-, 1000 3 Bel- .
decibel Bel
AP decibel
P
AP [dB] = 10 log10 2 .
P1

(6.16)

AP decibel
+3dB . +3dB

4 8 AP decibel
+6dB +9dB. 10, 100 1000

AP decibel +10dB , +20dB +30dB. 2 10 ,

decibel, -3dB -10dB .

126

, M (w )
( , , , , )
10 100 , 2 Bel- 20
decibel-.
decibel- (6.10)
G ( jw ) dB = 20 log10 G ( jw ) .

2 10
+6dB +20dB, a
, , -6dB -20dB.
(Hendrik Wade Bode (1905-1982))
, ,
.

6.1

G ( s )
, .

G ( s) =

K (T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1) p ...

s r (Ta s + 1)(Tb 2 s 2 + 2xTb s + 1)....

K
1
1
2 2
= r
(T1s + 1)(T2 s + 1) p .
s (Ta s + 1) (Tb s + 2xTb s + 1)

(6.17)

. , (6.17),
:
1. Ks n ,

(6.18)

2. (Ts + 1)1 ,

(6.19)

3. (T 2 s 2 + 2xTs + 1)1.

(6.20)

, ,
.

127

, ,
. n
. ,
,
. n=-1,

G(s) =

K
.
s

G ( jw ) dB = 20 log10 K - 20 log10 w

(6.21)

K
Im {G ( jw )}
= w .
b (w ) = tan -1
Re {G ( jw )}
0

(6.22)

, ,
b (w ) = -900. (6.21)
G ( jw ) dB .
w = 1
G ( jw ) dB = 20 log10 K .

(6.23)

G ( jw ) dB = 20 log10 K - 20,

(6.24)

20 . ,
-20 ( -20dB / dec ).
K = 1 G ( jw ) dB 0dB,
w = 1.
K > 1 G ( jw ) dB

20 log10 K . ,
K < 1 .
6.2.

n- b (w ) = n 900.
G ( jw ) dB n 20dB / dec . 6.2

128

K = 1.

Bode Diagram
20

Magnitude (dB)

10

-10

-20
0

Phase (deg)

-45
-90
-135
-180
-1
10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

. 6.2 s-1.

(Ts + 1)1
G(s) =

1
.
Ts + 1

(6.25)

G ( jw ) dB = -20 log10 1 + w 2T 2

b (w ) = tan -1

Im {G ( jw )}
Re {G ( jw )}

-wT
.
1

(6.26)

(6.27)

, wT 1 , (6.26)
G ( jw ) dB = -20 log10 1 = 0,

(6.28)

129

G ( jw ) dB = 0dB
G ( jw ) dB . wT 1 . (6.26)

G ( jw ) dB = -20 log10 wT = 20 log10 (1/ T ) - 20 log10 w.

(6.29)

w = 1/ T
G ( jw ) dB = 0dB.

(6.30)

G ( jw ) dB = 20 log10 (1/ T ) - 20 log10 (10 / T ) = -20dB.

(6.31)

20 .
G ( jw ) dB
w = 1/ T -20dB / dec.
, (6.26), w = 1/ T
G ( jw ) dB = -20 log10 2 = -3dB.

(6.32)

.
(6.27)

b (w ) = 00 wT 1
b (w ) = -900 wT 1 .

w = 1/ T b (w ) = -450.
6.3.
G ( s ) = (Ts + 1)

(6.33)

, 6.4,
6.3.

130

. 6.3
(Ts + 1)-1 .

. 6.4
(Ts + 1) .

131

(T 2 s 2 + 2xTs + 1)1
G ( s) =

1
.
T s + 2Ts + 1

(6.34)

2 2

x = 1
p1,2 = -1/ T ,

G ( s) =

1
.
(Ts + 1) 2

, G ( s)
(6.25).
(6.32)
(6.25). b (w )
00 -1800. G ( jw ) dB ,
w = 1/ T -40dB / dec.
G ( jw ) dB = 0dB,
G ( jw ) dB = -40 log10 2 = -6dB.
(6.32),
0 < x < 1 ,
G ( jw ) dB = -20 log10 [(1- w 2T 2 ) 2 + 4x 2 w 2T 2 ]1/ 2

b (w ) = tan -1

Im {G ( jw )}
Re {G ( jw )}

-2xwT
.
1- w 2T 2

(6.35)
(6.36)

, 0 < x < 1,
w = 1/ T .
, 6.5,
.
.

