1 - B - Sc. I MANNUAL

Dated : _______________
ASIFJAH ZEHRAVI CELL 0300 2568922 & 0341 6623062

1

Dated : _______________
2

Name:_________________________________________

Class: _____________ Section:___________________

Roll No: ____________ Group:___________________

Dated : _______________
3

S.
No

Date

P.
No

Initial

1

To determine the value of g [ acceleration
due to gravity ] by using a Katers pendulum.

01

2

To determine the value of g [ acceleration
due to gravity ] by using a compound
pendulum.

05

3

To determine the modulus of rigidity of the
material of a given rod by static method.

09

4

material of a given wire by dynamic method.

13

5

To determine the Youngs modulus of the

17

6

To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a
liquid by Stokes method.

22

7

To determine the distance between two
points by using a sextant.

27

8

To determine the frequency of A.C supply by
Melds method using a Vibrograph.

30

9

To prove that the photo current is directly
proportional to the intensity of light falling on
photocell photo cell. or
Too verify the inverse square law by using a

33

10

To determine the mechanical equivalent of
heat [ Value of J ] by Calander and Barnes
method.

39

11

To determine the temperature coefficient of
resistance of the given wire.

43

12

To determine the thermal conductivity of non
conductor by Lees method.

49

13

To determine the wavelength of sodium light
[ D lines ] by diffraction grating

53

14

by Newtons ring.

56

15

To determine the surface tension of liquid by
Jeagers method.

59

16

To determine the surface tension of liquid [
water ] by capillary rise method.

62

Dated : _______________
4

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
PRACTICAL [ I ]

To determine the value of g [ acceleration due to
gravity ] by using a compound pendulum.

To determine the value of g [ acceleration due to
gravity ] by using a Katers pendulum.

material of a given rod by static method.

material of a given bar by bending of beam
method.


To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a
liquid by Stokes method.

Dated : _______________
5

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
PRACTICAL [ II ]

To determine the distance between two points
by using a sextant.

To determine the frequency of A.C supply by
Melds method using a Vibrograph.

To prove that the photo current is directly
proportional to the intensity of light falling on
photocell photo cell. Or To verify the inverse
square law by using a photo cell.

To determine the mechanical equivalent of heat
[ Value of J ] by Calander and Barnes method.

To determine the temperature coefficient of
resistance of the given wire.

To determine the thermal conductivity of non
conductor by Lees method.

[ D lines ] by diffraction grating

To determine the wavelength of sodium light by
Newtons ring.

To determine the surface tension of liquid by
Jeagers method.

To determine the surface tension of liquid
[ water ] by capillary rise method

Dated : _______________
6

EXPERIMENT NO . 1

OBJECT: To determine the value of g [acceleration due to
gravity ] by using a Katers pendulum.

APPARATUS: Katers pendulum , Rigid support and
Stop watch.

WORKING FORMULA :

Slope
1

2
4 g gravity to due on Accelerati =

L
2
T
Slope =

Where

g

is the acceleration due to gravity [ g = 980
cm / sec
2
]
t is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to
its diameter [ It is a mathematical constant
whose value is 3.142 ]
T is the

time period [ Time taken to complete
one oscillation ]
L

is the effective Length of the pendulum.

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of stop watch = _______________ sec

L

Metallic End Wooden End
Time for 10
oscillations
( Sec )
Mean
time
t
M

Time
period
t
M / 10

Time for 10
oscillations
( Sec )
Mean
time
t
W

Time
period
t
W / 10

( cms )
1 2 3
(Sec)

T
M
1 2 3
(Sec)
T
W

80
75
70
65
60

Dated : _______________
7

55
50
45

CALC ULATIONS:

Slope
1

2
4 g =

L
T
Slope =

Actual Value
[ Acceleration due to gravity ]

g
980

cm / sec
2

100
Value Actual
Value Calculated Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=
RESULT:

The value of g [ acceleration due to gravity ] using a
Katers pendulum is calculated to be __________ cm /
sec
2
.

Percentage of error = ______ %
___________________________
Teachers signature
PRECAUTION:

Least count of slope watch should be noted and
graduation on stopwatch should be studied carefully
before starting the experiment.
The support should be rigid.
Least count of stopwatch should be small.
The amplitude of vibration should be small (not
exceeding 1/10
th
the length of pendulum).
First four of five oscillations should not be counted as
motion is non linear.
The time for oscillation must be noted carefully.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Dated : _______________
8

Non-linearity of the meter scale.
The support of pendulum is not rigid.
Inaccuracy of stopwatch.
Presence of air draughts.

Dated : _______________
9

EXPERIMENT NO . 2

OBJECT: To determine the value of g [acceleration due to
gravity ] by using a Compound pendulum.

APPARATUS: Compound or Bar pendulum , Rigid support ,
Stop watch ,

WORKING FORMULA :

2
T
L

2
4 g =

Where

g

is the acceleration due to gravity [ g
= 980 cm / sec
2
]
t is the ratio of the circumference of a
circle to its diameter [ It is a
mathematical constant whose value is
3.142 ]
T is the

time period [ Time taken to
complete one oscillation ]
L is the

effective Length of the pendulum.

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of stop watch = _______________ sec

Distance
from
support
to C.G.
L
End [ A ] End [ B ]
Time for 10
oscillations
( Sec )
Mean
Time
t
Time
period
t / 10
Time for 10
oscillations
( Sec )
Mean
time

t
Time
period
t / 10
( cms )
1 2 3
(Sec)

(Sec)
1 2 3
(Sec) ( Sec )
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10

Dated : _______________
10

CALCULATIONS:

2
LN KM
L Length Computed
+
= =

2
T
L

2
4 g =

Actual Value

g
980

cm / sec
2

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The value of g [ acceleration due to gravity ] using a
compound pendulum is calculated to be _______cm /
sec
2
.

