10.

STRESS ANALYSIS OF PIPE When conducting stress analysis of pipe, first thing first is to determine which piping

code will govern the design of the piping system. After that we have to collect all the plan and elevation drawings necessary to fully document the piping routing. Obtain or construct an isometric drawing of the entire piping system is the next step of the process. If you have several piping isometrics documenting different parts of the piping system, make sure that the North arrow orientation is the same on all such isometrics. If they are different, re-draw those piping isometrics that are necessary to have all North arrow orientations the same on all isometrics. Remember to collect all the necessary physical properties for all of the piping components in the piping system as follows: a) b) c) d) Nominal Pipe Diameter or Actual Outside Diameter, if the Pipe is Non-Standard. Pipe Schedule or Pipe Wall Thickness. Corrosion Allowance. The Specific Gravity of the contents of the pipe or the Weight per unit length of the contents. e) The Insulation Material or Insulation Density and Thickness or the Insulation weight per linear unit length. f) Piping Material or piping material density, modulus of elasticity and coefficient of expansion. g) Operating Temperature (Minimum and maximum, if applicable), Design Temperature, Upset Condition Temperature and Base or Ambient Temperature. h) Operating Pressure (Internal or External), Design Pressure and Upset Condition Pressure. i) j) Flange Rating and Flange Type or Flange Weight and Length. Valve Type (Gate, Globe, Butterfly, etc.) Rating or Valve Weight and Length.

k)

Elbows and/or Bends Radius or Bend Radius Ratio, Fitting Thickness and the number of miter points, if applicable.

l)

Reducer length, inlet and outlet diameters, schedule or wall thickness, concentric or eccentric and, if eccentric, the flat side orientation.

m)

Branch Connections - welding tee, weld-in contour insert, weld-on fitting, fabricated tee with the reinforcing pad thickness, extruded tee with the crotch radius or lateral fitting data.

n)

Expansion Joint Properties Translational Spring Constants in force/unit length of travel Axial and Lateral or Shear and Rotational Spring Constants in moment/degree of rotation About the axis of the expansion joint (normally considered to be totally rigid) and about the radial axes. The length of the bellows component is needed and in the event that the expansion joints are not oriented along one of the axes of the X, Y, Z axis system, the angles required to define the skewed orientation will also be required. Further information is required. The length between tie rods is necessary as well as whether or not nuts are on the tie rods to restrict extension as well as compression in the expansion joint. The pressure thrust area is required in the event that tie rods do not restrain axial movements. If an expansion joint is hinged or gimbaled, then the orientation of the hinge or gimbals axes is required.

o)

Structural Members Any structural member that is welded or bolted to the piping system and is expected to act as part of the piping system must be defined. If the structural member is a standard structural shape, then the designation is required along with the orientation with regards to the X, Y, Z axis system. If the structural member is not a standard structural shape, then the moments of inertia about each axis is required along with the polar moment of inertia, the cross sectional area, and the distance from the member centerline to the outer surface. If the structural member is skewed, then the orientation with regards to the X, Y, Z axis system is also required.

For all Anchors, the following data is required. The location of the anchor point in the piping system. A complete definition of the equipment or structure to which the piping system is connected. If a small piping system is connected to a strong beam, column or anchor block, then the anchor can be considered to be rigid. If a large pipe, say 24, is anchored to an 8x13 beam, relatively flexible, then the anchor should be defined as a flexible anchor and the flexibilities of the structural member should be calculated and entered. If the anchor point is a nozzle on a pressure vessel, tank or heat exchanger, the flexibility of the nozzle may need to be entered should the stress level in the piping system be computed to be too high. And the stress level in the nozzle to shell connection in the pressure vessel, tank or heat exchanger may need to be evaluated for an over stressed condition. In addition, equipment operating at a specific temperature will expand or contract from the ambient conditions. Therefore, the drawings for all connected equipment should be obtained. The lengths from the actual anchor point on the connected equipment are required as well as the temperature of the connected equipment. If the connected equipment is a piece of rotating equipment, the nozzles are considered to be completely rigid, but the casing will expand or contract from the ambient conditions to the operating conditions. For all restraints, the following data is required. The location of each restraint acting on the piping system must be defined as well as the specifics as to how each restraint affects the piping system. The following discussion covers restraints acting along one of the X, Y, Z axes. If skewed restraints are in the piping system, then their orientation with respect to the X, Y, Z axis system must be defined. a) Translational Restraints - First of all, the axis along which or about which the restraint acts must be defined. If the restraint restricts movement along an axis (a translational restraint), then you must be able to define if the restraint acts in one direction along the axis or if it works in both directions along the axis and obviously if in only one direction, which one it is. b) Limit Stops - If the restraint allows a certain amount of movement and then restrains the pipe, this is known as a limit stop. For limit stops, the action axis must be defined as well as how much movement is to be allowed in the plus and minus directions along the specified axis. Further, when the limit is encountered,