(T 2 s 2 + 2xTs + 1) 6.5
-1.

132

.2
.5
.8

.8 .5

.2

. 6.5
(T 2 s 2 + 2xTs + 1)-1.

6.2:

G ( s)

2000( s 0,5)
.
s ( s 10)( s 50)

: G ( s)

s
1)
0,5
,
G ( s)
s
s
10 50 s( 1)( 1)
10
50
2000 0,5(

G ( s)

2(2 s 1)
.
s (0,1s 1)(0, 02s 1)

(6.17)
G ( s) =

K (T1s + 1)
.
s(T2 s +1)(T3 s +1)

133

K = 2
T1 = 2 ,

T2 = 0,1

T3 = 0, 02 .

6.6.

Bode Diagram

Magnitude (dB)

50

-50

-100
0

Phase (deg)

-45
-90
-135
-180
-2

-1

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

6.6 6.2

p2 1/ T2 , p3 1/ T3

2 10 , 3 50 log -20dB / dec

0 1
. ,
n 1/ T1

1 0,5 log +20dB / dec.

-20dB / dec . 1 0,5

134

+20dB / dec
, , .

2 10 , -20dB / dec

3 50 .

, -20dB / dec ,
-40dB / dec.
log 20 log10 2dB
K = 2 .
,

.

-900 . ,
, -1800.
,
.
,

.
, .

1- Tjw 1 + Tjw.
1- Tjw 0 -900. ,

1 + Tjw 0 900. .

.

.
.

135

6.2

. ,
, . ,

.

e,

s 3 3s 2 4s ( K 2) 0 2 K 10
.
,
, , , .

.
(Harry Nyquist) 1932.

. , 1938. ,
. .

.

.
(
).

.

W ( s)

s 1
.
s 0,5

(6.37)

, ,
p 0,5 .

136

, , (
3.2, . 3.19)
F (s)

W ( s)
.
1 W ( s)

(6.38)

W ( s )
F ( s)

s 1
.
2 s 1,5

(6.39)

p 0, 75.
K , 6.7.

U(s)

W(s)
Y(s)

. 6.7
K

F (s)

K ( s 1)
.
( K 1) s ( K 0,5)

(6.40)

1 K 0,5.


( ).
W ( s )
.
(Cauchy)
.

W ( s ) .
6.8() (6.37).

s0 C.

137

, s j , W ( s )
. C
W ( s)

W ( s ).

, ,

WN ( s ) s 1,

(6.41)

n 1.

s0

(a)

()

A
B

()

()

. 6.8 s- W(s)
C
A (0, j1), B (3, j1), C (3, j1), D (0, j1).
WN ( s )
6.8().

A ', B ', C ', D ' A, B, C , D

s. .

138

. WN ( s)
,
.
, ,
p 0,5 ,

WP ( s )

1
.
s 0,5

(6.42)

C
WP ( s)
6.8(). ( A ', B ', C ', D ' )
.
WP ( s) ,
,
.

(6.37) W ( s)
6.8().
W ( s) .
K , s
C , W ( s) ,
, W ( s)
N P , N , P
W ( s) C. 6.9
. ,

W ( s) C
arg C W ( s ) ( N P)2 .

(6.43)

139

W ( s )

Im{W ( s )}

W (s)

Re{W ( s )}

()

()

. 6.9 s- W(s)

W (s)

N ( s)
D( s)

(6.44)

1 W ( s) 0.

(6.45)

(6.44) (6.45),

F (s) 1 W (s) 1

N ( s ) D( s) N ( s) P( s )

D( s)
D( s)
D( s)

(6.46)

P(s)

(6.45). D(s) F(s)
W(s). , D(s)
.