Percentage of error = ___________________ %
___________________________
Teachers signature

Dated : _______________
11

PRECAUTION:

Least count of slope watch should be noted and
The support should be rigid.
Least count of stopwatch should be small.
The amplitude of vibration should be small (not
exceeding 1/10
th
the length of pendulum).
First four of five oscillations should not be counted as
motion is non linear.
The edges K
1
and K
2
must be sharp.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

The support of pendulum is not rigid.
Presence of air draughts.

Dated : _______________
12

EXPERIMENT NO . 3

OBJECT: To determine the modulus of rigidity of the material
of a given rod by static method.

APPARATUS: Torsion apparatus , Slotted weights with
hanger , Thread , Meter scale and Screw gauge.

WORKING FORMULA :

]
1

2
[
4
r
2

R L g M 360

=

C = 2 t R

Where
q is the mmodulus of rigidity of the material of a given
rod
M

is the mass suspended
g is the

acceleration due to gravity [ g = 980 cm / sec
2

]
L is the

length of the rod between the two pointers
C is the

circumference of the pulley.

Dated : _______________
13

R

is the radius of the pulley.
t is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its
diameter [ It is a mathematical constant whose value is
3.142 ]
r is the

radius of the rod.
u
1
is the angle of twist produced at pointer No . 1
u
2
is the angle of twist produced at pointer No . 2

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Least count of screw gauge L
C
= 0.0 1 mm = 0. 001
cm.

2. Circumference of the pulley C = ____________ cm.

3. Radius of the pulley R = ____________________cm.

4. Length of the rod between the two pointers = L

5. = _______________ cm.

TABLE FOR RADIUS OF THE METALLIC ROD

S
NO
MSR

CSR

FP = CSR
L
C

Diameter
MSR + FP
Mean
Diameter
Radius
r
Radius
r
mm div mm mm mm mm cm

1.

2.

3.

Dated : _______________
14

TABLE FOR ANGLE OF TWIST

S
NO
Mass
Suspended

grams
POINTER READING Mean
u
1
deg
Mean
u
2
deg
[ u
2
u
1
]

degrees
Twist
for
500
gms
deg
Load
Increasing
Deg
Load
Decreasing
Deg
M
u
1
u
2
u
1
u
2

1.

500

2.

1000

3.

1500

1.

2000

2.

2500

3.

3000

CALCULATIONS:

]
1

2
[
4
r
2

R L g M 360

=

C = 2 t R

Actual Value
[ Modulus of rigidity of copper rod ]

q
4.55 10
11
Dynes / cm
2

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The modulus of rigidity of the material of a given rod is
calculated to be________________________ dynes / cm
2

Dated : _______________
15


Teachers signature
PRECAUTION:

Radius of the rod must be measured accurately.
Pointer must be free to rotate over the scale.
Twisting of the rod should be uniform through out the
length.
After changing the suspended weight , wait for a while.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

In accurate measurement of the radius of the rod.
Pointers may not be free to rotate on the scale.
Non uniform twisting of the rod.

Dated : _______________
16

EXPERIMENT NO . 4
OBJECT: To determine the modulus of rigidity of the material
of a given rod by dynamic method.

APPARATUS: A hollow tube , Two hollow cylinders and Two
solid cylinders of equal length and equal diameter , Long wire
, Lamp with Scale arrangement , Stop watch , Screw gauge
, Meter scale and Physical balance.
WORKING FORMULA :

]
2

1
T
2

2
T [
4
r
]
1
m
2
m [ L
2
l 8

=

Where
q is the modulus of rigidity of the material of a given
wire
3.142 ]
l

is the half length of the hollow tube.
L is the

length of the wire
m

is the average mass of the hollow cylinders.
m
2
is the average mass of the solid cylinders.
T

is the time period for 10 oscillations when the solid
cylinders are at the inner position
T
2
is the time period for 10 oscillations when the hollow
r is the radius of the wire.
OBSERVATIONS:

1. Least count of screw gauge L
C
= 0 . 0 1 m m = 0. 001 c
m .

2. Total length of the hollow tube = 2 l = _____________
cms.

3. Half length of the tube = 2 l = __________________
cms.

4. Length of the wire = L = ______________________
cms.

Dated : _______________
17

5. Total mass of the hollow cylinders = m
T
= ________
gms.
6. Average mass of the hollow cylinders m
1
= m
T
/2
=___gms.

7. Total mass of the solid cylinders = m
t
= _________
gms

8. Total mass of the solid cylinders m
2
= m
t
/ 2
=____gms.

9. Radius of the wire r

S
NO
MSR

CSR

FP = CSR
L
C

Diameter
MSR + FP
Mean
Diameter
Radius
r
Radius
r
mm div mm mm mm mm cm

1.

2.

3.

S
NO
Time period for 10 oscillations when the solid
T
Sec
Time period
T = t / 10
Sec
Mean
T

Sec

1

2

3

Mean

1.

2.

3.

Dated : _______________
18

S
NO
Time period for 10 oscillations when the
hollow cylinders are at the inner position
T
Sec
Time period
T
2
= t / 10
Sec
Mean
T
2
Sec

1

2

3

Mean

1.

2.

3.

CALCULATIONS:
]
2

1
T
2

2
T [
4
r
]
1
m
2
m [ L
2
l 8

=

Actual Value
[ Modulus of rigidity of copper rod ]

q
4.55 10
11
Dynes / cm
2

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The modulus of rigidity of the material of a given wire is
calculated to be________________________ dynes / cm
2


___________________________
Teachers signature
PRECAUTION:

Radius of the wire must be measured accurately.
The support should be rigid ie the support of the
pendulum should not vibrate along with the pendulum.
Vibration of the tube must be in one plane.

