Basic Chemistry Fundamentals Educational Book

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Basic Chemistry Fundamentals Educational Book
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Chapter 1 MATTER
General objectives The student will be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. define the term matter describe the three states of matter in terms of volume, shape, movement of particles and the strength of the attractive forces between the particles identify and name the transitions from one state to another and indicate whether energy is required or released during the transition define the terms pure substance, compound, element and atom define the terms homogeneous matter and heterogeneous matter define the terms physical property and chemical property of a substance define the terms physical change and chemical change Matter and States of Matter Matter is the stuff of which the universe is composed. Matter has two characteristics: it has mass and it occupies space.
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Matter is found in three physical states. The three states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas Properties of a solid: Forces of attraction between particles hold the substance rigid. Have definite shape and volume and cannot be compressed to any significant extent. Have higher densities than liquids (except water) and gases. Some form crystals (snowflakes, sugar, salt) which have characteristic shapes and structures. Properties of a liquid: Forces of attraction between particles are partly overcome allowing for flow. Have a definite volume. The shape is determined by the shape of the container The liquid form of a substance is usually less dense than its solid form (cooking oil). Viscosity measures how easily a liquid will flow (water, alcohol, syrup, tar).
Properties of a gas: Has neither definite shape nor volume (expands to fill the container, regardless of size). Can be compressed (shock absorbers, car tires). Forces of attraction between particles are overcome and the particles move apart from each other enabling them to move about separately. Gases are measured as volume or pressure. States of Matter
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State Solid Liquid Gas
Volume Definite volume Definite volume No definite volume
Shape Definite shape Definite shape No definite shape
Compression No No Yes
Movement of particles Vibrational Fixed Independent beneath the surface Random Independent
Flow No No No
Strength of the attractive forces between the particles Very strong Weak None
Transitions between states: When a substance melts its physical state changes from a solid to a liquid. The opposite is the change from a liquid to a solid called freezing. Vaporization is the conversion of a liquid to a gas. Condensation is the change from a gas to a liquid. During sublimation a solid is converted to a gas. Deposition is process of a gas directly changing into a solid.
+heat +heat
Ice Ice 2.
water
heat of fusion
vapour vapour
heat of vapourization
water
-heat -heat
Pure Substances, Compounds, Elements and the Atom Substance: a particular kind of matter with a definite fixed composition Substances which can not be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reactions are called elements Atom: the smallest unit particle of an element Most substances are chemical combinations of elements. These are called compounds. Compounds are made of elements and can be broken down into elements. Properties of the compound are not usually related to the properties of the elements that compose it. Compounds have the same chemical composition at all times.
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Pure substance: All samples have the same physical and chemical properties Homogeneous = uniform throughout, appears to be one thing pure substances solutions (homogeneous mixtures) Heterogeneous = non-uniform, contains regions with different properties than other regions
Classification of Matter
MATTER
MIXTURES PURE SUBSTANCES
Fixed composition Cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical methods Can only be changed by chemical methods Properties do not vary
Variable composition May be separated by physical methods Different mixtures hay have widely different properties
Physical changes
Homogeneous Mixtures Same composition throughout Components are indistinguishable
Heterogeneous Mixtures Do not have same composition throughout Components are distinguishable
Compounds Can be decomposed into simper substances
Elements Cannot be decomposed into Chemical simpler substances changes
Exercise: Determine if the following samples of matter are homogeneous or heterogeneous mixtures, or (if possible) the samples are pure substances, compounds or elements: 1. 2. 3. 4. gasoline a stream with gravel on the bottom copper metal coffee with milk and sugar
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5. 6. 7. 3.
bread air brass rod
Physical and Chemical Properties of Substances Each substance has a set of properties that are characteristic of that substance, giving it a unique identity. Properties may be physical or chemical. Physical Properties are the characteristics of matter that can be changed without changing its composition Characteristics that are directly observable include: Color Taste Odor Phase (solid, liquid, gas) Density Melting point Boiling point
Chemical Properties are the characteristics that determine how the composition of matter changes as a result of contact with other matter or the influence of energy
Exercise: Determine the physical properties of the following: 1. 2. 3. Lead Air Sea water
4.
Physical and Chemical Changes of Substances
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Physical Changes are changes to matter that do not result in a change the fundamental components that make that substance State Changes boiling, melting, condensing, dissolving Chemical Changes involve a change in the fundamental components of the substance to produce a new substance through a chemical reaction. Reactants Products Evidences of a chemical change include: Formation of a gas Formation of a precipitate Heat produced A chemical reaction is usually accompanied by a physical change but not always vice versa. Examples: Iron is melted. Physical change describes a state change, but the material is still iron Iron combines with oxygen to form rust. Chemical change describes how iron and oxygen react to make a new substance, rust Sugar ferments to form ethyl alcohol. Chemical change describes how sugar forms a new substance (ethyl alcohol) Dying your hair Chemical and physical changes describes how hair reacts with dye thus a colour change and describes how the hair is still hair but a different colour Suntanning Chemical and physical changes describes how the sun reacts with skin cells to produce melanin (brown pigment) and the physical colour change because skin is still skin
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Chapter 1 Exercise Matter 1. Which of the following is a physical change? a. rusting iron b. decomposing meat c. burning gasoline d. cooking an egg e. evaporating water Which of the following is a chemical change? a. Rocks are ground to sand. b. Ice melts. c. Silverware tarnishes. d. Water evaporates. Which of the following describes a chemical property of gold? a. Gold is a soft metal. b. Gold is a good conductor of heat and electricity. c. Gold is a yellow metal. d. Gold is a very dense metal. e. Gold is an inert (nonreactive) metal. Helium is an example of a. a heterogeneous mixture b. a homogeneous mixture c. an element d. a compound A solution can be a heterogeneous or a homogeneous mixture. a. True b. False An element is a collection of a single kind of ________________ Classify each of the following as a physical (P) or a chemical (C) change. a. cooking an egg b. boiling water c. burning gasoline d. decomposing water e. evaporating alcohol f. grinding grain g. fermenting fruit juice h. dissolving sugar in water
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. 7.
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8.
In a chemical change, a. the products are different substances from the starting materials b. a phase change never occurs c. the original material can never be regenerated d. a phase change must occur Classify each of the following as an element (E), a compound (C), or a mixture (M): a. 14K gold b. pure silver c. aluminum d. distilled water e. river water f. brass g. calcium h. sodium chloride (salt) i. air Anything that has mass and volume is called
9.