F(s) s-.
D(s)
, , N(s)
F(s) .

140

, (. 6.10),

s-.
F(s) .
,
. W(s)
s- ( ).
P. W(s)
F(s) , , F(s)
. , ,
F(s) (N=0).
j

s-ravan
R

. 6.10

, (.
6.10), F(s).

arg C F ( s ) P 2 .

(6.47)

W(s)
s-. ,
F(s)
.
F(s)
, . 6.10

F(s) ,
. ,

arg F ( j ) P 2 ,

- .

(6.48)

141

F(s) ,
F(j)
s-, (6.48)

arg F ( j ) P ,

0 ,

arg[1 W ( j )] P ,

0 .

(6.49)

W(j) (. 6.11). 0
W(j) W(j)
, .

W(j). , W(j)
.

W(s)+1

W ( s)

. 6.11
. 6.11.

. 1+W(j) (-1, j0) W(j) ,

0 .

1+W(j) (-1,j0) P.
1+W(j) (-1, j0)
.

142

: ,

, 0 , ,

(-1,

j0),

W(j) ,
( ) P.
P W(s)
. ,
W(j) (-1, j0) P/2 .
,
P = 0 [1 + W(j)] (-1,j0)
. :
, ,
, (-1, j0)

.

. ,
,
, . . .
W(j)
(-1, j0), (- , -1), ,
, , .
:


(- , -1) 0

, P/2, P
.

143

(- , -1), =0 = ,
.
W(s) W(s)=KW 1 (s), K

. W(j),
, W 1 (j)=W(j)/K,
(-1/K, j0)
W(j)/K. , K, (-1/K, j0)
W(j)/K,
W(j)/K.
K, .

= .
W(s) m n, m n. n-m=l. l
, = W(j)
K
=0 l 2 .
( j )l

W ( j ) lim

(6.50)

W(j) ,
-l/2 rad .
l
. l=0,
.

s.
( 3.3, (3.16))

W (s) =

144

K r (bm s m + bm-1s m-1 + . . . + b1s + 1)

K r N ( s)
=
,
s r D0 ( s ) s r (an s n-r + an-1s n-r-1 + . . . + a1s + 1)

(6.51)

D 0 (s), N(s), s=0, K r r

, r .

W ( jw ) =

K r N ( jw )
,
( jw ) r D0 ( jw )

(6.52)

W(j) = 0 .
0 W(j)
(-1, j0) " " " ".
W(s)
s-,
(. 6.12), .
,
s-.
,
W(j),
0 , s
, W(s) ,
s (. 6.12).
j

s-ravan

R 0 B

. 6.12 s-
s = Re jJ , R , J [0, p 2]
W (Re jJ ) =

K r N (Re jJ )
.
(Re jJ ) r D0 (Re jJ )

(6.53)

D 0 (0) = N(0) =1, R ,

K r - jrJ
e
= -r J.
R 0 R r

W ( s ) AB = lim

(6.54)

145

=0 , (6.54) W(s)
. =/2 , W(s)

-r/2 .
, W(s) , ,
s-,
W(j) .
r/2,
W(j) ,
.
6.3:
W (s) =

K
.
(2s + 2s + 1)( s -1/ 4)
2

(6.55)

: W ( jw ) / K .

(m-n= -3)

-3 p 2 w

+ . w = 0
(-4, j 0).
, (1 4, j 0) .

2 s 2 + 2s + 1 = T 2 s 2 + 2xTs + 1

(6.56)

T = 2 , x = 2 2 .
T 2 s 2 + 2xTs + 1 = 0 ,
p1,2 = - x T j 1- x 2 T

p1,2 = -1 2 j 1 2 . x = 2 2

,
.

146

(-1 K , j 0) ,

w 0 + .
6.13.

.6.13
(6.55)

W(j) . w

.