Dated : _______________
19

Area of the wire should be uniform through out the
length.
Surface of the Maxwells tube must be small.
Amplitude of vibration must be small.
There should be no kinks in the wire.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

In accurate measurement of the radius of the rod.
Kinks in the wire.
Non rigid support.
Non uniformity of the radius of wire.
Air drag.

Dated : _______________
20

EXPERIMENT NO . 5

OBJECT: To determine the Youngs modulus of the material
of a given bar by bending of beam method.

APPARATUS: Given metallic bar , Meter Scale , Spherometer
, Slotted weights , Vernier calipers , Cell and Connecting
wire.
WORKING FORMULA :

3
d b y 4
3
L g M
Y =

Where

Y is the Youngs modulus of the material of a given bar.
M

is the mass suspended
g

is the acceleration due to gravity [ g = 980 cm / sec
2
]
L

is the length of the bar between the two knife edges.
y

is the depression produced in the bar
b

is the breadth of the bar.
d is the thickness of the bar.

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of screw gauge L
C
= 0 . 0 1 m . m = 0. 001 c
ms .

S
NO
MSR

CSR

FP = CSR
L
C

Thickness
MSR + FP
Mean
Thickness
mm div mm mm mm
1.

2.

3.

Dated : _______________
21

Least count of vernier callipers L
C
= 0 . 1 m . m = 0. 01 cm

S
NO
MSR

VSR

FP = VSR
L
C

Breadth
MSR + FP
Mean
Breadth
mm div mm mm mm
1.

2.

3.

S
NO
Mass
Sus
pended
M

grams
Load
Increasing
Load
Decreasing
Mean
Reading
y
2
] B [ A +

cms
Twist
for
500
gms
y

cms
Mean
Twist
for
500
gms
y
cms
MSR
cms
CSR
div
FP
cms
TR
cms
A
MSR
cms
CSR
cms
FP
cms
TR
Cms
B

1.

50

2.

100

4.

150

5.

200

6.

250

7.

300

8.

350

CALCULATIONS:

3
d b y 4
3
L g M
Y =

Actual Value
[ Youngs modulus of iron ]

[ 19 20 ] 10
11
Dynes / cm
2

[ Youngs modulus of steel ]

[ 19.5 20.6 ] 10
11
Dynes / cm
2

Dated : _______________
22

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The Youngs modulus of the material of a given bar by
bending of beam method .is calculated to be___ dynes /
cm
2

___________________________
Teachers signature
PRECAUTIONS:

Edges on which the bar is suspended must be sharp and
rigid and must be perpendicular to the length of the bar.
Load must be changed in regular steps.
Load must be suspended at the centre of gravity of the
bar and its distance must be equal from the two knife
edges.
The bar must be of uniform thickness.
Thickness of the bar must be measured accurately.
Positions of the sharp edges must be kept fixed through
out the experiment.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
Edges may not be sharp.
In accurate measurement of the Breadth and thickness
of the bar.
The sharp edges may not be fixed during the
experiment.
Load may not be changed in a regular steps.

Dated : _______________
23

EXPERIMENT NO . 6

OBJECT: To determine the coefficient of viscosity by Stokes
method.

APPARATUS: Given liquid , Small ball bearings , Stop watch ,
Screw gauge , Vernier calipers , Long glass tube fitted to a
wooden frame , Meter scale

WORKING FORMULA: ]
R
r 4 . 2
1 [ V
0
V + =

0
V 9
] D - d [ g
2
r 2
=
Where
q is the coefficient of viscosity.
3.142 ]
r is the

radius of the spherical body
g

2

]
d

is the density of the ball bearing.
D is the density of the liquid.
V
0
is the terminal velocity.
X

is the inner diameter of the glass tube.
R is the

inner radius of the glass tube.
V is the observed Velocity

Dated : _______________
24

OBSERVATIONS:

Density of the ball bearing. = d = 7. 8 gm / cm
3

Density of the given liquid = D = 1. 26 gm / cm
3

Smallest division division on main scale = a =
_____cm.

Total number of divisions on vernier scale = b =
_____cm.

Least count or Vernier constant =
b
a

=
____________cm.

Inner diameter of the glass tube = X = 3 . 5 cm

Inner radius of glass tube = R = r = d / 2 = 3.5 / 2 = 1. 75
cm

Pitch of the screw =
rotation of Number
scale main on moved Distance
=_____m.
m

Total number of divisions on circular scale
=_______divisions

Least count =
scale circular on divisions of number Total
screw the of Pitch

Least count =______________m . m
=_____________cm.

Zero error Z =______________m . m
=_____________cm.

Dated : _______________
25

FOR DIAMETER OF BALL BEARING

Size
of
balls

M.S.R

m m
C.S.R

div
Fractional
Part
FP = CSR L
C
m m
Diameter
D = FP + MSR

m m
Corrected
Diameter
] Z [ T D =
m m

Large

Medium

Small

FOR TERMINAL VELOCITY

Size of
Ball
bearings

Distance
Covered
S
Time taken to cover
distance S
Observed
Velocity

t
S
V =
Terminal
velocity
V
0
=
)
R
r 4 . 2
1 ( V +

1

2

3

Mean
cm sec sec sec sec cm / sec cm / sec

Large

60

Medium

60

Small

60

CALCULATIONS: ]
R
r 4 . 2
1 [ V
0
V + =

0
V 9
] D - d [ g
2
r 2
=
Actual Value
[ Coefficient of viscosity of glycerin ]
q
[ 8.39 ] Poise at 20 C

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

Dated : _______________
26

RESULT:

The thermal conductivity of non conductor by Lees
method is calculated to be ______________ cal / sec / cm
/ C


___________________________
Teachers signature

PRECAUTION:

Least count of stop watch should be noted and
The ball bearings must be released slowly from just
above the liquid surface.
Temperature of the liquid should remain constant
through out the experiment.
Ball bearings must be released in the middle of the tube.
Liquid should be transparent and free of dust particles.
Surface of the ball bearings must be free of dust and
grease.
Tube must be vertical.