10.
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Chapter 2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS, AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

General objectives The student will be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. Define the terms element and atom. Describe the subatomic particles, electron, proton and neutron, in terms of their mass, charge, and location in the atom. Define the terms atomic number, mass number and isotope. Describe the properties of electrons. Define and describe the term isotope. Identify the main groups of the periodic table. Explain the differences between metal, nonmetal and metalloid. Modern Atomic Theory 1. 2. The elements are composed of tiny chemically indivisible particles called atoms. An element is a type of matter composed of only one kind of atom. All atoms of a given element have the same chemical properties. They differ chemically from atoms of all other elements. Chemical compounds are formed by the combination of two or more atoms of different elements in whole number ratios. The relative number and arrangement of the different atoms in a compound determine its identity. A chemical reaction (chemical change) is a combination, separation or rearrangement of atoms present in the reacting substances to produce new substances. Atoms cannot be created, destroyed or converted into other kinds of atoms in an ordinary chemical change.
3.
4.
5.
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2.
Subatomic Particles Atoms consist of electrons (negatively charge particles, e-), protons (positively charged particles, p), and neutrons (no electrical charge but has mass, n).
The mass of an atom is extremely small. The mass of a uranium atom (one of the heaviest) is about 4 x 10-23 g. The mass of an electron is about 1837 times lighter that the mass of the neutron. The mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus. Symbol Electron (Richard Crooks) Proton (Ernest Rutherford) Neutron (James Chadwick) eElectric Charge -1 Actual Mass (g) 9.110 x 10-28
+1
1.673 x 10-24
1.675 x 10-24
In other words, the mass of an atom comes from the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The thing that makes those elements different is the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Each element has a unique number of protons and neutrons, thus each element has a different atomic mass.
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3.
Electrons Electrons spin very quickly around the nucleus: a. b. c. d. A shell is sometimes called an orbital or energy level. Shells are areas that surround the center of an atom. The center of the atom is called the nucleus. Electrons live in something called shells.
Not all shells hold the same number of electrons. For the first 18 elements, there are some rules. The first shell only holds two electrons. The second shell only holds eight electrons. The third shell only holds eight electrons (for the first 18 elements). 4. Atomic Number and Mass Number Atomic Number: The identity of an element is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus. The number of protons is also the element number on the periodic table. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as that atoms atomic number. Represented by the symbol Z. Recall, a neutral atom will always contain the same number of electrons and protons. Thus in a neutral atom the atomic number also equals the number of electrons. Mass Number: Remember the relative mass of a neutron is the same as that of a proton (1 amu). The number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is always an integer (whole number). The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called the MASS NUMBER of the atom and is represented by the symbol A. When we talk about the mass of an atom we are referring primarily to the mass of the nucleus. A=N+Z Mass number =#neutrons + #protons Examples: Carbon:
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By locating the element on the periodic table the symbol for carbon is C. The atomic number of carbon is 6. This indicates that the number of electrons, neutrons and protons in the neutral atom is 6 of each. The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons added A=N+Z 6+6 = 12amu Silicon: Symbol: Atomic Number: # Protons # Neutrons # Electrons: Si 14 14 14 14
Atomic Mass (N+Z): 28 amu Exercise: Determine the atomic number, number of protons, electrons and neutrons and the atomic mass of the following: a. Calcium 5. b. Chromium c. Helium d. Oxygen
Isotopes and Isotopic Notation Definition: Isotopes are atoms that have the same number of electrons and protons but different number of neutrons. Naturally occurring elements have at least two or more isotopes except Be, F, Al, P and As which have only one stable isotope as their other isotopes have decayed by the radioactive process.
Isotopic Notation
AX Z
The molar mass (discussed later) is a combination of the masses and relative abundances of all the isotopes of the element. Examples: Uranium
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234 U 92 Percent Abundance: 99.27
235 U 92 0.72
238 U 92 0.0057
Hydrogen 1H 1
Common Hydrogen Protium
2H 1
Heavy Water Deuterium
3H 1
Tritium
Percent: Abundance 6.
99.985%
0.015%
The Periodic Table Periodic Law: The properties of the chemical elements recur periodically when the elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic number. Upon further study it turns out that the periodicity of the properties of the elements is due to the recurring similarities of their electron structures.
Periods horizontal rows
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elements in a period have the same number of shells (shells are the electron orbits) Groups vertical columns -groups or families are numbered as follows: IA-VIIA (1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17) are main group elements or representative elements 1B VIIB (3 12) are transition elements -elements in a group have the same number of electrons in their outer shell Zig zag line separates the metals and the nonmetals Groups (specific) Representative Metals Alkali Metals Group IA Alkali Earth Metals Group IIA Transition Metals Groups IB VIIB Inner Transition Metals Bottom two rows Lanthanoids Actinoids Metalloids Generally on either side of the zig zag Nonmetals Nitrogen Family Group V Oxygen Family Group VI Halogens Group VII Noble Gases Group VIII The position of an element on the table allows us to predict its properties. Metals about 75% of all the elements lustrous, malleable, ductile, conduct heat and electricity Nonmetals dull, brittle, insulators Metalloids also know as semi-metals some properties of both metals & nonmetals
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Exercise Use the following periodic table to identify the main groups. Identify at least one element in each group.
1 1A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18 8A
2A
3A
4A
5A
6A 7A
7.
Elements Memorize the symbols and names of the following elements: Ag Al Ar As B Ba Be Silver Aluminum Argon Arsenic Boron Barium Beryllium I K Kr Li Mg Mn N
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Iodine Potassium Kripton Lithium Magnesium Manganese Nitrogen

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Br C Ca Cl Co Cr Cu F Fe Ga Ge H He Hg
Bromine Carbon Calcium Chlorine Cobalt Chromium Copper Fluorine Iron Gallium Germanium Hydrogen Helium Mercury
Na Ne Ni O P Pb Pt S Sc Se Si Sn Ti V Zn
Sodium Neon Nickel Oxygen Phosphorous Lead Platinum Sulfur Scandium Selenium Silicon Tin Titanium Vanadium Zinc
Exercise: 1. 2. Locate each element on the periodic table. Complete the following worksheet:
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Chpter 2 Exercise Atoms, Elements and the Periodic Table Multiple Choice 1. The nucleus of an atom a. b. c. d. 2. contains the same number of neutrons for all elements is negatively charged because the presence of electrons is neutral because it contains only neutrons contains most of the mass of the atom e. contains all protons and electrons
Which statement best applies to a neutron? a. 0 amu, 0 charge d. 0 amu, -1 charge b. 1 amu, -1 charge d. 1 amu, 0 charge c. 1 amu, +1 charge
Fill in the Blank 3. In a neutral atom, the number of protons. is the same as the number of
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4. 5.
