Compresor Tech 09 2012

www.compressortech2.
com
August-September 2012
2012 Compressor
Specs-at-a-glance
Drilling Soars In Eagle
Ford Shale
Subsea Compression
On The Back
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revolutionary, patented, directed energy technology, the CPU-XL
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PUBLICATION STAFF
CT
Two
Founder ........................ Joseph M. Kane
Publisher................................. Brent D. Haight
Associate Publisher .............. Roberto Chellini
Editor ...........................................Patrick Crow
Executive Editor ............................... DJ Slater
Senior Editor .................. Michael J. Brezonick
Senior Editor ..........................Dawn M. Geske
Senior Editor .............................. Mike Rhodes
Regional Manager/Editor ........... Ian Cameron
Field Editor/Business Manager .... Bo Svensson
Associate Editor ................................Jack Burke
Associate Editor .............................Chad Elmore
Copy Editor ................................ Jerry Karpowicz
Advertising Manager .......... Christa L. Johnson
Circulation Manager ...................Sheila Lizdas
Production Manager ............. Marisa J. Roberts
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Graphic Artist ................................ Alyssa Loope
PUBLICATION HEADQUARTERS
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4 CompressorTech
Two
We received a news note last month
that Freeport LNG Development is
converting its import facility to export
liquefied natural gas. Subsequently,
it signed a 20-year contract with two
large Japanese power companies. It
is talking also with Royal Dutch Shell
PLC for a similar export contract. A
number of other majors are consider-
ing joining in on the vast potential that
our developing resources offer.
A recent article in The Wall Street
Journal quoted Michael Smith, chief
executive of Freeport LNG, as saying
that the U.S. will have some 200 years
supply of natural gas in the future with
advanced technology. He asked, Why
shouldnt we export some of this and
improve our trade deficit?
I personally believe Smith dropped a
zero from his estimate. At any rate, the
potential for job creation is one that
shouldnt be overlooked. Of course,
a lot of obstacles need to be over-
come including those proffered by
environmentalists.
In a positive note in a later article,
John Deutch, a professor at MIT and
former Undersecretary of Energy, de-
clared that the United States hope-
lessly dependent on oil and natural gas
is a thing of the past.
He said, Most energy experts now
project that North America will have
the capacity to be a net exporter of
oil and natural gas by the end of this
decade. North Americas massive re-
sources are going to shift market pow-
er away from OPEC and Russia and to
consuming nations.
According to Thomas Fleming, author
of the book, What Life Was Really Like
in 1776, at that time Americans had the
highest per capita income in the civilized
world, paid the lowest taxes and were
determined to keep it that way. Fleming
goes on to say that America also was a
diverse nation in that only 60% of the
citizens came from England according
to the first census, taken in 1790. The
rest were German, Irish, Dutch, Scottish,
Swedish and African.
Our national debt is soon to be
$15,800,000,000,000, said Andrew H.
Tisch, a co-chairman of Loews Corp., in
a recent article in The Wall Street Jour-
nal. Our lingo shouldnt obscure how
dangerous that is. His contention is that
the average citizen has absolutely no
perception as to the meaning of a tril-
lion and the numbing word should be
banished from our vocabulary. The first
two digits of our national debt appear
to be more manageable than the rest of
it. In reality, however, Tisch contends,
very few of us have ever seen a trillion
of anything. By referring to our national
debt as US$16 trillion, this enormous
number is trivialized by reducing it to a
word that is just one more letter than its
more benign cousins, million or billion.
We should refer to our national debt as
US$16 thousand billion or US$16 mil-
lion million or US$16 thousand thou-
sand thousand thousand. Not even that
might help.
For perspective, Tisch suggests we
consider that a trillion dollars in $100
bills would weigh 22 million pounds
(10 MM kg). Our national debt in $100
bills if stacked one on top of the other
would reach 10,712 mi. (17,239 km)
above the earth. We cant keep piling
more debt onto our children or our
childrens children, Tisch said. Oth-
erwise, the million million millions in
debt will make their future worthless,
worthless, worthless.
May the Lord hold us all in the hol-
low of His hand. A
Volume XVII: Issue VII
Why Not Export Natural Gas?
COMPRESSOR
Tech
Two Dedicated to Gas
Compression Products
and Applications
A Member of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications Group
MEMBER OF BPA WORLDWIDE
PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.
Reprints of all articles published in CompressorTech
Two
are available. Please address inquiries to:
mgraesing@dieselpub.com
Tel: 262-754-4147 Fax: 262-754-4177
Joe Kane
CT966.indd 1 8/22/12 11:23 AM
Were caring for the oil and gas
industry by curing machines
and enhancing operations.
Curing
2012 General Electric Company
GE_Oil.indd 1 8/15/12 9:31 AM
FEATURE EdiToRiAl
Caterpillar Releases New Gas Engine ....................................................................12
Drilling Soars In Eagle Ford Shale .........................................................................14
Beyond Real-World Testing ...................................................................................22
Norway Spearheads Subsea Gas Compression ......................................................30
Norwegian Subsea Development Faces Expansion Challenge .................................32
Valerus Targets Service To The Worlds Energy Producers .....................................42
Nomad Journeys Down Under ...............................................................................54
Kobe Steel Creates Subsidiaries In Germany, Dubai ...............................................83
FIMA Expands Presence In Turbo Compression Sector ...........................................84
Catalytic Combustion Unveils Tester For Catalyst Activity.......................................86
SNC Valves Improve Reliability Of Reciprocating Compressors ..............................90
The Science Of Screw Compressor Forensics ........................................................94
Exhaustive Work Pays Dividends ...........................................................................98
Modern Valve Spring Designs ..............................................................................100
TECH CoRNER
Key Performance Evaluation Parameters For Centrifugal Compressors ..................36
Applying Advanced Computer Modeling To Improve Emissions And
Combustion Efficiency In Large-Bore, Two-Cycle Engines ..................................72
PUMPTECH
Pumping Solution For Polymer Manufacturing .......................................................58
Far-Reaching Effects Of Inadequate Pulsation Control ............................................64
Potential Savings At The Pump ..............................................................................68
dEPARTMENTS
Volume XVII: Issue VII .............................................................................................4
Global Perspective Europe Takes A Cautious Look At Hydraulic Fracturing ...........8
Market Talk Plunge In NGL Prices Adds To Gas Market Gloom ...........................10
Dateline ...............................................................................................................11
Industry News .......................................................................................................40
Featured Products ................................................................................................88
Product Information Center ..................................................................................92
Marketplace .......................................................................................................109
Scheduled Downtime ..........................................................................................110
Advertisers Index ...............................................................................................112
p. 68
p. 84
AUGUST-SEPTEMBER 2012
p. 64
August-september 2012 6 CompressorTech
Two
CompressorTech
Two
(ISSN 1085-2468) Volume 17, No. 7 Published 10 issues/year (January-February, March, April, May, June, July,
August-September, october, November, december) by diesel & Gas Turbine Publications, 20855 Watertown Road, Waukesha, Wi 53186-
1873, U.S.A. Subscription rates are $85.00 per year/$10.00 per copy worldwide. Periodicals postage paid at Waukesha, Wi 53186 and at
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53186-1873 U.S.A.
Follow compressortech2 on at www.compressortech2.com
p. 83
Member of...
CTAugSept_ToC.indd 1 8/22/12 11:22 AM
Industrial engines rarely rest, pumping out power hour after hour.
That 1,000 hp engine would have flled the USS Macon airship of
1933 with 6 1/2 million cubic feet of helium in just 20 hours.
But of course power isnt the only thing these engines put out. To handle the resulting
emissions demands a catalyst of equal durability, one that can remove 6 tons of Carbon
Monoxide and Oxides of Nitrogen every 1000 hours.
It is not surprising, then, that more and more companies are turning to the global leader in
the research, design, engineering and manufacturing of advanced emission
control technologies: DCL International. And thats not just hot air either.
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Shale gas production has completely
changed the U.S. natural gas market in
just a few years. However, European
public opinion is not unanimously in
favor of the hydraulic fracturing (frack-
ing) techniques used to release gas
from tight shale formations.
Ecologists, politicians and lobbyists
have been engaged in a democratic,
but time consuming, debate over the
environmental safety of fracturing.
That has placed oil companies under
pressure to make the methodology
more ecologically friendly while also
controlling their well completion costs.
Proponents of fracking say that the
technology, which the oil and gas in-
dustry has used for many decades, is
safe and could help to unlock vast nat-
ural gas reserves, reducing the worlds
dependence on dirtier coal and oil.
Several European governments,
before revising their fracking regula-
tions, have commissioned indepen-
dent reports to assess the potential
dangers that the technique could pose
for their ecosystems.
France and Germany have suspended
hydraulic fracturing until further studies
are conducted. Opposition to fracking
has been growing in the U.K. as environ-
mentalists complain about the potential
risks of earthquakes, the contamination
of groundwater, methane venting and
the despoliation of the countryside.
Those concerns prompted the U.K.
which has up to 200 Tcf (5.66 x 10
12

m
3
) of technically recoverable shale
gas reserves to commission two in-
dependent studies on the use of hy-
draulic fracturing.
The first, ordered by the Department
of Energy and Climate Change, report-
ed last April that fracking is unlikely to
cause aquifer pollution or induce dam-
aging levels of seismicity.
A recent analysis from the Royal So-
ciety and Royal Academy of Engineer-
ing agreed. It said fracking should be
permitted in the U.K., subject to im-
proved regulation and the use of best
industry practices.
That report said the direct contami-
nation of water sources is unlikely if
extraction is conducted at a depth of
many hundreds of meters or several
kilometers. This is because geologi-
cal mechanisms constrain the ability
of contaminants to migrate vertically.
Even if communication with overlying
aquifers was possible, pressure condi-
tions would make contamination very
unlikely. The report recommended on-
going monitoring of water supplies for
methane and other contaminants.
Far more likely, the study said, is the
indirect contamination of aquifers due
to issues relating to surface operations
and well-bore integrity. However, it said
these risks are not unique to fractur-
ing operations and could be mitigated
by best practices. It recommended that
the use of long-established offshore
well protection rules be extended to
onshore operations.
Well fracturing in the U.K. Bowland
Basin has caused seismic events of 1.5
to 2.3 of magnitude. The study said
any seismicity induced by fracking is
likely to be less than the nations pre-
vailing natural seismicity of about 4
of magnitude.
The study said that areas where
fracturing is likely to occur have ex-
perienced decades of seismic activity
from coal mining, with negligible sur-
face effects. The report recommended
that the geologic faults near well sites
should be identified and a traffic light
monitoring system be used to mitigate
seismic risks.
In Germany, despite the present
fracking moratorium, the Federal In-
stitute for Geosciences and Natural
Resources has sharply upgraded the
nations shale gas potential to 240 to
800 Tcf (6.8 x 10
12
to 2.26 x 10
13
m
3
).
But that analysis may have little impact
on a parliamentary report this fall on
Germanys shale gas potential.
Fracking has been used at low lev-
els in Germany since the 1990s, but
increased public scrutiny has made the
large-scale development of unconven-
tional gas resources uncertain. The state
of North Rhein-Westphalia, where Exx-
onMobil had been active, halted frack-
ing until it receives expert guidance.
The strength of German Greens at the
state level also presents a considerable
obstacle to fracking.
However, the current policy is not
necessarily permanent and gas may get
a reassessment should renewable fuels
fail to adequately make up the nuclear
deficit. The key to any political revalu-
ation would be other European nations
experiences with hydraulic fracturing.
Poland and Norway have large
shale resources and a more receptive
attitude toward fracking. They and
other European countries may well
adapt the U.K. guidelines for their
own shale gas developments. A
august-september 2012 8 CompressorTech
Two
Roberto Chellini
EuropE TakEs a CauTious Look
aT HydrauLiC FraCTuring
Nations differ on safety of tight-gas completion technique
By Roberto Chellini, Associate Publisher
CT945.indd 1 8/22/12 11:26 AM
They may display a proud old name on the outside,
but the driving force within the worlds best-engineered,
most efcient, pipeline gas compressors is Rolls-Royce.
The heritage name, Cooper-Bessemer, still carried by older
machines, echoes the engineering excellence that has
earned Rolls-Royce an unparalleled reputation for quality.
Today, in a business where productivity and dependability
mean so much, the unsurpassed engineering experience
of the past makes Rolls-Royce the compressor name
of the future.
A proud past leads to a new future
Trusted to deliver excellence
Its all in
the name...
Cooper-Bessemer is a registered trade name of Cameron Corporation, used under license by Rolls-Royce plc
www.rolls-royce.com
RollsRoyce_BessAd.indd 1 1/31/12 4:39 PM
Pressure is mounting on U.S. energy
prices, leading some analysts to fore-
see a slowdown in drilling activity.
Growing concern over the state of the
global economy, combined with new-
found drilling proficiency, has lead to in-
creasing price pressure on crude oil and
natural gas liquids (NGL), both of which
have sustained U.S. drilling activity while
natural gas prices have languished.
In the past year producers have fo-
cused their capital budgets on crude
oil and wet gas. The United States
saw record NGL production of 2.18
MMbbl/d in 2011, according to the In-
dependent Petroleum Association of
America. The Energy Information Ad-
ministration is projecting that NGL out-
put will increase 7% to 2.35 MMbbl/d
this year. According to Tudor, Picker-
ing, Holt & Co., NGL revenues in 2011
were at US$42 billion, close to natural
gas revenues of US$48 billion.
Unfortunately this increasing supply
of liquids has driven down their value.
Ethane prices at Mont Belvieu, Texas
the major U.S. trading hub for that
feedstock have plunged 68% since
peaking in October of 2011. Prices for
propane, which is 40% of the NGL
market, have declined 46% during the
same period.
Bernstein Research has concluded that
oil and gas companies can break even
with natural gas prices as low as US$2.00
to US$2.50/Mcf, because the value of the
liquids in wet gas is comparable to what
they receive for the gas alone. But falling
NGL prices have lowered this threshold
to about US$1.00/Mcf.
As has been seen with natural gas,
the increased production of liquids has
created a surplus in the market. Peter
Cella, president and CEO of Chevron
Phillips Chemical, told Reuters in May
that he expects that it will take several
years for the market to rebalance.
There is a general expectation that
exploration and production compa-
nies will continue to trim their capital
expenditures during the rest of 2012,
as they lack the economic incentive
to drill. Producers who have hedged
their NGL production may fare bet-
ter in the short term, but ultimately
they also will have to face depressed
market prices.
In addition, the companies likely will
have to rely more heavily on securing fi-
nancing, since their capital requirements
exceed their projected cash flows. The
availability of financing also may be-
come more challenging as the value of
their assets decline with lower prices for
natural gas and NGLs. Companies may
be forced to liquidate some of their as-
sets to meet loan repayment and capital
needs, a course similar to what Chesa-
peake Energy is presently pursuing.
An analysis by the Raymond James
brokerage firm has projected that
U.S. rig activity will fall 22% next year
to an average of 1696 rotaries. That
largely would reflect a 45% plunge in
dry gas rigs and a 32% drop in wet
gas rotary activity.
Of course this dramatic drop in drill-
ing activity would intensify the pres-
sure on service companies as they
compete for business. Already drilling
and completion costs in dry natural-
gas-prone basins have fallen as a result
of lower drilling levels.
Although service and supply rates in
wet gas and oil basins have stabilized,
they likely will face downward pressure
in coming months due to the combina-
tion of lower drilling/completion activity
and increased competition, since service
companies have increased their capac-
ity in these basins by transferring equip-
ment from the dry gas basins.
The duration of this downturn is diffi-
cult to assess because a variety of factors
are at play, most notably the weak state
of the global economy: Europe remains
in a financial turmoil, Chinas growth has
slowed, and the U.S. economy continues
to struggle to find traction.
Combining the U.S. economic uncer-
tainty with the growing natural gas and
NGL supply overhang, one might be-
lieve that it could be several years before
prices rebound to levels that would re-
store a healthy balance to those markets.
Only time will tell. A
Plunge In ngl PrIces Adds
To gAs MArkeT glooM
Ethane contracts down 68%, propane 46% since last October
By Harold Lampe
Two
Harold Lampe
Harold Lampe is principal of Energy Re-
search Services of Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A.,
which provides a range of marketing serv ices
for the energy industry. He can be reached
at hlampe@hotmail.com.
CT944.indd 1 8/22/12 11:28 AM
Two
Nov. 13-15, ChemInnovations 2012 Conference
& Expo - Morial Convention Center, New Or-
leans, Louisiana, U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (713) 343-1884;
Web: www.cpievent.com
Nov. 13-15, 4
th
Annual Developing Uncon-
ventional Gas (DUG) East Conference & Exhi-
bition - David L. Lawrence Convention Center,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (713)
260-5209; Web: www.dugeast.com
Nov. 14-16, China (Beijing) International Pe-
troleum Technology Conference & Exhibtion
2012 - China International Exhibition Center,
Beijing, China; Tel: + 86 10 58256560; Web:
www.ciptc-top.com
Dec. 5-7, International Petroleum Technol-
ogy Conference - Bangkok Convention Cen-
ter, Bangkok, Thailand; Tel: + 60 3 2288 1233;
Web: www.iptcnet.org/2012
Dec. 6-9, Basra Oil & Gas Conference and Ex-
hibition - Basra International Exhibition Cen-
ter, Basra, Iraq; Tel: + 90 21 23 56 0056; Web:
www.basraoilgas.com
Dateline
*Indicates shows and conferences in which CompressorTech
Two
is participating.
For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com
*Sept. 11-13, Gas Compressor Conference - Na-
tional Center for Employee Development, Nor-
man, Oklahoma, U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (405) 325-3891;
Web: www.engr.outreach.ou.edu/gascompressor
Sept. 12-14, Wyoming Natural Gas Fair 2012
- Snow King Center, Jackson Hole, Wyoming,
U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (307) 234-7147; Web: www.
wyogasfair.org
*Sept. 17-20, Rio Oil & Gas - RioCentro Exhibi-
tion & Convention Center, Rio de Janerio, Brazil;
Tel: +1 (201) 251-2600; Web: www.kallman.com
*Sept. 18-21, InnoTrans 2012 - Messe Berlin,
Berlin, Germany; Tel: +49 30 30 38 2376; Web:
www.innotrans.de
*Sept. 25-27, International Pump Users Sym-
posium - George R. Brown Convention Cen-
ter Houston, Texas, U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (979) 845-
2924; Fax: +1 (979) 845-1835
*Sept. 25-27, Turbomachinery Symposium
- George R. Brown Convention Center, Hous-
ton, Texas, U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (979) 845-7417;
Web: http://turbolab.tamu.edu/
Sept. 26-28, SIPPE 2012 - Shanghai World
Expo Exhibition & Convention Center, Shang-
hai, China; Tel: +86 21 36411666; Web: www.
sippe.org.cn/en
Sept. 26-28, EP China 2012 - China Interna-
tional Exhibition Center, Beijing, China; Tel:
+852 2811 8897; Web: www.epchinashow.com
*Sept. 27-28, International Rotating Equip-
ment Conference - Pumps and Compressors,
Duesseldorf, Germany; Tel: +49 69 66 03-12
82; Web: www.introequipcon.com
*Sept. 27-28, 3
rd
Compressor Users Interna-
tional Forum - Duesseldorf, Germany; Tel: +49
69 66 03-12 82; Web: www.introequipcon.com
*Sept. 30-Oct. 3, Gas Machinery Conference -
Austin Convention Center, Austin, Texas, U.S.A.;
Tel: +1 (972) 620-4026; Web: www.gmrc.org
*Oct. 3-5, Power-Gen Asia - Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia; Tel: +1 (918) 835-3161; Web: www.
powergenasia.com
Oct. 3-5, Baghdad International Oil & Gas Con-
ference & Exhibition - Baghdad International Fair
Ground, Baghdad, Iraq; Tel: +90 212 356 00 56;
Web: www.baghdadoilgas.com
*Oct. 8-11, GasTech 2012 - ExCeL London,
London, U.K.; Tel: +44 020 3180 6517; Web:
www.gastech.co.uk
Oct. 14-16, 3
rd
Annual Developing Unconven-
tional Gas Eagle Ford - Conference & Exhibi-
tion, Henry B. Gonzalez Convention Center,
San Antonio, Texas, U.S.A.; Tel: +1 (713) 260-
6492; E-mail: mimmekus@hartenergy.com
Oct. 15-18, 9
th
International Rotordynamic
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CT2_AugSept_Dateline.indd 1 8/22/12 11:35 AM
Caterpillar Inc. has introduced its re-
designed Cat G3520B engine for gas
compression applications, specifically
for wellhead, gathering, processing and
gas injection. The redesign enables the
engine to provide greater altitude, tem-
perature and speed turndown capabili-
ties, providing broad application flexibil-
ity for customers, the company said.
The engines light weight (24,622
lb. [11,168.4 kg]), coupled with high
power density, make the Cat G3520B
suitable for lean fleet management, the
company said.
The G3520B engine offers custom-
ers increased power and flexibility in
a wide range of difficult applications,
said Greg Carpenter, Caterpillars Glob-
al Petroleum gas compression market-
ing manager. Our goal is to provide
customers with solutions that maximize
their bottom line, and the redesigned
G3520 delivers great value by bring
more horsepower to unique sites with
varying conditions, diverse operational
needs and challenging fuels.
The G3520B, which can burn a va-
riety of gaseous fuels, is a V-20, four-
stroke engine capable of providing
1490 bhp (1104 bkW) at 1200 rpm and
1725 bhp (1286 bkW) at 1400 rpm.
The engine, which has a bore and
stroke of 6.7 x 7.5 in. (170 x 190 mm)
and a displacement of 5288 cu.in.
(86.7 L), offers full torque with speed
turndown to 900 rpm and a full rating
to 8000 ft. (2428 m) at 1200 rpm and
6500 ft. (1980 m) at 1400 rpm with the
1.0 g/bhph (1.3 g/kWh) NO
x
setting,
Caterpillar said.
In addition to fuel flexibility and lower
fuel consumption, the G3520B incorpo-
rates a low engine-out emissions tech-
nology without aftertreatment, Caterpil-
lar said. A 0.5 g/bhph (0.67 g/kWh) NO
x