SOURCES OF ERROR :
Liquid may not be pure.
Change of temperature during the experiment.
Surface of the balls may not be free of grease
The tube may not be exactly vertical

Dated : _______________
27

EXPERIMENT NO . 7

OBJECT: To determine the surface tension of liquid by
Jeagers method.

APPARATUS: Complete Jeagers apparatus, Given liquid
contained in a beaker , Traveling microscope.

WORKING FORMULA: surface tension of the given liquid by
Jeagers method is given by
] )
3
r 2
h ( d - D H [
2
g r
T + =
Where
r is the radius of the jet bore.
g

2
]
H

is the difference of height between the liquid levels in
the two limbs of manometer.
D is the density of the manometer liquid.
d

is the density of the experimental liquid ( water )
contained in the beaker.
h is the length of the jet tube dipped in to the
experimental liquid.

Dated : _______________
28

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of traveling microscope = L
C
=
___________cm

S
NO

Traveling microscope readings
when origin of its cross wires
are focused on
Diameter of
the jet
D = Y X
Mean
Diameter
of the jet
Radius
of the
jet
Right edge
[ X ]
Left edge
[ y ]
cm cm cm cm cm

1.

2.

3.

OBSERVATIONS:

Density of the manometer liquid [ water ] = D = 1 gm /
cm
3

Density of the experimental liquid [ water ] = d = 1 gm /
cm
3

Acceleration due to gravity = g = 980 cm / sec
2

Room temperature = T = ____________________ C

S
NO

Length of the
jet tube dipped
in the liquid

h
Position of liquid column just
before the detachment of an air
bubble in the
Difference of
height between
the two liquid
levels
H = B A

Closed limb
[ A ]
Open limb
[ B ]
cm cm cm cm

1.

2.

3.

Dated : _______________
29

CALCULATIONS:

] )
3
r 2
h ( d - D H [
2
g r
T + =
Actual Value
[ Surface tension of water ]

T
73 dynes / cm

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The surface tension of liquid by Jeagers method.is
calculated to be ____________________ dynes / cm.


___________________________
Teachers signature
PRECAUTION:

The jet tube must be circular and should be of very small
diameter so that the bubbles formed are spherical in
shape.
Length of the jet tube dipped in the experimental liquid
must be measured accurately.
Apparatus must be air tight.
The experimental liquid should be free from dust.
The experimental liquid must be pure.
For accurate measurement of liquid levels in manometer
the rate of formation of bubbles must be slow

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Experimental liquid may not be pure.
Temperature of the liquid may not be constant.
Jet may not be perfectly circular.

Dated : _______________
30

EXPERIMENT NO . 8

OBJECT: To determine the surface tension of liquid [ water ]
by capillary rise method.

APPARATUS: Capillary tubes of uniform bore and different
diameters, Thin rubber tube band, Sharp pointed needle,
Clamping stand, Thermometer , Given liquid, Traveling
microscope and An adjustable stand.

WORKING FORMULA: surface tension of the given liquid by
capillary rise method is given by

2
g r h
T =
Where
T is the surface tension of the given liquid.
h is the height of the liquid column.
r is the radius of the tube used.
d

is the density of the experimental liquid ( water ) used.
g

2
]

Dated : _______________
31

OBSERVATIONS: [ FOR GIAMETER OF THE TUBE ]

Least count of traveling microscope = L
C
=
___________cm

S
NO

Traveling microscope readings
when its cross wires are
focused on
Diameter
of the
tube
D = B A
Diameter
of the
tube
D = B A
Mean
Diameter
of the
tube
D
Right
edge
[ A ]
Left
edge
[ B ]
Upper
edge
[ C ]
Lower
edge
[ D ]
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm

1.

2.

3.

Radius of the tube = r = D / 2 ___________cm
OBSERVATIONS: [ FOR HEIGHT OF THE LIQUID COLUMN ]

Temperature of water = T = ____________________ C

Density of the liquid [ water ] = = 1 gm / cm
3

Tube
No

Microscope reading at
Difference
of height
h = A B

Radius
of tube
r

2
g r h
T =

Lower
meniscus
[ A ]
Lower tip of
the needle
[ B ]
cm cm cm cm dynes /cm

1.

2.

3.

Dated : _______________
32

CALCULATIONS:

2
g r h
T =

Actual Value

[ Surface tension of water ]

T
73 dynes / cm

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The surface tension of liquid [ water ] by capillary rise
method is calculated to be ________________ dynes /
cm.


___________________________
Teachers signature

PRECAUTION:

The capillary tube should be of fine and uniform bore.
The tube should be vertical and sufficiently apart.
As for as possible use of wax for fixing the tubes should
be avoided In stead of use of a thin rubber band be
preferred.
The container should be full with the water level slightly
above its edges.
The water surface should be free from grease and hence
should never be touched with fingers.
The lower tip of the needle should be just above the
water surface and not dip in to it.
The tube should be cut and its diameter determined at
the level of water meniscus.

Dated : _______________
33

The diameter of the tubes should be measured in two
cross wire positions.
Use of distilled water should be avoided.
The experimental liquid should be free from dust.
The experimental liquid must be pure.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Non uniform capillary tube may be used.
Capillary tube may not be exactly vertical.
Surface of water may be greasy.
Diameter of the capillary tube may not be measured
accurately.
Experimental liquid may not be pure.
Temperature of the liquid may not be constant.

Dated : _______________
34

EXPERIMENT NO . 9

OBJECT: To determine the distance between two points by using
a sextant.