The total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus is called the Give the symbol: Cobalt Krypton Oxygen Tin Carbon Silver Magnesium Bromine Platinum Selenium 6. Give the name: (Correct spelling is required) Ar Fl Be Mn Sc V Ni Fe P K
7. 8.
What are the properties of metals and metalloids? What does the zigzag line on the periodic table indicate?
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Chapter 3 COMPOUNDS AND MOLECULES

General Objectives The Student will be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. Identify cations and anions. Predict ions from the periodic table Define ionic and covalent bonding. Distinguish between ionic and covalent bonding. Predict simple chemical formulas using bonding rules. Name simple ionic and covalent compounds using naming rules. Ions Ions are atoms with either extra electrons or missing electrons. A normal atom is called neutral. That is when an atom has a number of electrons equal to the atomic number. Cations: If an atom loses one or more electrons the ion has a positive charge. Cations have an empty valence shell. Anions: If an atom gains an electron it is negatively charged and called an anion. Anions have 8e- in the valence shell. Predicting Ions from the Periodic Table: Using the periodic table we can predict the type of ion an element will form. The number of valence electrons for representative elements in a group is the same as the periodic table group number. Groups 1 and 2 form cations with +1 and +2 charges respectively. Groups 4, 5, 6, and 7 form anions with 4, -3, -2, and 1 respectively. Group 3 can have either positive or negative charges depending upon the chemical environment. Sodium is found in group 1 of the periodic table and is a cation with a single positive charge Na+1 Chlorine is found in group 7 of the periodic table and is an anion with a single negative charge Cl-1 Exercise: Determine the type of ion and charge expected for the following:
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a. Mg 2. Ionic Bonding
b. P
c. Br
d. K
e. O
Matter does not fly apart spontaneously. Through chemical reactions atoms attain more stable states at lower chemical potential energy levels. Atoms react chemically by losing, gaining or sharing electrons. Forces come from electron transferring and sharing interactions. Chemical bonds: forces that hold oppositely charged ions together. Or: forces that bind atoms together in molecules. There are two types of bonds ionic or covalent. Ionic Bond: Ionic bonds are formed by transferring electrons between atoms. Most commonly ionic bonds are between metals and non-metals. Most ionic compounds are solids and have definite geometric structure called crystals. Strong electrostatic forces hold the ions in a fixed position in crystal form. Ionically bonded atoms are generally called compounds and are referred to as "formula units" instead of a molecules. Common ionic compounds: NaCI, MgCI2, Na2S, MgS Formula unit: two or more ions "plucked" from a much larger array of ions. NaCI exists as a crystal composed of a 1:1 ratio of Na and CI. Compounds: distinct substances -containing 2 or more elements chemically combined in definite proportions by weight. Most compounds can be decomposed into simpler substance (simpler compounds or elements). 3. Covalent Bonding A covalent bond occurs when electrons are shared between atoms. This generally occurs between non-metals and non-metals. Covalent bonds are the most common bonds found in chemistry. Covalently bonded atoms form molecules. Molecule: the smallest uncharged individual unit of a compound formed by the union of 2 or more atoms.
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Example:
4.
Naming There are several rules for naming inorganic compounds. The basic characteristics of a chemical formula are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. contains symbols of all elements in the compound no subscript is used to represent 1 atom when more than 1 atom of an element, use a subscript to the right of the symbol when more than one of a group of atoms, place brackets around the group followed by a subscript for the number of groups formulas show only the number and kind of atom, they do not show arrangement of atoms in the compound or how they are chemically bonded to one another
Binary ionic compounds: contain two different elements, a metal and a nonmetal. Name the cation first then name the anion. Change the anion name to end in ide. Na + Sodium Zn Zinc + Cl chlorine 2Cl chlorine NaCl sodium chloride ZnCl2 zinc chloride
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Compounds containing two nonmentals (binary covalent): contain two different nonmetals. The number of atoms of each element is indicated by a greek prefix. Except in the case of mono, which is rarely used. (1) Carbon + (1) Oxygen = Carbon monoxide (1) Carbon + (2) Oxygen = Carbon dioxide (1) Carbon + (4) Chlorine = Carbon tetrachloride Binary Acids: derived from hydrogen and some other nonmetal. The formula of binary acids is always followed by (aq) annotation. HCl(aq) 1. 2. 3. 4. take the stem of the other nonmetal: chlor put hydro in front of it: hydrochlor add the suffix ic: hydrochloric add the word acid: hydrochloric acid
Salts of binary acids: produced by replacing one or more hydrogens of a binary acid with a metal ion. These salts are named as other binary ionic compounds. Exercise: Name the following compounds: HF H2S NaBr MgCl2 N2O4 PCl3 AlCl3
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Chapter 3 Exercise Compounds and Molecules 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is an anion? What types of elements form cations? What is an ionic bond? When hydrogen and a halogen (example fluorine) combine what does it form? Predict the ions of the following: O Ca K 6. Name the following: HCl(aq) OF2 As4O6 7. Write the formula for the following: Carbon dioxide Diphosphorus pentoxide Bromic Acid 8. Complete the following bonding combinations Mg + O Sulphur Iodine Barium
Al + N K + Br Ca + S
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Chapter 4 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

General Objectives: The student will be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. Define chemical reaction, reactant and product. Balance simple chemical reactions. Identify combination, decomposition, single displacement, double displacement and hydrocarbon combustion reactions based on given chemical equations. Predict the products of chemical reactions given the reactants. Terminology Chemical reaction: the process that goes on during the conversion of reactants into products. Reactant: a starting material for a chemical reaction; a substance. Product: a substance produced in the course of a chemical reaction by the transformation of one or more reactants. Chemical equation: a notation for showing what takes place in a chemical reaction. The chemical formulas for all reactants are written on the left side of the arrow and the chemical formulas of the products are written on the right side. 2. Writing Chemical Equations 1. 2. 3. 4. Write the reaction process as: Reactants Products Establish the correct formulas for the reactants and products. Separate reactants by a + and products by a + Place integral numbers in front of each compound or element so as to balance the number of atoms on the left with the number of atoms on the right. Reactants Product Magnesium Oxide
Example:
Magnesium + Oxygen
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becomes: Definition:
Mg + 2Mg +
02 02
MgO 2MgO
A balanced chemical equation contains the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation.