emission setting is also available.
Under the 0.5 g NO
x
setting, the
engine is rated 2.22 g/bhph (2.98 g/
kWh) for CO; 469 g/bhph (629 g/
kWh) for CO
2
; and 0.45 g/bhph (0.6 g/
kWh) for volatile organic compounds
(VOC). Under the 1.0 g NO
x
setting,
the engine is rated 2.6 g/bhph (3.49
g/kWh) for CO; 454 g/bhph (609 g/
kWh) for CO
2
; and 0.37 g/bhph (0.5
g/kWh) for VOC. The engine also
meets U.S. EPA Spark Ignited Station-
ary NSPS emissions for 2010 and some
non-attainment areas.
The engine features an advanced
digital engine management (ADEM) A3
system, which is designed to integrate
controls for speed, air/fuel ratio, and
ignition and detonation. The electronic
ADEM A3 also includes a user inter-
face, display system, shutdown con-
trols and system diagnostics.
The engines intake system has an
air inlet flow rate at 100% load of 3853
cfm (109.1 m
3
/min) under the 0.5 g
NO
x
setting and 3618 cfm (102.45 m
3
/
min) under the 1.0 g NO
x
setting. The
exhaust system has a flow rate at 100%
load of 11,215 cfm (317.57 m
3
/min)
under the 0.5 g NO
x
setting and 10,600
cfm (300.2 m
3
/min) under the 1.0 g
NO
x
setting. The exhaust stack tem-
peratures are 989F (532C) and 997F
(536C), respectively. The engines gas
pressure is 7 to 50 psi (48 to 345 kPa)
under both NO
x
settings.
The engine also is equipped with
a gas engine rating pro (GERP), a PC-
based program designed to provide site
performance capabilities for Caterpil-
lar natural gas engines. GERP provides
engine data for a sites altitude, ambient
temperature, fuel, engine coolant heat
rejection, performance data, installation
drawings, specification sheets and pump
curves, Caterpillar said.
The G3520B shares many of the
same features and components with the
G3516B, reducing parts inventory and
requiring less technician training, the
company said. A few of the shared com-
ponents include much of the air/fuel ra-
tio control system, cylinder heads, spark
plugs, control panels and turbo frame.
The shared components enable custom-
ers to drive down operational costs, par-
ticularly in parts and service.
The G3520B measures 13.7 ft. (4.2
m) long by 5.8 ft. (1.8 m) wide, and 7.8
ft. (2.4 m) tall. A
Caterpillar releases New Gas eNGiNe
G3520B designed for gas compression applications
The G3520B is a V-20, four-stroke en-
gine capable of providing 1490 bhp
(1104 bkW) at 1200 rpm and 1725 bhp
(1286 bkW) at 1400 rpm.
Two
CT963.indd 1 8/22/12 11:42 AM
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The Eagle Ford has become the
most active shale play in the United
States, prompting industry observers
to make dazzling assessments for the
South Texas boom.
Some of them predict that, by 2016,
oil production from the formation could
reach 1 MMbbl/d. That would make it
the nations second-most productive
shale play, behind the Bakken Shale
of North Dakota and eastern Montana.
Others say the 1 MMbbl/d mark will be
reached before 2016.
Reaching that production level will
not be without challenges. A recent re-
port indicated 1400 wells were waiting
to be tied into oil and gas pipelines.
Not only are there too few pipelines
and compression facilities, there are
shortages of crews, water, housing and
other infrastructure essential to sustain
the four-year-old boom.
Texas Railroad Commission (TRC)
data show Eagle Ford oil production
grew from 4.4 MMbbl in 2010 to 30.5
MMbbl in 2011. Natural gas production
rose to 243 Bcf (6.88 x 10
9
m
3
) in 2011,
compared with 108 Bcf (3.06 x 10
9
m
3
)
in 2010.
Drilling in the Eagle Ford Shale has
continued to increase dramatically this
year, as producers have turned from
fields that yield low-priced, dry gas to
those that flow higher-priced oil and
other liquids.
The TRC reported 278 drilling rigs op-
erating in the Eagle Ford shale in June
2012, more than a tenfold increase from
the beginning of 2010. The number of
new wells doubled to 856 during the
first three months of 2012, compared
with 407 for the first quarter of 2011.
U.S. Energy Information Adminis-
tration data show that the increase in
drilling activity ratcheted up produc-
tion of oil and other liquids to more
than 500,000 bbl/d by March of this
year, rivaling the Bakken boom. At
the same time, Eagle Ford natural gas
production has increased to approxi-
mately 2000 MMscfd (5.6 x 10
7
m
3
/d).
By mid-2013, expansions are ex-
pected to relieve most of the pipeline
bottlenecks, and more crews are being
hired to complete the wells. Theres
still a shortage of water for fracturing,
but some operators are using treated
brackish water.
The Eagle Ford extends across 30
counties, covering much of South Texas.
It is named for the North Texas town of
Eagle Ford, 6 mi. (9.6 km) west of Dal-
las, where the geologic formation can be
seen on the surface as clay soil.
The play benefits from being more
rural than most shale developments.
Most Eagle Ford leases cover large
ranches, which can be several hundred
or even thousands of acres. This makes
leasing simpler than in plays with min-
eral rights that are more fractionated.
The Eagle Ford Shale is a Cretaceous
deposit identified as the source rock for
the Austin Chalk oil and gas formation
in South and East Texas. Oil companies
have drilled through the Eagle Ford for
many years with wells that targeted pro-
duction from the Edwards Limestone
along the Edwards Reef Trend. It was
not until the discovery of several other
shale plays that they began testing the
potential of the Eagle Ford.
The Eagle Ford formation is more
of a carbonate than a shale. Generally,
natural fracturing is not prominent, but
the high carbonate content up to
Drilling SoarS in EaglE ForD ShalE
Sprawling South Texas play challenges compression suppliers
By Norm Shade
The Eagle Ford Shale is mainly an
oil and wet gas play. Source: En-
ergy Information Administration.
Two
continued on page 18
CT947.indd 1 8/22/12 11:44 AM
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Kobelco.indd 1 8/14/12 11:21 AM
Exterran has been a major supplier of compression to
the Eagle Ford play, with units ranging from small vapor
recovery units to large horsepower units used at central
gathering facilities.
Steve Muck, Exterrans regional vice president for North
America, said compression has been used mostly at cen-
tral gathering stations. He said producers are striving to
connect as many wells as possible, so compression is re-
quired to move the low-pressure gas into low-pressure
pipelines until it reaches final discharge pressure.
Muck said lead times are critical, because producers may
not realize they need compression initially or may realize
compression needs later, resulting in unforeseen delays.
Wellhead and vapor recovery compression is required. And,
based on the environment, design considerations could in-
clude fuel gas quality, hydrogen sulfide content, high BTU
levels and liquids.
Higher-spec projects require additional front-end
time, Muck said. However, our experience with highly-
engineered compressions systems has helped us efficient-
ly address these specific compression needs.
Exterran has expanded its line of production equipment
to meet the specific needs of the play. Products developed
for the Eagle Ford include a vapor recovery unit, hydro-
gen sulfide eliminator and condensate stabilizer.
From a service standpoint, Exterran is uniquely posi-
tioned geographically to serve the Eagle Ford region with
multiple manufacturing and operations facilities nearby as
well as an increased workforce, Muck said. The company
has facilities at Victoria and Carrizo Springs, Texas, and
soon will open one at Karnes City, Texas.
Boardwalk Pipeline Partners recently selected Exterran
to build a 150 MMscfd (4.2 x 10
6
m
3
/d) gas processing
plant in South Texas. The project includes engineering,
procurement and construction of a cryogenic gas process-
ing plant that can achieve up to 93% ethane extraction. A
With compression and infrastructure in high demand to
keep abreast of the booming production growth in the
Eagle Ford Shale, one new company couldnt have picked
a better time and place to set up shop.
Jerry Blackmon founded Elite Compression Services in
April 2011 in Victoria, Texas, U.S.A., in the middle of the
prolific Eagle Ford play.
Blackmon has 28 years of experience in the oil and gas in-
dustry, which includes 16 years in gas compression. His com-
pression knowledge is complemented by experience in drill-
ing, production, mechanics, operations, sales and marketing.
In less than a year, we have established a very strong
presence in the Eagle Ford Shale, said Blackmon, the
company president. Our contract compression fleet has
grown to approximately 90,000 hp (67,000 kW).
Blackmon said some customers need packages for single
well sites and others need compression for multiwell facilities.
He said Elite uses the best available equipment, out-
sourced from three packagers. The natural gas engines
used in the packages are configured to run on the high-
BTU gas prevalent in the Eagle Ford.
The packages feature Ariel compressors and Caterpillar
natural gas engines. The compressor frames include Ariel
JGA/4, JGQ/2, JGJ/2, JGJ/4, JGT/2, and JGT/4 models. The
Caterpillar engines include models G3306NA and G3516ULB.
Stephen Childress, corporate development manager,
said Elite guarantees 98.5% mechanical availability.
We focus on creating strategic partnership opportunities
for contract gas compression services in order to maximize
compressor fleet utilization, total runtime and revenue for
our customers, Childress said. Our biggest priorities in the
Eagle Ford, and our other operating areas, are safety, envi-
ronmental responsibility, and runtime.
Childress said Elites compression fleet complies with all
air emissions requirements, as regulated by the state, and
is tested at regular intervals. A
Two
Large and SmaLL CompreSSor CompanieS
ride eagLe Ford Boom
Exterran says lead times
are biggest challenge
Elites compressor packages
geared to high-BTU gas
Exterran is a major supplier in the Eagle Ford Shale development,
supplying production, condensate stabilization, compression, gas
treating and processing equipment and other oilfield services.
This Karnes County, Texas, gathering facility has a three-stage Elite Com-
pressor Services package that includes a Caterpillar 3516ULB engine, an
Ariel JGT4/3 frame, a Chart 156 cooler, and a Murphy control panel.
CT947.indd 2 8/24/12 2:45 PM
ARMCO.indd 1 8/23/12 9:32 AM
70% and subsequently lower clay
content make the Eagle Ford more
brittle and easier to stimulate through
hydraulic fracturing.
The shale can be up to 400 ft. (122
m) thick in some areas, but averages
250 ft. (76 m) across the play. The
formation is shallower and the shale
content increases in the northwest por-
tions of the play. The producing inter-
val is found between 4000 and 14,000
ft. (1220 and 4267 m).
Generally, wells in the deeper part
of the play flow dry gas, but mov-
ing northeastward, the wells produce
more liquids. The northernmost wells
are oil prone.
Lewis Energy Group drilled the first
Eagle Ford shale well in 2002. How-
ever, Petrohawk Energy, now part of
BHP Billiton Ltd., drew attention to
the Eagle Ford in 2008 with a horizon-
tal well that produced more than 7.6
MMscfd (2.2 x 10
5
m
3
/d) of gas.
In addition to Petrohawk, some of
the major operators are Anadarko,
Apache, Atlas, EOG Resources, Geo-
Southern Energy, Pioneer Petroleum,
SM Energy, and XTO. The TRC reports
more than 200 production companies
and 65 midstream and pipeline compa-
nies are operating in the play.
The attraction of the Eagle Ford is
its high yield of liquid hydrocarbons.
Higher oil prices have spurred devel-
opment because oil, condensate, and
natural gas liquids (ethane, propane
and butane) all command better prices
than dry natural gas. Eagle Fords posi-
tion near Gulf Coast pipelines, refiner-
ies and petrochemical plants is a long-
term advantage.
A Valero Energy official recently said
the industry is becoming more confi-
dent that 1 MMbbl/d of Eagle Ford oil
production will occur sooner than lat-
er, and that in the next few years the
play will continue to displace sweet
crude imports from abroad.
Marathon Oil views the Eagle Ford
as the premier liquids-rich resource
play in North America. The company
had 18 drilling rigs operating in the Ea-
gle Ford Shale during June. Marathon
and ConocoPhillips both plan to dou-
ble their production from the geologic
trend this year.
EOG Resources has declared the
shale play its biggest source of growth
and recently boosted its estimated re-
serves there by 78%.
Oil companies note its easier and
more profitable for them to drill in Eagle
Ford compared with many other pros-
pects in the United States and overseas.
Wells are faster and cheaper to develop
and the play is near Gulf Coast refiner-
ies, lowering transportation costs.
EOG said its Eagle Ford wells cost
US$5.5 million, versus more than US$8
million per well in the Bakken, be-
cause of different well configurations.
An offshore Gulf of Mexico well can
cost US$100 million. Deep-water wells
can take five or more months to drill,
compared to a couple of weeks for a
well in the Eagle Ford, according to
Anadarko Petroleum.
Infrastructure growth has not kept
pace with rising production, and flar-
ing has increased because there are not
enough pipelines and gas plants to han-
dle the associated gas that is produced
with the oil.
Although Eagle Ford gas output grew
from less than 1 Bcf (0.03 x 10
9
m
3
) in
2008 to 243 Bcf (6.88 x 10
9
m
3
) in 2011,
the TRC reported flaring permits jumped
from 107 to 651 over the same period.
Many infrastructure projects have
been announced recently in response
to drilling boom. The first phase of En-
terprise Products Eagle Ford midstream
gas plant at Yoakum, Texas, went on
stream last spring with an initial capacity
to process 300 MMscfd (8.5 x 10
6
m
3
/d).
Regency Energy Partners has an-
nounced an expansion of its Edwards
Lime gathering joint venture. When
completed in the fourth quarter of
this year, the pipeline and midstream
expansion will increase system capac-
ity to 160 MMscfd (4.5 x 10
6
m
3
/d) of
gas and 17,000 bbl/d of crude oil. The
companys joint venture partners, Tal-
isman and Statoil, are supporting the
expansion by dedicating their produc-
tion to the system.
Boardwalk Pipeline Partners is con-
structing 55 mi. (89 km) of 20 and 24
in. (508 and 610 mm) gathering pipe-
line to expand its existing 340 mi. (547
km) South Texas gathering system to
transport 300 MMscfd (8.5 x 10
6
m
3
/d)
of liquids-rich gas from Karnes and
DeWitt counties in the heart of the
Eagle Ford play to its new Flag City
processing plant near Edna.
Exterran Holdings Inc. is build-
ing the plant, which will process 150
MMscfd (4.2 x 106 m
3
/d) of Eagle Ford
gas. It will require three 3550 hp (2647
kW) reciprocating compressors driven
by Caterpillar G3612 gas engines.
Eagle Ford Midstream LP plans to
build a 105 mi. (169 km), 24 to 30 in.
(610 to 752 mm) diameter extension to
an existing gas pipeline. The expansion
will transport gas from Western Gas Part-
ners LPs Brasada processing plant in La
Salle County to interstate and intrastate
pipelines at the Agua Dulce Hub in
Nueces County. The first phase of the ex-
pansion will be in service in December,
with completion expected by next April.
Copano Energy is adding 400 MMscfd
(11.3 x 10
6
m
3
/d) of capacity to its Colo-
rado County processing plant, expand-
ing it to 1000 MMscfd when the project
is completed by mid-2014.
Two
Gas production doubled in
the South Texas play in 2011
but is expected to level off
this year. Source: Texas Rail-
road Commission.
CT947.indd 3 8/24/12 2:45 PM
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2012-03-08-CT2_SalesPartner2012.indd 1 13.03.12 10:32 Motortech.indd 1 8/14/12 11:33 AM
The gas processing business is ex-
tremely active as the price of liquids has
remained high and midstream infrastruc-
ture is added to address the increasing
production from the Eagle Ford, said
Steve Muck, Exterrans regional vice
president for North America.
He said the typical period for build-
ing gas processing plants continues to
be extended because of longer lead
times needed to get components, and
the growing U.S. market demand.
The proximity of the Eagle Ford to
major fractionation facilities at Mont
Belvieu, Texas, makes the gas liquids
produced from this play particularly
valuable in comparison to shale plays
farther away.
Compression is used at the numer-
ous gas plants and pipelines being in-
stalled throughout the Eagle Ford area.
There are also many compressors used
in wellhead applications, even for the
liquids rich and oil producing regions
of the play.
From our perspective, the prima-
ry use for compression at this point is
central gathering stations, Muck said.
Producers are striving to gather as
many wells as possible, so compression
is required to move the low-pressure
gas into low-pressure pipelines until it
reaches final discharge pressure.
A key consideration is lead time.
Producers may not realize they need
compression initially or may realize
their compression needs later, result-
ing in unforeseen delays. Additionally,
wellhead and vapor recovery compres-
sion is required. And, based on the
environment, design considerations
could include fuel gas quality, hydro-
gen sulfide content, high BTU value
and liquids.
Jerry Blackmon, president of Elite
Compression Services, said, The Eagle
Ford Shale provides an opportunity to
utilize multiple compressor packages
through the life cycle of liquid-rich
wells. He said after holes are drilled,
fractured and completed, they become
stand-alone wells or are integrated into
a multiwell facility, which creates the
need for compression.
Immediately, there will be a need
for a flash gas unit for the site as the
well is at high pressure, Blackmon
said. There will also be a change on
what vapor is coming off the oil tanks
due to the increase in production. As
the pressure of the well pulls down
closer to the sales line pressure, there
will be less flash gas to compress. Over
time, this will eliminate the need for
the small flash gas unit.
However, there will be a need for
a larger horsepower unit to maintain
the production rate from the well. This
is a major reason that many produc-
ers in the Eagle Ford are shifting their
strategy from single well sites to cen-
tral gathering facilities in order to mini-
mize the cost of making changes to the
infrastructure at the facilities.
Capstone Turbine Corp. recently an-
nounced the placement of 10,000 kW,
C1000 microturbine generator pack-
ages with two Eagle Ford producers.
Fueled by pipeline gas, all 13 micro-
turbine packages will provide prime
power for central processing facilities
and metering stations, addressing yet
another infrastructure need in this
sparsely populated region. A
August-september 2012 20
This facility in Karnes County, Texas, processes liquids rich Eagle Ford gas. It has an Elite Compres-
sion Services flash gas compressor package that includes an Ariel JGJ2/3 3-stage compressor driven
by a Caterpillar G3408TA engine operating on natural gas.
CT947.indd 4 8/24/12 2:45 PM
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2012-08-14-CT2_September.indd 1 14.08.12 16:20 Motortech.indd 2 8/14/12 11:33 AM
Capable of full-speed, full-load, off-
grid testing, GEs new US$170 million
test facility in Greenville, South Carolina,
U.S.A., enables the company to perform
full-scale validation of turbines, heavy-
duty compressors and gas turbine sys-
tems in a controlled environment.
Initially developed for the validation
of GEs recently upgraded Frame 7FA
gas turbines, the facility will support
long-term development and testing of
a full range of GE 50 Hz and 60 Hz
compressors and gas turbines.
This investment has been driven
by the market need for acceleration
of new product introduction, said
Paul Browning, president and CEO,
Thermal Products, for GE Power &
Water. Its not just what we are do-
ing but also what our competitors are
doing. We are developing new prod-
ucts much faster than weve done
before and introducing them much
more frequently. Our feeling at GE is
that if we are going to be accelerating
the introduction of new products, we
need to change the game and how we
validate these products. Rather than
taking the long-term approach where
you validate at a customer site and
accumulate 8000 hours of experience,
we decided to change the process and
do full-factory validation.
Strategically, the timing couldnt be
better as GE has been actively devel-
oping new products, product upgrades
and pushing the technology envelope
throughout its myriad business units.
Beyond Real-WoRld TesTing
New test facility gives GE 340 MW full-load test capabilities
By Brent Haight
GEs latest 7FA gas turbine technology in the drivetrain of the test facility ready for validation. GEs new test facility uses more than 400 mi. (643
km) of tubing and wiring of instrumentation.
Two
The facilitys full capac-
ity drive train consists of
a heavy-duty gas turbine
driver, full-scale com-
pressor validation rig,
torque converter, gear-
box and motor.
CT965.indd 1 8/22/12 12:03 PM
Voith.indd 1 8/6/12 2:23 PM
The company introduced its proprietary
FlexEfficiency 50 last year and according
to Browning, that was only the begin-
ning. We are planning on rolling out an
entire portfolio of FlexEfficiency prod-
ucts in the coming years, he said.
The Greenville test facility, with full
340 MW gas turbine validation testing
capabilities, simulates real-world plant
conditions with required accessories to
run a fully loaded gas turbine on natural
gas and liquid fuel. To eliminate limita-
tions of the grid, testing is performed
without a generator and grid connection.
Nothing like this has ever been
done before, said Monte Atwell, GM,
Thermal Systems & Gas Turbine Engi-
neering, GE Power & Water. There was
no template to work from. Ultimately,
every design is validated, either in the
field or in a controlled environment.
The investment GE made in this facility
allows us to create any condition these
units will face in the field and moni-
tor it in real time. At the customer site,
we are limited to what we can do. We
have to follow a specific test plan. If
they are tied to the grid, there are oth-
er considerations that must be factored
in. This facility, because it is not grid
connected, is fundamentally different
than anything else out there. It allows
us to test new products at full-speed,
at full-load and go beyond real-world
conditions when we are validating for
things like frequency response, ramp
time, turndown, etc.
The facilitys full capacity drivetrain
consists of a heavy-duty gas turbine driv-
er, full-scale compressor validation rig,
torque converter, gearbox and motor.
The entire train comes in four dif-
ferent pieces, said Stuart Collins, Test
Project manager at the Greenville facil-
ity. We bring in the gas turbine by a
rail car, mount it on pedestals and re-
move the rail car. Next we bring in the
compressor, followed by the gearbox
and torque converter. Lastly we bring
in a 58 MW, 4-pole synchronous drive
motor. Every component in the drive-
train is precision aligned within one-
thousandth of an inch.
When testing a compressor, the gas
turbine driver and motor can provide
any desired load to the compressor
validation rig. The design allows for full
choke-to-stall compressor operation, as
well as variable speed capability simu-
lating unstable grid events. For variable
speed and variable load gas turbine
testing, the load compressor provides
the desired load to the gas turbine.
GE began full-speed, full-load vali-
dation of its new 7FA gas turbine this
summer. Upon completion later this
fall, the unit will have logged 24 fired
runs and 200 fired hours.
The new facility is equipped with
an advanced data acquisition sys-
tem that allows for over 7000 data
streams to be acquired. More than
4000 sensors and instruments collect
data on all aspects of operations and
components of the 7FA gas turbine
during validation.
From a data collection point of view,
we are getting data much earlier in the
product introduction cycle, Browning
said. We are getting richer, unit spe-
cific data, which means that when we
go to a specific site we have a much
better understanding of how this prod-
uct will work. That means for our early
customers, we can give them a much
more customized, mature evaluation of
how the product is going to perform at
their site. Because we have the data on
these early projects, our commission cy-
cling time at the customer site is going
to be greatly reduced. Weve done all of
the learning at the factory, rather than
doing it in the field.
Albert Stuck, GM, Components &
Development Testing, GE Power &
Water, said, Generally, we transmit
5 GB of data per second between the
test cell and the nerve center across
campus that houses the engineers
who monitor testing in real time. That
amounts to a DVD worth of information
Two
GE engineers analyze data from the more than 4000 sensors and instruments collecting information on all aspects of operation and components of
the 7FA gas turbine during validation.
CT965.indd 2 8/22/12 12:04 PM
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CCS.indd 1 11/4/11 11:57 AM
tion of flexibility and efficiency is a
real challenge from a gas turbine OEM
point of view. Its an area where at
GE, we feel like we are fundamentally
differentiated because of our aviation
heritage. This test facility allows us to
fully exploit the fundamental advan-
tage we have. A
test facilities utilized by GE Aviation fac-
tories before new products are allowed
to fly in a new aviation application.
Customers expect a combination of
flexibility and efficiency today which
means that our land-based gas turbines
have to operate a lot more like jet en-
gines, Browning said. That combina-
per second. One terabyte of data is
collected per hour during gas turbine
testing. That means that every night
our engineers are collecting nearly as
much information as is contained in
the U.S. Library of Congress.
According to Browning, the Green -
ville facility was inspired by the kind of
The test facility uses a 58 MW,
4-pole GE synchronous motor,
the largest motor of its kind
produced by GE.
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ACI.indd 1 7/20/12 9:26 AM CT965.indd 3 8/22/12 12:05 PM
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Murphy.indd 1 8/23/12 11:22 AM
TechTransfer_CT2.indd 1 2/22/12 9:11 AM
TechTransfer_CT2.indd 2 2/22/12 9:11 AM
Norwegian offshore operators are
leading the global development of
subsea gas compression systems, with
the first startups expected at estab-
lished North Sea fields in 2014 or 2015.
The flow of natural gas must be boost-
ed as reservoir pressure declines in de-
pleting fields. Seabed compression is a
faster and cost-effective alternative to in-
stalling an offshore platform and the gas
flow is enhanced by placing the com-
pressors as close to the wells as possible.
At sgard field, Statoil said seabed
compressors in 980 ft. (300 m) of water
will increase pressure in production flow
lines and ultimate recovery from the sat-
ellite Mikkel and Midgard fields (See
May 2011 CompressorTech
Two
, p. 58).
The two fields are some 25 to 31
mi. (40 to 50 km) from the sgard B
floating platform. Their production has
declined more rapidly than expected
and, by 2014, they will lack sufficient
pressure to produce steadily. Subsea
compression is expected to extend the
life of the fields by 15 years and im-
prove gas recovery by some 278 mil-
lion barrels of oil equivalent.
Aker Solutions is assembling the gas
compression modules in its yard at
Egersund, Norway. MAN Diesel & Tur-
bo Schweiz AG received the Aker con-
tract to supply four hermetically sealed
single HOFIM compressor units, each
with compressor frame size RB 45 with
an integrated MAN motor size M43.
The contract also includes long-term
field services and lifecycle support.
In May, Statoil and partner Petoro
said they would use will use subsea
gas compression on the South Gull-
faks field. Statoil said the Nok$3 bil-
lion Gullfaks project would enable it to
maintain plateau production from the
Brent reservoir and increase the gas
recovery rate from 62 to 74%.
It will install two 6700 hp (5 MW)
wet gas compressors in a subsea tem-
plate at 450 ft. (135 m). They will be
tied in to existing templates and pipe-
line systems 9.3 mi. (15 km) away at
Gullfaks C platform.
Framo Engineering was given the
contract for the compressor station, in-
cluding topside power and control sys-
tems for Gullfaks C. Nexans will install
the power and control cables from Gull-
faks C to the subsea compressor station.
Norske Shell also is considering
subsea compression for Ormen Lange
field. It has built and submerged, in an
onshore pit at Nyhamna, the worlds
first full-scale subsea processing and
compression system. It is 120 ft. (36 m)
long and weighs more than 1000 tons.
Depending on the results of a recent
six-month test, field partners will decide
on whether to proceed with a subsea
compression solution for Ormen Lange
or a compression platform, with a view
to installing the chosen solution in 2014.
Ormen Lange, Norways second
largest gas field, came on stream in
September 2007 and reached plateau
production in November 2009, deliv-
ering up to 2.5 Bcfd (70 x 10
6
m
3
/d)
of gas and 32,000 bbl/d of conden-
sate to the Nyhamna processing plant.
Production pressure is declining and
compression will be required later this
decade to maintain the flow.
All production is subsea from 15
wells 75 mi. (120 km) offshore in 2790
to 3600 ft. (850 to 1100 m) of water.
The gas and condensate flow to shore
through two 30 in. (762 mm) multi-
phase pipelines.
Aker Solutions built the full-scale
pilot compression train, based upon
a 2000 hp (12.5 MW) compressor. If
the Nyhamna tests are successful, the
pilot could become one of four com-
pression trains, which would boost
the pressure of Ormen Lange gas from
1160 to 2030 psi (80 to 140 bar).
The Ormen Lange and sgard op-
erators agreed in 2009 to share infor-
mation and enable synergies between
the two projects. A
Norway SpearheadS SubSea
GaS CompreSSioN
Seabed systems being developed for sgard,
Gullfaks and Orman Lange fields
Subsea Gullfaks compression equipment would be tied into the C production platform.
Two
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t
o

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t
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y

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f

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t
a
t
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i
l
.
The proposed Orman
Lange subsea compres-
sion system would keep
that field in production.
CT967.indd 1 8/22/12 12:08 PM
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i
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achinery Sym
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Burckhardt.indd 1 7/30/12 9:21 AM
Statoil recently upgraded reserves
for its Snhvit development in the Bar-
ents Sea off northern Norway by 706
Bcf (20 x 10
9
m
3
) to 7.4 Tcf (210 x 10
9
m
3
), but transporting the additional gas
to market is proving contentious.
The field, which came on stream in
2007, was designed to be produced
through a 90 mi. (145 km) multi-
phase pipeline to a liquefaction plant
at Melkya Island near Hammerfest,
the first liquefied natural gas (LNG)
plant in Europe and the northern-
most in the world.
Snhvit is the first major development
on the Norwegian continental shelf with
no fixed or floating installations on the
ocean surface. All production equipment
is on the seabed and protected from the
nets of fishing trawlers.
For the expansion of Snhvit, the
Norwegian government favors the con-
struction of a 620 mi. (1000 km) pipe-
line to deliver the gas to the European
market. Statoil wants to double its LNG
facilities on the Melkya Island, which
would give it flexibility to sell the gas
where it is in most demand.
A second LNG train would double
the Melkya terminals export capaci-
ty of 198 Bcf (5.6 x 10
9
m
3
), with work
beginning in 2019. The second train
would cost US$6.6 billion. A final in-
vestment decision on the project is
expected in 2013.
Norways gas infrastructure agency,
Gassco, the minister for gas and energy,
and the foreign minister all favor con-
struction of a 620 mi. (1000 km) pipeline
to markets. They contend it would facili-
tate the exploitation of future discover-
ies in the remote Barents Sea, as well
as existing finds such as Skrugard and
Havis. The pipeline would be more ex-
pensive more than a second LNG train
at Melkya and take longer to build; it
could not be completed until 2021.
Statoil favors LNG exports because
NorwegiaN SubSea DevelopmeNt
FaceS expaNSioN challeNge
Statoil, government differ on how to move Snhvit gas to market
Statoils Melkya liquefaction plant was built to process Snhvit gas.
Two
P
h
o
t
o