APPARATUS: Sextant , Meter scale and Vertical stand.

WORKING FORMULA :

Cot - Cot
L
d =

Tan - Tan
] Tan Tan [ L
d OR

=

Where
d

is the distance between the two points on the wall.
L is the distance through which Sextant is moved.
o is the angle through which the index arm is turned to
coincide the images of two the points.
| is the angle through which the index arm is turned after
moving the Sextant distance L to coincide the images of two
the points.
.

Dated : _______________
35

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of the Sextant = _______________ sec

S
NO

L
1

Angle
A
When
AA
are in
St.
line
Angle
B
When
AB
are in
St.
line
Angle
o =
[B A]

L
2

Angle
C
When
AA
are in
St.
line
Angle
D
When
AB
are in
St.
line
Angle
| =
[D C]
Distance
L =
[L
2
L
1
]
cm deg deg degrees cm cm cm degrees cm

1.

0

50

2.

50

100

3.

100

150

CALCULATIONS:

Cot - Cot
L
d =

Tan - Tan
] Tan Tan [ L
d
= OR

Actual Value

d
96

cm

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The distance between the two points A and B by using the
sextant is calculated to be _________________ cm.

___________________________
Teachers signature

Dated : _______________
36

PRECAUTION:

Least count of the sextant should be determined accurately
The points A and B should be in a plane perpendicular to the
line joining the lower point A with the sextant.
The lower point A must be at the level of the sextant.
Sextant should be firmly fixed to the stand.
The sextant should be properly leveled.
Parallax between directed and reflected images should be
removed completely.
The sextant should be clamped in vertical position, so that
axis of the telescope is horizontal.
The telescope should be in level with the lower mark.
The two images should overlap and should have equal
intensity.
Rotate the moveable arm slowly

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Parallax between direct and reflected images may not have
been removed completely.
In accurate reading of the instruments.
Mirrors of the sextant may not be parallel to each other

Dated : _______________
37

EXPERIMENT NO . 10

OBJECT: To determine the frequency of A.C supply by Melds
method using a Vibrograph.

APPARATUS: A.C. main supply , Vibrograph with step down
voltage transformer , String , Pan , Adjustable pulley , Two upright
pins , Weights and meter scale.

WORKING FORMULA :

g M

2L
1
string of Frequency

=

g M

2L
1

s
F

=

2
s
F Mean
supply main C . A of Frequency =

Where

F
S
is the frequency of string.
L

is the distance between two consecutive nodes. [ Length
of single loop ]
M

is the total mass suspended.
g

2
]
is the linear density of the string.

Dated : _______________
38

OBSERVATIONS:

Mass of pan suspended m
1
=

______________ gm.

Mass per unit length of the string ( Linear density ) =_____ gm / cm.

S.
NO
Mass
placed
in pan
m
2

gm
Total mass

M = m
1
+ m
2

gm
Number
Of
Loops
N
Length
of
N loops
L
cm
Length
of
One loops
L = l / N
cm

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

CALCULATIONS:

g M

2L
1

s
F

=
[ For each observation ]

2
s
F Mean

c a.
F =

Actual Value
[ Frequency of A.C. main ]

A.C Main 50

Hertz or cycles / sec

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The frequency of A.C supply by Melds method using a
Vibrograph is calculated to be ________________ Hertz

___________________________
Teachers signature

Dated : _______________
39

PRECAUTION:

The string should be of uniform area of cross-section. It
should have no knots.
The string should be stretched horizontally.
The string, the vibrator or and the pulley should be in the
same straight line.
Pan should be suspended freely and must be stationary
when readings are taken.
The weights should be gently transferred to or from the pan.
The wave, set up should be well defined, stationary and of
large amplitude.
Pulley should be well oiled to reduce friction.
While taking the length of N loops the end loops must be
omitted as initial and final node is not clear.
Pins should be placed at exact position of nodes.
The string should have no knots.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Non uniformity of linear density of string.
Friction at pulley.
Large least count of weights.
Given linear density and weight.
Personal error in measuring the length.

Dated : _______________
40

EXPERIMENT NO . 11

OBJECT: To prove that the photo current is directly proportional to
the intensity of light falling on photocell photo cell.
or
Too verify the inverse square law by using a

APPARATUS: Photo voltaic cell, Micro ammeter , Electric lamp ,
Meter scale , A C Main supply and connecting wires.

WORKING FORMULA:

For inverse square law of radiation
Intensity of light E
2
d
1

From the experiment
Photo electric current I
2
d
1

Hence Intensity of light E Photo electric current I
E I

Where
d is the distance between the source of light and photocell

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Dated : _______________
41

OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of Micro ammeter = 5 Ampere

CALCULATIONS:

2
d
1
[ For each observations ]

I
1
d
2

I
2
d
2

S.
NO.

d

d
2

2
d
1

Micrometer Reading

I
1
d
2

I
2
d
2

With 40 W
bulb
With 60 W
bulb
Inc Dec Mean
I
1

Inc Dec Mean
I
2

cm
cm
2

cm
2
A A A A A A A cm
2
A cm
2

1. 100
2. 90
3. 80
4. 70
5. 60
6. 50
7. 40
8. 30

Dated : _______________
42

RESULT:
The graph between current I and
2
d
1
is a straight line which confirm
that the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of
light
The values of I
1
d
2
and I
2
d
2
are constant for each bulb.
The value of
2
I
1
I
is found to be _______
___________________________
Teachers signature
PRECAUTION:

Connections must be tight and free from insulating material
at the end.
The height of lamp and height of photocell should be same.
Distance should be measured carefully.
Zero error of micro ammeter should be noted.
Least count of micro ammeter should be noted.
Window of photocell should be opened after the lamp is
switched on.
Personal movement should minimum so that light is not
blocked.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

Large least count of micro ammeter.
Height of lamp or photocell may not be same.
Presence of light in the surroundings.
Change in the illumination of light in the surrounding.