5. 6.
A whole number integer in front of a reactant or product multiplies every atom in the compound by that integer. A subscript to an atom within an ion or compound multiplies only the atom by that integer. 2H2S04 two hydrogens one four sulphuroxygens Total # of oxygens 8
Example: Everything Multiplied by 2
Total # of hydrogens =4 7.
Total # of sulphurs = 2
A number outside a bracket indicates everything inside the bracket multiplied by the integer.
Example: Ca(OH)2 (NH4)2S04 Ca3(P04)2 (count the number of atoms of each element in the above compounds) Note: Once a correct chemical formula has been established, it must not be changed in order to balance an equation. Note: 8. When balancing equations, use the smallest whole number integers. When writing chemical equations annotations are used. The physical states of the products and reactants are expressed using subscripts. Occasionally symbols are used to denote other occurrences of the reaction. The list below includes the most commonly used annotation: (g) (l) (s) (aq) Examples: gas liquid solid aqueous (dissolved in water) gas is produced solid is formed heat is added (written above the arrow)
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NaCl(aq)sodium chloride dissolved in water NaCl(s) sodium chloride exists as a solid in the reaction O2(g) oxygen gas Hg(l) mercury liquid Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2+ H2 Solid zinc reacted with hydrochloric acid (remember acids are always annotated with (aq) otherwise it would be hydrogen chloride) with heat added produces zinc chloride solid (or precipitate) and the evolution of hydrogen gas 3. Types of chemical reactions Combination or Synthesis Reaction 2 or more reactants (elements or compounds) combine to give one product General Form: Example: A 2Mg + + B O2 AB 2MgO
Decomposition Reaction one reactant is decomposed or broken down to give 2 or more products General Form: Example: AB 2HgO A 2Hg + + B O2
Single Displacement or Single Replacement Reaction one element reacts with one compound to produce one new element and one new compound General Form: Example: A Zn + + BC AC ZnCl2 + + B H2
2HCl
Double Displacement or Double Replacement Reaction 2 compounds exchange partners with each other to produce 2 different compounds General Form: AB + CD AD + CB
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Pb(NO3)2 + KI PbI2 + 2KNO3 HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O * *this type of double displacement reaction is also known as a neutralization reaction Example: Hydrocarbon Combustion substances containing H and C are burned in 02 to produce C02 and H20 Example: C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
Exercise: Balance the following reactions and identify the type of reaction, predict the products if necessary: 1. 2. 3. 4. HCl + Mg + CO2 + + H2O H2O + + O2 CO2
C3H5N3O9 (l) N2 NaHCO3
Na2CO3
Electrolytes, strong acids, strong bases and soluble salts The Modern Meaning of Strong: Strong electrolytes are 100% dissociated into ions in solution. The molecule, as such, does not exist in solution. The only things present are ions. Strong electrolytes include: 1. 2. 3. strong acids (HCl is a strong acid. Only H+ and Cl- exist in solution) strong bases (NaOH is a strong base. Only Na+ and OH- exist in the solution.) soluble salts (Sodium chloride is a soluble salt. Only Na+ and Cl- exist in solution.)
Strong Acids: HCl HNO3 H2SO4 HBr HI HClO4 hydrochloric acid nitric acid sulfuric acid hydrobromic acid hydroiodic acid perchloric acid
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(You ought to memorize this list, because almost every other acid is weak.) Three points about the above list: 1.
2.
The 100% dissociation idea begins to break down as solutions become more concentrated. Usually if the acid is 100% dissociated in solutions of 1.0 molar or less, it is called strong. Sulfuric acid is considered strong only when it dissociates to H+ and HSO4-.
Strong Bases: LiOH NaOH KOH RbOH CsOH lithium hydroxide sodium hydroxide potassium hydroxide rubidium hydroxide cesium hydroxide
(Memorize the list, since everything else is weak.) Soluble Salts: All soluble salts are considered to be strong electrolytes. Examples and Exercises: Strong acid: Try: HBr(aq) H+(aq) + Br-(aq) H2SO4(aq) HCl(aq) Strong base: Try: RbOH(aq) Rb+(aq) + OH-(aq) NaOH(aq) KOH(aq)
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Soluble salts: Try:
LiCl(aq) Li+(aq) + Cl-(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq) NiSO4(aq)
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Chapter 4 Exercise CHEMICAL REACTIONS 1 Balance the following equations and identify type of reaction. a. b. c. d. 2 NaHCO3 S8 Zn + + O2 Na2CO3 + SO2 ZnCl2 CO2 + H2O + + Ag O2 H2O + CO2
AgCl +
C3H5N3O9 (l) N2
Predict the products for the following reactions, balance the equation and identify the type of reaction. a. b. c. d. HCl CH4 H2 + + + Mg O2 Br2 + HCl
Mg(OH)2
3.
Why are strong acids and bases strong?
4.
Show the dissociation of the following: HI HNO3 NaOH Ca(NO3)2 NaBr
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Chapter 5 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

General Objectives: The student should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Perform calculations to find number of atoms, molecules and moles of a given substance. Calculate the formula mass of ionic compounds. Calculate the molecular mass of covalent compounds Determine the number of moles, molar mass and mass of a given compound. Perform stoichiometric calculations on simple chemical reactions. Identify the limiting reagent, excess reagent and percent yield of a given chemical reaction. The Mole Symbol: mol A mole is defined as the number equal to the number of carbon atoms in 12.01 grams of carbon. A convenient number of atoms, ions or molecules to work with in the laboratory. One mol of something consists of 6.022 x 1023 units of that substance. AVOGADROS NUMBER 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 units, atoms or particles
1.