c
o
u
r
t
e
s
y

o
f

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t
a
t
o
i
l
.
P
h
o
t
o

c
o
u
r
t
e
s
y

o
f

S
t
a
t
o
i
l
.
The first LNG tanker leaves the Melkya facility in 2008.
CT954.indd 1 8/22/12 12:14 PM
COMPRESSOR
Tech
Two
COMPRESSOR
Tech
and Applications
2012
Compressor
Specs-at-a-glance
Sponsored By
CT_SpecsAtAGlance.indd 1 8/21/12 1:47 PM
Centrifugal Compressors Reciprocating/Rotary Compressors Turboexpanders
1
5
,
0
0
0
1
4
,
0
0
0
1
3
,
0
0
0
1
2
,
0
0
0
1
1
,
0
0
0
1
0
,
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
9
0
0
8
0
0
7
0
0
6
0
0
5
0
0
4
0
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0 0
PSI
Sponsored By
to 7800 psi (538 bar)
to 2900 psi (200 bar)
to 1000 psi (69 bar)
to 7252 psi (500 bar)
to 14,500 psi (1000 bar)
to 50,760 psi (3500 bar)
to 435 psi (30 bar)
to 14,500 psi (1000 bar)
to 8250 psi (568 bar)
to 870 psi (60 bar)
to 400 psi (28 bar)
to 10,000 psi (690 bar)
to 15,000 psi (1034 bar)
to 35,300 psi (2413 bar)
to 8700 psi (600 bar)
to 190 psi (13 bar)
to 43,500 psi (3000 bar)
to 29 psi (2 bar)
to 725 psi (50 bar)
Ariel Corp.
Atlas Copco
Atlas Copco Energas
Atlas Copco Greenfield
Blackmer
Borsig ZM
Compression GmbH
Burckhardt
Compression AG
Cameron's Compression
Systems Group
Combined Heat
& Power Inc.
Comoti
Dresser-Rand
Elliott Group
Emerson Process
FS-Elliott
Garo
Garo S.p.A.
GE Oil & Gas
Haug Kompressoren AG
Hitachi Ltd./Hitachi Plant
Technologies Ltd.
Howden BC Compressors
Howden BC
Compressors Ltd.
Howden Process
Compressors
Howden Thomassen
Compressors B.V.
to 319 psi (22 bar)
to 6500 psi (448 bar)
to 12,000 psi (827 bar)
to 218 psi (15 bar)
to 150 psi (10 bar)
to 2176 psi (150 bar)
1
5
,
0
0
0
1
4
,
0
0
0
1
3
,
0
0
0
1
2
,
0
0
0
1
1
,
0
0
0
1
0
,
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
9
0
0
8
0
0
7
0
0
6
0
0
5
0
0
4
0
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0 0
PSI
to 1500 psi (103 bar)
to 610 psi (42 bar)
to 1500 psi (103 bar)
to 7250 psi (500 bar)
to 14,500 psi (1000 bar)
to 10,150 psi (700 bar)
to 500 psi (34 bar)
to 7250 psi (500 bar)
to 16 psi (1 bar)
to 725 psi (50 bar)
to 4400 psi (303 bar)
to 9940 psi (to 685 bar)
to 10,150 psi (700 bar)
to 247 psi (17 bar)
to 3050 psi (210 bar)
to 9400 psi (648 bar)
to 300 psi (21 bar)
to 600 psi (41 bar)
to 348 psi (24 bar)
to 3750 psi (259 bar)
to 950 psi (66 bar)
to 4500 psi (310 bar)
HyComp Inc.
Ingersoll Rand
J.P. Sauer & Sohn
Kobe Steel (Kobelco)
Leobersdorfer
Maschinenfabrik
Leroi-RCT
MAN Diesel & Turbo SE
Mehrer Kompressoren
GmbH & Co.
Mitsubishi
Mitsui Engineering &
Shipbuilding
MyCom
Natural Gas Services
Group/SCS
Neuman & Esser
Pedro Gil S.A.
Ro-Flo Compressors
Rolls-Royce
RotorComp
Verdichter GmbH
Samsung Techwin
Sertco
Siad Macchine
Implanti S.p.A.
Siemens AG
Solar Turbines
Sundyne Corporation
Vilter Manufacturing LLC
York/Frick (JCI)
to 943 psi (65 bar)
to 728 psi (50 bar)
to 21,200 psi (1462 bar)
to 750 psi (52 bar)
to 150 psi (10 bar)
to 29 psi (2 bar)
to 500 psi (34 bar)
to 5000 psi (345 bar)
to 5000 psi (350 bar)
to 14,504 psi (1000 bar)
to 7252 psi (500 bar)
to 50,760 psi (3500 bar)
COMPRESSOR
Tech
Two
COMPRESSOR
Tech
and Applications
1
5
,
0
0
0
1
4
,
0
0
0
1
3
,
0
0
0
1
2
,
0
0
0
1
1
,
0
0
0
1
0
,
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
9
0
0
8
0
0
7
0
0
6
0
0
5
0
0
4
0
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0 0
PSI
Sponsored By
to 7800 psi (538 bar)
to 2900 psi (200 bar)
to 7252 psi (500 bar)
to 14,500 psi (1000 bar)
to 50,760 psi (3500 bar)
to 435 psi (30 bar)
to 14,500 psi (1000 bar)
to 8250 psi (568 bar)
to 870 psi (60 bar)
to 400 psi (28 bar)
to 10,000 psi (690 bar)
to 15,000 psi (1034 bar)
to 35,300 psi (2413 bar)
to 8700 psi (600 bar)
to 190 psi (13 bar)
to 43,500 psi (3000 bar)
to 29 psi (2 bar)
to 725 psi (50 bar)
Ariel Corp.
Atlas Copco
Atlas Copco Energas
Atlas Copco Greenfield
Blackmer
Borsig ZM
Compression GmbH
Burckhardt
Compression AG
Cameron's Compression
Systems Group
Combined Heat
& Power Inc.
Comoti
Dresser-Rand
Elliott Group
Emerson Process
FS-Elliott
Garo
Garo S.p.A.
GE Oil & Gas
Haug Kompressoren AG
Hitachi Ltd./Hitachi Plant
Technologies Ltd.
Howden BC Compressors
Howden BC
Compressors Ltd.
Howden Process
Compressors
Howden Thomassen
Compressors B.V.
to 319 psi (22 bar)
to 6500 psi (448 bar)
to 12,000 psi (827 bar)
to 218 psi (15 bar)
to 150 psi (10 bar)
to 2176 psi (150 bar)
1
5
,
0
0
0
1
4
,
0
0
0
1
3
,
0
0
0
1
2
,
0
0
0
1
1
,
0
0
0
1
0
,
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
9
0
0
8
0
0
7
0
0
6
0
0
5
0
0
4
0
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0 0
PSI
to 1500 psi (103 bar)
to 610 psi (42 bar)
to 1500 psi (103 bar)
to 7250 psi (500 bar)
to 14,500 psi (1000 bar)
to 10,150 psi (700 bar)
to 500 psi (34 bar)
to 7250 psi (500 bar)
to 16 psi (1 bar)
to 725 psi (50 bar)
to 4400 psi (303 bar)
to 9940 psi (to 685 bar)
to 10,150 psi (700 bar)
to 247 psi (17 bar)
to 3050 psi (210 bar)
to 9400 psi (648 bar)
to 300 psi (21 bar)
to 600 psi (41 bar)
to 348 psi (24 bar)
to 3750 psi (259 bar)
to 950 psi (66 bar)
to 4500 psi (310 bar)
HyComp Inc.
Ingersoll Rand
J.P. Sauer & Sohn
Kobe Steel (Kobelco)
Leobersdorfer
Maschinenfabrik
Leroi-RCT
MAN Diesel & Turbo SE
Mehrer Kompressoren
GmbH & Co.
Mitsubishi
Mitsui Engineering &
Shipbuilding
MyCom
Natural Gas Services
Group/SCS
Neuman & Esser
Pedro Gil S.A.
Ro-Flo Compressors
Rolls-Royce
RotorComp
Verdichter GmbH
Samsung Techwin
Sertco
Siad Macchine
Implanti S.p.A.
Siemens AG
Solar Turbines
Sundyne Corporation
Vilter Manufacturing LLC
York/Frick (JCI)
to 943 psi (65 bar)
to 728 psi (50 bar)
to 21,200 psi (1462 bar)
to 750 psi (52 bar)
to 150 psi (10 bar)
to 29 psi (2 bar)
to 500 psi (34 bar)
to 5000 psi (345 bar)
to 5000 psi (350 bar)
to 14,504 psi (1000 bar)
to 7252 psi (500 bar)
to 50,760 psi (3500 bar)
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CPI_Insert.indd 1 8/16/12 2:56 PM CT_SpecsAtAGlance.indd 4 8/21/12 1:48 PM
Two
demand is shifting in global gas mar-
kets, with emerging Asian consumers
now seeking more LNG than tradition-
al consumers, such as Europe.
Business Monitor International has
projected that European gas demand
will rise 18% between 2012 and 2021,
while Asian gas demand will jump by
54% over the same period.
Statoil said the doubling of the
Melkya LNG plant also could act as a
catalyst for other projects in the region.
Last year, Total made the Norvarg gas
discovery 186 mi. (300 km) northeast
of Hammerfest in the Barents Sea. Hy-
drocarbon resources are estimated at as
much as 500 MMbbl of oil equivalent,
but any development will be challenged
by the lack of export infrastructure.
Snhvit utilizes subsea production
facilities on the seabed in water depths
of 820 to 1131 ft. (250 to 345 m).
Twenty wells are due to produce gas
from Snhvit and the outlying Askel-
add and Albatross fields.
Snhvit has nine wells, including eight
for production and one for reinjecting
carbon dioxide (CO
2
). Six of the pro-
ducers and the CO
2
injection hole were
drilled during 2004 to 2005, with the re-
maining two following in 2011.
The Albatross production wells were
drilled in 2005 and 2006. The Snhvit
and Albatross wells came on stream in
2007. The Askeladd part of the devel-
opment is not due to come on stream
until 2014 to 2015.
Snhvit has the distinction of being
the first LNG production that includes
a CO
2
reinjection program. The CO
2

has the undesirable property of freez-
ing to a solid at the temperature of
LNG, -261F (-163C), and thus can
clog pipes.
It is removed prior to liquefaction
through a conventional amine process.
A second 90 mi. (145 km) pipeline
BS_Services.indd 1 2/16/12 3:57 PM
P
h
o
t
o

c
o
u
r
t
e
s
y

o
f

S
t
a
t
o
i
l
.
Statoil plans to add a second LNG train to its
Melkya Island facilities.
transports the captured CO
2
back to
Snhvit for injected into the Tuben
sandstone formation underlying the
production zone. About 700,000 T/yr
of CO
2
will be reinjected.
Partners in Snhvit are Statoil with
36.79%, Norwegian state holding fund
Petoro with 30%, Total with 18.4%,
GDF Suez 12% and RWE 2.81%.
Statoil recently brought the Melkya
LNG plant back on stream after nearly
a month-long production outage in
July. The shutdown occurred following
the ingression of water into the natural
gas dryers. A
CT954.indd 2 8/24/12 2:49 PM
Valve Kits
MajorOEMStyles:Ariel,Hoerbiger,Dresser,Manley,GE/Geminiandothers.
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itemsasapplicable.
Metallic Plates and Rings
Valveplates,spring,damping,waferandcushionplates
Highqualitystainlesssteels:420,410,300-Seriesand17-7PH(othersperOEM
specification)
NACEplatesandspringsavailableuponrequest
Thermoplastic Plates and Rings
Allmakesandthicknessesofthermoplasticplatesandringsupto15diameter
Materialsinclude:Nylon,MT,PEEK-GlassFilled,PEEK-CarbonFilledandKBDeltas
versionoftheX-stylematerials:NYX,MTX,PKX,formulatedtomeetOEMstandardsfor
X-stylethermoplastics.
Grade AA Thermoplastic Plates and Rings available upon request. Our Grade AA
precisionsealingsurfaceisdesignedtopassthemostrigorousleaktestsrequiredby
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KBDeltamachinesprecisionradiusandotherprofilerings;specializinginManleyandHoerbiger-styleprofilerings,KBDelta
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KBDeltamanufacturesandstocksspringsforeverymajorOEMvalvetype
SpringShapes/Styles:Conical,Cylindrical,Barrel,Hourglass,andSpecialSpringShapes
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WireShapeTypes:Round,Flat,Oval,andSpecialShapes
MaterialTypes:StainlessSteel(17-7PH,302,304,316,),MusicWire,Inconel(600,X-750,718),Nimonic90,Hastelloy(C-
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Materials:StainlessSteel,Teflon,Peek,Nylon,Moly,Carbon
KBDeltaInc.isanaftermarketsupplierofcompressorvalveparts.KBDeltamakesnorepresentationthatthepartswe
manufactureareOEMparts,howevertoourbestknowledge,OEMspecificationsareadheredtoonallofthepartswe
manufacture.
Celebrating30YearsofService
www.kbdelta.com
800-632-3994
Torrance,CaliforniaUSA
Ask for Genuine KB Delta Parts
Discover Us!
KB Delta is the premier manufacturer of
compressor valve parts to the natural gas,
air, refrigeration and P.E.T. industries.
NorthAmericaslargestpartsinventoryandon-sitemanufacturingprovideKBDeltacustomersthefastestjobturnaroundavailable.
KBDeltasmanufacturingcapabilitiesinclude:
On-siteengineering,re-engineeringandknowledgeofmostOEMcompressorvalveinternals.
InjectionmoldingCarbonPEEK,PEEK,MT,NylonandX-typematerialparts
PrecisionCNCmachiningofthermoplasticvalveplates
Flatandprofilethermoplasticringswithprecisionsealingsurfaces
CompressionmoldingofTeflonbuttonsforvalvesandlanternringsforpumps
Lasercuttingandfinishingofstainlesssteelplates
Manufacturingprecisioncompressionsprings(OEMstandardandcustomspringsavailable)
Unparalleledcustomerservice-Wepickupthephoneeverytime.
KBDeltaFullSpread06-12.indd 1-2 6/8/12 12:49 PM KB-Delta.indd 2 6/11/12 4:26 PM
Knowledge of the various performance evaluation param-
eters typically used during the bid evaluation process for a
centrifugal compressor is an important step toward the selec-
tion of machines that fit most economically and effectively
with the application.
Explained here are generic boundary limit criteria and the
preferred operating envelope for centrifugal compressor per-
formance curves, API 617 performance guarantee limits and
impeller performance evaluation.
Smooth and trouble-free operation of compressors is an
absolute necessity for continuous operation of oil and gas
production facilities. Hence, during a detailed design project,
evaluation of compressor performance at various operating
conditions is an important compressor pre-order activity for
engineering contractors.
Typically, compressors in offshore installations face vary-
ing flow and pressure during the life of production platforms.
In late-life scenarios, the production of gas from a well can
drop to as low as 15% of compressor designed capacity.
In such instances, the selection of operating envelopes
for a compressor is a very important bid evaluation activity
(to reduce recycle flow and thus the power loss). An en-
gineering contractors responsibility is to select a machine
with optimal efficiency and with a sufficiently broad oper-
ating envelope to cover the entire life of a platform with
minimum changes.
Operating Envelope For
Compressor Performance Curve
While assessing compressor performance, the following
relationships should be considered in addition to required
shaft power and polytropic efficiency (Figure 1).
Stability Range = (Qr Qs) / Qr (1)
Turndown Range = (Qr Qt) / Qr (2)
Pressure (Head) Rise to Surge = Hs / Hr (3)
Overload Range = Qo / Qr (4)
Two
KEY PERFORMANCE EVALUATION PARAMETERS
FOR CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
Relationships of parameters need to
be considered during bid evaluation processes
By Mehul Patel
Mehul Patel is principal machinery engineer at Chicago Bridge
& Iron Co. (CB&I) in London, U.K. Before joining CB&I in Febru-
ary, he was with WorleyParsons in the U.K. and L&T-Chiyoda Ltd.
in India. Patel, who has a mechanical engineering degree from
North Gujarat University, India, has a background in executing
front-end engineering and design and detailed design engineer-
ing for rotating machinery. Contact him at: MVPatel@cbi.com
Where
Qr = rated capacity
Qs = capacity at surge on compressor rated speed curve
Qt = capacity at rated head on surge line
Hr = rated head
Hs = head at surge on compressor rated speed curve
Qo = capacity at rated speed where polytropic head is 85%
of polytropic head at Qr
Qstonewall = capacity where decrease in polytropic head
is 10% for 1% increase in inlet volute and
shall be 110% of Qr
(See equations 5 and 6 in glossary at end)

Figure 1: Typical Performance Curve of a Centrifugal Compressor.
Compressor characteristics vary with the difference in
molecular weight of process gases tabulated below (Table
1). In general, with higher molecular weight or number of
stages, the turndown ratio becomes smaller and pressure
rise becomes higher. The following should be used as typ-
ical guidelines for compressor operating envelope range:
Performance Guarantee
According to API 617:
Variable speed unit: Head and capacity shall have zero
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Two
negative tolerance at the normal operating point (or other
point as specified), and the power at this point shall not
exceed 104% of the suppliers predicted shaft power value.
This tolerance shall be inclusive of all test tolerances.
Constant speed unit: The capacity shall have zero toler-
ance. The head shall be within the range of 100 to 105% of the
normal head. The power, based on measured head at normal
capacity, shall not exceed 107% of the value at the specified
normal operating point.
Process/Customer requirement: Turndown ratio and/
or pressure rise to surge ratio shall be checked against
varying process requirement for the operating envelope
of performance curve.
Impeller Performance
For evaluating impeller performance, flow coefficient (F),
pressure coefficient (C) and Mach number (Ma) are gener-
ally used (see glossary at end).
Flow Coefficient (F):
It is a ratio of actual inlet gas flow to impeller characteristic
(machine) flow.
F = Q / [(/4) x D
2
2
x U
2
] (7)
Where
Q = actual inlet gas flow (m
3
/sec)
D
2
= impeller outside diameter (m)
U
2
= impeller tip speed (m/s)
Impellers having a flow coefficient (F) between 0.01 and
0.09 are normally considered to be within proven range.
Where flow coefficient (F) > 0.1, 3D impellers are normally
used. In such cases, suppliers experience should be inves-
tigated as flow passages in impellers become unusually nar-
row. In recent years, flow coefficient (F) > 0.1 has become
quite common for high flow centrifugal compressors.
Head/Pressure Coefficient (C):
It is a ratio of polytropic head to Eulers head.
C = Hp / [(1/g) x U
2
2
] (8)
Where
Hp = polytropic head (m)
g = 9.8 (m/sec
2
)
U
2
Impellers having pressure coefficient (F) in range of 0.50
to 0.55 for one stage of a multistage compressor is normally
considered to be within proven range.
Machine Mach number (Ma): It is a ratio of impeller tip
speed to velocity of gas (sonic velocity) through the impeller.
Ma = U
2
/ a (9)
Where
U
2
a = sonic speed or velocity of gas through impeller (m/s)
Machine Mach number is always preferred within 1, but
in cases where it exceeds 1, then Relative Mach number
(Ma rel) at impeller inlet shall be further investigated. In such
cases, suppliers verification is a must as impeller inlet diam-
eter is generally not available to engineering contractors.
Conclusion
Performance evaluation of a compressor involves optimiza-
tion between: 1. Operating envelope; 2. Performance guaran-
tee; and 3. Impeller performance parameters.

Glossary
Polytropic head: Expression used for centrifugal compres-
sors to denote the meter-kg of work required per kg of gas.
Stability range: Flow measurement term that indicates the
flow range on a compressor performance curve for a particu-
lar constant speed or inlet guide vane (IGV) angle. At low
flow end (left side), it is limited by the surge point and at
high flow end (right side), it is limited by the rated point. It is
a very important parameter for an operations group as it tells
them of the flexibility of compressor operation for varying
process demands (without changing speed or IGV angle).
Turndown ratio: Flow measurement term that indicates the
flow range upon which compressors can develop constant (rat-
ed) head. In other words, it tells users how much they can turn
down (reduce) the flow rate while keeping the discharge pres-
sure constant. Inlet flow can be reduced by changing/reducing
either speed or IGV angle. This term is very important for an
operations group specifically for reduced plant operation.
Pressure rise to surge: Ratio of pressure (or head) at rated
point to pressure (or head) at surge.
Overload range: Represents the ability of a compressor to
handle maximum flow. It is a ratio of rated flow to end of
curve flow.
Sonic speed: Velocity of sound and represented as
V
sound
= (n x R x T / MW) ^ 0.5
Where
n = adiabatic constant
R = gas constant = 8.314 (J/molK)
T = temperature (kelvin)
MW = molecular weight (5)
In compression applications, the pressure wave generated
by gas particles travels at sonic speed.
Mach number (Ma or M): The speed of an object moving
through air, or any fluid substance, divided by the speed of
sound characteristic of that substance.
M = Vo / Vs (6)
Where
Vo = Velocity of object relative to the medium
Vs = Velocity of sound in the medium
The Mach number is commonly used both with objects trav-
eling at high speed in a fluid, and with high-speed fluid flows
inside channels such as nozzles, diffusers or wind tunnels.
Machine Mach number: Ratio of impeller tip speed to
velocity of sound.
Relative Inlet Mach number: Ratio of relative inlet gas
velocity to velocity of sound. A
Table 1: The molecular weight of process gasses affects computer
characteristics.
www.compressortech2.com
Follow compressortech2 on
CT Twitter_RSS halfvert.indd 1 10/1/10 2:39:01 PM
CT950.indd 2 8/22/12 1:37 PM
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Two
Industry News CompressorTech
Two
Two
gea bock
Eric Frese has been named director of
sales and marketing, western Europe, for
stationary GEA Bock compact compres-
sors. Frese is responsible for developing
the sales network in western Europe and
supporting GEA Bocks integration into the
Country Sales Organizations of GEA Refrig-
eration Technologies. He is also in charge
of product management and marketing.
Frese, who has been with the company
for 10 years, previously served in the com-
panys marketing department. He replac-
es Thomas Hagenlocher, now responsible
for sales outside western Europe and in
Asia and Australia.
Dresser-rand
Dresser-Rand has opened a new center
of excellence at Peterborough, U.K. The
20,000 sq.ft. (1860 m
2
) turbine technology
services facility provides repairs on indus-
trial gas turbines, in addition to the serv-
ice and repair service already provided
for steam turbines and gas compressors
manufactured at the facility.
The center includes a high-capacity vacu-
um heat treating facility, nondestructive test-
ing services, a metallurgical laboratory and a
machine and weld shop, Dresser-Rand said.
The facility allows the company to serv-
ice all brands of industrial gas and steam
turbine components, including combus-
tion liners, transition pieces, nozzles,
shroud blocks and buckets.
Centerpoint energy
CenterPoint Energy Field Services LLC
(CEFS), a wholly owned natural gas gather-
ing, processing and treating subsidiary of
CenterPoint Energy Inc., has entered into
two agreements to acquire gathering and
processing assets in northeast Texas, U.S.A.
The first acquisition is for the gathering
and processing assets of Prism Gas Sys-
tems I, L.P. (Prism), a wholly owned sub-
sidiary of Martin Midstream Partners L.P.,
as well as other assets from Martin Mid-
streams natural gas services segment for
US$275 million. The assets include Prisms
50% interest in Waskom Gas Processing
Co., which includes a 320 MMcfd (9.0 x 10
6

