ARE ALL WARRIORS MALE? al GENDER ROLES ON THE ANCIENT EURASIAN STEPPE EDITED BY KATHERYN M. LINDUFF AND KAREN S, RUBINSONAre All Warriors Male? Gender Roles on the Ancient Eurasian Steppe Edited by Katheryn M. Linduff and Karen S. Rubinson ZALTAMIRA PRESS A division of ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC. Lanham * New York * Toronto * Plymouth, UKALTAMIRA PRESS A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ‘A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, MD 20706 www.altamirapress.com Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom Copyright © 2008 by AltaMira Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ‘Are all warriors male? : gender roles on the ancient Eurasian Steppe / edited by Katheryn M. Linduff and Karen 8. Rubinson p.cm. — (Gender and archaeology) Includes bibliographical references and index, ISBN-13: 978-0-7591-1073-1 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-7591-1073-5 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-0-7591-1074-8 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-7591-1074-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Social archaeology— Eurasia. 2. Human remains (Archaeology)—Burasia. 3. Sex role—Eurasia—History. 4. Warfare, Prehistoric—Eurasia. 5, Women, Prehistoric— Eurasia. 6. Eurasia—Antiquities. 1. Linduff, Katheryn M. TI, Rubinson, Karen Sydney, 1943 CC72.4.4743 2008 930.1095 —de22 2007032391 Printed in the United States of America J" The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permaneace of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.Contents List of Figures and Tables Foreword: Exploring Unknown Lands and Bringing New Worlds into Gender Studies Rita P. Wright Acknowledgments Introduction: The Nature of Nomads, Cultural Variation, and Gender Roles Past and Present Katheryn M. Linduff and Karen S. Rubinson PART I: THE WARRIOR CULTURE: MYTH AND IDENTITY 1 Reconsidering Warfare, Status, and Gender in the Eurasian Steppe Iron Age Bryan Hanks 2 Arma Feminamque Cano: Wartior-Women in the Indo-European World Karlene Jones-Bley Tillya Tepe: Aspects of Gender and Cultural Identity Karen S. Rubinson w PART II: HORSES AND THE GENDERING OF IDENTITY ON THE STEPPE AND BEYOND: 4 Women’s Attire and Possible Sacred Role in 4th Millennium Northern Kazakhstan Sandra Olsen and Deborah G. Harding vii xi Si 67vi Contents 5 He Who Eats the Horse, She Who Rides It? Symbols of Gender Identity on the Eastern Edges of the Eurasian Steppe Gideon Shelach Horses and Gender in Korea: The Legacy of the Steppe on the Edge of Asia Sarah Milledge Nelson PART Ill: MARRIAGE, FAMILIES, AND DEATH ON THE STEPPE 7 Women and Children in the Sargat Culture Natalia Berseneva Sorting Out Men and Women in the Karasuk Culture Sophie Legrand ‘The Gender of Luxury and Power among the Xiongnu in Eastern Eurasia Katheryn M. Linduff Glossary of Chinese Terms References Index About the Contributors 93 ui 131 153 213 215 255 26741 4.2. 4.3. 44. 45. 4.6. 47. 4.8. 4.9. 4.10. List of Figures and Tables FIGURES Map of Afghanistan indicating location of Tillya Tepe. Prepared by Karen S. Rubinson Map of Kazakhstan showing Botai culture sites: 1. Botai, 2. Krasnyi Yar and Vasilkovka, 3. Troitskoe 5, 4. Roshchinskoe Decorated horse phalanx from Cuina Turcului, Romania, c. 8100 BCE. After Gimbutas 1989 Decorated horse phalanx from Varfolomievka, Russia. After Kuzmina 2003 Tersek figurine from western Kazakhstan, c. 3300 BCE. After Kalieva and Logvin 1997 Schematic drawing of unmodified horse phalanx showing anatomical features. Iustration by Sandra Olsen Examples of Botai decorated phalanges showing frequencies of decorative elements on different parts of the figurines. Illustration by Sandra Olsen Botai figurine and a reconstructed dress of hand-spun hemp. Photo on left by Sandra Olsen; photo on right by Ron Lutz Examples of Botai decorated horse phalanges, c. 3300 BCE, Photo by Sandra Olsen A decorated horse phalanx with possible coat opening depicted, Illustration by Sandra Olsen Cord impressions on ceramic shard from Botai. Photo by Sandra Olsen 68 2 73 78 78 79 824.11. 4.12. 4.13. 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 8.4. 8.5. 8.6. 8.7. 8.8. 8.9. 