Example: If the population of a country is 225 000 000 and I want to distribute 1mol of pennies among them, how many dollars would each person get? Given: 1mol of pennies 1mol = 6.022 x 1023 1 dollar = 100 pennies population = 225 000 000 people Want: dollars per person 1mol of pennies = 6.022 x 1023 6.022 x 1023 pennies x 1 dollar = 6.022 x 1021 dollars
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100 pennies 6.022 x 1021 dollars 225 000 000 people Exercise How many atoms are in each of the following: a) 1mol Na b) 5mol C = 2.68 x 1015 dollars per person
How many moles are in each of the following a) 6.00 x 1019 molecules of CO2 b) 5.4 x 1022 atoms of Ne
How many molecules are contained in each of the following: a) 2. 1.26mol O2 b) 0.56mol C6H6
Formula mass / formula weight Formula Mass or Formula Weight are terms used when determining the atomic mass (amu) for ionic compounds. Formula mass = sum of atomic masses in the formula unit Example: The formula mass of magnesium chloride MgCl2 1 atom of magnesium and 2 atoms of chlorine 1 x 24.31 amu 2 x 35.45 amu Formula mass Exercise: Determine the formula mass for the following: a) BaF2 b) Ca(NO3)2 = = = 24.31 amu 70.90 amu 95.21 amu
3.
Molecular mass
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Molecular mass is the term used when determining the atomic mass (amu) of covalent compounds. Molecular mass = sum of atomic masses in the molecule Example: The formula mass of water H2O 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen 2 x 1.008 amu 1 x 16.00 amu Molecular mass Exercise: Determine the molecular mass for the following: a) 4. P2O5 b) NO2 = = = 2.016 amu 32.00 amu 34.02 amu
Molar mass The average mass of one mole of atoms of an element (the average value takes into account all possible isotopes and their percent abundance in nature). The mole is defined as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12 isotope. The mass of one mole of all other atoms is determined relative to the mass of one mole of carbon-12. The molar mass is shown on the periodic table under the symbol. Example: The mass of one mole of chlorine atoms is 35.45 g (taking into account chlorine is composed of several isotopes, it is an average value). MMCl = 35.45 g/mol Molar mass is a general term which may refer to the mass of one mole of atoms, molecules, formula units, etc. In order to avoid confusion the term atomic molar mass should be used to refer to the mass of one mole of atoms of an element. The molar mass of compounds may be determined from the atomic molar masses of their components (elements) The molar mass of any substance in grams per mole is numerically equal to the atomic, molecular, or formula mass of that substance in atomic mass units. Example: Atomic molar mass of O is 16.00g/mol
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Molar mass of O2 is (2 oxygen atoms x 16.00g/mol) 32.00g/mol Molar mass of BaCl2 is: 1 atom of Ba = 137.3g/mol 2 atoms of Cl = 2 x 35.45g/mol Molar mass 208.2g/mol Exercise: Determine the molar mass for the following: a) c) Ba3(PO4)2 HF b) d) NiSO45H2O Br2
Determine the number of moles of the following compounds: a) 3.56g NaOH b) 5.7g NCl3
Determine the mass of the following compounds or elements: a) c) 0.24mol Cu 0.098mol Na2CO3 b) d) 1.78mol Li 0.15mol As2O3
Determine the number of atoms of the following elements: a) 4. 1.5g Fe b) 7.6g S
Stoichiometry The stoichiometry of a reaction is the mass relationships among reactants and products in the reaction. We can determine how much reactants we need for a reaction to get a certain amount of product, or we can determine the theoretical yield based on the amount of each or both of the reactants.
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To determine amounts of reagents needed or products produced: 1. 2. balance the equation determine what is given and what is wanted
Limiting reagent: is the reactant that is used up first in the reaction since the maximum amount of product formed depends on how much of this reactant was originally present.
Excess reagents: other reactants that are present in quantities greater than those needed to react with the quantity of limiting reagent. Yields of reactions: Theoretical yield: the amount of product that would result if all the limiting reagent is reacted. Actual yield: the quantity of product that actually results from a reaction Percent yield: the proportion of the actual yield to the theoretical yield % yield = Exercise: 2S(g) + 3O2(g) 2SO3(g) if 3.2g S and 9.0g O2 react a) b) c) d) determine the Limiting reagent the theoretical yield of SO3 in grams % yield if 5.0g SO3 are formed the amount of excess reagent remaining actual yield theoretical yield x 100%
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Chapter 5 Exercise Chemical Calculations 1. Complete the table using the example shown: Compound 4 CaBr2 Ag2O 3 Al2O3 CCl4 N2O4 5 HgI 2. Moles of Compound 4 Moles of 1st Element Ca = 4 Moles of 2nd Element Br = 8
A raindrop contains about 0.05 grams of water. a. b. c. d. e How many moles of water are in a raindrop? How many molecules of water are in a raindrop? How many moles of hydrogen are in a raindrop? How many atoms of hydrogen are in a raindrop? How many molecules of water are in a raindrop?
3.
Define theoretical yield.
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Chapter 6 CORROSION
General Objectives: The student should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 1. Briefly describe corrosion. Outline the corrosion of iron. Describe three methods of corrosion prevention. Corrosion Corrosion represents returning metals to the natural state (ore) and involves oxidation of the metal. It is the reverse of metal purification. Corrosion of a metal is undesirable because, as the metal is converted to its oxide, the bulk of the metal loses its strength, flexibility, and other metallic properties. If the metal were part of some constructed item, the item would slowly disintegrate. Oxidation of Metals: Oxidation depends on reduction potential of metal if oxidation occurs O2: S2-: CO2: metal + O2 metal oxide (usually as H2S(g) sour gas) metal + H2S metal sulfide + H2(g) (with H2O forms H2(g) + CO32-)
Course Manual
metal +CO2 +H2O H2(g) + metal carbonate 2. Corrosion of Iron Iron requires O2 and H2O to be present - anions Cl- & H+ help accelerate corrosion - relative humdity should be >50% - if a less active metal is connected a natural galvanic cell is created - when cracks or strains appear exposed metal will corrode - painted surfaces can become pitted
Reaction Mechanism: 1. 2. 3. 4. Fe Fe2+ + 2eH+ +e- H(aq) 4H(aq) +O2(g) 2H2O Fe2+ + O2 + 10H2O Fe2O33H2O + 8H+ Overall: 4Fe + 3O2 + 6H2O 2Fe2O33H2O
3. Controlling Corrosion Protective Coatings -cover it - grease, paint, plastic -formation of a passive surface Why is aluminum not easily corroded? Aluminum is a very reactive metal when freshly isolated in the pure state. However, on standing for even a relatively short period of time, aluminum metal forms a thin coating of Al203 on its surface from reaction with atmospheric oxygen. This coating of Al2O3 is much less reactive than the metal and serves to protect the surface of the metal from further attack. Zn forms a stable carbonate Zn has been used to coat steel galvanizing
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Sn forms a protective oxide tin plating HOWEVER, if it cracks it accelerates the corrosion Cr chrome plating forms a passive oxide if peeled off, Fe corrodes -use of oxides: (oxidizing mixtures) to passivate the Fe surface. Bluing agents are applied by heating with chemicals. -effects of alloying: most steels contain additives such as chromium or nickel. These additives are able to form protective oxide coatings on the surface of the steel which tend to prevent further oxidation.