m
3
/d) natural gas processing facility; the
Woodlawn plant and gathering system;
and the McLeod, Hallsville and Darco
gathering systems.
The second acquisition is a 15-year agree-
ment with Encana Oil & Gas Inc., a subsid-
iary of Encana Corp., to gather and treat its
natural gas production from the Amoruso
and Hilltop fields in Robertson and Leon
counties in East Texas, U.S.A. CEFS also pur-
chased Encanas 139 mi. (223.7 km) Amoru-
so gathering systems for US$89 million.
Voith turbo
Voith Turbo GmbH & Co. KG has ap-
pointed Carsten J. Reinhardt as its new
president and CEO, as well as a member
of the Voith GmbH
corporate board of
management. He
succeeds Hubert
Lienhard.
Reinhardt, who
has nearly 20 years
of international man-
agement experience
in the areas of com-
mercial vehicles and
powertrain manu-
RecipCOM
It sees what you cant
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AugSept_IndustryNews.indd 1 8/23/12 10:32 AM
Two
Two
Two
facturing, began his career in 1993 in the
commercial vehicle division of the former
Mercedes-Benz AG, now Daimler AG, in
Stuttgart, Germany.
In 2003, he was appointed president
and CEO of Daimler Trucks North Ameri-
can Engine business, Detroit Diesel Corp.
In 2006, Reinhardt joined Meritor Inc. in
Troy, Michigan, U.S.A.
Capstone turbine
Capstone Turbine Corp. received an
initial order for 12 microturbines totaling
2548 hp (1.9 MW) from a large oil and gas
producer in the southern United States.
The customers initial order is for two
C600 power packages and 10 C65 micro-
turbines for installation at four remote pro-
duction sites.
All 12 microturbines will provide power
to electrical submersible pumps. The mi-
croturbines, fueled by wellhead gas, will
provide all electrical power at the sites.
Capstone distributor Horizon Power Sys-
tems secured the order for the microtur-
bines, which are scheduled to be installed
and commissioned later this summer.
Caterpillar
Caterpillar Inc. announced that Kathryn
Dickey Karol has been appointed to the
newly created position of vice president
with responsibility for global government
and corporate affairs.
She had been vice president of global
government and corporate affairs for Am-
gen Inc. and before that was director of
government affairs for Eli Lilly & Co. She
will report to Jim Buda, Caterpillar execu-
tive vice president with responsibility for
law and public policy.
Wrtsil
Paolo Tonon has been appointed vice
president, R&D of
Wrtsil Industrial
Operations.
Tonon, who joined
Wrtsil in 1998, has
held several strate-
gic, operational and
technology positions.
He was vice presi-
dent of product cen-
ter automation, with
responsibility for
overall development and production of the
Wrtsil electrical and automation portfolio.
Tonon is a member of the Wrtsil In-
dustrial Operations management team and
reports to Lars Hellberg, group vice presi-
dent, Wrtsil Industrial Operations.
Department Of energy
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
is partially funding three research projects
to develop compressors for refueling natu-
ral gas vehicles at home.
The University of Texas will get a
US$4.3 million for work on an integrated,
single-piston compressor. Because it has
fewer moving parts, it will be more reli-
able, lighter, and cost effective than a four-
piston machine.
Colorado State University will receive
US$700,000 to develop a system that uses
the vehicle engine itself to compress natu-
ral gas. A vehicle could be connected to
any natural gas line for refueling.
Eaton Corp., of Milwaukee, Wiscon-
sin, U.S.A., will get US$3.4 million for re-
search to use a liquid, acting as a piston,
to compress gas. It will engineer a heat-
transfer material to control the tempera-
ture during compression and improve
efficiency. The liquid compression sys-
tem will eliminate the need for the high-
pressure piston seals used in convention-
al gas compression.
RecipCOM
Find out more:
critical failures
reliability
lower service costs
productivity
RecipCOM
RecipCOM
Find out more:
critical failures
reliability
lower service costs
productivity
RecipCOM
P. Tonon
When we first reported on Valerus position in the market-
place in early 2005, the company said it had eight packaging,
fabrication, sales and service offices, 149,000 sq.ft. (13,000 m
2
)
of packaging and fabrication space, more than 100 packages
totaling 50,000 hp (37,280 kW) of compressors operating in its
rental fleet and 90 full-time employees.
Chris Scheve, vice president, Northeast Operations in the
U.S., said Valerus employs almost 1,400 people at all levels
of its operation. The company maintains some 49 operation
centers in key locations across North America and around the
world. In the U.S., this includes representation in all the major
gas and oil producing shale deposits such as Haynesville, Mar-
cellus, Utica, Eagle Ford and Bakken, to name a few.
It operates five U.S. packaging and fabrication facilities,
four in Texas (Bay City, Victoria, Schulenburg and Longview)
and one in New Iberia, Louisiana. These facilities provide
compressor packaging, production equipment manufactur-
ing, as well as serving as regional repair and service centers
and headquarters for field-service personnel.
Valerus Bay City plant is its largest, comprising 100,000
sq.ft. (9300 m
2
) resting on a 26 acre (10.5 ha) site. It has 13
packaging bays equipped with 20-ton (18.1 tonnes) over-
head crane capacity with 26 ft. (8 m) under hook. This plant
is capable of handling the largest package Valerus builds.
The other four facilities, though smaller, are also capable of
complete package fabrication.
Despite low natural gas prices, business for oil and gas han-
dling is growing. One of the ways operators and service com-
panies alike are responding to lower natural gas prices is to
VALERUS TARGETS SERVICE
TO THE WORLDS ENERGY PRODUCERS
Integrated service solutions for oil and gas production
and treating key to the companys worldwide appeal
By Joe Kane
This gas processing facility in Warri, Nigeria, is capable of provid-
ing up to 45,000 hp (33,552 kW), 5 MW of power generation, me-
chanical refrigeration and fractionation systems, product storage
and transfer infrastructure.
Two
Standard Compression Packages
Small Horsepower
Caterpillar 3304NA GE M302 3 Stage
Caterpillar 3306NA GE H302 3 Stage
Caterpillar 3306TA GE H302 3 Stage
Caterpillar 3306TA Ariel JGQ2 3 Stage
Medium Horsepower
Caterpillar 3516 BLE Ariel JGT4 3 Stage
Caterpillar 3516 TALE Ariel JGT4 3 Stage
Caterpillar 3516 TALE Ariel JGT4 23 Flex
Caterpillar 3516 TALE Ariel JGT4 12 Flex
Waukesha 5794 GSI Ariel JGK4 3 Stage
Waukesha 5794 GSI Ariel JGK4 23 Flex
Waukesha 5794 GSI Ariel JGT4 3 Stage
Waukesha 5794 GSI Ariel JGT4 23 Flex
Waukesha 5794 GSI Ariel JGT4 12 Flex
Waukesha 7044 GSI Ariel JGK4 3 Stage
Large Horsepower
Caterpillar 3616TALE Ariel JGC6 1 Stage Pipeline
Caterpillar 3608TALE Ariel JGC4 Gathering
Waukesha 12V275GL Dresser-Rand 5HOS6 Injection
2250 BHP Motor GE FS604 Fuel Gas Booster
3000 BHP Motor Superior WG64 Sour Gas
A listing of standard packages offered by Valerus. The company offers
compressor solutions for virtually all onshore or offshore applications.
It also designs, deploys and maintains a comprehensive offering of
Caterpillar and Waukesha compressor packages, Ariel and Dresser-
Rand frames, and gas and electric drive equipment ranging from 25 to
8000 hp (19 to 5965 kW) with combinations of units totaling 50,000 hp
(37,280 kW) and beyond. continued on page 44
CT959.indd 1 8/22/12 2:18 PM
FS_Elliott.indd 1 8/15/12 4:52 PM
liquids, which makes production from these wells profitable,
Scheve said.
Valerus compression equipment and services include
wellhead compression, gas gathering, gas storage, vapor re-
covery, pipeline booster stations, injection, gas lift and gas
process applications. Compressor packages designed to
meet customer specifications constitutes our core business
thats where everything starts, Scheve said. We design,
deploy and maintain compressor solutions for practically any
application, on or offshore, from 25 hp (18.6 kW) compres-
sor packages to 50,000 hp (37.3 MW) compressor facilities
and beyond. Our packages are supplied with gas engines or
electric motors as specified by our customers.
Process equipment and services provided by Valerus in-
clude plants for amine gas treating, mechanical refrigeration,
Joule-Thompson (JT) and refrigerated JT systems, systems for
cryogenic turboexpander processing, turnkey installations and
plant startup, commissioning and operations. For removing
corrosive H
2
S and CO
2
, Valerus supplies amine treating plants
in four standard configurations: 120, 200, 400 and 800 gpm
(454, 757, 1514 and 3028 L/min). To remove water vapor from
raw gas, the company provides standard mechanical refrigera-
tion plants capable of handling 35, 60, 120 and 200 MMscfd
(1, 1.7, 3.4, 5.7 x 10
6
m
3
). Valerus also offers JT or JT with
refrigeration, which drops out heavy hydrocarbons and other
excess liquids from the gas stream. Lastly, the company can
design and provide cryogenic plants with turboexpanders to
knock out ethane from the gas stream to achieve pipeline
quality. These are offered in three standard configurations, 60,
100 and 200 MMscfd (5.7, 3, 5.7 x 10
6
m
3
).
Two
Valerus has enjoyed dramatic growth over the past decade. The map indicates its worldwide presence in strategic hydrocarbon producing areas as
shown in table.
Valerus compressor package being assembled at its Bay City, Texas,
U.S.A. facility. The package includes a Caterpillar G3608 TA gas engine
driving a Dresser-Rand 7H0554 compressor.
be flexible enough to respond to opportunity, and to expand
the core business, both in market share and geographically
in the domestic and international producing areas, Scheve
said. We also have moved into markets complementary to
our core business, including opening a network of regional
service centers and adding gas processing to our compression
and production equipment product lines.
Scheve also said the move to wet gas shale basins, where
valuable liquid resources are located, has been another op-
portunity for growth. With our gas processing capabilities,
we are able to provide customers with the means to recover continued on page 48
CT959.indd 2 8/22/12 2:19 PM
Turbomachinery and International Pump Users Symposia, Booth 810
International Rotating Equipment Conference, Booth 34
GMC, Booth 407
BETA_booth.indd 1 8/13/12 1:25 PM
Two
GREAT LAKES SERVICE CENTER UP AND RUNNING
Valerus continues strategic placement of regional service centers
with opening in Bridgman, Michigan, U.S.A.
Valerus opened its Great Lakes Service Center in Bridg-
man, Michigan, U.S.A. in May of last year. In April 2012,
Valerus held an open house, inviting customers to tour the
facilities, dedicated to engine and compressor overhaul
and repair. The company selected 41-year service veteran
Tom Crouch to oversee the facility startup, including facili-
ties modifications, and selection and layout of dedicated
equipment and various machine tools.
This is my fifth service center startup and second under
the leadership of Danny Cannon, senior vice president of
North America at Valerus, Crouch said. Each time I do
this, I see ways to streamline the operation and improve
our efficiency. We are still looking for certain dedicated
tools and machinists to operate them, but combined with
the comparable resources from our Houma, Louisiana
facility, we are now capable of handling the repair and
upgrading of virtually all engine and compressor compo-
nents from this area.
The Great Lakes Service Center, just as its name implies,
covers just the Great Lakes states, including Wisconsin, Illi-
nois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio and Pennsylvania. Valerus does
follow the pipelines that extend out of the Great Lakes area
when the location comes under the jurisdiction of manage-
ment within the area. Most of this facilitys effort concentrates
on repair of the large integral compressors manufactured by
Cooper-Bessemer, Worthington, Clark and Ingersoll Rand.
These old engines went out of production in the late
1970s or early 80s when the high-speed separables and
gas turbine centrifugals came into play, Crouch said,
However, a significant number of them are still in opera-
tion and providing excellent service. Our technicians have
the unique skillset required to service this equipment.
When asked about the significance of the Bridgman lo-
cation, Crouch said, If you look at a pipeline map of the
Great Lakes area, it appears like a dense spider web. Equal-
ly dense is the location of compressor stations with these
integral compressors in them.
Logistics are also important. We are located near an en-
trance to the interstate highway system, and our field service
crews can pick up and deliver repair jobs in their service ve-
hicles. This offers a huge savings in transportation costs and
allows us to provide efficient service to customers.
Virtually all component repairs can be handled conve-
niently in the Bridgman shop, including cylinder heads
for engines and compressors, valves, packings, bearings
and distance pieces, among others. When it comes to the
engine block and crankshaft, field service crews are sent
out to perform repairs on site. These crews also perform
foundation and alignment work.
The Bridgman facility has overall floor space of 7000 sq.ft.
(650.3 m
2
), with three of its work bays each equipped with
10-ton overhead crane capacity. The shop is equipped with
precision grinding machines, machines for compressor valve
lapping and a shot peening machine. A complete listing of
tools and equipment is shown in the accompanying table.
Were exceptionally proud of our facility, our personnel
and crews, Crouch said. We can take on any repair job
for both large engine compressors and high-speed separable
units. For any component not falling within our capabilities,
we have immediate access to specialized service facilities at
other Valerus locations, inclusive of highly technical repairs
such as turbocharger and certain emission upgrade types.
Tom Crouch directs opera-
tions at the Valerus Great
Lakes Service Center in
Bridgman, Michigan, U.S.A.
He has 41 years of experi-
ence in the machinery ser-
vice oriented business. The
Bridgman center is the fifth
shop he has established
and operated during his ca-
reer. His e-mail address is:
tcrouch@valerus-co.com.
When engine or compressor components enter the service center
for repair, they are directed to this teardown and inspection area to
determine the work to be done.
One of three lathes in the Valerus Service Center.
CT959.indd 3 8/23/12 4:57 PM
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Samsung.indd 1 8/13/12 9:23 AM
Two
To round out its services, Valerus pro-
vides liquid storage, separation using
two and three-phase production separa-
tors, heated and enclosed designs, free-
water knockouts and sand separators.
Transfer, injection and pipeline pump-
ing, gas filtration, gas and liquid heating
and cooling, gas dehydration, gas dew-
pointing, crude oil and condensate treat-
ing and stabilizing, compressed natural
gas (CNG), commissioning and con-
struction are also among the abundant
services offered by Valerus.
Scheve emphasized that while com-
pressor packaging is Valerus core
business, presently its largest projects
come from integrated services, where
Valerus provides any combination of
compression, production equipment,
gas processing equipment and asso-
ciated services. Valerus can supply
a completely integrated turnkey sys-
tem, whether its a single wellhead or
booster compressor, a multiunit com-
pressor station or a complete gas pro-
cessing plant according to customer
specifications.
Contract services are also important
to the customer and to Valerus. Scheve
said when a producers focus is on ex-
tracting and monetizing hydrocarbons,
the cost and complexity of specialized
equipment ownership may not be the
best use of limited resources. As a solu-
tion, Valerus offers complete gas han-
dling services to any degree the cus-
tomer requires. Its team of engineers
can examine customers gas analysis
and work with them to determine the
best approach, including necessary
equipment and personnel. The Valerus
rental fleet contains assets measuring
more than 750,000 hp (559,200 kW),
and it continues to grow.
Aftermarket services are another
important aspect of what we offer
to our customers, Scheve said. We
service, support, maintain, repair, in-
stall and monitor compressors, cool-
ers, emissions equipment, engines,
instruments and controls, process
and treating equipment, production
equipment and turbochargers. We
offer 24/7 callout service, customer
facility operations/OEM contracts,
installation and startup, instrument
maintenance and repair, maintenance
(preventive and long-term contracts),
overhaul and exchanges, PLC pro-
gramming and control systems, and
spare and replacement part sales
(new and reconditioned).
Valerus considers field services
separate from aftermarket services.
This service takes care of the complex-
ity of turnkey installations in a highly
efficient way. It includes engineering,
civil works, mechanical scope, E&I
Shop Equipment And Machine Tools Installed In The Valerus Service Center
57 x 167 in. Clausing gap bed lathe with 68 in. gap swing capacity and
20,000 lb. load capacity
21 x 80 in. Harrison semi programmable lathe
14 x 60 in. Clausing Metosa engine lathe with taper attachment
Sharp knee mill with 11 x 54 in. table
Lucas 5 in. horizontal boring mill with 48 x 122 in. table
Blanchard 42 in. rotary surface grinder
Lapmaster 48 in. 4 ring lapping machine
Lapmaster 12 x 12 in. polishing stand
Clausing 20 in. drill press
State 20 in. disc sander
Baldor 12 x 2 in. pedestal grinder
Baldor carbide pedestal tool grinder
48 x 60 in. granite inspection table
Grays Mills 280 gal. heated cleaning tank
Grays Mills 75 gal. solvent cleaning tank
48 in. Goff rotary blast cabinet
48 x 24 in. Trinco bead blast cabinet
Lincoln 275 power mig welder
Victor journeymen cutting torch with portable cart
Dake 150 ton electric/hydraulic press
18 x 7 ft. Big Tex 10PI Utility trailer 9900 GVWR
American Hauler 14 x 7 ft. tool trailer
Torc-Up Hydraulic torque wrench, , 1 and 1 in. drive
Precision measuring tools-inside and outside diameters
1 ton portable gantry crane
2 ton engine hoist
Three 10 ton overhead cranes
Two 1 ton jib cranes
50 hp Kaesser rotary screw air compressor
10 hp Ingersoll-Rand reciprocating air compressor
Six ton, four-wheel drive Field service trucks equipped with tools
Two Milwaukee magnetic base drill presses
One portable boring head attachment
Metric conversions were not included because these machines are designed
for repair of equipment designed with British units. A
A number of specialized
service tools are developed
within the shop to assist in
engine and compressor
component overhaul.
Lapmaster ring lapping machine
for compressor valve refurbishing.
CT959.indd 4 8/23/12 4:58 PM
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Cook.indd 1 8/21/12 9:10 AM
This 100 MMscfd (2.8 x 10
6
m
3
/d) LPG facility in Surabaya, Indonesia,
was constructed in a challenging location and engineered to withstand
seismic activity. Valerus designed the complete facility, including two
Cat 3616 compressor packages along with a 100 MMscfd (75 x 10
6
m
3
)
turboexpander and fractionation systems for a seismic zone, complet-
ing construction and commissioning on schedule in 400 days.
Computer layout of a 12,000 hp (8947 kW) compressor station that is
installed in the Marcellus shale producing area. Valerus provided full
civil, mechanical, electrical and environmental engineering for a com-
pressor station designed to accommodate simultaneous operation at
two different inlet pressures. The compressor facility includes nine
compressor packages and two triethylene glycol (TEG) gas dehydra-
tion units. Valerus engineered and installed the system in 180 days.
Two 11,000 hp (8200 kW) Compressor Stations installed in Awali, Bah-
rain comply with a government flare-out initiative and other local en-
vironmental conditions, including high ambient temperatures. Valerus
exceeded schedule expectations by completing construction and com-
missioning the site in 150 days.
Two
and startup/commissioning for all midstream hydrocarbon-
processing needs. This gives customers the ability to work
with a single supplier for equipment sizing and selection all
the way through startup and commissioning.
An operation this extensive requires experienced field and
engineering personnel. In addition, Valerus is able to pro-
vide standardized modular equipment designs to support the
speed to market requirements of the companys customers,
a newer fleet of equipment, and adherence to the highest
safety and quality standards.
Safety is a driving force behind every action taken by a
Valerus employee whether out in the field, inside the shop or
in the office, Scheve said. We cant emphasize this enough.
Valerus breeds a culture of safety in which each and every
person is responsible and accountable. We are proud of our
outstanding record of total recordable incidents rate of 0.49 in
2011, a rate that leads the industry.
A number of projects completed or underway by Valerus
show the companys wide range of capabilities. A recent
project located in the Marcellus shale region in Pennsylvania
is one case in point. In a timeline of 180 days, Valerus en-
gineered a complete 12,000 hp (9 MW) compression facility
on a turnkey/sale basis to handle 110 MMscfd (3 x 10
6
m
3
) of
natural gas. It includes nine compressor packages and two
triethylene glycol (TEG) gas dehydration units. Installation
and commissioning were completed in July.
Valerus also designed, delivered and commissioned a 250
gpm (946 L/min) amine sweetening plant at a Haynesville
shale location in Texas, on time and on budget. In addition,
the company provided the core components in a manner that
preserved the customers existing contractual relationships
and allowed it, at the end of the day, to own and operate the
processing asset. The amine plant is capable of handling 150
MMscfd (4.3 x 10
6
m
3
/d) of natural gas.
In the Granite Wash area in Oklahoma, Valerus surveyed
the designated construction site and conducted an exhaus-
tive review of site preparation methods before designing a
solution incorporating engineered screw piles to provide the
necessary stability. Simultaneously, the company engineers
configured a standard 60 MMscfd (1.7 x 10
6
m
3
) cryogenic
plant for extracting valuable hydrocarbon liquids from the
unique gas stream. The project was completed in May.
Valerus completed an 11,000 hp (8200 kW) compressor sta-
tion in Awali, Bahrain, in 150 days. The station is comprised of
14 compressor packages that had to be hardened to withstand
harsh environmental conditions that include high tempera-
tures. The station is capable of handling 50 MMscfd (1.4 x 10
6

m
3
) to provide additional gas lift in an oil field.
In Surabaya, Indonesia, Valerus designed and installed
a cryogenic plant to extract significant revenue generat-
ing hydrocarbon liquids from the gas stream as well as
optimizing fuel for a 250 MW power generation facility.
Equipment that was designed and installed consisted of
two 4500 hp compressor packages, a 100 MMscfd (2.8
x 10
6
m
3
) turboexpander, fractionation, product storage
and loading. Logistics and site preparation in a remote
area proved to be most challenging. Space adjacent to the
power plant was limited and special consideration had to
be given to foundation design because of its location in
an active seismic zone.
We are constantly identifying opportunities where we
can expand our services, Scheve said. We are also com-
mitted to strengthening our regional service centers and
making sure we are strategically located to provide our
clients the best service. Lastly, we are constantly improv-
ing our own equipment and facilities, making sure that
every advantage are taken of current and anticipated tech-
nology that will affect our operations and contribute value
to our customers. A
CT959.indd 5 8/24/12 3:07 PM
Gas and Air Systems, Inc. 1304 Whitaker St. Hellertown, PA 18055
Toll free: 1 (888) 8 GASAIR Ph: (610) 838 9625 Fax: (610) 838 9650 info@gasair.net www.gasair.net
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GAS.indd 1 8/16/12 11:02 AM
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Bidell Equipment has contracted its
first Nomad screw compressor pack-
age to an Australian coal seam gas pro-
ducer after modifying its product line
to meet local requirements.
The 1005 hp (750 kW) package was
engineered to meet Australian techni-
cal specifications, including transpor-
tation and electrical regulations and
ambient temperatures. The customer is
expected to put the package in opera-
tion later this year.
Bidell, based in Calgary, Alberta,
Canada, is finalizing a full line of screw
and reciprocating options to meet the
growing demand in Australia for its
patented Nomad mobile gas compres-
sion technology.
The companys Nomad line has
surpassed more than two million run
hours in Canada and the U.S. since it
was introduced in 2003 (See January,
2011 CompressorTech
Two
, p. 76).
Bidell said the challenges presented
by the Australian market include the
remoteness of some gas fields under
development, the shortage of skilled
tradesmen in those areas and the costs
of installing a compression package.
Usually packages are built in North
America, disassembled for shipping
and reassembled at a central site or
at the location in the field. All of this
takes considerable time and effort,
which is complicated by the shortage
of technicians.
Bidell expects the Nomad product
line will resolve many of these issues.
The Nomad unit is fully fabricated at
the companys plant in Calgary as a
single trailer-mounted unit. Because
it ships complete, no assembly is re-
quired and it is ready to go into the
field when it arrives in Australia.
The Canadian company makes spe-
cially designed platforms for the trailer.
Customers simply transport the Nomad
trailer to site, set it on the platform and
tie the unit into the well. The self-
contained units are designed to be
easy to operate and service.
Bidell said the costs of reassembly and
installation are virtually eliminated and
timelines are cut dramatically. Any future
relocation of the compressor package is
as simple as the initial installation.
The Nomad line consists of four
standard packages providing up to
1340 bhp (1000 kW) of gas compres-
sion. Three packages use Ariel JGT/4
reciprocating compressors and include
high-discharge pressure single/two-
stage, low-discharge pressure single/
two-stage, and high-discharge pres-
sure three-stage designs. The fourth
package features Sullair PCC40LB or
Ariel RG357M screw compressors.
Weve chosen to use compression
equipment from proven industry
performers for our standard pack-
ages, said Mat Clark, Bidells Vice
President of Sales and Applications.
We also fabricate customized No-
mads to meet specific customer re-
quirements that may use other man-
ufacturers equipment and different
process configurations.
Clark said the standard Nomad
packages are a good fit for about 85%
of all natural gas applications. These
include permanent installations, peak
shaving, rapid decline, and remote ac-
cess for conventional and nonconven-
tional wells.
Marc Vincent, Vice President of Pro-
duction and Engineering, said Bidells
capability with extreme temperature
Nomad JourNeys dowN uNder
Bidell Equipment tailors mobile compression package for Australian market
Bidell Equipment manufactured this 1005 hp (750 kW) Nomad
screw compressor to meet Australian technical specifications.
Two
CT957.indd 1 8/22/12 2:26 PM
variations in Canada has given it the
experience to adapt its products for the
challenges of the Australian climate.
While the temperature variations
in Australia vary to extreme heat, and
Albertas to extreme cold, we have de-
veloped the expertise to design pack-
ages that can withstand these tempera-
ture swings, Vincent said.
The advantages of the Nomad
packages become evident when you
look at the full-cycle economics for
a project, said Sean Ulmer, Bidells
President. The savings in transporta-
tion, installation and demobilization
costs can be substantial.
Nomad units can be purchased,
leased or rented from Bidell. When a
well matures and its pressure drops,
rental customers can easily exchange
their existing rental unit with a better-
suited Nomad (or other compressor
package) to meet the changed operat-
ing requirements.
Bidell said flexibility is an important
advantage when wellhead production
rates are unknown or high decline
rates are expected. With the Nomad,
producers can bring in one or more
mobile units, and when the well stabi-
lizes, remove the package(s) no longer
needed, or switch from two-stage to
three-stage compression.
Also, many Australian producers
are using an N+1 design to provide
backup at large sites with multiple
compressor units. With the Nomad
technology, if there are 10 sites, the
customer would not need 10 +1
units: a single Nomad could provide
the backup to multiple sites given its
ease of transport and installation.
Bidell said a number of Nomad
packages have been placed in per-
manent applications in North America
and still are in their original location
after five years of service.
The cost to move a Nomad is very
low compared to the cost of moving
skid-mounted packages, Ulmer said.
That makes the cost of being wrong
very low. And by investing in tires, the
large capital funds needed for piles
and the transportation of skid-mount-
ed units can be re-directed to the drill-
ing of additional wells and the devel-
opment of gas plays.
The Australian Nomad does not
fundamentally vary from the standard
Bidell has used for years. The recip-
rocating compressors are driven by
Caterpillar G3516AFRC engines rated
at 1150 bhp (860 bkW) at 1200 rpm.
The screw compressors are powered
by Caterpillar G3512AFRC engines
that provide 1005 bhp (750 bkW) at
1400 rpm.
The engines are installed near the
front (neck) of the trailer, with a dedi-
Two
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cated engine-driven cooler to service
the engines utilities. The compressor
is coupled directly to the engine and
has its own hydraulically driven pro-
cess cooler placed at the other end of
the trailer.
The patented Nomad design effec-
tively eliminates vibration. Bidell said
when packages are running at full
load, operators can balance a coin
on the end of the compressors suc-
tion flange. It also said its customers
are surprised at how quietly the units
run and how much room is available
inside the trailers.
In addition to the Nomad, Bidell fab-
ricates other sweet-, sour- and acid-gas
compression packages that range from
20 to 7800 bhp (15 to 5800 bkW).
The company has an 80,000 sq.ft.
(7430 m
2
) facility to fabricate tradition-
al skidded packages and a separate
17,000 sq.ft. (1580 m
2
) plant which just
makes Nomad packages.
With the success we have seen with
the Nomad product line, it became ap-
parent we needed to set up a dedicat-
ed shop to meet the ongoing demand
of the marketplace, both in Canada
and abroad, Clark said. A
CT957.indd 2 8/22/12 2:26 PM
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Question:
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Cameron.indd 2 8/8/12 4:53 PM
minimum criteria that clients can ex-
pect to be fulfilled by standard pumps.
Depending on the specification, the
following standards are applied to cen-
trifugal pumps:
API 610 (ISO13709) standard for
demanding processes in the oil and
gas and hydrocarbon industries;
ISO5199 and ISO2858 (as well as
American standards ASME73.1) for
industrial processes;
European standard EN733 for light
industrial processes.
The metric standard ISO5199, for
example, covers the requirements for
pumps of back pullout construction,
used primarily in the chemical and
petrochemical industries. It includes
design features relating to installation,
maintenance and safety. Other codes
Two
PumP
T
ech
PumPing Solution For Polymer manuFacturing
Sulzers Ahlstar pumps designed for chemical process industry
By Heikki Manninen, Sulzer Pumps
In the polymer-manufacturing in-
dustry, raw materials undergo chemi-
cal conversion when processed into
finished products. These conversion
processes usually require conveying
fluids with a wide range of charac-
teristics. The liquids can be very hot
or cold, be chemically aggressive,
or contain solids or fibers. With the
Ahlstar process pump series, Sulzer
meets the requirements of the chemi-
cal process industry.
The wide range of processes in the
polymer-manufacturing industry leads
to an extensive scope of pumping ne-
cessities. It is essential to the opera-
tion of polymer plants that the process
pumps fulfill a variety of requirements.
In most polymer plants, pumps
generate the majority of energy cost,
meaning efficiency of hydraulics
and electrical drive is important.
Another crucial criterion is the reli-
ability of the pumps, because un-
planned interruptions of the chemi-
cal processes can significantly impact
costs and the environment.
Pumping Fluids
With many installed units operating
globally, Sulzers Ahlstar series is de-
signed for demanding industrial lines,
such as polymer processes. The ca-
pability to work with all types of liq-
uids makes this pump range suitable
for the pumping operations required
in chemical processes. The basics of
pumping are the same in all applica-
tions moving a liquid and increas-
ing its pressure yet the specific pa-
rameters of the liquids to be processed
can differ dramatically. The fluids can
vary in viscosity, or they can contain
fibers or solids.
Sulzer engineers had to consider this
and more boundary conditions when
they designed more than 10 impellers
that constitute the Ahlstar range suited
for almost every hydraulic require-
ment. Whether closed or open, impel-
lers make it possible for the Ahlstar
pumps to work with slurries, clear or
contaminated liquids or fluids contain-
ing solids of various sizes.
These process pumps can work at
temperatures of up to 500F (260C)
and pressures of up to 362.6 psi (2.5
MPa), which is roughly equivalent to
the pressure 820.2 ft. (250 m) below
water. With the right choice of mate-
rials, these pumps operate corrosion
free even when handling liquids with
pH values up to 14.
International Standards
International standards define sets of
The capability to work with all types of liquids makes the Ahlstar pump range suitable for
chemical processes.
CT960.indd 1 8/22/12 2:31 PM
Federal-Mogul has applied its world-class
development expertise to create a benchmark
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capability, and quality for industrial engines.
The Champion
Bridge Iridium plug features a