F (s)

W ( s)
K
,

1 W ( s ) 2s 3 3 s 2 1 s3 ( K 1 )
2
2
4

: 4 (1 K ) 1, 6. K

147

1 4 K 5 8.
(-1,6; j0).
6.4:
W (s) = K

( s + 2)( s + 10)
.
( s -1)( s - 2)( s + 5)

(6.57)

:
,
w 0 + , (-1 K , j 0)
, .
(m-n =1) ,
, - p 2
w + . . 6.14
w 0 -.

. 6.14
(6.57)
6.5:
W ( s) = K

148

1
.
s + 10 s + 20
2

(6.58)

:
p1 = -7, 24; p2 = -2, 76
(-1 K , j 0)
.

-p w +
(m-n = -2). 6.15
. ,
K = 20 K = 300.
K = 20 (1, j 0).

K = 300 (15, j 0).

. 6.15
w 0 -.

. 6.15
(6.58)

:
, , .

149

6.5 .
K . ,
. K
(-1 K , j 0)

.
,
.

(
).
K 6.4 (. 6.14)
, . 6.3 (. 6.13)
.
K
, , ,

.

.

.
.

(-1, j0) .
.

(. 6.16) (1, j 0),

.

1

180 arg W ( j1 ),

150

W ( j1 ) 1.

(6.59)

1, j 0

W ( j )

arg W ( j1 )

. 6.16
1

W(j) . ,
. 0
. 30
60 .


-1800,
d

1
,
W ( j )

arg W ( j ) 1800.

(6.60)

d 1, d 1. d 1
.
d [2, 6].
.

.

151

6.3

.

,
. ,
,
.

.

.
,
, ,

.
, ,

.
, , ,
, , .
: , ,

.
.
,
G .
log 0,707 -3dB.

G
, 0dB.

152

.
.
.

.
,
,

.
1.3

1.2

1.1

Amplituda

Mr

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

r
0

0.5

1.5
frekvencija rad/s

2.5

. 6.17

( r ):

.


.
( r ): ,

.
:

153

.
G .
: , ,

.
.

TK

d ( )
.
d

(6.61)

6.4

K r
W ( s ). ,

.
.

W (s) =

K r (bm s m + bm-1s m-1 + . . . + b1s + 1)

s r (an s n-r + an-1s n-r-1 + . . . + a1s + 1)

, r = 0, K r
K p .
(. 6.18)
, W ( jw ) dB = 20 log10 K p .

K r

r = 1,

K v .

, ,

154

W ( jw ) dB = 20 log10 K - 20 log10 w ,

(6.62)

W ( jw) dB

20 log K P

log(w)

100
KP >1

. 6.18

-20dB / dec. 6.19.

. (6.62) w = 1,
W ( j1) dB = 20 log10 K = 20 log10 K v = ( K v ) dB ,

-20dB / dec w = 1 log w . (6.62)
W ( jw ) dB = 0, 20 log10 K = 20 log10 w , K = K v = w

log w .
1rad / sec
log w 6.19().
W ( jw) dB

W ( jw) dB

-20dB / dec

-20dB / dec

20 log KV

w = KV
100

log(w)
20 log KV

KV < 1

log(w)
100
KV > 1

w = KV

(a)
( )
. 6.19

155

K a r = 2.
, ,

W ( jw ) dB 20 log10 ( K / w 2 ) = 20 log10 K - 40 log10 w ,

(6.63)

-40dB / dec. 6.20.

,
1rad / sec,
w = 1, log w .

1rad / sec, log w

6.20().
W ( jw ) dB = 0, (6.63)

20 log10 K = 20 log10 w 2 ,
K = K a = w 2 . K a , ,
log w
-40dB / dec.

W ( jw) dB

W ( jw) dB

-40
40dB / dec

-40
-40dB / dec

w = Ka

w = Ka

100

log(w)

log(w)
10

20 log K a

20 log K a

(a)
( )
. 6.20

6.5

.

156

.

W ( j ) .
arg W ( j ) , ,
.
20 log10 W ( jw ) = 0

log w
W ( j ) .
.

6.21
W ( s)

1
.
s 11s 2 10s
3

(6.64)

. 6.21
W ( s ).


.

157

log w .
.

.

, log w .
.

.

.
.

158