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection -apply a current to the metal that requires protection -the protected metal then passes the current to material that can be harmlessly corroded Sacrificial Anode -uses a metal which preferentially oxidizes (sacrificial anode) rather than the iron of the tank or pipe -for example, when magnesium is attached to iron and both metals are in contact with the same environment (usually moist soil or water), the magnesium will corrode preferentially and the iron is protected. (See Appendix for additional information about CORROSION)
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Chapter 6 Exercise Corrosion of Metals 1. Describe the effects corrosion has on metals.
2.
Briefly describe one method of corrosion prevention.
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CORROSION
A. Introduction Corrosion refers to the conversion of metals or alloys to their compounds, usually oxides, carbonates or sulfides. Corrosion represents a return of the metal to an ore-like state, with complete loss of its metallic properties. Most naturally occurring ores are oxides, carbonates or sulfides. Energy is required to convert these ores to metals. Corrosion, the reverse process, occurs spontaneously under certain conditions. Metals vary greatly in their susceptibility to atmospheric and chemical corrosion. Those metals that are most easily obtained from their ores and require the least energy in smelting are generally least prone to corrosion. Those metals that are reduced with most difficulty tend to revert most readily to their natural oxidized state. The Activity Series or a Table of Standard Reduction Potentials can be used to determine the relative ease of oxidation of metals. The higher a metal appears on the series or table, the more easily it is oxidized. Corrosion is of considerable economic consequence with an estimated 20% of the iron and steel produced annually going to replace that lost by corrosion. Corrosion studies are undertaken to reduce the economic losses due to the corrosion of pipelines, tanks, cars, machines, bridges, etc. Studies are required to improve the safety of operating equipment such as pressure vessels, boilers, turbine blades and airplane components which can fail through the results of corrosion. Corrosion studies are also important from the point of view of conservation of the worlds limited metal resources and the energy and water reserves required to produce the metals. B. Oxidizing Agents The corrosion process involves the oxidation of metals. In oxidation, metal atoms lose electrons to form cations. The most common oxidizing agent for corrosion reactions is oxygen gas from the atmosphere. The oxygen may react by itself or it may react in conjunction with water. Active metals such as aluminum and magnesium react readily with oxygen in the atmosphere, as shown by the following reactions: 4 Al(s) 2 Mg(s) + + 3 O2(g) O2(g) 2 A12O3(s) 2 MgO(s)
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The oxide film which forms on the surface of the aluminum adheres tightly to the surface of the metal and prevents further corrosion. The oxide film that forms on magnesium metal is not quite so impervious but it does slow further oxidation. Very often, corrosion takes place in aqueous solutions. A standard reduction potential table is useful to determine possible corrosion reactions. Two additional reduction half reactions which are valuable in corrosion studies involve the gases, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. CO2(g) H2S(g) + + H2O(l) + 2e 2 eH2(g) + S2-(aq) or (s) H2(g) + CO32-(aq) or (s)
Oxidation-reduction half reactions can be used to write equations for many corrosion reactions. Example: Silver tarnishes in the presence of hydrogen sulfide gas. The reaction takes place in dry air. H2S(g) + 2e H2(g) + S2-(s) 2 [ Ag(s) Ag+(s) + e- ] H2(g) + 2
reduction: oxidation:
overall: Ag+(s) [the Ag+(s) and S2-(s) exist as Ag2S(s)] C. Corrosion of Iron
H2S(g) +
+ 2 Ag(s) 2S (s)
The corrosion of iron deserves particular attention because of the importance of iron and steel as structural materials. Both oxygen and water must be present for rapid rusting of iron at ordinary temperatures. The corrosion of iron is accelerated by the presence of electrolytes (especially acids), contact with less active metals, strains in the metal and the presence of rust itself. A complex reaction, like the rusting or iron, takes place in a series of steps called a reaction mechanism. The sum of the steps in the reaction mechanism gives the overall reaction. The following reaction mechanism has been proposed for the rusting of iron. Step 1: 4 [ Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2e- ]
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Step 2: Step 3: Step 4: Overall:
8 [ H+(aq) 2 [ 4 H(ads) 4 Fe2+(aq) 4 Fe(s)
e+
O2(g)
H(ads) ] 2 H20(l) ] 6 H2O(l) 2 Fe2O33 H2O(s) + 8 H+(aq)
+ O2(g) + 3 O2(g) +
+ 10 H20(l)
2 Fe2033 H20(s)
In Step 1 the iron loses two electrons to form iron (II) ions. Step 1 cannot proceed without some means of removing electrons. Most aqueous solutions contain at least a small concentration of hydrogen ions that can pick up these electrons as shown in Step 2. The hydrogen atoms formed in Step 2 might be expected to form hydrogen molecules, but hydrogen gas is not observed in rust formation in neutral solutions. The hydrogen atoms are adsorbed onto the surface of the iron. Note that hydrogen ions are a catalyst for this reaction since they react in Step 2 and are regenerated in Step 4. The mechanism proposed for the corrosion of iron accounts for the observations made about rusting. The observation that both oxygen and water are necessary for the formation of rust is accounted for by Steps 3 and 4. This explains why the rusting of exposed iron is almost negligible when the relative humidity is less than 50%. For example, in Dehli, India, there is an iron pillar which is about 1500 years old. Although the metal is unprotected it has scarcely deteriorated because of the dry unpolluted atmosphere. In general atmospheric corrosion of iron becomes significant when the relative humidity is above 60%. The proposed mechanism for iron corrosion also explains why the corrosion of cast iron boilers is slow when the hot water is deaerated. Rusting is more rapid in the presence of electrolytes which can function as charge carriers and accelerate Steps 1 and 2. For this reason ships rust more rapidly in seawater than in fresh water and cars rust more rapidly where sodium chloride is present from winter salting of roads. In addition the chloride ions inhibit