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FederalMogul.indd 1 6/19/12 2:07 PM
define main dimensions
and operating ranges of
the pumps.
The pumps of the Ahl-
star series fulfill ISO5199 and
ISO2858 international standards relat-
ing to dimensions of flanges and base
plates, and do not require special effort
to install or maintain within existing
pipework. The pumps of the Ahlstar
range have extra features exceeding
the basic requirements and surpassing
the international standards governing
technical performance and quality.
Operating Challenges
Conventional centrifugal pumps can
handle liquids with gas content below
4%, but gas bubbles collected in the
impeller eye do impair pumping and
will reduce capacity and head. At a
gas content of more than 4%, pumping
is very unstable and, without special
measures, requires excessive over di-
mensioning of the pump.
Sulzer offers degassing and self-
priming units in the Ahlstar series,
which will stabilize centrifugal pump
operation with liquids containing up to
40% weakly bonded gases or up to 70%
strongly bonded gases.
The pumps can be fitted with self-
priming or degassing units to start
the pump with the inlet pipe empty
or to help the pump operate with
liquid containing high gas content,
wher e convent i onal
centrifugal pumps would
lose suction compatibility.
Viscosity also is relevant
for pumping technology. It
describes a fluids resistance
to shear stress. Fluids such
as water have constant vis-
cosities and are called New-
tonian fluids. Molten polymers
and salt solutions show non-New-
tonian fluid behavior. Their viscosity
depends on the rate of shear and can
even be time dependent.
The shear-thinning behavior of poly-
mers (also known as pseudoplastic be-
havior) means the viscosity becomes
smaller if the rate of shearing increas-
es. Such changing viscosity coefficients
have to be considered in the pump de-
sign for polymer manufacturing.
Gases also pose challenges. They can
be present in liquids in three states: dis-
solved in the liquid; bound on the par-
ticles contained in the liquid; and as free
gas in the form of bubbles.
Gas bubbles disturb pumping. Gas
bubbles collected in the impeller eye
reduce the pump capacity and head.
Pumping becomes very unstable, var-
ies heavily, and requires excessive
over dimensioning of the pump.
Sulzer Pumps has developed pump
types, such as Ahlstar, which remove
disturbing gas or air contained in the liq-
uid so as to maintain proper pumping.
High Efficiency, Low Energy Cost
Energy costs make up about 80% of
the life-cycle cost of a process pump.
Sulzers engineers considered this fact
when designing the Ahlstar pump series.
Usually, pumps are operated with a
constant-speed drive motor and a flow
control valve to adjust the discharge.
This operating mode can be compared
to always driving a car at full throt-
tle engine speed and only using the
brakes to control the velocity.
If the pump motor is operated us-
ing an electronic frequency convert-
er, it is possible to vary the rotating
speed of the impeller and run the
pump at high efficiency in a broad
operating range, making energy sav-
ings of up to 60% possible. Further-
more, when operated with variable
speed, the pump runs smoothly with-
out recirculation and with lower vi-
bration and noise because of the
low internal hydraulic loads. With
this smoother operation, customers
benefit from longer pump life, fewer
unexpected shutdowns and lower
maintenance costs.
Reliability
Centrifugal pumps in industrial ap-
plications usually operate over a pe-
riod of several decades. The design of
the Ahlstar pumps aims to minimize
the life cycle costs during its lifetime.
Energy comprises the most signifi-
cant direct cost of a pump, while reli-
ability and maintenance lower the in-
direct cost. The failure of one pump
can stop the whole chemical pro-
cess, leading to increased costs and
an environmental impact that easily
outweighs the lifetime energy cost of
the pump.
A design with the goal of achieving
low outage costs for the pump has to
take into consideration two main as-
pects. First, a reliable pump design
minimizes the lifetime maintenance
costs and reduces the risk of unsched-
uled process interruption. Second, the
units must be designed to be service
friendly to shorten downtime when-
ever maintenance is required. One ex-
ample of this approach is the patented
impeller mounting, which allows for
easy and quick installation and dis-
mounting of the impeller.
The highly standardized modular
design of the Ahlstar range facilitates
spare parts service for the large num-
ber of pumps installed all around the
world in different industrial segments.
Environmental Impact
And Innovations
All industries must consider the eco-
logical consequences of their process-
es and reduce the impact of those on
the environment.
The Sulzer process pumps support
these efforts with various features.
Shaft seals of the pump specifically
selected for pumped liquids and related
Two
The design of the Ahlstar process pump
facilitates reliability, efficiency and low
operating costs.
CT960.indd 2 8/22/12 2:31 PM
Catalyst Emissions
EduCation Program
A scheduled series from Catalytic Combustions Catalyst 101
Facilitating intimate contact between the surface of the catalyst
and the pollutants needing to be converted is key in producing an
efective catalyst. The structure of the elements cells is how this is
controlled and optimized for maximum performance.
Flow in the Cells
When exhaust gas enters a cell,
a fow profle develops where the
velocity is faster in the center of the
cell and slower toward the walls.
Friction with the walls of the cell
forms a nearly stagnant boundary
layer just over the surface of the wall.
As illustrated in Figure 1, pollutant
molecules have to difuse through
this boundary layer to reach the
precious metal sites. In a properly
designed catalyst, the amount of
time it takes for difusion to occur is
the controlling step in the reaction
pathway. Thus minimizing the
thickness of the layer helps improve
performance.
The science of fuid mechanics
teaches that turbulent fow
produces the smallest boundary
layers. Techniques for keeping fow
turbulent include cells with zigzag
patterns, fns or protrusions into
the cell path or by simply making
the cells smaller by increasing the cell density. These techniques
introduce disruptions that either re-mix the gas fow or otherwise
keep the velocity of the gas through the cells high enough to
remain turbulent for more of the depth of the element.
Performance Evaluations
Another aspect of changing a patterns cell density is that
higher cell densities have more square inches of surface area per
cubic inch of substrate volume. More surface area translates into
www. Catal yti cCombusti on. com IN THE NEXT ISSUE The Great Detective
For your catalyst questions, contact:
John W. Robinson Jr., V.P. Catalyst Group 715-568-2882 Ext. 127 Fax: 715-568-2884 jrobinson@catalyticcombustion.com
a wider distribution of the precious metals, which yields more
discrete sites for the chemical reaction. This means that for two
elements of the same size, the one that has either the higher
cell density or turbulence inducing geometry at the same cell
density will have better conversion efciency.
When sizing a catalyst, it is desirable to use the smallest
catalyst practical that can exceed performance requirements.
However, the techniques used to keep fow turbulent expend
more of the exhaust gas momentum as it passes through the
cell, resulting in a higher pressure drop. The engineer calculates
the catalyst size required to meet the performance limits for a
given combination of cell pattern/density and then evaluates
the pressure drop for that selection. In doing so, a balance is
struck between the engines available backpressure limit vs. the
pressure drop across the catalyst, silencer and the rest of the
exhaust piping. The process is
repeated for other cell patterns
and cell densities to fnd the
optimum combination.
Sometimes the calculations
show that for a given catalyst
size and cell density, not all
the pollutants would reach the
required conversion efciency.
When this happens, the
engineer will hold the catalyst
size constant and increase
the cell density until all the
conversion efciencies are
achieved.
Performance gains
A situation may arise where
either an existing unit has
to achieve lower emissions,
or a package needs to be
moved into an area with
tighter emission limits than it
can achieve with its existing
catalyst housing. Rather than
immediately conclude that a
new larger housing is needed, instead consider if an increase in
cell density will solve the problem. The graph in Figure 2 shows
the changes in performance as a function of the cell density
alone. Of course, the additional pressure drop that the change
will bring also needs to be evaluated to confrm that the engine
has the backpressure capacity to spare. This may not work for
all instances, but when it does, changing out just the catalyst
elements is certainly preferable to upsizing the housing or
combo unit.
QualiTy CaTalysTs sinCE 1950
BloomER, Wi 715-568-2882 GillETTE, Wy 715-933-2641
UNDERSTANDING
CATALYSTS
A Handbook for the User
Part 16 - The Cell Density Games
Flow Profile
Boundary Layer
FIG. 2
FIG. 1
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TurboCool reliable cooling power control.
The Voith TurboCool eliminates fan blade
repitching by adapting the cooling power to
your needs via active fan speed control. This
reduces CO2 emissions, as well as prevents
freeze-ups and overheating. It reduces noise,
raises production and availability and protects
the drive line.
Voith.indd 1 8/14/12 11:18 AM
applications prevent leaking, and the
bearing units shaft seals stop con-
taminants from coming into contact
with lubricant and keeping lubricants
from leaking.
The shaft seals of Ahlstar require lit-
tle or no water lubrication, helping to
further reduce the environmental im-
pact and operation costs. Recycled me-
tallic materials, high energy efficiency,
and few leaks from shaft sealing and
bearing additionally minimize the en-
vironmental impact of the units.
More than 90% of the metallic mate-
rial used for manufacturing the pump
can be recycled at the end of the
pumps lifetime.
Pumping critical liquids in demand-
ing applications requires innovative
designs. Sulzer has obtained patents
on various characteristics of the Ahl-
star pump range.
Unusual for a mature product such
as a pump, the Ahlstar features sev-
eral patented designs for hydraulics,
shaft sealing, and bearing unit. These
patents ensure reliable and efficient
operation for challenging pumping
applications and help to reduce the
number process shutdowns, limit
maintenance needs and lower en-
ergy consumption, minimizing total
life-cycle costs. A
The Sulzer laboratory in Kotka, Finland, tests final design options in real operating conditions. From Sulzer Technical Review 2/2012
CT960.indd 3 8/22/12 2:31 PM
Kilowatts.indd 1 8/14/12 11:13 AM
data suggested one or more of the flu-
id ends were not pumping properly.
The operator said the pumps had
been recently overhauled with new
valves and was reluctant to open them
up due to strict production targets.
Pulsation and vibration were mea-
sured and found to exceed the guide-
lines on the piping near and far away
from the pumps, so the customer re-
quested a computer pulsation study to
address concerns with shaking pipes
and broken pipe clamps. It was sug-
gested that a flow study should be in-
cluded in the analysis.
A pulsation model was created for
Two
PumP
T
ech
Far-reaching eFFects OF
inadequate PulsatiOn cOntrOl
Case study examines slamming check valve far
from a reciprocating double diaphragm pump
By Jordan Grose
Pulsations can travel long distanc-
es, especially within liquid pumping
systems. This article discusses a case
where symptoms of problems were
first observed more than 650 ft. (200
m) from the source.
Operators of a large refinery first
noticed a slamming noise and some
broken U-bolt clamps on a pipe five
stories up on a pipe rack. The noise
came from a banging check valve on
a 3 in. (76.2 mm) line among several
larger pipes and valves.
Investigations found this was a suc-
tion line leading to two reciprocating
double diaphragm quadruplex pumps.
The pumps were operated in a spared
configuration, each powered by an 85
kW electric motor with VFD speed/
flow control.
The troubleshooting team took nu-
merous vibration and pulsation mea-
surements around the pump and at the
piping check valve. The pulsation lev-
els greatly exceeded pulsation guide-
lines from API 674 at the check valve
and the pumps were confirmed to be
the source of the vibration and noise.
This was discovered by comparing the
Jordan Grose is manager of pump
services for Beta Machinery Analysis,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Grose is a
rotating machinery engineer specializing
in vibration and reliability issues on
reciprocating and centrifugal pump-
ing systems, including pulsation and
mechanical analysis, water hammer and
transient studies, small bore piping anal-
ysis and other related design work. Beta
Machinery Analysis is a market leader in
providing engineering services for rotat-
ing and reciprocating machinery.
frequency of pulsation and vibration to
the running speed of the pumps.
The only puzzling matter was that
the highest component of the spec-
trum data was at the first order (1x)
of pump speed. In other words, the
highest vibration event was happening
once per pump crankshaft rotation.
Normally, in a quadruplex pump,
the highest expected order is 4x, be-
cause there are four plungers (four
events per crank rotation). Further in-
vestigation was necessary as to why
this irregular behavior was happening.
Pulsation dampeners were checked
and found to have adequate charge.
They had been well maintained. The
Slamming check valve (center of the photo) due to pulsation.
CT956.indd 1 8/22/12 2:35 PM
Insight onsite.
Harsco.indd 1 8/21/12 9:06 AM

determined that the original pulsation
control was not adequate.
The operator was very concerned
about the risk of vibration causing a
failure that could lead to equipment
downtime and impact safety in the fa-
cility. The existing pulsation control in-
cluded a gas-charged pulsation damp-
ener on each manifold of the suction
and discharge.
Single dampeners are often in-
effective at many speeds of a vari-
able speed pump (see April 2012
CompressorTech
Two
, p. 58). In order
to provide control of pulsation across
the entire speed range of the system,
a second dampener was required for
both systems.
The customer chose to implement a
maintenance-free, liquid-filled damp-
ener option so the pump system would
maintain some pulsation control, even
if the existing gas charged dampener
lost its charge or failed.
Vapor locked or malfunctioning flu-
id ends can cause unexpectedly high
pulsations that can travel long distanc-
es, creating vibration problems along
the way on piping and equipment
such as check valves. These problems
have a direct effect on flow, providing
an easy monitoring indicator to evalu-
ate these problems.
Addressing pulsation control at the
design stage with an API 674 pulsation
study can do much to prevent high-
risk vibrations on plant liquid piping,
prevent costly trial and error trouble-
shooting, and prevent expensive field
modification solutions. A
the suction and discharge systems,
which predicted high shaking forces in
the piping at a number of locations.
This model assumed a fully function-
ing set of four fluid ends.
A flow comparison of measured
and predicted flows revealed a 25%
shortfall and that one plunger was not
flowing product at the time of field
testing. A simulation was then com-
pleted using the pulsation model of a
pump with only three plungers active.
To help validate the model, the three-
plunger model results were compared
to the field pulsation data collected
near the slamming check valve.
As can be seen in the pulsation plot
illustration, the shape and characteristics
of the four-plunger prediction did not
match the field data at all, while there
was a much more qualitative and quanti-
tative similarity between the three plung-
er model and the measured field data.
It was suspected one of the fluid
ends was vapor locked, as it appeared
the operator would start the pump un-
der load, as opposed to using a bypass
loop to unload during startup.
Starting a reciprocating pump under
load has many drawbacks, one being
that if the fluid ends are not primed,
discharge line pressure will not allow
the enclosed vapor to escape through
the discharge valves. This is because of
clearance volume pressures of the va-
por not rising sufficiently to exceed dis-
charge line pressure and pass through
the valve.
As the model predicted high shak-
ing forces because of pulsation at
many points in the system, even with
a properly functioning pump, it was
Two
Shown here is the Quadruplex double-diaphragm pump.
This graph shows predicted pulsation compared with measured field pulsation at the check valve.
CT956.indd 2 8/23/12 2:35 PM
Cozzani.indd 1 1/31/12 4:48 PM
5.4 hp (4 kW) or less, with 32% having
a rated power from 5.4 to 20.1 hp (4 to
15 kW). The upper curve depicted in
Figure 2 shows the pump input power
for each power range. Here, 50% of
energy consumption is attributable to
pumps with a rated power of up to
53.6 hp (40 kW), exactly the kind of
pump barely noticed during the selec-
tion process.
If a pump manufacturer knows the
head and flow requirements of a sys-
tem, a variety of options to optimize
energy consumption are available.
Variable Frequency Drives
Speed control is the most efficient
method of positively influencing energy
consumption. Altering the speed means
that the pumps head can be adjusted to
match the precise requirements of the
system. Tolerances and safety margins,
which were factored in during the de-
sign stage, can be dispensed with.
Pipe friction losses caused by in-
crustations can be compensated for, as
the majority of frequency inverters and
Two
PumP
T
ech
Potential SavingS at the PumP
Several options available to reduce energy consumption
By Dirk Kollmar and Katrin Abraham, KSB Aktiengesellschaft
Pumps account for about 30% of the
total electrical energy requirements in
the industry, making them the largest
consumers of electricity in this sector.
To reduce energy consumption, it
takes more efficient methods rather
than an engineering solution for each
individual pump.
A variety of technical options are avail-
able to optimize energy consumption;
the pump manufacturer can contribute
to saving energy by offering variable
speed pump sets, trimming impellers
or opting for high efficiency motors. No
single solution fits all applications, but
several options are available to exploit
economic and ecological potential.
Pumps are the centerpiece of every
fluid transport system. Insufficient at-
tention is often paid to the selection
and operation of small pumps, mainly
because they are commonplace. More
consideration should be paid to these
pumps because of their economic and
environmental impact.
The fact that about 30% of electrical
energy is consumed by pumps under-
lines the huge savings potential. Life-
cycle costs are normally decisive when
selecting or purchasing large, high-
power pumps, whereas the focus with
small pumps is on keeping costs low.
The U.S. Department of Energy car-
ried out a detailed study of operating
pumps in the industry and found more
than 2.4 million pumps consumed
142,000 GWh per year, about the same
as used by electric motors in the Ger-
man industry.
If one classifies pumps according to
power range, the following can be stat-
ed: A quarter of all pumps employed
in the industry have a rated power of
Figure 1. Distribution of energy consumed by motor-driven machinery; 64% of the total electrical
energy requirement in industry.
Figure 2. Pump population and individual power range (left); power input established per power
range (right), assessed from 2.4 million pumps from several branches of the American industry.
CT955.indd 1 8/24/12 3:37 PM
A100. Currently the last word in single stage
turbocharging.
Taming the trade-off: the high pressure ratios and efficiencies of the A100 turbocharger
generation are helping achieve IMO Tier II compliance at optimized fuel consumption.
Stretching performance: the A100s wide compressor maps are enabling dual engine
ratings with minimum system modifications for rapid, cost effective conversion from
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ABB.indd 1 8/6/12 2:44 PM
Two
pumps can be operated above syn-
chronous frequency.
Modern inverters are purpose-built
computers with hundreds of param-
eter options, making them suitable for
use in lifts, stone mills or in pumps
with the appropriate control concept.
In order to take full advantage of this
wide range of technical options, the en-
gineer in charge of measurement and
control tasks should have suitable expe-
rience with pumps, or the pump opera-
tor must be able to set the parameters on
the variable frequency drive (VFD).
Pump manufacturers prefer to sup-
ply customers with a complete ready-
to-use drive system, which is why they
offer pump specific solutions with ful-
ly mounted and operational VFDs.
The parameters and the options avail-
able on the menu are both matched
to pump applications. Commissioning
only involves entering a few param-
eters related to the application, such as
minimum flow rate.
Additional monitoring functions en-
sure the proper operation of pumps
within the specified conditions and
reduce wear and downtime in pumps
and systems.
The combined offer of VFD and
pump presents new opportunities to
optimize system topology and assem-
bly. Although it was necessary in the
past to supply custom-designed con-
trol cabinets that had to be assembled
and wired on site, VFDs are available
today with preset parameters, can be
easily mounted and are immediately
ready for operation.
Figure 4 shows the cost advantage
a motor-mounted solution has over
a cabinet-mounted one. The motor-
mounted variant always offers advan-
tages, except in cases where motor rat-
ings exceed 53.6 hp (30 kW).
Operators not only benefit from
lower investment costs, but also from
reduced commissioning time and costs
as well as from considerable space
savings in the control station.
Energy-Efficient Motors
Efficiency Class 1 motors have be-
come very popular in recent years. Us-
ing larger amounts of copper and iron
may initially mean higher investment
costs for the motor, but will ultimately
result in decreased magnetic resistance
and, in turn, higher efficiency.
From rated powers of 7.4 hp (5.5
kW) and above, the benefits of using
such motors are, however, very limit-
ed, with efficiency improved by 2% or
less. The efficiency of the motor multi-
plied with that of the pump equals the
overall efficiency.
Trimming The Impeller
Some manufacturers custom build
pumps to meet customer specifica-
tions. Other manufacturers carry an
inventory of pumps and select the
most appropriate one for the given
application, adding a safety margin
and increasing energy consumption.
On average, a pump with a fixed
diameter impeller will consume 10%
more power. This figure can, howev-
er, be considerably higher under un-
favourable conditions, such as those
seen in Figure 7. A 60.3 hp (45 kW)
motor cannot, for example, be used
Figure 3. System topology of cabinet-
mounted and motor-mounted VFDs.
Figure 4. Comparison of investment costs for cabinet-mounted and motor-mounted VFD (in-
cludes market price for VFD, cable and control cabinet).
Figure 5. Motor-mounted
variable speed solutions.
CT955.indd 2 8/24/12 3:37 PM
to the duty point (with fixed-speed
applications) will, on average, con-
sume 10% less energy than pumps
with stepped-diameter impellers, be-
cause that pump output is matched
to system requirements.
The savings potential for pump sets
below a rated power of 53.6 hp (40
kW) is considerable. The safety mar-
gins added during the system design
process can impact negatively upon
energy efficiency, but are, in many
cases, unavoidable.
Variable speed drives offer an ide-
al solution to save energy and maxi-
mize system efficiency. Combining
pumps with motor-mounted variable
speed drives offer additional benefits
for the system.
Similar energy savings can be a-
chieved by trimming the impeller to
the duty point, should the use of vari-
able speed drives not be possible for
financial or technical reasons. This
does, however, require operating con-
ditions to be constant.
Class 1 motors can improve effi-
ciency by an additional 1 to 3% and
can be used in combination with vari-
able speed drives or impeller trim-
ming measures. A
Two
in an application requiring a power
input of 61.7 hp (46 kW).
In that case, the pump will be sup-
plied with a 73.8 hp (55 kW) motor
and a 61.7 hp (46 kW) trimmed im-
peller. The pump with the trimmed
impeller is actually a 61.7 hp (46
kW) pump.
Should the pump manufacturer stock
stepped-diameter impellers, then a 73.8
hp (55 kW) pump will be supplied with
a 73.8 hp (55 kW) impeller. Operators
will then throttle the pump using a gate
valve and operate the pump under low-
flow conditions in order to comply with
hydraulic specifications.
Operating the pump under low-flow
conditions will reduce energy consump-
tion slightly, to around 67 hp (54 kW).
These pumps will, however, require
around 17% more energy than those
with trimmed impellers. Under con-
tinuous operation conditions, this will
mean a loss of 64,000 kWh (64 MWh)
per year. If electricity costs are 0.07/
kWh, then additional energy costs will
amount to 4480 annually. This means
extra costs will exceed the initial in-
vestment cost of the pump in less than
two years.
A pump with an impeller trimmed
Figure 7. A comparison made between trimmed impellers and stepped diameter impellers shows
a difference in power input of up to 20%.
Figure 6. Comparison of efficiency class 1 and 2 motors.
see directlink @ www.dieselPrOGress.cOm
CECO_1.indd 1 8/17/12 1:53 PM
CT955.indd 3 8/22/12 3:00 PM
Editors note: This article was taken from a paper delivered
at the Gas Machinery Conference in Nashville, Tennessee,
U.S.A., on Oct. 3, 2011. For additional information contact:
Mark.Patterson@c-a-m.com
Regulations continue to drive improvements in the com-
bustion process in order to lower pollutant emissions and in-
crease fuel efficiency. The design of the combustion chamber
in large-bore, two-cycle engines has remained unchanged
over the last twenty to 30 years. While advances have been
made in areas such as fuel injection, combustion monitoring
and control systems, the entire combustion process has not
been redesigned to take advantage of new technology. The
traditional approach to emissions reduction has been to install
pre-combustion chambers (PCC) and new or modified turbo-
chargers on the engines to allow operation at leaner air fuel
ratios. In the last decade, high-pressure fuel injection has been
installed on existing engines to reduce emissions or increase
fuel economy. Because high-pressure fuel injection systems
use electronically controlled valves to admit the fuel, the de-
signer has more freedom when designing the combustion sys-
tem because valves do not have to be positioned where they
can be operated easily with a camshaft.
A fresh look at the design of the combustion chamber that
takes advantage of the newly available technologies was in
order. At the same time, consideration was given to all aspects
of the design to reduce pollutant emissions such as nitrogen
oxides, carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbon and form-
aldehyde. In addition to emissions reductions, an increase in
fuel efficiency was also desired. In order to control the costs of
development, computer modeling was used to evaluate pos-
sible designs before prototype parts were built. This enables
Two
Applying AdvAnced computer modeling to improve emissions
And combustion efficiency in lArge-bore, two-cycle engines
A fresh look at the design of the combustion chamber that takes
advantage of newly available technologies
By Dustin Malicke, Mark Patterson and Ken Ashraph
Dustin Malicke has a bachelors degree in mechanical engineer-
ing from Kansas State University. After working with Hoerbiger
Engineering Services, he joined Cameron in 2008 and is the lead
engineer on its one-half gram, two-cycle engine initiative.
Mark Patterson manages the engine new-product development
program at Cameron Compression Systems. He holds a bachelors
degree in mechanical engineering from Iowa State University
and a PhD. in mechanical engineering from the University of
Wisconsin. After working at Daimler Benz and Caterpillar, he
joined Cameron in 2009. He has applied advanced combustion-
modeling techniques to two-stroke natural gas engines. Ken
Ashraph has a bachelors degree in mechanical engineering
from Auburn University. After working with Cummins Inc. on
heavy duty engines, he joined Cameron Process and Compression
Systems, where he has been involved in one-dimensional model-
ing techniques for gas flow optimization in large-bore, two-stroke
engines for the oil and gas industry.
shorter cycle times and the ability to evaluate more designs
than would be possible by building prototype parts for each
design and testing them in the engine.
The first engine family that Cameron decided to redesign
was the GMV family. This engine represents the largest per-
centage of large-bore, two-cycle Cooper Bessemer engines,
and we maintain a GMVH-6 test stand at Southwest Research
Institute where prototype testing would take place. The ini-
tial concept for the new combustion chamber design was to
relocate the prechamber to the center of the head and create
a multiport nozzle. This concept should provide quicker and
more efficient burn by having multiple flame fronts with a
minimized distance to travel. This newly designed combus-
tion chamber will be the basis for the remaining discussions
in this article. While much work went into the design of the
prechamber, it will not be discussed here.
The original design of the engine, as presented in this pa-
per, is for a GMVH-6C2 engine. This was the latest clean-burn
design of the engine with pre-combustion chambers, high-
output turbocharger and a compression ratio of 8.8:1. It was
also equipped with Hoerbigers HyperFuel high-pressure fuel
injection and ePCC electronic prechamber check valve systems.
The performance comparisons at the end of the article use this
as the baseline (original) configuration because both of these
systems are required for the new design. This isolates the per-
formance improvements to the newly designed components.
Computational Analysis
Several different software packages were evaluated to de-
termine which one was most appropriate for the application.
This included an array of finite element analysis (FEA), com-
putational fluid dynamic (CFD) and conjugate heat transfer
(CHT) software that enabled thermal, flow, stress, and com-
bustion calculations. The CFD calculations are the most de-
manding of the three; consequently, the computer hardware
was based on the CFD requirements.
In contrast to other engine CFD analyses, such as automo-
tive or commercial vehicle diesel engines, the sheer size of the
engines used in the gas pipeline industry makes it challenging
to correctly represent the scavenging and combustion to as-
sess the relative performance of a given engine design.
We concluded that a standard work station, even a high-
end engineering work station, would not provide sufficient
computing power to handle the size of the required com-
putations. Because of the size of the engine, a simple FEA
analysis of a subassembly could take days to perform on the
most powerful work stations, while a CFD of combustion
would take weeks to months to perform.
CT933.indd 1 8/22/12 3:33 PM
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Two
The development of parallel CFD codes allowed us to break
the calculation into several smaller jobs that could be analyzed
simultaneously. A high-performance computing cluster was
chosen to speed up the analysis and enable multiple design it-
erations within a reasonable time frame. Several options were
considered when specifying the cluster. Included were the
number of computers required, available RAM, the operating
system, data network, hard disk size and data security.
The computers within the cluster had to exchange large
volumes of information; therefore, an InfiniBand network was
used instead of a standard Ethernet network. This enabled data
sharing at four times the rate of gigabit Ethernet. Based on pre-
vious experience, a Linux-based system was chosen to allow
the cluster to perform more efficiently and be more reliable
than a Windows system. Initially, a cluster consisting of eight
computers (nodes) containing eight processing cores each was
used with 12 GB of RAM per node and centralized storage with
RAID 1+0 to provide protection against hard drive failure.
The bottleneck in the process was still the computing time
needed, especially when performing a combustion analysis,
as it was typically run on all 64 cores. This put all other
analysis jobs on hold until the combustion calculations were
finished, which would still take two to three weeks. Two ad-
ditional compute nodes were added to the cluster to bring
the total processing cores up to 80. This has not completely
removed the bottleneck but it has allowed for multiple jobs
to be performed on the cluster simultaneously.
Adding performance to a high-performance cluster re-
quires continuous improvement in software, hardware, and
solution methods to produce the highest throughput in a
cost effective configuration. Additional investments in the
expansion of both hardware and software capabilities, be-
yond the current configuration, are being made to make the
best use of computational resources.
Another technique that was instrumental in accelerating the
CFD analysis was the application of fully dynamic mesh cre-
ation. The CFD solver chosen enabled fully automatic mesh
creation, moving meshes, and on-the-fly refining and coars-
ening of the mesh. The mesh size can be adjusted based on
proximity to surfaces, species concentration, and gradients in
temperature and velocity. The mesh size varies from 0.39 in.
(1 cm) in relatively quiet areas down to 156 in the spark
gap, and the grid resolution is set to follow the flame front to
provide the best possible resolution at the flame front, while
maximizing the speed of the calculation. Because all of the
mesh handling is done automatically, it reduced the amount
of effort required to set up each case, which improved our
throughput and helped focus simulation time on solving de-
sign problems, rather than on mesh setup.
The thermal calculations are less challenging because they
are steady-state, but still required a CHT analysis, which com-
bined finite volume heat transfer in the metal engine parts with
CFD analysis of the liquid water and the interphase transfer of
energy. The CHT analysis was accelerated by using polyhedral
geometries that greatly reduced the number of computational
cells required to resolve the geometry, while preserving the
resolution required to represent accurately the thermal gradi-
ents and coolant flow structure.
CFD Setup
The simulations of the scavenging, fuel mixing, combustion,
and emissions chemistry were performed using commercially
available CFD code. This solver was chosen because it auto-
matically creates high-quality hexahedral meshes, and then
improves mesh resolution in the flame zone based on user
inputs. It also gives the user flexibility to refine and coarsen
the mesh during the calculation to improve both the accuracy
and speed of the solution. This is important in combustion cal-
culations, because it allows a GRI-3.0 chemistry mechanism to
be solved simultaneously with the CFD, eliminating the need
for combustion model tuning, and creating a more efficient
number of design iterations.
The GMV engine was set up using measured boost, back
pressures and temperatures to drive the gas exchange process.
The timing of the fuel injection and spark ignition were also
taken from test data. Additionally, best estimates of the piston,
liner, head, and prechamber temperature were taken from avail-
able data for this engine series. Local refinement of the mesh
near the spark plug during combustion was used to improve the
solution without adding significantly to the simulation run times.
To view the intake process, a passive species was added to
the intake, and the concentration of the passive species was
used over the course of one engine cycle to determine how
efficient the scavenging process was for a given geometry. The
basic engine operating parameters are shown in Table 1, and
the boundary and initial conditions are listed in Table 2.
Quantity Value
Engine speed 330 rpm
Engine bore 35.56 cm (14 in.)
Engine stroke 37.47 cm (14.75 in.)
Piston motion Defined by articulated rod geom.
for cylinder 1 L
Table 1. Engine operating conditions used in CFD software for the
GMV engine.
Quantity Value
Initial in-cylinder temperature 1444.6F (1057.9K)
Initial in-cylinder pressure 101.23 psia (697973 Pa)
Initial in-cylinder composition 12.75% O
2
, 74.79% N
2
,
6.85% CO
2
, 5.61% H
2
O
Intake species initialization 100% in intake, 0% in cylinder
and exhaust
Intake boundary pressure 30.33 psia (209,125.1 Pa)
Exhaust back pressure 27.62 psia (190,421.8 Pa)
Piston temperature 1000.13F (811K)
Cylinder wall temperature 499.73F (533K)
Head temperature 769.73F (683K)
Intake wall and gas temperature 114.53F (319K)
Exhaust wall and gas temperature 604.13F (591K)
Table 2. Boundary and initial conditions for the CFD simulations.
Scavenging Analysis
The combustion chamber was redesigned to accommodate
a prechamber that was mounted in the center along with a
fuel valve mounted on the outer edge of the cylinder along
with changes to the shape in order to increase combustion effi-
ciency. The design also minimized the crevice volume, as these
are areas where components of incomplete combustion such as
formaldehyde, carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons
can be formed. These design changes can have a significant im-
pact on the scavenging efficiency of the cylinder. Therefore, a
model of the original cylinder and the new design was created
in order to compare the scavenging efficiency of each case. The
goal of this analysis was to verify that the new design did not
adversely impact the scavenging efficiency, as this will have a
negative impact of the emissions performance.
The baseline design for the GMV shows very good breathing,
CT933.indd 2 8/24/12 3:32 PM
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Two
exceeded the goal of maintaining scavenging performance.
The geometry of the design was changed with the intention
of improving combustion and emissions performance, so the
improvement in scavenging was an additional advantage of
the optimized design. Next, the fuel mixing performance will
be analyzed.
Fuel Mixing Analysis
The scavenging affects more than the purity of the in-
cylinder air; it also provides swirl and tumble that improves
fuel/air mixing. The original and optimized designs were
compared to ensure that the fuel mixture in the optimized
design was at least as uniform as the original design.
Although the new design uses high-pressure injection and
the original design uses low-pressure injection, we were
concerned that the change in combustion chamber shape
would have an adverse effect on fuel/air mixing. In fact,
the optimized design showed improved mixing, as shown in
Figure 4. The cut plane showing color contours of fuel mass
fraction indicate the mixing in the original design was rea-
sonably uniform, but tended to be richer on the left side of
the figure. The optimized design, by contrast, shows a more
uniform mixture in the main chamber, with only a slight in-
crease in fuel concentration near the injector nozzle on the
left side of the figure.