Dated : _______________
43

EXPERIMENT NO . 12

OBJECT: To determine the mechanical equivalent of heat [ Value
of J ] by Calander and Barnes method.

APPARATUS: Callender and Barnes apparatus , Constant
pressure head device Ammeter , Voltmeter , Rheostat , Two
Thermometer , Accumulator , Physical balance , Stop watch and
Connecting wires.

WORKING FORMULA:
)
I
T
F
T ( C m
t I V
J

=
Where

V is the the voltage applied across the resistor.
I is the current passed through the resistor for t sec.
t is the time for which the mass of water is collected.
m
c
is the mass of water collected.
T
I
is the temperature of water [ At Inlet ]
T
F
is the temperature of water. [ At Outlet ]

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Dated : _______________
44

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Least count of voltmeter = ___________________________ Volts

2. Least count of Ammeter = ___________________________ Amps

3. Least count of thermometer = ________________________ C

4. Mass of empty beaker = m
b
= _______________________ gm.

5. Mass of beaker + water = M = ______________________ gm.

6. Mass of water collected = m = [ M m
b
] ___________ gm.

7. Specific heat of water = S
b
= 1 Cal / gms C

8. The voltage applied across the resistor = V = __________ Volts

9. Current passed through the resistor = I = ___________ Amp

10. Time for which the current is passed = t = ________________ min

11. Initial Temperature of water [ At Inlet ] = T
I
= _______C

12. Final temperature of water [ At Outlet ] = T
F
= ________C

S.
NO
Time ( t )

Voltage
( V )

Current
( I )
Temperature
At Inlet
( T
1
) C
Temperature
At Outlet
( T
2
) C

minutes Volts Amp C C

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Dated : _______________
45

CALCULATIONS:

Time for which the current is passed = t = _____ min 60 = _____Sec

)
I
T
F
T ( C m
t I V
J

=
Actual Value
[ Value of J ( Mechanical equivalent of heat ) ]

J
4.19

Joules / calorie

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The mechanical equivalent of heat [ Value of J ] by Calander
and Barnes method is calculated to be ________ J / cal.


___________________________
Teachers signature
PRECAUTION:

There should be no air bubbles in the tube.
Turns of the resistor wire may not touch each other or side of
the tube.
Current must be switched on after maintaining a steady flow
of water through the tube.
The tube must be air tight so that there should be no leakage
of water

SOURCES OF ERROR :

There may be air bubbles in the tube.
The most important source of error is the loss of heat due to
radiation.

Dated : _______________
46

EXPERIMENT NO . 13

OBJECT: To determine the temperature coefficient of resistance
of the given wire.

APPARATUS: Meter bridge, Galvanometer, Resistance box, Cell,
Thermometer , Given coil , One way key and Connecting wires.

THEORY: The resistance of a pure metal wire changes with
temperature according to the relation

R
t
= R
0
[ 1 + o t + | t
2
]

Where o and | are constants R
t
and R
0
are the resistances of the
metal at temperatures of t C and 0 C respectively .
The constant | is very small compared with o and for moderate
temperature range the above relation can be written as

R
t
= R
0
[ 1 + o t ]

The constant o is known as temperature coefficient of resistance.
If R
t
and R
0
are the resistances of a metal at t C and 0 C are
known the value of can be computed by the relation

t
0
R

0
R -
t
R

A
= o

2
t [
0
R

0
R -
t
R

]
1
t
= o

However the measurement of resistance R
0
at 0can be avoided.
If R
1
and R
2
are the resistances of the metal wire at t
1
( say room
temperature ) and t
2
( say boiling point of water ) are measured ,
then the value of o can be determined by the relation.

]
1
t
2
R
2
t
1
R [

1
R -
2
R

=

Dated : _______________
47

WORKING FORMULA:

2
t [
0
R

0
R -
t
R

]
1
t
= o ,
]
1
t
2
R
2
t
1
R [

1
R -
2
R

=

Where

o is the temperature coefficient of resistance of the given
wire.
R
t
is the resistances of the metal wire at t C
R
0
is the resistances of the metal wire at 0 C
R
1
is the

resistance of the metal wire at t
1
( say room
temperature )
R
2
is the resistance of the metal wire at t
2
(say boiling point
of water )
T
1
is the room temperature
T
2
is the boiling point of water

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Dated : _______________
48

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of thermometer = ________________________ C

S.
NO
Temperature
At Inlet
T

C
Known
Resistance
R

Ohm
L
X

cm
L
R

cm

R
L

X
L
R X =
Ohm

1.
Room temp

2.

100

3.

90

4.

80

5.

70

6.

60

7.

50

CALCULATIONS:

2
t [
0
R

0
R -
t
R

]
1
t
= o

]
1
t
2
R
2
t
1
R [

1
R -
2
R

=

Actual Value
[ Temperature coefficient of resistance for Nichrome wire ]
o
0.00017

Per degree centigrade
[ Temperature coefficient of resistance for Manganin wire ]
o
0.00001

Per degree centigrade

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

Dated : _______________
49

RESULT:

The temperature coefficient of resistance of the given wire is
calculated to be ______________ per degree centigrade.


___________________________
Teachers signature
PRECAUTION:

All connections should be neat and tight.
Short and thick connecting wires should be used.
The jockey must have sharp edge.
Avoid the sliding of jockey on the wire rather it should be
gently tapped over it.
The plugs of resistance box should be tight in their gaps.
Care should be taken in handling the apparatus.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Loose connections
Error due to the sliding of jockey on the wire.
Use of long and thin connecting wires may add more
resistance in the circuit.
Loose plugs in the resistance box .
Jockey may not be of sharp edge .
Fluctuation of current in the circuit.