the formation of a protective oxide coating. If a hydroscopic compound like calcium chloride is used in salting roads, the moisture retained in the hydrated calcium chloride expedites Step 4. Corrosion of iron is particularly rapid in acidic solutions and hydrogen gas is generally evolved. This observation is accounted for by Step 1. The higher concentration of hydrogen ions results in sufficient hydrogen atoms to form hydrogen gas. Air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides form acids in water and increase the corrosive action of rainwater. Rainwater having a pH as low as 4 has been reported. Such acid rains can cause the metal on cars to corrode rapidly. When iron and copper pipes are connected the iron rusts more rapidly than usual. A household example of this is the connection between a copper water pipe and a steel water tank. Electrons released by the formation of iron (II) ions in Step 1 repel each other and flow from the iron to the copper. This removes the excess negative charge from the iron
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and allows more iron (II) ions to form. Aqueous hydrogen ions are attracted to the copper and are reduced. Hydrogen atoms do not adhere as well to copper as they do to iron and as a result, Step 3 of the proposed mechanism is accelerated. The observation that rusting is most severe around points of stress or strain in the metal is probably due to the continual breaking of the protective oxide coat, exposing the underlying metal to more oxidation. The acceleration of rusting by the presence of rust itself is likely the result of the water retained in the rough corroded surface. One of the strongest supports for the stepwise rusting mechanism comes from observations of painted steel. When the paint coat is scratched or broken, the steel corrodes underneath the paint where the oxygen supply is restricted. See Figure 1. Where the oxygen supply is limited, iron (II) ions diffuse before encountering enough oxygen to be oxidized to iron (Ill) ions, forming the hydrated iron (III) oxide as shown in Step 4 4 Fe2+(aq) + O2(g) + 10 H2O(l) 2 Fe2O33 H2O(s). This means that the rust may deposit some distance away from the point where pitting (eating away the metal surface) occurs, thus preventing the formation of a protective oxide coating on the metal. The result is that the rust forms on the surface of the paint where the oxygen is plentiful and pitting occurs under the paint where the oxygen supply is restricted. A small spot of rust on a fender is usually a sign of a more serious problem under the paint.
Figure 1 Corrosion of Painted Iron D. Protective Coatings
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In order to minimize the damaging effects of corrosion, a number of techniques have been developed to protect the metal. The most direct means is to coat the surface of the metal to prevent its contact with oxidizing agents. One way of doing this is to coat the surface of the metal with grease, paint, or plastic. As already noted, some metals form an outer passive coat when exposed to the environment. With other metals, the protective coating can be formed by treatment with certain chemicals. Aluminum Aluminum airplanes, cooking pots, and pop cans last a long time despite the ease of oxidation of aluminum. When aluminum is exposed to air a tightly adhering layer of aluminum oxide rapidly forms. The crystal structure of aluminum oxide and aluminum metal is such that there is essentially a perfect fit between the oxide layer and the metal. Because of this oxide layer, aluminum becomes more difficult to oxidize than copper and almost as difficult as silver. If the metal surface is scratched, the oxide layer rapidly reforms. However, aluminum undergoes significant corrosion in the presence of the chloride ion. The crystalline continuity between aluminum and its oxide is disrupted by the presence of an occasional chloride ion. Wherever such disruptions occur the oxide coating is broken and the break develops into an area where further oxidation of aluminum occurs.
Aluminum Corrosion Zinc Zinc also might be expected to undergo easy oxidation but when exposed to the atmosphere it
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reacts with carbon dioxide and water to form a passive coating of basic zinc carbonate, ZnCO3Zn(OH)2(s). The formation of basic zinc carbonate can be represented by the following equations: oxidation: reduction: Zn(s) CO2(g) + H2O(l) Zn2+(aq)+ + 2 e2 e- H2(g) + CO32-(aq)
Zn(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)+ CO32-(aq) Zn2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) ZnCO3(s) Zn(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2(g) + ZnCO3(s)
overall:
oxidation: reduction:
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2 e2 H2O(l) + 2 e- 2 OH-(aq) + H2(g) Zn(s) + 2 H2O(l) Zn2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) + H2(g) + Zn(OH)2(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s) Zn(s) + 2 H2O(l) Zn(OH)2(s)
overall:
The zinc carbonate and zinc hydroxide are formed simultaneously and they combine to form a basic carbonate. ZnCO3(s) + Zn(OH)2(s) ZnCO3Zn(OH)2(s) Zinc can be used to protect steel from corrosion. In a process called galvanizing, steel has a thin coating of zinc applied to all sides of it. The zinc can be applied by dipping, spraying or electrodeposition. On contact with air the zinc forms a protective coating of basic zinc carbonate. Since zinc is more easily oxidized than iron, if the zinc surface is broken so that both zinc and iron are exposed, it is the zinc that is preferentially oxidized. The protective coating that forms on the exposed zinc covers the steel as well. Cadmium can be used in a similar manner as a sacrificial coating. Tin Tin forms a self protecting oxide coat on exposure to air which accounts for its use in making tin cans. Manufacture of tin cans consists of coating steel cans with a layer of tin. Tin is generally electrodeposited because this produces a thin, uniform layer relatively
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free from defects. Even if tin does react with the contents of the can, the non-toxic nature of tin compounds makes tin plate ideal for handling beverages and foods. However, if the tin coating is broken the underlying steel oxidizes more readily than the tin and rusting proceeds more rapidly than if the steel had been unprotected. The situation here is analogous to the corrosion of iron pipes which are connected to copper. The electrons released by the oxidation of the iron flow to the tin and accelerate the oxidation of the iron.