Figure 4. Cutplane at TDC showing the fuel mass fraction in the original
design vs. the optimized design. The original design shows a higher
difference in fuel concentration, shown as green and yellow on the left
side of the figure. The optimized design has a near-uniform distribution
of fuel in the main chamber, with very slight changes in color from left
to right in the main chamber.
From this point, the optimized design will be presented on
its own, so the analysis can be focused on the merits of this
engine design. Because measured data on the combustion and
emissions were already available for the original design, and
the scavenging and mixing have been proven to be superior in
the optimized design, it freed computational resources to focus
on calculating the combustion in the optimized engine design.
The combustion analysis will be discussed next.
Combustion Analysis
The optimized engine design was shown to have fast
heat release and a uniform progression of the flame front
through the combustion chamber. In Figures 5 and 6, the
progression of combustion is represented by three isosur-
faces, indicating where the in-cylinder temperatures have
reached 2240F (1500K) (green), 3140F (2000K) (yel-
low), and 4040F (2500K) (red). At 15 ATDC, indicated
by the number in the upper right-hand corner of the pic-
ture, the 2400F (1500K) temperature front has reached
the outer edges of the head, showing that combustion has
reached all of the available in-cylinder mixture. By 45
ATDC, most of the combustion is finished. The calculation
indicates the combustion will be faster and the efficiency
will be higher than the original design. The resulting emis-
sions are studied in the next section.
with 84% of the in-cylinder mass being composed of fresh
air at exhaust port closing (EPC). The updated designs were
compared to this standard, and the final design was able to
improve on the initial design by 10%, with 94% of the in-
cylinder mass composed of fresh air. The three figures that
follow illustrate the scavenging process, and how well the
directional flow set up by the intake system creates a sweep
of fresh air to clean the cylinder.
Figure 1 shows the initial condition at exhaust port open-
ing (EPO), and Figure 2 shows the progress halfway through
the scavenging process. The optimized design scavenges the
combustion chamber faster than the original design, with
higher concentrations of fresh air visible. This continues until
EPC, as shown in Figure 3, where both engines show a large
amount of fresh air, but the optimum design clearly has a
smaller volume of air that isnt at least 90% fresh air, shown
by the blue isosurface.
Figure 1. Cutplane and isosurfaces at the beginning of the scavenging
process. On the cutplane, the scale is set so that red is 100% exhaust,
and blue is 100% fresh air. The isosurfaces are color coded such that
10% fresh air is orange, 50% fresh air is green, and 90% fresh air is blue.
The geometry is tilted forward 30 degrees to allow viewing the head
volume behind the cutplane.
Figure 2. Cutplane and isosurfaces halfway through the scavenging
process. At this point in the process, the optimized design has already
cleared a significant amount of exhaust out of the combustion cham-
ber, while the original design still shows the orange isosurface that
indicates high exhaust concentration.
Figure 3. Cutplane and isosurfaces at the end of the scavenging pro-
cess. The large size of the isosurface in the original design indicates
that less fresh air has been trapped in the cylinder compared to the
optimized design.
The result of this analysis is that the optimized design continued on page 78
CT933.indd 3 8/22/12 3:34 PM
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E
5
0
0
0
1
-
E
4
4
0
-
F
1
4
0
-
V
1
-
4
A
0
0
Siemens.indd 1 8/15/12 1:30 PM
Two
Figure 5. Temperature isosurfaces during combustion for the optimized
design from TDC to 25 ATDC. The green isosurface is 2240F (1500K),
the yellow is 3140F (2000K), and the red is 4040F (2500K). The crank
angle is shown in the upper right-hand corner of each picture.
Figure 6. Temperature isosurfaces during combustion for the optimized
design from 30 to 45. ATDC. The green isosurface is 2240F (1500K),
the yellow is 3140F (2000K), and the red is 4040F (2500K). The crank
angle is shown in the upper right-hand corner of each picture.
Emissions Analysis
Two of the emissions of interest, NO and formaldehyde
(CH
2
O) are shown in the series of pictures presented in Fig-
ures 7 and 8. The NO seen in the main chamber formed pri-
marily as a consequence of combustion in the prechamber,
so the geometry of the prechamber design was found to be
important in reducing the overall NO. This is shown as the
red isosurface in the figures, and the small size of the final
NO cloud indicates this engine will produce low levels of
NO. Formaldehyde was also shown to be very low.
Initially, the highest concentrations of formaldehyde track
the flame front, and after the combustion finishes, the few
remaining zones of formaldehyde are in areas where fuel
concentration is high and crevices promote flame quench-
ing. The geometry of this combustion chamber was specifi-
cally tuned to minimize the crevice volume based on the
commonly observed correlation between formaldehyde and
crevice volume.
The value of this design approach is apparent by the very
small size of the blue isosurfaces, indicating the concentra-
tion of formaldehyde. With the full combustion and emis-
sions analysis complete, attention was turned to thermal
distortion modeling to ensure the structural integrity of the
design, which is presented in the next section.
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Two
Figure 7. Emissions isosurfaces from TDC to 50 ATDC for the opti-
mized engine geometry. The blue isosurface represents formaldehyde
at a mass fraction of 0.0025, and the red surface represents NO at a
mass fraction of 0.004.

Figure 8. Emissions isosurfaces from 60 to 110 ATDC for the optimized
design. The blue isosurface represents formaldehyde at a mass fraction
of 0.0025, and the red surface represents NO at a mass fraction of 0.004.
Thermal Analysis
A CHT analysis was performed to ensure that the head
cover would form a water-tight seal with the head body.
E4400 features include:
Up to FOUR Gas Sensors:
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Compact design is safe no need for separate nipples or
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Two
The thermal analysis was performed with accurate repre-
sentations of the various material properties of the com-
ponents from the compacted graphite cast iron head to
the steel prechamber.
The fire deck was set to 710F (650K) and 865 psi (5.98
MPa) to represent the effect of firing pressure on the head.
The same temperature was used inside the prechamber to
include the effect of thermal growth throughout the center
of the head geometry.
The coolant was represented by water flowing into the ge-
ometry at 20 fps (6.21 m/s). The results of this finite volume
calculation are shown in Figure 9, with the streamlines of
the water represented by the blue-green streaks. The areas
near the four arrows were examined in detail to ensure that
the differential thermal distortion between the head and the
head cover was less than 0.005 in. (0.127 mm), to ensure
there was minimal chance of leakage. Since the difference
in growth between the two parts was less than half of the
target, the design is predicted to hold the seal in service.
Analysis Conclusions
The full set of CFD and thermal calculations show that the
optimized GMV head will outperform its predecessor in all
facets of engine performance.
The results shown here have demonstrated that the re-
designed GMV head will exhibit better scavenging and fuel
mixing performance than the original head design. The com-
bustion analysis predicts that the burn rate should be faster
than the original design, leading to higher efficiency. By op-
timizing the chamber geometry, this increase in efficiency
is achieved while also reducing engine-out emissions, and
the thermal analysis shows that the design of this head will
reliably seal the coolant path in service. Experimental results
that confirm that this optimized design outperforms its pre-
decessor will be presented next.
Experimental Results
Now that a design has been selected that has a high proba-
Figure 9. Section view of the thermal distortion of the cylinder head
calculated using the conjugate heat transfer. The four arrows point to
the seals between the body and cover of the head assembly.
Table 3. Engine and combustion chamber dimensions for the original
and new designs.
Original Design New Design
Clearance Volume (in
3
) 198 186
Effective Stroke (in) 10.093 10.093
Effective Displacement
(in
3
/cylinder)
1554 1554
Effective Compression Ratio 8.8:1 9.3:1
Trapped Volume (in
3
/cylinder) 1752 1740
Spartan.indd 1 5/11/12 3:16 PM
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design, manufature and supply of Active Magnetic Bearings
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Magnetic bearing technology, originally derivative from space
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These machines are used in much diversified environments
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Two
bility of success, the process of building the prototype compo-
nents for engine testing can begin. For this project, some rapid
prototyping techniques were used to decrease the amount of
time required to cast and machine the new heads.
The rapid casting techniques use the 3D models that are
created during the design and analysis phase to produce the
pattern quickly for the mold or the mold itself directly from
the model. The machining programs can also be created
directly from the model. This enables finished parts to be
completed in less time than a typical production pattern can
be created. Fortunately, the pistons could be cast by making
temporary modifications to an existing casting pattern. This
reduced both the lead time and cost for the pistons.
Table 3 lists the design parameters of interest for the
original and newly designed combustion chamber. The pri-
mary differences between the two designs are the location
of the prechamber and fuel valve along with the shape of
the piston and the head. Another difference is the clearance
volume, which was reduced in order to increase the com-
pression ratio. The higher compression ratio contributes to
a more efficient combustion event as long as it is not too
high to cause issues with detonation or preignition.
Figure 10. NO
x
emissions at rated speed and load.
Figure 11. Mass fraction burned data for the GMVH-6 at rated speed
and load.

The first performance parameter that was evaluated was
NO
x
emissions. The NO
x
emissions were plotted verses
trapped equivalence ratio as shown in Figure 10 for both
designs. The engine must be run approximately 2% leaner in
order to achieve the same NO
x
emissions in the new design.
Initially this appears to indicate the new design has failed to
meet the project goals but this was expected because of the
increase in the compression ratio and combustion rate.
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CT933.indd 7 8/22/12 3:36 PM
Two
divided by the average peak pressure. The advantage of
this calculation is it enables comparing values at various
engine loads and data from different engines. A coefficient
of variation below 8% is considered normal for a natural
gas engines with precombustion chambers. Values below
5% would be considered excellent. As shown in Figure 15
the coefficient of variation for both designs is well below
5% with the new design having a slight advantage.
Conclusions
The design of the Cooper-Bessemer GMV engine
was improved using CFD analysis by using the capa-
bility of the software to illustrate gas exchange and
fuel mixing processes, which are normally difficult or
impossible to measure.
The goal of the CFD analysis was to select operating
conditions and geometries that would maintain engine
scavenging efficiency, optimize fuel/air homogeneity at
ignition, and minimize pollutant emissions.
The final design was also checked using CHT to ensure
the cooling system provided adequate cooling to all parts
of the head, particularly the area around the prechamber
and the combustion dome, and to ensure a proper seal
would be formed between the head and its cover plate.
Any areas that were not acceptable were redesigned and
another analysis was performed to ensure the issue was cor-
rected and did not cause additional problems. The results of
experimental testing with the new components exceeded the
goals for the project. For the same level of NO
x
emissions,
the CO and THC were reduced by as much as 60% while the
fuel efficiency was improved by 6%. A
The analysis indicated the combustion should happen
quicker. The mass fraction burned (MFB) data is illustrated
in Figure 11. The zero to 10% MFB indicates how long it
takes for the combustion process to consume the first 10%
of the fuel. The new design is 7% quicker during the initial
stages of combustion. The crank angle at which 50% of the
fuel mass has been consumed is the same for both designs
but the spark timing for the original design is 3 BTDC, while
it is 0 BTDC for the new design. This equates to the new de-
sign being 3 quicker during the first half of the combustion
process. The final MFB parameter compared is 10-90% MFB.
The combustion duration for the new design is 21% quicker
than the original as predicted by the combustion CFD.
Another indicator of combustion efficiency is the brake-
specific fuel consumption. Figure 12 shows the fuel con-
sumption is over 6% better at the leanest air fuel ratio. Of
particular note is the new design maintains a very flat fuel
consumption curve at lean air fuel ratios. The fuel pen-
alty associated with operating at low NO
x
levels has been
greatly reduced with the new design.
The final pollutant emissions compared are CO and
THC. The CO and THC emissions were reduced signifi-
cantly and do not exhibit as strong of an increase as the
engine is run leaner to reduce NO
x
emissions as shown
in Figures 13 and 14 respectively. The reduction at 0.5 g/
bhph of NO
x
is 60% for both CO and THC.
Another performance parameter of interest is the com-
bustion stability. The stability is usually reported as the
standard deviation of the peak firing pressure. Another
method of reporting it is to calculate the coefficient of
variation. This is the standard deviation of peak pressure
Figure 12. Brake specific fuel consumption at rated speed and load.
Figure 13. Carbon monoxide emissions trade-offs at rated speed
and load.
Figure 14. Total unburned hydrocarbon emissions trade-offs at
rated speed and load.
Figure 15. Combustion stability trade-offs at rated speed and load.
CT933.indd 8 8/24/12 3:40 PM
Tokyo-based Kobe Steel Ltd. is establishing 100%-owned
companies in Europe and the Middle East to expand the
marketing and servicing of its compressors.
Kobelco Machinery Europe GmbH will be launched in
Munich, Germany, to strengthen the marketing of Kobe
Steels nonstandard compressors in Europe. It will also
procure parts for use in the manufacture of compressors
in Japan.
Kobelco Machinery Middle East FZE will be created in
Dubai, United Arab Emirates, based at the airport freezone. It
will provide after-sales services for nonstandard compressors
sold in the Middle East.
Kobe Steel currently has representative offices in Ger-
many and the UAE. By turning these offices into compa-
nies, it said it will be able to strengthen compressor mar-
A nonstandard compressor from Kobe
keting, parts procurement and after-sales services, as well
as increase its presence in the two regions.
The company claims to be the worlds only comprehensive
manufacturer of screw, centrifugal and reciprocating compres-
sors. It estimates it has a 40% share of the world market for
nonstandard screw compressors.
In addition to nonstandard compressors, the Kobe Steel
Group makes small and medium-size standard compres-
sors, which are used for plant utilities in various industries.
It has also applied its compression technology to compact
steam-driven generators and high-efficiency heat pumps.
About 60% of Kobe Steels compressor sales in fiscal 2011
came from overseas markets, making the compressor division
one of the companys more globally advanced businesses.
In mid-2011, Kobe acquired a 44.3% equity share in
Wuxi Compressor Co. Ltd., based in Wuxi, Jiangsu Prov-
ince, China (See Kobe Steel Buys Into Wuxi Compressor
Co., July 2011 CompressorTech
Two
, p. 32).
The deal left Wuxi Victor Group Co. Ltd. with a 51.5%
share in Wuxi Compressor and other investors with the re-
maining 4.2%. Established as a state-run enterprise in 1955,
Wuxi Compressor was privatized in 1992 and had about 700
employees in early 2011.
Kobe Steel said Wuxi Compressor would expand its
businesses centered on oil refineries, petrochemical
plants, and liquefied natural gas applications in the energy
and chemical fields.
The Japanese company is supplying Wuxi with its technol-
ogy for process gas compressors and planned to make com-
pressor systems in China from locally-procured parts and
market them through Wuxis sales network.
Kobe Steel has predicted that its Chinese sales will double
by 2015, compared to 2010 levels. Globally, it has the goal
of 110 billion in compressor sales by 2015.
It also has made investments to increase the manufactur-
ing capacity of standard compressors at its China subsidiary
Kobelco Compressors Manufacturing (Shanghai) Corp. and at
Kobelco Compressors America Inc. a
Kobe Steel CreateS SubSidiarieS in Germany, dubai
Japanese firm continues international expansion to provide compressor sales, services
CT946.indd 1 8/22/12 4:18 PM
FIMA Maschinenbau GmbH has had
strong success overseas since increas-
ing its offerings to the oil and gas in-
dustry five years ago.
The Germany company was found-
ed in 1946 to manufacture hay dry-
ers and, some years later, blowers for
the process gas industry. It is based
in Obersontheim, near Stuttgart, and
also had a plant in Belgium that was
separated after a management buy-
out in the early 1990s.
Since 1980, FIMA has implemented
its radial compressor line to serve the
needs of the oil and gas global market-
place, as well as to maintain a foothold
in its traditional chemical environment.
For the past decade the company has
been considered a global market leader
in two niche markets: turbo compressors
for low-volume flow applications and
power requirements, and Zone 0 turbo
blowers for handling explosive gases.
In 2007 we decided to shift our ma-
jor interest from the well-known chem-
ical market to serve the oil and gas
industry, FIMA CEO Stephan Jakob
said. This not only entailed a widen-
ing of the product range, but also a
new look, a new logo and a new orga-
nization that would allow our custom-
ers to distinguish between us and from
the Belgium company that still has the
right to call itself FIMA.
The shift from chemical to petro-
chemical plants was quite easy be-
cause we have been servicing for years
the same companies such as BASF, the
former Hoechst or Evonik, the former
Degussa, and owners of both types of
plants. They know our quality and our
services from previous experience.
FIMA is medium-sized company
with just under 200 employees but it
serves the international marketplace.
Only 30% of our turnover comes
from Europe, with an 18% from Ger-
many alone, FIMA CEO Stephan Ja-
kob said. The remaining 70% is di-
vided into three major areas: China,
where we started business in 2004
with a 20% share, India with 25% and
the remaining 25% for the Middle East
and the rest of the world.
Looking into the future, we plan
to start soon production in China, in-
crease our penetration in India also for
the supply of engineering services, and
look on the other side of the Atlan-
tic Ocean, mainly towards the United
States where we selected a represen-
tative in Michigan last year and in
Brazil, where we set up our own sales
and service office in Rio de Janeiro.
Jakob said political turmoil in Iran,
Syria and Egypt makes FIMA cautious
about expanding in the Middle East.
Russia and East Europe are other ar-
eas of interest to us but we must take
one step at a time, Jakob said. We
simply do not have enough people
and it takes time to properly train them
before entering these areas.
The FIMA line of radial compressors
is essentially based on the integrally
geared type. The gearbox, with one or
more pinions driven by the central bull
gear, is designed to host two opposite
FIMA ExpAnds prEsEncE In
Turbo coMprEssIon sEcTor
German company draws 70% of its business from overseas markets
By Roberto Chellini
A FIMA process gas compressor for bioethanol production.
Two
CT948.indd 1 8/22/12 4:45 PM
scrolls per compressor stage in order
to minimize axial thrust on the pinions
thrust collars.
The capacity range covered by these
compressors extends up to 200,000
Nm
3
/h with powers up to 6700 hp (5
MW). All machines, designed to com-
press cold and hot air and all kinds of
process gas, are tailored to customer
needs and respond to ATEX specifi-
cations for explosion protection and
other international guidelines (API,
PED, etc.).
FIMA has also developed a line of
small hermetically sealed motor com-
pressors. The induction-type, high-speed
electric motor directly drives the centrif-
ugal compressor impeller mounted on
one end, or on both ends, of its shaft.
The rotor is either rested on two
radial active magnetic bearings and
the axial thrust absorbed by an axial
AMB, or for lower speeds on grease
lubricated antifriction bearings. A laby-
rinth seal is placed on the motor shaft
between the electric and the gas com-
pression sections. The whole system is
wrapped inside a hermetically sealed,
high-pressure external casing.
To handle CO
2
produced as byprod-
uct of industrial processes, FIMA has
developed a high-efficiency (more than
70%), high-speed, 3D-shrouded impeller
capable of handling only 4 kg/s of CO
2