Dated : _______________
50

EXPERIMENT NO . 14

OBJECT: To determine the thermal conductivity of non conductor
by Lees method.

APPARATUS: Lees thermal conductivity apparatus , Given
circular shaped non conductor , Steam generator , Vernier calipers
, Screw gauge , Stop watch , Two sensitive thermometer.

WORKING FORMULA:

dt
dT

]
1
T
2
T [ A
C L M
K
=
Where
K is the thermal conductivity of non conductor.
M

is the mass of metal slab
L is the thickness of non conductor [ Card board ]
C

is the specific heat of metal
A is the cross sectional area of non conductor.
T
1
is the steady state temperature of metal slab
T
2
is the temperature of steam chamber.

dt
dT
is the rate of cooling of the metal slab at Steady state
temperature

Dated : _______________
51

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Mass of metal slab = M = ___________________________ grams.

2. Specific heat of metal = C =____________________cal / grams C

3. Steady state temperature of metal slab = T
1
= ______________ C

4. Steady state temperature of steam chamber = T
2
= __________ C

5. Thickness of non conductor [ Card board ] = L =__________ cm

6. Diameter of non conductor [ Card board ] = d =___________ cm

7. Radius of non conductor [ Card board ] = r = d / 2 =_______ cm

8. Cross sectional area of non conductor. = A = t r
2
_______ cm
2

S.
NO

Time
t

sec
Temperature
T
C
S.
NO

Time
t

sec
Temperature
T
C

1.

11.

2.

12.

3.

13.

4.

14.

5.

15.

6.

16.

7.

17.

8.

18.

9.

19.

10.

20.

Dated : _______________
52

CALCULATIONS:

From graph

d T = _____________ K

d t = _____________ min

Rate of cooling of the metal
Slab at steady state

dt
dT
= ______________

dt
dT

]
1
T
2
T [ A
C L M
K
=

Actual Value
[ Thermal conductivity of poor conductor ]

Cork board 0.00011 cal / sec / cm / C

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The thermal conductivity of non conductor by Lees method
is calculated to be ______________ cal / sec / cm / C


___________________________
Teachers signature
PRECAUTION:

Least count of stop watch should be noted and graduation on
stopwatch should be studied carefully before starting the
experiment.
Diameter of metallic slab , card board and steam chamber
must be equal.
Surface of the metallic slab and card board must be smooth
so that they come in good thermal contact.

Dated : _______________
53

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Diameter of card board may not be equal to diameter of
metallic slab and steam chamber.
Loss of heat from edges of the slab and the bad conductor.
Presence of condensed water in the steam chamber is an
important source of error.

Dated : _______________
54

EXPERIMENT NO . 15

OBJECT: To determine the wavelength of sodium light [ D lines ]
by diffraction grating

APPARATUS: Spectrometer , Diffraction grating , Sodium lamp ,
Sprit level.

WORKING FORMULA:
N = d Sin u
N
Sin d
=
Where
is the wave length of sodium light.
d

is the grating element.
u is the angle of diffraction of the sodium light.
N is the order of spectrum.

Dated : _______________
55

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of stop watch = 1 minute.

Number of lines ruled on the grating = ________lines / inch.

Grating element =
] [
cm 2.54

lines of no
inch 1
d = = = _______cm

S
NO

Order
Of
Image
Lines
Diffraction
reading on
Difference
Of
Readings
2u = A B

Angle of
diffraction
u
Wave
length

Right
side
[ A ]
Left
side
[ B ]
deg deg deg deg cm

1.

I

D
1

2.

I I

D
2

CALCULATIONS:
N
Sin d
=

Actual Value
[ Wave length of spectral lines of sodium ]

Yellow D
1

5896 10
8
cm 5896
o
A
Yellow D
2

5890 10
8
cm 5890
o
A

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The wavelength of sodium light [ D lines ] by diffraction
grating is calculated to be ______ 10
8
cm ______
o
A

___________________________
Teachers signature

Dated : _______________
56

PRECAUTION:

Do not touch or attempt to clean the surface of the grating.
Spectrometer must be set properly before using it.
Ruled surface of the grating must face away from the
collimator.
The eyepiece should be focused on the cross wire carefully.
The telescope and collimator should be adjust for parallel
rays.
The grating should be adjusted parallel to the axis of rotation
of the table.
The grating should be adjusted perpendicular to the
collimator with its ruled surface away from it.
The grating lines should be parallel to the axis of rotation of
the table.
The silt should be made extremely narrow while taking
readings.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

The grating surface may be touched by fingers.
Spectrometer may not be set properly.
Ruled surface of the grating may be facing towards the
collimator.
The cross wire of the telescope may not be focused
carefully.
The grating may not be exactly perpendicular to the
collimator.

Dated : _______________
57

EXPERIMENT NO . 16

OBJECT: To determine the wavelength of sodium light by
Newtons ring.

APPARATUS: Sodium lamp , Sprit level., Convex lens of suitable
focal length ( Usually lens of long focal length is used ) Plane glass
plate ,Traveling microscope.

WORKING FORMULA: wavelength of sodium light by Newtons
ring can be calculated as

] m - n [ R 4

2
m
D
2
n
D

=
Where
is the wave length of light used.
D
n
is the diameter of n
th
dark ring ( Outer ring )
D
m
is the diameter of m
th
dark ring ( Inner ring
R is the radius of curvature of the lens.

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of traveling micrometer = ____________cm.

Radius of curvature of lens used = R = _____________cm

S
NO

Ring
Number
Microscope reading on Difference
Of
Readings
2u = A B

Right side
[ A ]
Left side
[ B ]
cm cm cm
1.

2.

3.

4.

CALCULATIONS: wavelength of sodium light by Newtons ring .