Corrosion of a Tin Can: Tin forms a noble coating and iron corrodes first wherever a crack in the tin layer forms. Chromium On exposure to air, chromium forms a protective oxide coating that has the additional advantage of taking a high polish. The chrome decorations on older cars was made of steel which was electroplated with chromium, usually with intervening layers of copper and nickel to improve adhesion and durability. Unprotected chromium is more easily oxidized than iron, but with its passive oxide layer chromium is less easily oxidized than
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iron. When the chrome plating on a car is scratched, exposing the chromium and the iron, the chromium forms a passive oxide coating. This oxide coating is very thin and does not cover the exposed iron. The exposed iron corrodes in preference to the passivated chromium. Copper Copper exposed to the atmosphere would not be expected to corrode to any great extent because it is quite difficult to oxidize. (Recall the ease of reduction of copper) The corrosion of copper is further inhibited by the formation of basic copper (II) carbonate, CuCO3Cu(OH)2(s), layer. This layer, called patina, creates the green colour of weathered copper roofs and bronze statues. Iron Unlike the passive oxide, carbonate and hydroxide coating already mentioned, that of iron does not normally adhere well to the metal surface. The reddish oxide found on untreated iron slowly flakes off, exposing additional metal for corrosion. In addition, the oxide layer retains moisture which accelerates rusting. However, iron can be passivated by suitable chemical treatment. For example, concentrated nitric acid oxidizes the surface of iron to a layer of iron (III) oxide which protects the surface from further corrosion. If the oxide coating is scratched there is a rapid attack on the underlying metal. A more permanent gun blue protective layer can be obtained by dipping the iron into a strong oxidizing agent such as molten potassium nitrate. These thicker passive coatings .are composed of adherent, hard layers of Fe3O4 (Fe203FeO). Another way of producing protective oxide coatings on iron is by using dilute solutions of oxidizing agents such as potassium dichromate or sodium chromate. Chromate compounds are frequently used as rust inhibitors in circulating water coolers. Anticorrosion paints contain oxidizing agents such as zinc chromate, lead chromate, or mercury (II) oxide which react with the iron to form a protective oxide layer. Most iron alloys are more resistant to corrosion than is pure iron. In alloys containing as little as 1% carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, nickel, chromium or copper, the rust films tent to be compact and adherent. The best known corrosion resistant iron alloys are the stainless steels which contain at least 10% chromium. The oxidation of chromium to form a film of chromium (III) oxide provides a high corrosion resistance to these alloys. Most stainless steels are resistant to rusting under most conditions, but they will corrode in environments containing appreciable concentrations of chloride or bromide ions. (Note the similarity to aluminum in this regard)
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During corrosion the metal is oxidized, that is, it undergoes the same chemical change as the anode of an electrochemical cell. One effective way of preventing the corrosion of a metal is by supplying it with electrons, that is, by making it cathodic. This is done either by the use of impressed electrical currents or by sacrificial anodes. E. Impressed Currents The use of impressed currents involves using an external source to supply electrons to the cathode while removing them from the anode. Ion migration through the ground water completes the circuit. An impressed direct current from a D.C. generator or an A.C. power source with a rectifier may be used. One terminal is connected to a relatively insoluble anode and the other to the metal work to be protected. The anode often consists of a mass of granular carbon pressed together between carbon bars. Since oxides of carbon are formed to some extent at the anode, the carbon rods need to be replaced occasionally. Other anodes that are sometimes used include scrap iron, lead alloys, and titanium coated with platinum. Theoretically, it would be possible to use cathodic protection as the sole means of avoiding corrosion and thus dispense with protective coatings. To do this a very large current would be needed and the procedure would be very expensive. It is more economical to apply a reasonably good protective coating and then employ a relatively small current to prevent corrosion at the points where the surface coating is damaged.
One problem with using an impressed current provided by an external source is that some of the current may join another pipe which does not form part of the protection scheme. The unprotected pipe will act as the anode and will be badly corroded.
Cathodic Protection Using Impressed Currents Large pipelines are protected with impressed currents. Smaller, feeder pipelines are protected by sacrificial anodes.
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F.
Sacrificial Anodes An iron pipe and the magnesium bar are joined with a wire and in contact with ground water which contains dissolved oxygen. The magnesium bar serves as the anode of the cell since it is the site of oxidation. The electrons released by the oxidation of the magnesium flow along the wire to the iron pipe where the reduction reaction takes place. The iron pipe serves as the cathode in this cell since it is the site where reduction of the O2(g) and 2 H2O(l) takes place. The iron itself does not take part in the reaction. The example above illustrates the operation of a sacrificial anode. A sacrificial anode is made of a metal which is more easily oxidized than the metal to be protected. For example, when magnesium is attached to iron and both metals are in contact with the same electrolyte the magnesium will oxidize preferentially, thereby protecting the iron. Sacrificial anodes can be used to protect ships, as well as buried pipes and tanks.
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Figure 2
Cathodic Protection using a Sacrificial Anode
The magnesium anode is buried a least 3 m from the pipe in a bed of sand to expedite the diffusion of anodic products in the ground water. The magnesium anode is connected to the iron pipe by means of a copper wire. As determined in the previous example, the following reaction takes place: anode: cathode: overall: 2 [Mg(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2 e- ] O2(g) + 2 H2O(l) + 4 e- 4 OH-(aq) O2(g) + 2 H20(l) + Mg(s) 4 OH-(aq) + 2 Mg2+(aq)
The magnesium anode must be replaced periodically so it must be located where it is accessible for replacement and inspection. The use of sacrificial anodes is effective only when the anode and the metal to be protected are in the same electrolyte. Ions must be free to migrate from one electrode to the other in order to complete the circuit.
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G. Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Write the reaction mechanism and the overall reaction for the corrosion of iron. Why is the corrosion of car bodies worse in cities that use salt on the streets in the winter than in cities that do not use salt? Why are copper straps (rather than iron straps or bent over nails) used to hold household copper wire lines in place? When an iron post is immersed in water, rust forms at the water line and the iron post pits below the water line. Explain why this happens. Why do aluminum pots and pans develop a pitted surface when table salt is added to the cooking water? Write the equations for the formation of patina on the surface of copper which is exposed to the atmosphere. Commercial gun bluings contain the following chemicals. Identify all the oxidizing agents in the mixture and explain how the mixture protects a gun barrel frem rusting. H2O C2H5NO2 KNO3 KCIO3 8. 9. 10. 11. 82.3% 6.5% 3.5% 3.0% HgCl2 FeCI3 NaNO3 CuCI2 2.4% 0.9% 0.9% 0.5%
When cans are taken to the garbage dump, the tin cans decompose more quickly than the aluminum cans. Explain why this happens. Explain why gold and silver are used to plate cheap jewellery and ornaments. What problems arise when the silver plate wears off a silver plated spoon? Explain how a passive surface can be formed on iron.
12. Explain how an impressed current can be used to prevent corrosion. 13. Explain how a sacrificial anode can be used to prevent corrosion. 14. Could you stop corrosion in a car by bolting block of zinc or magnesium to the frame of the car? Explain.
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