at 4757 psi (38 bara) suction pressure.
Because of the small size of the com-
pany, FIMA mainly designs the machine
and the entire compression solution to
meet customer specifications. Most of
the components (gearboxes, impellers,
seals, controls) are sourced from a se-
lected number of subcontractors.
FIMA assembles the system in its
shop and tests it before delivery. The
company assumes full responsibility
for its products. FIMA said its major
strengths are its use of quality, German-
made components and its flexibility to
satisfy its customers needs. A
Two
Stephan Jakob
(918) 283-9200 Fax (918) 283-9229 www.axh.com
286,000 SF Manufacturing
Facilities on 38 Acres
Experience, Reliability, Integrity...
AXH.indd 1 4/16/12 4:42 PM
Alpha.indd 1 8/6/12 9:54 AM
CT948.indd 2 8/22/12 4:45 PM
Catalytic Combustion Corp. (CCC)
has announced the Activity Value Test
System (AVTS), a nondestructive cata-
lytic activity tester.
The tester said by the company to
be the first in the industry is needed
because the loss of catalytic activity,
which is difficult to assess, restricts an
elements ability to control emissions
from stationary industrial engines.
CCC said the test process, which is
patent-pending, was a response to en-
ergy industry customers who want to
know if washed catalysts were worth
reinstalling or needed to be replaced.
The AVTS technology provides a re-
peatable set of temperature and flow
conditions similar to those a catalyst
handles in the field. It gauges the activ-
ity level by introducing to the catalyst
a standard reference compound found
in a gas engines exhaust.
Catalysts are manufactured using
precious metals such as platinum, pal-
ladium and rhodium, so the cost of the
elements can be relatively high. Over
time, catalysts accumulate debris that
blocks the flow to the precious metal
locations. This decreases the overall
performance of the catalyst and re-
quires that the element be removed
and cleaned, or replaced.
Chemical cleaning of dirty cata-
lysts extends their lifespan and is
an economically viable option over
buying new elements. But CCC said
that there are circumstances where
catalyst washing cannot restore suf-
ficient activity to bring an engine into
compliance.
Not knowing if the washing pro-
cess has improved a catalyst often puts
catalyst users in a roll the dice posi-
tion when it comes to having to de-
cide whether or not to reinstall it, said
John Robinson, vice president of CCCs
catalyst division and the engineer who
led the development of the AVTS.
While no one wants to premature-
ly replace a catalyst that has useful
life remaining, the cost of doing so
pales in comparison to the expenses
associated with lost production time,
field maintenance costs and/or the
potential fines associated with failed
emissions compliance.
Up until now, a washed catalyst el-
ement being returned from a washing
station was simply that a washed
catalyst and users had repeated-
ly expressed their frustration at not
knowing if the washed catalyst would
perform as expected.
With this new AVTS tool, the user
can get a test report showing the ele-
ments relative level of catalytic activity
upon arrival at the washing station, and
whether the cleaning process yielded
any improvement after the washing.
CatalytiC Combustion unveils tester
For Catalyst aCtivity
Process evaluates whether washed catalysts should be replaced
Western Filter Co. product specialist Monty McRee demonstrates the AVTS.
Two
CT952.indd 1 8/22/12 4:55 PM
AVTS spot tests several sections of a
catalyst element to evaluate its overall
catalytic activity condition. The data
gathered is used to calculate a numeri-
cal score called the Activity Value In-
dex (AVI), which reflects the health of
the catalyst element.
The AVTS and AVI scoring systems
were developed to be color blind,
ensuring all catalysts are evaluated on
an equal basis. The testing system will
work for any catalyst being produced
for industrial engines. The system pro-
vides AVI results for both three-way
and oxidation catalysts.
The test process was developed to
provide valid data in a way that we dont
even need to know whose catalyst it is
when were evaluating the element,
Robinson said. The AVTS is not intend-
ed to be a recreation of the conditions
the catalyst sees in service. Nor is AVI a
prediction of field performance. The goal
of the AVTS/AVI combination is to give
users the confidence to decide if a cata-
lyst is worth putting back into service.
CCC installed the first AVTS unit at
its headquarters in Bloomer, Wisconsin,
U.S.A. The second unit is at its affiliated
catalyst-cleaning station at Western Fil-
ter Co. in Longview, Texas, U.S.A.
Robinson said the catalyst tester has
been in development for two years. The
first device proved the concept and the
second was built to be more user-friend-
ly and robust. Further enhancements are
planned for later models.
Our customers have told us that they
expect this tester to save them much
time and trouble, Robinson said. When
they shut down an engine to change cat-
alysts, they want to know that the new
catalyst is going to do the job.
Representatives of energy-industry
firms have previewed the tester in op-
eration at Longview.
Personally, I see a catalyst testing unit
at a washing station to be comparable to
a car battery tester at the local auto parts
store, said Jason Beagle, emissions field
supervisor for Mid-Con Compression.
It can be an invaluable tool for helping
make the right decisions.
You dont want to put a bad prod-
uct back into a machine, so having test
data about a used catalyst is a big deal.
Determining if theres a problem with
a product before reinstallation can
save time and money.
CCC provides catalyst testing for
US$50 per test spot, with three to six
spots being checked. It said that cost
is nominal compared to several hun-
dred dollars for washing services and
potentially several thousand dollars for
purchase of a new element.
Id welcome the opportunity to
know if a used catalyst is worth wash-
ing before spending the money to
Two
clean it, said Mark Davis, technical
services engineer at J-W Energy Co.
And as far as washed catalysts go, up
to this point it has always been hit or
miss as to what we get.
All weve been able to do until now
is make a visual inspection and hope
for the best. Without a doubt, having
real information available about the
catalytic activity condition of pre- and
post-washed elements would be a
great benefit when weighing decisions
about their continued use.
CCC is assembling more AVTS units,
which will be installed this fall at West-
ern Filters washing stations in Odessa,
Texas, U.S.A., and Purcell, Oklahoma,
U.S.A., as well as at CCCs washing fa-
cility in Gillette, Wyoming, U.S.A.
As one of the few companies in
the United States that manufactures
and coats its own catalysts, fabricates
its own line of housings and provides
washing services, were proud to bring
another innovative concept to this in-
dustry, CCC president Mark Ruff said.
At the end of the day, catalyst per-
formance is science. Were here to
help catalyst users make reasonable
decisions based on facts. A
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Toxic Gas Detector
The TS4000H intelligent toxic gas de-
tector from General Monitors provides
ammonia detection, protecting people,
equipment, and the environment in a
range of industries where ammonia leaks
are a hazard.
The gas detector monitors ammonia in
the 0 to 50 or 0 to 100 ppm ranges, using
an electrochemical sensor that has little to
zero drift across its operational environ-
mental conditions. The sensor also fea-
tures a T50 response of less than 15 sec-
onds and a T90 response of less than one
minute, the company said. The TS4000H
measures NH3 to 5 ppm or 10% of the
reading, whichever is greater.
The device, inside an explosion-proof
housing, also features advanced functions
like HART, event logging, and support
of asset management software, General
Monitors said.
In addition to ammonia monitoring, the
TS4000H can be configured to detect car-
bon monoxide, chlorine, chlorine dioxide,
hydrogen, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen
sulfide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, oxy-
gen, ozone and sulfur dioxide.
www.generalmonitors.com
Vibration Measuring
The handheld VibroPort 80 is the new-
est generation of portable vibration mea-
suring instruments by Brel & Kjr Vibro.
Designed for versatility and flexibility,
the VibroPort 80 can monitor and balance
a wide range of machines in a number
of industries and processes. Its measure-
ment and sensor input capability make it
ideal for early detection and diagnosis of
incipient faults in bearings, shafts, gears,
couplings and casing in everything from
auxiliaries to critical machines, the com-
pany said.
Its modular concept allows nonspecialist
operators and experienced analysts to
use the VibroPort 80 for their respective
measurement and analysis tasks, the com-
pany said. It has a large color display, an
ergonomic keyboard and robust housing
that conform to protection standard IP65.
VibroPort 80 is also available in an ATEX/
IECEx version.
www.bkvibro.com
Oil Filtration Systems
Oil Filtration Systems has introduced
a line of fuel filtration and fuel coalescer
equipment to remove particulate and wa-
ter contamination from No. 2 diesel and
other combustion fuels.
The equipment removes contami-
nants through two processes: filter el-
ements remove particulates down to 1
micron to meet or exceed specifications
as low as ISO 14/12/11, while the co-
alescer and separator elements remove
free water to less than 50 ppm levels,
the company said.
The fuel filter and fuel coalescers are
intended for No. 2 diesel fuel for use in
turbines, as well as high and low sul-
fur No. 2 diesel fuel for use in Caterpil-
lar haul trucks and other large mobile
equipment. Additionally, the equipment
is used to remove contamination from
medium unleaded gasoline, light fuel
oil, naphtha and alcohols. Units are
sized to handle flow rates as little as 50
gpm (189 L/min) or as much as 2000
gpm (7570 L/min) or more, according to
Oil Filtration Systems.
www.oilfiltrationsystems.com
Featured Products CompressorTech
Two
ZOLLERN stands for state of the art plain bearings. The product range embra-
ces bearings for big diesel engines in ships, lokomotives or stationary machi-
nes, plain bearings for compressors, turbines, gearboxes, electrical machines
and for special applications. With more than 3.000 employees ZOLLERN is
located in all the industrial regions of the world.
Keep thi ngs movi ng
Plain bearings for ultimate requirements
ZOLLERN BHW Gleitlager GmbH & Co KG
Tel.: +49 5522 3127 90, Email: info@zollern-bhw.de
www.zollern.com
Zollern.indd 1 2/17/12 10:08 AM FEaturedProducts.indd 1 8/23/12 10:54 AM
Digital Torque Flange
HBM has introduced the digital torque
flange T40B, designed to measure speed,
torque and direction of rotation.
The T40B has an integrated magnetic
speed measuring system that works reli-
ably even under difficult ambient condi-
tions, HBM said. The torque flange is
available with nominal torque ranges from
147.5 lb.ft. (200 Nm) to 685.2 lb.ft (10 Nm)
and can be integrated in various applica-
tions due to a compact envelope.
According to the manufacturer, inter-
ferences are practically excluded as data
transmission between rotor and stator is
digital. The integrated speed measurement
system is magnetic and therefore insen-
sitive to contamination, as, for instance,
dust or oil mist, the company said. The
speed measurement system generates
1024 pulses per revolution.
www.hbm.com
Vane Pump
Varna Products is expanding its Ex-
treme Duty, Whisper Vane XD Line by
introducing the Model XD9. The XD9
is a 9 gpm (34 L/min) self-priming vane
pump driven by an industrial 1 hp IEC Mo-
tor with a built-in fan, the company said.
It is rated for 230 Vac/460 Vac at 60 Hz
and 200 Vac/400 Vac at 50 Hz up to 100
psi (6.9 bar). The XD9 can be used with
poor lubricity and low-film strength fluids
in a wide variety of applications, such as
circulation, transfer and metering. The XD
line is suited for challenging applications
with low temperatures and highly viscous
fluids, Varna Products said.
The XD9 also works for space con-
strained applications, with the XD9 pump
head capable of rotating on the motor in the
field to align the pump ports for installation.
www.varnaproducts.com
Smartphone App
ACI Services Inc., a global provider of en-
gineered compressor products and services,
has developed a smartphone application for
reciprocating compression professionals.
The app allows users to select the size
of a reciprocating compressor, make com-
mon compressor calculations, convert
units associated with compressors, watch
compressor videos and learn more about
reciprocating compressor components.
The compressor sizing feature allows
users to select the gas they want to com-
press (natural gas, air, propane carbon di-
oxide, hydrogen, helium and argon) and
select the units they want to use, such as
psi, bar or kPa. After making these selec-
tions, the user must enter inlet and outlet
pressures, as well as the desired flow rate.
The app will then estimate the number of
stages of compression required and the
amount of loading needed to compress
the volume of selected gas.
The calculations tab allows users to
estimate discharge temperature, average
piston speed, and piston displacement.
The convert between units tab contains a
list of measurements, including pressures,
temperatures, power, volumetric and mass
flows, lengths, volumes and forces. Infor-
mation about the company can be found
in the About ACI tab.
www.aciservicesinc.com
Featured Products CompressorTech
Two
Products:
Gas compressor packages
(type: oil injected screw,
rotary vane, centrifugal)
Gas station
Applications:
Associated gas (fare)
Gas recovery
Landfll / biogas
Fuel gas boosting
Gas gathering
Enerproject is a leading gas
compressors packager for
gas processing, gas turbine,
fuel booster and recovery systems.
SWI S S QUAL I T Y
Leadi ng the way i n gas compressi on
Switzerland
head offce
Enerproject SA
Via Cantonale
CH-6805 Mezzovico
Tel. +41 (0)91 857 56 88
Fax +41 (0)91 857 76 39
info@enerproject.com
www.enerproject.com
FLEXIBILITY, AVAILABILTY, RELIABILITY
Ener_pub_170x80.indd 1 4/23/12 5:33:31 PM
enerproject.indd 1 5/9/12 9:50 AM
FEaturedProducts.indd 2 8/23/12 10:55 AM
Dott. Ing. Mario Cozzani S.r.l., an
Italian company that has designed
and manufactured compressor valves
since 1946, has made 22,000 Special
No Contact (SNC) valves, which fea-
ture a 16,000 hour lifespan.
Because of the absence of spring
wear, the product has proved to be
valuable in critical applications for dry-
cylinder and high-speed compressors.
Reciprocating compressors for oil
and gas applications and industrial
plants must operate under various
conditions in order to meet the pro-
cess needs.
The cylinders are usually lubricat-
ed, but need to be oil-free to avoid
pollution in the final product.
Gas may contain process impuri-
ties such as particles, or its chemical
composition may include aggressive
components such as hydrogen sul-
fide (H
2
S), hydrogen choride, carbon
dioxide and others.
Regarding H
2
S service, operational
problems are increased by the pres-
ence of light molecular weight gas.
Moreover, other applications require
a wide range of variable suction and/
or discharge pressures.
Careful investigation and selection
of the proper solutions can enable the
machines and valves to operate in any
critical situation to the best reliability.
Goals of longer mean time between
failures (MTBF) have to be achieved.
Performance Expectations
Valve technologies and design pro-
cedures can optimize mechanical and
energy behavior, utilizing options
with rings, plates or other shutters.
Thermoplastic materials used for
the moving parts, because of their
lighter weight and better adaptabil-
ity to noncontrollable conditions
(the presence of dirt or liquid), have
greatly increased reliability.
Cozzani began using polyether
ether ketone (PEEK) glass fiber mate-
rial in 1992, selecting the best com-
position and production cycle to im-
prove performance. About 10 years
later, the company began using its
carbon-fiber filled version, gaining
even better operating results.
Valve performance is improved
by optimizing a combination of lift,
springing and valve internal geom-
etry using advanced simulation soft-
ware. Cozzani is continuously revis-
ing its software in order to simulate
all possible deviations from the theo-
retical cycle (Figure 1).
Operating Evidence
The high-frequency movements
of high-speed, oil-free compressors
can cause severe wear in the valve
sealing elements. For instance, in an
1800 rpm compressor, the number of
theoretic impacts of the shutter on
the guard reaches 864 million cycles
after 8000 hours.
Valve life is greatly influenced by
the plate movement. Late closing and
excessive fluttering can affect the
valve lifetime, as the number of im-
pacts can consequently be doubled
or even more reaching ex-
tremely high values.
A correct valve simulation, leading
to proper valve dynamics, is the first
step to reduce wear and fatigue ef-
fect on the springs and the multiple
impacts of the shutters against the
seat (Figure 1).
Even with an optimized design,
wear problems evidenced during
maintenance required further inves-
tigations to eliminate wear possibili-
ties on springs and shutters.
Also, the relative movement of me-
tallic parts could be the cause of a
short valve lifetime. A typical early
wear occurs between the guard and
SNC ValVeS ImproVe relIabIlIty
of reCIproCatINg CompreSSorS
Cozzani cites products advantages
in dry-cylinder and high-speed applications
By Claudio Vaglini and Massimo Schiavone,
Dott. Ing. Mario Cozzani S.r.l.
Figure 1. Suction and discharge valve simulation.
Two
Figure 2. Damaged spring and guard.
CT949.indd 1 8/23/12 11:08 AM
springs (Figure 2), as the spring mov-
ing up and down can easily scratch
along its housing, causing wear on its
external surface.
Another typical wear occurs be-
tween the spring coils because of
their frequent contacts. In all of
these situations, additional risks are
created for the cylinder sealing ele-
ments with the related hard particles
penetrating the compression cham-
ber and piping.
SNC Valve Development
Generally, the use of plastic plates
or rings successfully reduced wear on
the moving parts of the valves and,
consequently, critical damages to the
cylinders.
But wear between the springs and
valve guards can still be noticed, par-
ticularly with high rpm and/or dry lu-
bricated cylinders, where the contact
of two different metals can produce
relative wear and damage.
Extensive research has been dedi-
cated to such aspects and improve-
ments have been achieved regarding
the springs and their housing.
On one side, the use of a special
plastic cap that surrounds the spring
avoids relative movement between
the spring and the plate/ring. On
the other side, an additional plastic
washer added between the spring
and the guard avoids wear caused by
the spring on the bottom of its hous-
ing. In this way, the outer surface of
the spring also is not in contact with
the guard housing.
Moreover, analysis of the wear
conditions of some valves used in
heavy operating conditions found
that the spring surfaces were strongly
affected by wear due to contact be-
tween coils. These considerations
lead to the SNC solution.
SNC valves (Figure 3) are char-
acterized by the combination of
three components: a special bottle
spring with a predefined taper ratio
between the end coil and the next
one in relation to the wire diameter
(to prevent contact between coils);
a special design protection plastic
cap used between spring and shut-
ter; and a plastic washer positioned
between spring and guard (Figures 3
and 4). Particular care was focused
on the selection of the special kind of
thermoplastic material used for caps
and washers.
This innovation in dry-lube condi-
tions noticeably improved the reliabil-
ity of the valves in up to 16,000 hours
of continuous operation. The benefits
were particularly important on high-
speed compressors where the contact
may produce overheating and conse-
quently a reduction of the mechanical
properties of the materials.
The results obtained have been
outstanding when compared to the
traditional valves.
Development Steps
The initial tests compared SNC and
conventional valves in the same oil-free
air compressors operating at high rpm
rates. Since the preliminary inspections,
the potential value of the SNC solution
was evident, as the wear level was ab-
sent while the traditional valves already
showed some wear marks. This situa-
tion was further confirmed by increas-
ing the operating hours. Due to the
outstanding results, the tests were con-
tinued only with SNC valves.
The SNC solution can be applied to all
valve types, mainly plate and ring. The
patented SNC valve was introduced in
the market in 2005 and more than 22,000
valves have been supplied to date.
Two
Figure 3. SNC valve.
EXTEND
RING
LIFE
Call us at 713-663-1668 or
send an email to
cecosales@ceconet.com cecosales@ceconet.com
TRYCECO.COM 713-663-1668
CECOs Resilon-T
X540 solves
difficult piston ring and rider ring
problems in reciprocating
compressors. Wear rates on
Resilon-T
X540 material are 2-7

times lower than competitors
products, which means longer
run-times and fewer unexpected
shut-downs for your compressors.
Contact CECO for a list of
case histories.
PISTON & RIDER RINGS SSSS GGGG &&&& OOOO PPPPIIIISSSSTTTT NNNNN RRRRIIIDDDDEEEERRRR RRRRIIINNNN
CECO.indd 1 8/20/12 10:07 AM
CT949.indd 2 8/23/12 11:09 AM
Two
Cozzani has cooperated with its
customers in its R&D activities. It
also is supporting OEMs willing to
improve the spring life and reliability
of their compressors.

Maintenance, Experience
And Upgrades
Cozzani has found research and de-
velopment and onsite experiences are
noticeably improving valve life, increas-
ing MTBF and maintenance intervals
and consequently re-ducing costs.
Valves are reconditioned, replac-
ing the internal parts (rings and
springs) at the plant or in external
service shops.
The upgrade to SNC valves is
highly recommended whenever wear
between the guard and springs has
caused the shutdown of the compres-
sor due to a reduced lifetime of the
springs, with premature damage and
consequent risks for the cylinder, or
whenever the guard is affected by
similar damage (Figure 2).
Traditional valves can be upgraded
to SNC valves simply by replacing the
guard at a reasonable expense, but with
a great improvement in critical service.
The SNC solution can be applied
to disk and ring valves with metal
Figure 4. Special no contact spring coil.
or plastic shutters. This solution has
been increasing valve life, particularly
for industrial applications like air com-
pression for polyethylene terephtha-
late production, seismic and natural
gas compressors. a
Centrical Clamping
Systems
A brochure by Arla Mas-
chinentechnik describes the
companys centrical clamp-
ing systems, which are used
to clamp pipes, tubes, shafts
and bars with a high clamp-
ing force. This work-holding
equipment can be used in
the machining process, but
also as an assembly tool.
There are a variety of models
available to support small or
large diameters.
www.arla.com
Acoustic And Emissions
Technologies
Universal has published a
brochure on its capabilities.
The company provides en-
gineered acoustic, emissions
and filtration products for the
power generation, oil, gas,
and industrial markets. The
company specializes in air
movement applications, die-
sel engines and gas turbine
engine systems.
www.universalaet.com
Vibration
Analyzer
A brochure from Ludeca in-
troduces the VibXpert II, a
portable vibration analyzer
that features a full-color dis-
play, fast data acquisition and
diagnostic tools. All forms of
machine vibrations, bearing
conditions, process data and
visual inspection information
can be collected and stored
on the device via a flash card.
www.ludeca.com
Cooling
Packages
Kim Kool Inc. has released
literature on its rotary screw
compressor cooling packag-
es. The company specializes
in cooling packages that are
low pressure (less than 600
psi [41.4 bar]) and low power
(less than 300 hp [224 kW]).
Industries served include oil
and gas, mining, construction
and hydraulic oil cooling.
www.kimkool.com
Product Information Center CompressorTech
Two
CT949.indd 3 8/23/12 11:09 AM
Compressor Valves
A brochure from
Compressor Prod-
ucts International
(CPI) provides in-
formation on its
compressor valves.
The brochure lists
the companys of-
ferings, which in-
clude Hi-Flo valves,
radiused disc valves,
poppet valves, un-
loaders and actua-
tors. CPI also has
valve recondition-
ing capabilities as well as replacement parts.
www.c-p-i.com
Twin Screw Compressors
Howden Compres-
sors has released a
brochure on its rota-
ry twin screw com-
pressors. The bro-
chure features the
WRV and XRV com-
pressors, complete
with photos, charts,
technical data and
performance data
on each model.
Howden Compres-
sors has locations
in the U.K., China,
Russia, Brazil and the United States.
www.howden.com
Company Capabilities
WEG Electric Mo-
tors Corp., based in
Suwanee, Georgia,
U.S.A., has pub-
lished a brochure
on its capabilities.
WEG manufacturers
more than 10 mil-
lion electric motors
a year, and has a
product range en-
compassing trans-
formers, generators,
automation systems
and electrical com-
ponents, as well as industrial paints and varnishes.
www.weg.net
Product Guide
Rottler Manufacturings 2012 general brochure is available
with details on the companys full product line from mul-
tipurpose CNC machining centers, seat and guide equip-
ment, honing machines, valve refacers, surfacers, digitizing
and porting machines and boring and sleeving machines.
www.rottlermfg.com.
Two
Two
ECOM.indd 1 6/5/12 1:11 PM
PIC.indd 1 8/24/12 3:45 PM
PROS Co., a screw compressor re-
pair firm in Lubbock, Texas, U.S.A., is
providing customers with photos and
technical evaluations of damages to
machines along with its recommend-
ed solutions.
Repair companies often just give
their customers a piece of paper con-
taining no more information than
what the rebuild is going to cost,
said Lee Levisay, sales manager of
PROS Co. OEMs and rebuilders like
to sell parts and labor. Its not com-
mon for them to provide much analy-
sis or forensics.
We provide a full technical evalu-
ation of every screw compressor we
recondition. It includes photographs,
an explanation of the damage, what
needs to be repaired and an opinion
of what caused the failure.
Levisay said equipment operators
can use the information in the evalu-
ation to prevent similar problems or
to improve a preventative mainte-
nance program. A complete history
of the screw compressor can be com-
piled by saving the reports each time
it is rebuilt.
Preparation of these reports re-
quires years of experience and
knowledge about the interworking
of screw compressors, Levisay said.
Screw compressors do not have a lot
of pieces, but the pieces they do have
are specialized and rotate at high
speeds with close tolerances. When
the smallest thing goes wrong, you
can have a major problem.
There are always clues to what
caused a failure. Putting all those
clues together and presenting the re-
sults in a technical evaluation is es-
sential if the operator is to make an
informed decision on whether to re-
build a screw compressor or to re-
place it.
Levisay said PROS is alert for clues
when it disassembles a screw com-
pressor. A small scratch or discolor-
ation of metal can indicate the history
The Science Of Screw cOmpreSSOr fOrenSicS
PROS provides written technical evaluations before beginning rebuilds
Metal-to-metal scraping in the air gap of a screw compressor was caused by excessive heating. This resulted from lack of lubrication or foreign
matter getting caught between the shaft and housing. Evidence of foreign material in a roller bearing (left), shown by the surface scratching and
scuffing on the surface (right).
Two
This molasses-type pattern is a typical example of burnt oil on a bearing cage (left). The oil was deposited from the centrifugal force of the rotating
bearing. Burnt oil has collected in an oil port (right). The brown, paste-like oil residue is attached to the walls of the port opening.
CT951.indd 1 8/24/12 3:49 PM
Two
of the equipment and the reason for
failure. Sometimes it takes microscop-
ic analysis to discern the full story.
In one screw compressor the bear-
ings showed a classic pattern of electri-
cal arcing as the cause of the failure, Le-
visay said. We sent the bearings to the
manufacturer, who performed a micro-
scopic analysis and found that two dif-
ferent solid particle contaminates in the
bearing had caused the visible damage.
This completely changed the results
of the visual evaluation and showed
that external contamination was the
real culprit.
Levisay said the customer was given
a detailed report concluding inden-
tations on the raceways, and small,
galled patches on the mated side fac-
es of the two outer rings, could be
mistaken for electrical arcing damage.
The report noted the actual problem
was solid particle contamination, evi-
denced by dents and scratches in the
load zones of both rings.
Levisay said chemical corrosion is-
sues sometimes are discovered. The
PROS Co. has reconditioned some
screw compressors that have evidence
of chemical corrosion from their op-
erating environment. The damage is
more of a pitting and flaking on the
bearings than scratching and scuffing.
The meshing of the rotors is an-
other place where very tight toleranc-
es are of great importance, Levisay
said. If external contamination enters
the screw compressor, there is a high
possibility that there will be damage
to the rotors.
Scarring, pitting, and normal wear
of the rotors will make the screw com-
pressor less efficient. Excessive dam-
age to the rotors will turn them into
scrap iron. New sealing strips can be
put on rotors, but damage to the rotor
profile is less likely to be repairable.
Damage to the housing is normally
seen in conjunction with damage to
the rotors. Levisay said advances in
welding procedures have made most
housings repairable.
Heat is constantly generated by
compression and the operation of
rotating parts. The oil-flooded screw
compressor uses the oil to control
the heat and remove it from the ma-
chinery. When this balance is upset
and heat builds up in the screw com-
pressor, it can cause thermal expan-
sion of the rotors. The rotors will
then start to rub the housing in dif-
ferent places, usually the air gap, the
discharge face and the interior of the
rotor housing.
When we perform the forensics,
we find that excessive heat leaves
many different clues, Levisay said.
Burnt oil residue looks like molasses
Summit
Industrial Products
Problem Solving
Synthetic Lubricants
Washing
In high-pressure reciprocating compressors,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen and some hydrocarbon
gases have a tendency to wash the lubricant
film from the cylinder walls. When this happens,
lubrication feed rates to the washed cylinders
are often increased to as much as 8 times the
baseline rate. The over-lubrication often results
in the hydraulicing of packing, ring or rider
material, which can lead to early valve failure and
excessive carr yover to downstream components.
Summit s synthetic NGL Series is formulated to
fight against the washing process, and cylinder
feed rates can be decreased as a result.
Protect against washing with Summit NGL
800.749.5823
www.klsummit.com
Washing_Layout 1 8/16/2012 2:18 PM Page 1
Summit.indd 1 8/16/12 3:07 PM
and will be in every nook not scraped
off by moving parts. As the rotors
continue to heat up and expand, they
will come into contact with the hous-
ing. This will create more heat build-
up and damage.
There also will be evidence of
metal parts scraping against each oth-
er. If the screw compressor is not shut
down, the heat will build with more
thermal expansion of the housing and
rotor, thus eliminating close toleranc-
es that previously existed.
The metal will liquefy and when
the unit finally does stop rotating,
the liquefied metal will weld the ro-
tor and housing together, locking the
unit up and resulting in a catastrophic
failure. The forensic evidence is pret-
ty obvious at this point.
The screw compressor rotor will
then have to be surgically removed
with a custom-made saw and our
oversized drill press. If an inexperi-
enced rebuilder tries to press the ro-
tor out of the housing, the housing
can be broken.
CT951.indd 2 8/22/12 5:06 PM
What is not inside a compressor can
be critical too.
We sometimes discover that a
compressor lacks parts that a pre-
vious rebuilder forgot to install or
maybe thought were unimportant,
Levisay said. Most common are
spacers and seals. We find multiple
shims used instead of a spacer. Once
we came across a combination of
washers and shims not all the same
sizes that replaced a spacer that
was almost 3/8 of an inch (9.5 mm)
in thickness.
Another time we found that a
previous rebuilder left an O-ring off
the slide valve. The leaking slide
valve created an unbalanced condi-
tion, which caused the operator to
believe there was an engine prob-
lem. Several heads and turbocharg-
ers on the engine driving the screw
compressor were replaced before we
discovered that the real culprit was
the missing O-ring.
This all goes to show that the re-
assembly of a screw compressor is
more than just a rote job. It is more
like an artistic endeavor that requires
years of experience.
When PROS receives a compressor,
a work order is generated for an ac-
curate paper trail. The company then
dissembles each component until ev-
ery part has been separated, labeled
and identified. Photos are taken to
show the customer the inside of the
unit and the extent of damage.
Next, the PROS technician pre-
pares a technical evaluation, carefully
measuring each component for the
amount of damage incurred. This will
Month 2012 96 CompressorTech
Two
The galling on the inside of the bearing race (left) could be mistaken as electrical arcing. Microscopic examination determined the cause was con-
tamination, not electrical. In chemical corrosion (right), acids are formed that melt the metals inside the compressor.
Hilliard.indd 1 2/21/11 10:16:22 AM CT951.indd 3 8/22/12 5:07 PM
determine what type of repairs or ma-
chine work the unit will need before
the rebuild can take place.
At this point, the technical evaluation
and a firm quote for repairs are sent to
the customer. The quote will include a
time estimate for the rebuild and a con-
firmation of the warranty period.
Levisay said PROS was founded
on the principle of repairing units to
the OEM specifications using tech-
niques including thermal welding and
Blanchard grinding. This allows us
to make and restore sealing strips on
rotors, repair bearing bores, replace
damage shafts and more, he said.
When the rebuild begins, PROS
thoroughly cleans each component
before beginning machining pro-
cedures. After all machine work is
completed, the unit is reassembled.
During the rebuild, PROS will dynam-
ically balance and prep the units ro-
tors using proprietary techniques.
Every rebuilt unit gets new bear-
ings, gaskets, seals, and O-rings.
PROS always uses a new or recondi-
tioned oil pump and gears, when nec-
essary. After the machinery is tested
for acceptable pressure and possible
leaks, it is painted and shipped.
The key to the whole process is
a well-prepared technical evaluation
that includes the forensic evidence
and good descriptions of the dam-
age, Levisay said. This is the type
of information that operators need to
make the best economical decision
for their companies. A
Chemical corrosion (left) has caused flaking and pitting on the bearings and bearing race. A previous rebuilder (right) incorrectly used a brass
bearing cage for a sour gas application. Corrosive flaking and pitting are seen on the bearing and race. The triangular-shaped piece of metal is what
remains of the bearing cage.
FluidLine.indd 1 12/13/11 9:12 AM
CT951.indd 4 8/23/12 10:43 AM
The exhaust systems of gas tur-
bines working on oil and gas plat-
forms in harsh offshore environments
are complex. Failures are common,
as systems need to handle tempera-
ture extremes, variable exhaust flows
and incorporate heat recovery while
also being light enough to be easily
installed and removed.
In an extreme environment such
as the North Sea, exhausts come
under intense pressure to perform
flawlessly, because failure could
potentially lead to very costly pro-
duction disruptions for a platform
operator.
Flow induced vibration and thermal
fatigue are the two main reasons for
exhaust system breakdowns.
Frazer-Nash, a U.K.-based technology
consultancy, has successfully complet-
ed a major North Sea project aided by
the development of modern Computa-
tional Fluid Dynamics (CFD) methods,
particularly the advanced and highly
detailed Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
technique. LES is a computational sim-
ulation of turbulent flows and is able
to replicate exactly what occurs within
the exhausts, the company said.
Frazer-Nash is headquartered in
Dorking, Surrey, England, and has a
staff of 440 that is supplying systems
and engineering technology world-
wide. The company recently worked
on the BP Bruce gas turbine exhaust
replacement project in the North Sea.
Frazer-Nash undertook detailed
analysis of the failure mechanisms of
the existing exhaust systems; provided
concept designs for improved replace-
ments; supported the engineering, pro-
curement and construction contractor
Wood Group PSN during the detailed
design phase; undertook overall project
management; and assessed the suitabil-
ity of the installation and lifting systems.
The installation of the replacement sys-
tems is currently underway.
Frazer-Nash said only by working
with LES to simulate these systems
could the company diagnose the
causes of the problems encountered
on the Bruce platform. With this in-
formation, Frazer-Nashs design and
structural analysis teams developed
and assessed new design concepts
that extended fatigue life.
Working with BP and Wood Group
PSN, these concepts were worked up
into detailed designs. Each exhaust
had to be light enough to be installed
by helicopter lift, so the lift points
and frame designs were also care-
fully assessed to ensure no distortion
would occur.
The consultancy spent around 18
months working on the project. Simon
Rees, Frazer-Nash business manager
for Oil and Gas, said that in this case
flow-induced vibration rather than
thermal fatigue was the cause of the
exhaust system failure.
The lifetime of an exhaust work-
ExhaustivE Work Pays DiviDEnDs
Simulation techniques key to studies
By Ian Cameron
The results of CFD modeling on a duct, part of the exhaust system. The left image shows the
varying pressure of gas on the duct walls. The right image shows stream lines colored by the
velocity of a particle moving within a duct.
Two
CT961.indd 1 8/24/12 3:53 PM
More Performance Under Pressure.