Dated : _______________
58

] m - n [ R 4

2
m
D
2
n
D

=

Actual Value
[ wavelength of sodium light ]

Yellow D
1

5896 10
8
cm 5896
o
A
Yellow D
2

5890 10
8
cm 5890
o
A

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The wavelength of sodium light by Newtons ring is
calculated to be ________ cm or ___________
o
A


___________________________
Teachers signature
PRECAUTION:

A lens of large radius of curvature should be used.
The point of interaction of crosswire should coincide with the
centre of ring system.
One of the crosswire should be perpendicular to the scale of
microscope.
The microscope should be moved in the same direction while
measuring the diameter of a ring to avoid back lash error.
The radius of curvature of the surface of the lens in contact
with the glass plate should be measured.
Lens and the glass plate should be cleaned properly so that
no dust particles remains between them at the point of
contact, this is necessary for making the center of rings
always dark.
Screw of the travelling microscope must be rotated as for as
possible in one direction

Dated : _______________
59

The glass plate must be held at an angle of 45 to the light
beam so that light must fall perpendicularly on the lens.
Travelling microscope readings must be taken accurately.

SOURCES OF ERROR :

Lens and glass plate may not be clean.
Readings of microscope may not be accurate.
Micro scope screw may have slight backlash error.
The glass plate may not be held at an angle of 45 to the
beam of light.

Dated : _______________
60

EXPERIMENT NO . 17

OBJECT: To determine the thermal conductivity of good conductor
( copper ) by Searles apparatus.

APPARATUS: Searles thermal conductivity apparatus , Steam
generator with heating arrangement, Vernier calipers, Stop watch ,
Four sensitive thermometer.

WORKING FORMULA:

]
1
T
2
T [ A
]
3
T -
4
T [ C L M
K
=

2
r A =

Where
K is the thermal conductivity of good conductor ( copper ).
M

is the mass of metal slab
L is the thickness of non conductor [ Card board ]
C

is the specific heat of water.
A is the cross sectional area of non conductor.
T
1
is the temperature of the bar near cold end.
T
2
is the temperature of the bar near hot end.
T
3
is the initial temperature of water [ Temperature of water
at inlet ]
T
4
is the final temperature of water [ Temperature of water at
outlet ]

OBSERVATIONS:
o Mean diameter of the bar = d =___________________ cm

Dated : _______________
61

o Radius of the bar = r = d / 2 = _________________ cm

o Distance between two holes on the bar = L =________ cm

o Temperature of the bar near cold end = T
1
= __________ C

o Temperature of the bar near hot end = T
2
= __________ C

o Temperature of water at inlet = T
3
= ________________ C

o Temperature of water at outlet = T
4
= _______________ C

o Mass of empty beaker = m
1
= ________________ grams.

o Mass of beaker + water = m
2
= ______________ grams.

o Mass of water collected = M = [ m
2
m
1
] = _____ grams.

o Specific heat of water = C = 1 cal / grams C

o Time for which M gram of water is collected = t

= ____Sec

S.
NO
Time
t

(min)

T
1

C
T
2

C
T
3

C
T
4

C
1 0

2 05

3 10

4 15

5 20

CALCULATIONS:

]
1
T
2
T [ A
]
3
T -
4
T [ C L M
K
=

2
r A =
Actual Value
[ Thermal conductivity of the given bar ]
Copper 0.99 cal / sec / cm / C

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

Dated : _______________
62

RESULT:

The thermal conductivity of the material of the given bar by
Searles apparatus is calculated to be __ cal / sec / cm / C


___________________________
Teachers signature
PRECAUTION:

Least count of stop watch should be noted and graduation on
stopwatch should be studied carefully before starting the
experiment.
Diameter of the metallic bar must be measured accurately.
Sides of the bar must be well insulated by wrapping it in a
thick coating of felt within the wooden box.
Water must be circulated around the colder end of the bar at
such a constant rate that there must be a temperature
difference of at least 5C between inlet and out let water.
Readings must be recorded when all thermometers show
steady state.

SOURCES OF ERROR :
Diameter of bar may not be measured accurately.
Bar may not be properly insulated due to which there may be
loss of heat through sides of the bar.
In accurate measurement of rate of flow of water.

Dated : _______________
63

EXPERIMENT NO . 18

OBJECT: To determine the specific rotation of sugar solution by
Polari meter.

APPARATUS: Polari meter, sodium lamp , pure cane sugar ,
balance , measuring cylinder , beaker , etc.

Dated : _______________
64

WORKING FORMULA: The specific rotation of sugar solution is
given by

l m
1000
S
=
u

Where
S is the specific rotation of sugar solution
u is the angle through which the plane polarized light is
rotated by the sugar solution.
m

is the concentration of the sugar solution ( in % ) = Mass
of sugar dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water.
l is the length of the tube filled with the solution through
which light is passed.

OBSERVATIONS:

o Least count of polarimeter scale = d =_________Degrees

o Length of polarimeter tube = l = _____________ cm

o Polarimeter reading for equally dark position with distilled
water = u
1
= ______________Degrees.

S.
NO
Strength of
sugar
solution
m

Polarimeter reading
for equally dark
position with sugar
solution
u
2

Angle of
rotation

u = [u
2
u
1
]
Specific
rotation

l m
1000
u

1 2 Mean
% Deg Deg Deg Deg Deg
1 1%

2 2%

3 3%

4 4%

5 5%

CALCULATIONS:

l m
1000
S
=
u

Dated : _______________
65

Actual Value
[ The specific rotation of cane sugar ]

Cane sugar 66.67

100
Value Actual
Error Of Percentage
=

RESULT:

The specific rotation of sugar solution at _____C is
calculated to be ______________


___________________________
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PRECAUTION:
Least
SOURCES OF ERROR :
Inaccuracy

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