8.10. List of Figures and Tables Scanning electron micrograph of a mold of a ceramic shard from Botai, showing cord impressions with two-ply S-twists. Photo by Sandra Olsen Cloth impressions underlying ladder pattern of comb impressions on a ceramic shard from Botai. Photo by Sandra Olsen Saiga antelope decorated phalanx from Krasnyi Yar. Ilustration by Sandra Olsen Bronze ring with two figures of hunters on horseback chasing a rabbit, tomb 3, Nanshan’gen, Inner Mongolia Hierarchical cluster analysis of mortuary data from Xiaobaiyang, Inner Mongolia Hierarchical cluster analysis of mortuary data from Maoginggou Cemetery, Inner Mongolia Ceramic vessel in the shape of a horseback rider on a Mongolian pony. From the Gold Bell Tomb, Kyongju, Korea. Photo by Sarah Milledge Nelson Line drawings on a Silla period stoneware jar from Kyongju, Korea. Illustration by Sarah Milledge Nelson Boots and trousers worn by dancers, Tomb of the Dancers, Goguryeo era, Tongkou, Jilin, People’s Republic of China. Illustration by Sarah Milledge Nelson Flying white horse painted on birch bark from the Chonma Chong, Kyongju, Korea. Photo by Sarah Milledge Nelson Belt buckles in the shape of horses. Korea, Iron Age Illustration by Sarah Milledge Nelson Geographic location of the Minusinsk Basin Geographical map of the Minusinsk Basin Distribution of female, male, and child burials inside clustered funerary units Karasuk bone combs; bronze hair ornaments Karasuk jewelry Karasuk bronze clothing omaments Karasuk bronze, leather, and argillite artifacts Karasuk burial goods in nonlooted female tombs Karasuk burial goods in nonlooted male tombs Karasuk burial goods in looted child burials 83 84 91 104 106 107 116 117 157 162 163 166 169 170 71 172ae 9.2. eet 9.4, 95. 9.6. 9.7, 98. 9.9. 9.10, OAL 9.12, i. 1.3. 3.1 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 44, 45 4.6. 47. List of Figures and Tables Plaque gold, Xigoupan, M2: (top) one of two mirror-image plaques with textile pattern on reverse; (bottom) reverse drawing of plaque with Chinese characters (tomb of male) Jewelry, gold and jade, Xigoupan, M4 (tomb of female) Sites thought to be Xiongnu in Northern China Territory of Xiongnu Daodunzi M2, pit tomb Daodunzi, M6 and M13, catacomb tomb Ground plan of cemetery, Daodunzi Ground plan of Daodunzi, male versus female tombs Pottery vessels, Daodunzi Daodunzi, bronze belt plaques ‘Tomb contents from Daodunzi: various metal knives, bells, and ornaments Plan and section of catacomb tomb, Mazhuang TABLES: Statuses and associated grave goods based on data from Davis-Kimball (1998, 2001) Subadult and adult categories as noted by Murphy (1998, 2003) Loikop grade transitions based on data from Larick (1985, 1986) Distribution of selected grave goods and practices at Tillya Tepe Procurement of raw materials and assets Routine tasks (based on raw-material type) Crafts (based on raw-material type) Possible Botai social roles and professions Equivalent anatomical and artifactual terms of reference for decorated phalanges Decorating techniques on potsherds from Vasilkovka and Krasnyi Yar Distribution of decorated phalanges at Botai and Krasnyi Yar 176 17 178 179 182 183 185 186 187 188 189 190 21 23 23 56 70 70 70 1 76 81 89TA. 7.2. 7.3. 8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8.4. 8.7. 91a. 9.1b. 9.2. 9.3. 94. List of Figures and Tables Percentages of animal bones at sites from the 2nd millennium BCE Percentages of animal bones at sites from the ist millennium BCE Clustering of graves from the Maoginggou cemetery Clustering of graves from the Xiaobaiyang cemetery Clustering of graves from the Dahuazhongzhuang cemetery Distribution of bronze belt parts in male and female graves at Maoginggou (graves of the early periods only) Average size of graves and mean numbers of artifacts in male and female graves at Maoqinggou Mean numbers of artifacts in male and female graves at Dahuazhongzhuang Those buried in the Sargat kurgans (Middle Irtysh area) Primary tombs (67 adult graves and 3 subadult graves) The proportion of males, females, and children at some Sargat sites (only identified individuals) Distribution of different sizes of isolated single-tomb funerary units by male, female, and child burials Distribution of different lengths of tombs containing individual male, female, and child burials Distribution of different lengths of individual tombs containing child burials by age Distribution of combs and pendants by male, female, and child burials Distribution of jewelry by male, female, and child burials Distribution of clothing ornaments by male, female, and child burials Distribution of bronze knives and bronze and argillite tools by male, female, and child burials Tombs of the Spring-Autumn and Warring-States periods in the Northern Frontier Xiongnu tombs of the Western and Eastern Han dynasties, by country Catalog of Xiongnu tomb contents Chronology Daodunzi tomb contents 96 96 99 100 100 102 102 103 135 136 138 158 159 160 162 164 167 169 195 197 202 180 208