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You supply the energy that keeps the world in motion.
We help you meet every challenge along the way.
To learn more about the solutions and services Atlas Copco
Gas and Process offers across the globe, join us at booth #1315 at the
Turbomachinery Symposium held September 24-27 in Houston, Texas.
Or visit us in London, where we will welcome you at booth A240 at
the Gastech Conference & Exhibition held October 8-11.
We Do More.
www.atlascopco-gap.com
AtlasCopco.indd 1 8/21/12 2:21 PM
ing in this type of offshore environ-
ment varies it can depend on how
it is operated or how frequently there
are stop starts of the gas turbine,
Rees said.
When replacing exhaust systems
such as these on an offshore platform,
it is vital to be proactive in the design
of a replacement system to prevent
failure rather than being reactive when
a problem does occur.
The use of LES in real life indus-
trial scenarios is relatively new say
approximately two years although
the theory has been around for many
years. Advances in the performance
and power of computers over the past
two years have made its use in indus-
try possible.
The use of LES does require very
detailed models, mesh models that en-
able more detailed, complex and re-
alistic objects to be created, and very
large computers, said Rees.
The benefit of using the LES tech-
nique within CFD is that the results are
extremely accurate and can give a very
good representation of transient pres-
sure pulses within the exhaust where
there is an unsteady flow.
The use of LES in industry is a big
step forward within CFD. We have also
used the technique in other applica-
tions such as assessing the integrity of
subsea flow lines.
The use of LES will, I believe,
continue to grow in coming years,
but there are other technologies pre-
viously only theoretically possible
that are now becoming accessible
to industry. In five years time, we
could well be using CFD techniques
that are much more advanced than
those of today. A
Two
Frazer-Nash recently worked on the BP Bruce
gas turbine exhaust replacement project in
the North Sea.
2311 Executive Dr.
Garland, TX 75041
S&R Controls manufactures
custom PLC control panels
for compressor packages.
S&R Controls has provided
ATEX Zone 2 and Class I
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for several customers.

Contact Maurice or Jason
Reagan for your next
compressor control system.

phone: 972-271-5203
e-mail: sales@panelsbySR.com
www.panelsbySR.com

S&R.indd 1 8/16/12 1:11 PM
CT961.indd 2 8/24/12 3:54 PM
Todays design engineers have access to the most realistic
models of spring behavior and failure analysis than ever.
Their insights into what happens under the extreme operat-
ing conditions of todays high-speed compressors has result-
ed in several advances in valve design, including a plethora
of new spring shapes, materials and configurations.
High-speed compressors endure operating conditions that
change daily and gas streams contaminated with liquids, for-
eign particles and corrosive gases. The core function of the
compression spring is to provide order and predictability to
this high-speed compression cycle.
The correct selection of a spring is one of the most critical
decisions in the design of the compressor valve. This article
presents solutions the industry is providing to improve com-
pressor reliability through more advanced spring designs
and materials.
High opening impact speeds, the enemy of compressor
reliability, have become commonplace.
But higher velocities increase the likelihood of spring coil
contact, which can lead to wire thinning, wire breakage,
plastic deformation in the spring wire and length reduction.
This leads to a loss of spring load in the valve, which will
significantly change the valve opening behavior and lead to
premature failure.
New spring designs offer one or more of the following
benefits:
They improve valve plate movement control through vary-
ing the spring loads characteristics during the opening
closing cycle;
They increase the allowable operating temperature of
a spring;
They improve the corrosion characteristics of a spring.
Properly designed coil springs, using the latest principles
of spring design and spring wire technology, can handle
impact speeds up to 9.8 to 13.1 fps (3 to 4 m/s) without
overstressing or coil contact. This is a significant improve-
ment over what was done in the past: staying under 9 fps
(2.7 m/s).
Fatigue Life
As a spring goes through its working cycle, it slowly los-
es its mechanical properties. Eventually it will not function
properly for its application.
This lifespan, or fatigue life, can be calculated based on a
springs geometry, material, manufacturing process and operat-
ing conditions. Simply put, the fatigue life of a spring is equal
to the estimated hours that it can function properly in the field.
It is important to replace compressor valve springs every
time the valve is serviced. Even if the springs look fine
they will only have the rest of their fatigue life left to operate
before likely failure.
Failure is not always catastrophic, such as wire break-
age. Failure includes the time after which a springs forces
have worn down so much that the valve no longer func-
tions as it should.
Operating conditions and quality of manufacturing signifi-
cantly affect the fatigue life of springs. Although springs are
designed to withstand a predetermined number of cycles,
this can be significantly affected by corrosion, improper
spring geometry, improper heat treatment, improper plat-
ing, improper installation, friction/rubbing, impact loads, fre-
quency of the load, temperature changes, etc.
Spring Shapes
The shape of the body of the spring, the shape and the type
of the wire, and the distance between its coils (known as pitch)
affect the force-deflection characteristics of springs (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Compression Spring Shapes
Cylindrical Coil Springs with Constant Pitch
Cylindrical shaped coil compression springs with con-
Modern ValVe Spring deSignS
High-speed compressors and extreme environments
require new spring solutions
By Vlade Jordanov
Two
Vlade Jordanov is president and general manager of KB Delta
Spring Inc. in Torrance, California, U.S.A. He has more than 15
years of experience as a design and production engineer in the
spring industry. Contact him at vlade@kbdeltaspring.com.
CT964.indd 1 8/22/12 8:24 PM
stant pitch (same distance between the coils) provide
linear force-deflection characteristics. This means that
the spring force increases at a constant rate as it is com-
pressed (Figure 2).
These constant-pitch cylindrical springs have the most
predictable fatigue life because they are the only springs that
have a predictable stress distribution. All of the other types
shown have inconsistent stress distributions under load,
which makes their fatigue life not as easy to predict without
proper field testing and sophisticated modeling.
Figure 2. Compression spring shape and its force (load) versus com-
pressed length characteristic
Cylindrical springs are the most prevalent springs in our
industry. They have a long and successful track record,
but because of the growing demand for extending high-
speed compressor run times, these older spring designs
are being examined carefully. New, exciting designs are
emerging to address the deficiencies inherent with tradi-
tional coil springs.
Modern spring designs often require that a spring change
its force-deflection characteristics during the valve opening
and closing. In other words we need springs that can be
made to act like even stronger or stiffer springs as the valve
approaches and reaches its fully opened position. This will
help reduce valve failures due to sudden fast opening forces
like those caused by debris in the gas stream. Shapes such as
conical, variable pitch, barrel and hourglass are used when
this is required.
Conical Coil Springs
The conical spring can be designed to compress all the
way to where the coils collapse around themselves and
there is no contact of the coils throughout the range of
spring motion.
A conical spring is also more stable than a cylindrical
spring, which tends to buckle when it becomes too long
and slender.
Another important advantage is that when a conical
spring is subjected to a sudden impact load, its coils can
endure the event better because it will be less likely than
a coil spring to buckle or break due to a sudden fully
compressed condition.
Its more likely to survive the main cause of valve failure:
fast opening and slamming of the moving element so as to
fully compress the springs causing certain coil-to coil contact
if a cylindrical spring were used.
The force-deflection characteristics of conical springs (Fig-
ure 3) also help them to tolerate these higher impact loads
because the spring acts like an even stronger and stronger
august-september 2012 101 lll CompressorTech
Two
continued on page 102l
FlenderGraffen.indd 1 6/16/11 10:52 AM
CT964.indd 2 8/22/12 8:25 PM
Two
spring as the valve opens more and more. This helps pre-
vent slamming, sticktion and a fully opened valve which can
cause slamming upon closure.

Figure 3. Conical (Taper) compression springs shape and its load ver-
sus compressed length characteristic
Other Spring Shapes
A cylindrical compression spring can also have nonlinear
force-deflection characteristics but its pitch would have to be
varied (Figure 4). The other types of shapes such as barrel
or hourglass shaped springs have nonlinear characteristics,
as shown on (Figure 5).
Each of these spring geometries is an attempt to help opti-
mize valve efficiency and reliability at the same time.

Figure 4. Cylindrical compression spring with nonlinear characteristic
(also known as progressive spring)
Usually these two benefits were a trade-off. When reliabil-
ity would improve, by using a stronger or stiffer spring, effi-
ciency would go down. When efficiency would increase, by
using a weaker spring, reliability would drop, due to more
slamming and coil-to-coil contact causing higher stress in the
spring, spring failure, plate failure, and the rest.
Looking closely at the force-deflection diagrams above
(Figures 3 through 5), the newer spring designs employ a
spring that may be able to perform like a weaker spring
when the valve first starts opening and then perform like a
stronger spring as the valve becomes fully open.
This additional spring force when the valve is at or near
fully open slows down the valve plate movement and
fends off some of the negative effects of gas streams con-
taminated with liquids or foreign particles by minimizing
any slamming forces and possibly, preventing coil-to-coil
contact on the springs.
Wire Shapes
The industry is seeing more and more flat wire springs be-
ing designed into valves.
Flat wire springs have bigger cross sectional areas of the
wire compared to round wire springs. This allows them to
store more energy within the same spring diameter and
length, and to have lower stress in them compared to
round wire springs.
In other words: the equivalent deflection will yield a stron-
ger spring load as the valve is opening compared to the
equivalent sized round wire spring (Figure 6).
Flat wire springs are also more stable in the event of coil-
to-coil contact. Theyre not prone to buckling as round wire
coils are, and the overall force-impact of the coil-to-coil con-
tact is lower than the impact on the coils of round wire
springs that only hit at a single point.
The theory is that a flat wire spring will have a longer
fatigue life than its round-wire equivalent when the valve is
subject to suddenly faster opening speeds. The disadvantage
of non-round wire springs is that they have non-uniform
stress distribution during compression.
The wire in all compression springs is subjected to twist-
ing (not bending), no matter the shape of the wire used,
when the spring is compressed. Twisting of non-round wire
causes uneven stress distribution compared to round wire,
and this can be an issue if the designer wants high fatigue
life out of the spring. Also, the springs that use such wire
shapes are more difficult to manufacture.

Figure 6. Different cross sections of the wire used for springs
Importance Of Good Manufacturing
Achieving the predicted fatigue life of any properly de-
signed spring depends a lot on good manufacturing.
Figure 5. Barrel-shaped compression spring and its characteristic shape
CT964.indd 3 8/22/12 8:25 PM
Two
This includes adherence to all physical tolerances, prop-
er stress relieving and heat treating, and uniform finishing.
Small changes in wire diameter can dramatically affect the
stiffness of a spring and its performance in the valve.
Figure 7 presents the typical dimension parameters of a
spring including, but often overlooked, two critical param-
eters for valve springs squareness and parallelism. These
two dimensions are important because they affect the way
the spring compresses and its stress distribution.

Figure 7. Dimensional parameters of springs
If the spring is not straight, its coils will rub up against
the matting parts in the valve and cause uneven stress distri-
bution during the compression cycle, damaging the spring.
Straightness is achieved by the proper combination of preci-
sion coiling, grinding and heat treating.
Straightness is also improved through the use of spring boots
or buttons added to the ends of the spring. These buttons serve
a dual function - they improve the straightness and decrease
the friction of the spring ends with the moving element. But-
tons are commonly made out of low friction materials such as
PTFE, PEEK, nylon, moly and carbon (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Some examples of the spring buttons
Heat treating and shot peening are used to improve
the fatigue life of springs, especially those in extreme op-
erating conditions. Shot peening is an effective way of
increasing strength of the spring by smoothing, improv-
ing, and compressing the surface layer and making its
surface tougher.
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Universal.indd 2 7/12/12 10:57 AM
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Two
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As a result of the wire twisting, the torsion stress is high-
est on the surface, which is why strengthening the surface
layer of the spring coils is important in extending the life of
a spring.
Also, the material type plays a huge difference in the fa-
tigue life of the spring. Commonly used materials for the
valve springs are stainless steels (17-7PH, Duplex, etc.), In-
conel, Nimonic, Elgiloy, Hastelloy, etc.
In many cases, a combination of factors cause either fa-
tigue failure (Figure 9) or pitting corrosion failure (Figure
10). Fatigue is an irreversible process that goes in three
stages: crack initiation, crack propagation and fracture.
Figure 9. Spring fatigue failure
Summary
The goal never changes: improved compressor perfor-
mance and reliability.
Weve all heard that The spring is the most highly stressed
component of the compressor valve and is typically the larg-
est cause of valve failures.
New spring designs with new materials, geometries and
manufacturing processes are responding to the challenge of im-
proving valve reliability and, often, efficiency, at the same time.
Specifying the correct spring for its operating environ-
ment is getting more precise and thus more complex,
all in the name of improved compressor performance
and reliability.
KB Delta Inc. is a manufacturer of compressor valve
parts for the natural gas, air, refrigeration and PET in-
dustry. KB Delta Spring Inc. was launched in 2009 to ex-
pand offerings to military, aerospace and other high-tech
spring users. A
Figure 10. Spring corrosion-initiated fatigue failure
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CT964.indd 5 8/24/12 4:31 PM
BP
BP has agreed to sell its interests in the
Jonah and Pinedale fields in Wyoming,
U.S.A., to Linn Energy for US$1.025 billion.
The sale brings BPs divestments since
early 2010 to around US$24 billion. BP ex-
pects this total to increase to US$38 billion
by the end of 2013.
Under the agreement, BP is selling its
operations center in Sublette County (Wy-
oming, U.S.A.) and its working interest in
260 operated wells with BP gas produc-
tion of 80 MMscfd (2.3 x 10
6
m
3
/d) and
nonoperated wells with BP production of
66 MMscfd (1.9 x 10
6
m
3
/d).
Burckhardt
Zeeland Refinery N.V. has ordered a
Burckhardt process gas compressor for
an expansion at its plant at Nieuwdorp,
the Netherlands.
The unit will be used in the diesel hy-
drotreating process as a hydrogen make-
up gas compressor.
The compressor will be rated at 362 to
2725 psi (25 to 188 bar) with a rated motor
power of 9380 hp (7000 kW). Maximum
rod load of will be 335,000 lb. (1500 kN).
Delivery is scheduled in mid-2013.
Johnson Matthey
Two new sales professionals have joined
Johnson Mattheys Stationary Emissions
Control (SEC) North America business unit.
Marc J. Rost, who will be located in
Audubon, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., is the re-
gional sales manager for the northeastern
United States. He previously served as the
regional sales manager for Lechler, Inc.,
St. Charles, Illinois, U.S.A. Before that, he
held several sales, marketing and product
management positions at the Selas Fluid
division of the Linde Group, Blue Bell,
Pennsylvania.
Philip Wilson, based in Spring, Texas,
U.S.A., is the regional sales manager for the
southwestern United States. Wilson has more
than 17 years of experience in industrial en-
gine sales, serving most recently as a sales
manager with ComAp LLC, Roscoe, Illinois,
U.S.A. He also was a regional sales manager
for Dynalco Control Co., Ft. Lauderdale, Flor-
ida, U.S.A., and a regional business manager
for Woodward Governor Co., Ft. Collins,
Colorado, U.S.A.
GE
Chevron has awarded GE Oil & Gas
Global Services a US$600 million, 22-
year contract to maintain compressor
trains and associated equipment for the
Gorgon Project off the northwestern
coast of Australia.
The Gorgon Project will develop the
Gorgon and Jansz/Io gas fields 80 mi. (130
km) offshore. It includes a 15 million tpy
(13.6 million T/yr) liquefied natural gas
plant on Barrow Island and a domestic gas
plant to supply gas to Western Australia.
Chevron is operator with 47.3%, Exxon-
Mobil and Shell have 25% each, and three
Japanese firms hold the balance.
For the project, GE has supplied five
gas turbines to provide power for Barrow
Islands gas treatment and liquefaction fa-
cilities, three main refrigerant compression
trains, six electric-motor driven compres-
sion trains for a carbon dioxide sequestra-
tion project, and other equipment.
The company recently opened a service
and maintenance center in Perth, Western
Australia, that is expected to provide 4000
training days for GE staff and the employ-
ees of its customers next year.
auGust-sEPtEMBEr 2012 105 CompressorTech
Two
Two
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M. Rost P. Wilson
Ignition
Products
BG Service Co. Inc. has pub-
lished a reference guide on its
ignition products. The guide
includes chapters on coil con-
necting kits and parts for vari-
ous companies; adapters; gas-
kets; spark plugs; and turbine
products. Photos and specifi-
cation data are also included
on each item.
www.bgservice.com
Portable Pumps,
Pipelines
Central Water & Equipment
Services Ltd. has produced
literature on its portable
pump and pipeline sales and
rentals. The companys por-
table pumps include engine
and electric drive, as well as
submersible and centrifugal.
Its pumping services include
transferring or draining water
or effluent through portable
pipelines to distant locations.
www.centralwater.net
Electric
Glycol Pump
A brochure on Kimray Inc.s
electric glycol pump is available.
The brochure provides sections
on the pumps benefits, specifi-
cations, dimensions and techni-
cal information. Kimray is head-
quartered in Oklahoma City,
Oklahoma, U.S.A.
www.kimray.com
Position
Sensors
Macro Sensors has introduced
a catalog on its miniature
LVDT linear position sensors,
which are designed for en-
ergy and power applications.
Available in a variety of con-
figurations and outputs to fit
different applications, the sen-
sors can be implemented for
position measurement on gov-
ernor valves, throttle valves,
reheat/stop valves, interceptor
valves, IGVs and many other
control valves.
www.macrosensors.com
Two
Two
COMPRESSOR
Dedicated To Gas Compression Products & Applications
Get ready
our new look is coming.
AnewLook_half.indd 1 8/21/12 1:35 PM
PIC.indd 2 8/23/12 10:32 AM
Inspection, Repair
Services
A brochure from Philadelphia
Gear provides information on
its inspection, repair and up-
grade capabilities. The compa-
nys technical services include
condition monitoring, diag-
nostics and predictive mainte-
nance. The rotating equipment
serviced includes bearings,
bevel gears, couplings, hydro-
viscous clutches and brakes,
and epicyclic gears.
www.philagear.com
Industrial
Sensors
IMI-Sensors, a division of PCB
Piezotronics Inc., has released
its latest industrial sensors
catalog. The catalog features
an array of new and exist-
ing industrial vibration sen-
sors, switches, instrumentation
and other accessories used in
monitoring and maintenance
of industrial machinery. The
catalog also has products sec-
tions identified by application
and technology.
www.imi-sensors.com
Oilfield
Products
Alco Inc. has published a bro-
chure on its capabilities as
well as its oilfield products.
Alcos products include big
block wrenches, choke/kill
manifolds, cable roughneck
frames, spinners and blocks.
The company provides repair
and recertifications services,
as well as hydrostatic and
NDT/hardness testing.
www.alco.com
Bolting
Products
Nord-Lock Group, which re-
cently acquired Superbolt
Inc., has released a brochure
on its bolting offerings. Those
offerings include standard
and high-strength tensioners,
bearing locknuts, expansion
bolts, compressor crosshead
jamnuts, and compressor pis-
ton end nuts. These products
can be used in several applica-
tions, such as gas compression
and mining.
www.nord-lock.com
Two
www.introequipcon.com A
N
N
O
U
N
C
E
M
E
N
T

International Rotating Equipment Conference
Pumps and Compressors Dsseldorf (GER), 27
th
28
th
Sept. 2012
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COMPRESSOR
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Two
COMPRESSOR
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and Applications
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GMRC GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE
September 30 - October 3
Hilton Hotel & Austin Convention Center - Austin, TX
ENGINE EMISSIONS STACK TESTING & ANALYZER WORKSHOP
October 30 - November 1
Renaissance Hotel - Oklahoma City, OK
FACTORS IN COMPRESSOR STATION DESIGN WORKSHOP
October 31 - November 2
Renaissance Hotel - Oklahoma City, OK
Visit www.gmrc.org for information
on these upcoming events conducted by
GMRC - the Gas Machinery Research Council
www.gmrc.org
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Marketplace CompressorTech
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AMINE PLANT
1250 PSI
AVAILABLE NOW
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USERS
Chevron, Saudi Arabia
Dolphin Energy Ltd.
ExxonMobil
QAPCO
Qatar Chemical Company Ltd.
Qatar Fertiliser Company
Qatargas, Qatar
Qatar Petroleum
Qatar Shell GTL Ltd.
Ras Girtas Power Co.
ORYX GTL Ltd.
RasGas Company Ltd.
Saudi Aramco
SABIC
TAKREER, Abu Dhabi Oil Refning Co.
ADVISORY COMMITTEE COMPANIES:
METS Program Advisory Committee
members are from user companies
in the region and multinational
Turbomachinery OEMs.
OTHERS
Alstom Power
Dresser-Rand
Ebara Corporation
Elliott Company
Flowserve Corporation
Forsthoffer Associates, Inc.
GE Infra Oil & Gas
ITT Goulds Pumps
MAN Diesel & Turbo Schweiz AG
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd.
Rolls-Royce Energy
Siemens Energy Sector
Solar Turbines Incorporated
Southwest Research Institute
Turbomachinery Laboratory at
Texas A&M University
HOST AND TITANIUM SPONSOR:
http://MiddleEastTurbo.tamu.edu
Join our mail list at: inquiry@turbo-lab.tamu.edu
Event Organizers: Turbomachinery
Laboratory at Texas A&M University
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Advertisers Index
Company Name Page Number Company Name Page Number Company Name Page Number
MONTH
* Further information on this companys products can be found
in the 2012 Edition of the Global Sourcing Guide (at GSGnet.net) and 2012 Compression Technology Sourcing Supplement (at CTSSnet.net).
Advertisers Index
Company Name Page Number Company Name Page Number Company Name Page Number
ABB Turbo Systems .................................................... 69
www.abb.com/turbocharging
ACI Services, Inc. ........................................................ 26
www.aciservicesinc.com
Alpha GmbH ................................................................. 85
www.alpha-cis.com
Altronic, Inc. ............................................................... 2-3
www.altronic-llc.com
ARIEL .............................................................................. 1
www.arielcorp.com
ARMCO Compressor Products Corp. ....................... 17
www.armcocompressor.com
Atlas Copco Energas GmbH ....................................... 99
www.atlascopco-gap.com
AXH air-coolers ............................................................ 85
www.axh.com
BETA Machinery Analysis .......................................... 45
www.betamachinery.com
BG Service Co. Inc, The .............................................. 33
www.bgservice.com
Burckhardt Compression AG ..................................... 31
www.recip.com/api618
Camerons Compression
Systems Group ....................................................... 56-57
www.c-a-m.com
Catalytic Combustion Corporation ............................ 61
www.catalyticcombustion.com
CECO, Compressor Engineering Corp. .............. 71, 91
www.tryceco.com
CENTA Corp. ................................................................ 87
www.centa.info
Chart Cooler Service Company
Aftermarket Division .................................................... 73
www.chart-ec.com
Continuous Control Solutions .................................... 25
www.ccsia.com
Cook Compression ...................................................... 49
www.cookcompression.com
Compressor Products International .............. 13, Insert
www.c-p-i.com
Cozzani, Dott.Ing.Mario Cozzani S.r.l. ........................ 67
www.cozzani.com
DCL International Inc. ................................................... 7
www.dcl-inc.com
DENSO Sales California, Inc. ................................ 52-53
www.densosparkplugs.com
*Dresser-Rand ................................................................ 39
www.dresser-rand.com
E Instruments International ........................................ 79
www.E-Inst.com
ECOM America ............................................................. 93
www.ecomusa.com
Elliott Group ............................................. Second Cover
www.elliott-turbo.com
*Ellwood Crankshaft Group .......................................... 78
www.ellwoodcrankshaftgroup.com
Enerproject SA ............................................................. 89
www.enerproject.com
Federal Mogul Corporation ......................................... 59
www.federalmogul.com/bridge
Flender-Graffenstaden S.A.S. ................................... 101
www.flender-graff.com
FLP, Fluid Line Products ............................................ 97
www.fluidline.com
FS-Elliott Co., LLC ....................................................... 43
www.fs-elliott.com
Gas & Air Systems Inc ................................................ 51
www.GasAir.net
Gas Compressor Conference, The 56th Annual .... 110
engr.outreach.ou.edu/gascompressor
*GE Oil & Gas ................................................................... 5
www.geoilandgas.com
GMC, Gas Machinery Conference ............................ 109
www.gmrc.com
GUARDIAN Engine + Compressor Control .............. 63
www.guardiancontrol.com
Hahn Manufacturing Company ................................... 81
www.hahnmfg.com
Harsco Industrial Air-X-Changers .............................. 65
www.harscoaxc.com
Hilliard Corporation, The ............................................. 96
www.hilliardcorp.com
Hoerbiger Kompressortechnik
Holding GmbH ......................................................... 40-41
www.hoerbiger.com
Imes GmbH ................................................................... 81
www.imes.de
International Rotating Equipment
Conference 2012 ........................................................ 107
www.introequipcon.com
ITW Chockfast Grout ................................................. 104
www.chockfastgrout.com
KB Delta Compressor Valve
Parts Mfg. ............................................................... 34-35
www.kbdelta.com
Kiene Diesel Accessories, Inc. .................................. 79
www.kienediesel.com
Kobelco/Kobe Steel Ltd. ............................................. 15
www.kobelcocompressors.com
Lufkin Industries, Inc. ......................................... 55, 105
www.lufkin.com
*MAN Diesel & Turbo ..................................................... 19
www.mandieselturbo.com
Middle East Turbomachinery Symposium .............. 111
http://MiddleEastTurbo.tamu.edu
MIRATECH Corporation .............................................. 11
www.miratechcorp.com
MOTORTECH GmbH ............................................... 20-21
www.motortechamericas.com
Murphy, FW ....................................... 27 & Fourth Cover
www.fwmurphy.com
Neuman & Esser Group .............................................. 37
www.neuman-esser.com
PROGNOST Systems GmbH ....................................... 75
www.prognost.com
*Rolls-Royce .................................................................... 9
www.rolls-royce.com
S2M, an SKF Group Company .................................... 80
www.S2M.fr
Samsung Techwin Co., Ltd. ....................................... 47
www.samsungcomp.com
S&R Controls L.P. ....................................................... 99
www.panelsbySR.com
Siemens Oil & Gas ....................................................... 77
www.siemens.com/oilandgas
Spartan Scientific ........................................................ 80
www.buydrainvalves.com
Summit Industrial Products ........................................ 95
www.klsummit.com
Superbolt, Inc. ............................................................. 78
www.superbolt.com
Tech Transfer, Inc. ................................................. 28-29
www.techtran-hou.com
Testo, Inc. .................................................... Third Cover
www.testo350.com
Universal LLC ............................................................. 103
www.UniversalAET.com
*Voith Turbo BHS Getriebe GmbH ............................... 23
www.voith.com
*Voith Turbo Inc. ........................................................... 62
www.voithturbo.com
Vulkan Kupplungs- und Getriebebau
GmbH & Co. KG ........................................................... 83
www.vulkan.com
Zollern GmbH & Co. KG .............................................. 88
www.zollern.com
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74
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August-september
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