the stiffness of the resistance must be defined. Normally, a limit stop allows movement to a point and then stops the piping from going any further. In some cases, when a limit stop is encountered, the resistance to further movement is defined by a spring constant. c) Imposed Movements If a movement is to be imposed on the piping system, the amount of the movement and the direction of the movement must be defined. d) Imposed Forces If a force is to be imposed on the piping system, the amount of the force and the direction of action of the force must be defined. In addition, when the force is imposed, the force may have a spring constant associated with it. In other words, if a force is applied to the piping system and the force changes as piping system movement occurs, then the change in the force per unit of movement (spring constant) must be defined. e) Dampers In the event that restraint acting on a piping system allows gradual movements but resist impulse movements, this is commonly referred to as a damper or a snubber. In the event that dampers or snubbers are included in a piping system, the axis of action must be defined as well as the maximum load that can be resisted. f) Frictional Resistance to Movement When frictional resistance can significantly influence the results of a piping stress analysis, it should be considered. The plane in which frictional resistance acts as well as the dynamic and static coefficients of friction should be defined. g) Existing Spring Hangers When spring hangers have been installed in a piping system and a new piping stress analysis study is to be processed, the spring constant of the spring hanger must be known as well as the installed load, the operating load and the minimum and maximum loads that the spring hanger will successfully handle. It is also allowed by the support rod(s) and to what limit, if any. If the spring hanger is actually a support, then the limit of lateral movement should be defined and if a low friction bearing has been placed on top of the

spring support. If a low friction bearing has been used, then the coefficient of friction must also be defined. h) New Spring Hangers to be Designed When spring hangers are to be sized and selected, the number of spring hangers to be located at that support point must be defined. Usually one spring hanger is to be placed at each support point. Occasionally because of restricted headroom, a trapeze assembly with two spring hangers providing support will be used. In addition to the number of spring hangers, the desired manufacturer should be defined as well as the desired maximum load variation. i) Rotational Restraints - If the restraint restricts movement about an axis (a rotational restraint), then axis about which rotation is restrained must be defined. j) Imposed Rotations If a rotation is to be imposed on the piping system, the amount of the rotation and the direction of the rotation must be defined. k) Imposed Moments If a moment is to be imposed on the piping system, the amount of the moment and the direction of action of the moment must be defined. In addition, when the moment is imposed, the moment may have a spring constant associated with it.In other words, if a moment is applied to the piping system and the moment changes as piping system rotation occurs, then the change in the moment per unit of rotation (spring constant) must be defined. Special Effects such as cold spring must be defined. First, the location of the cold spring in the piping system must be specified. This must include the direction or directions of the cold spring. Cold spring along the X axis, the Y axis and the Z axis can be placed in a piping system. Then it must be specified whether the cold spring is a Cut Short or a Cut Long. In addition, the amount of the cut short or cut long must also be specified. Special Loading Conditions a) Wind Loading When wind loads are to be considered in an analysis, the piping components on which the wind loads are to be applied must be identified. TRIFLEX calculates wind exposure and does not apply wind loads on a piping

component when the axis of the component and the wind are coincident. To define wind loads, the direction of the wind loads with respect to the X, Y, Z axes must be defined. Then the magnitude of the wind loads must be quantified as a wind speed or a pressure per unit of surface area and a shape factor or a load per unit of length of the piping component. b) Wave Loading When wave loads are to be considered in an analysis, the piping components on which the wave loads are to be applied must be identified. TRIFLEX calculates wave exposure and does not apply wave loads on a piping component when the axis of the component and the wave are coincident. To define wave loads, the direction of the wave loads with respect to the X, Y, Z axes must be defined. Then the magnitude of the wave loads must be quantified as a wave speed or a pressure per unit of surface area and a shape factor or a load per unit of length of the piping component. c) Uniform Loads such as Snow and Ice - When uniform loads are to be considered in an analysis, the piping components on which the uniform loads are to be applied must be identified. TRIFLEX applies uniform loads on a piping component as defined by the analyst. To define uniform loads, the direction of the uniform loads with respect to the X, Y, Z axes must be defined. Then the magnitude of the uniform loads must be quantified as a load per unit of length of the piping component necessary to know if the spring hanger is attached from above and if lateral movement is d) Seismic Loads - When seismic loads are to be considered in an analysis, the magnitude of the loading must be quantified and a decision as to the analysis method to be employed must be made. When seismic loads are to be evaluated in a static analysis, they are to be defined as a percentage of gravity along the X, Y, and Z axes. The percentages should be identified and the various combinations of loading conditions should also be identified. e) Soil Interaction When soil loading is to be considered, the piping components on which the soil interaction is to be modeled must be identified. The analyst can

elect to calculate and enter spring constants to simulate the soil stiffness. Stepped stiffnesses may be entered if required because of the movement and the soil properties. Alternatively, the analyst may employ the guidelines published in the B31.1 Power Piping Code. When using these guidelines, the following data will be required: Soil Density, the Type of Backfill, the Depth of the Trench, the Width of the Trench, the Load Coefficient, the Horizontal Stiffness Factor and the Axial Friction Coefficient. Once all the physical data has been collected, the Global (overall) Axis System (X, Y, Z) must be oriented on the isometric drawing for easy reference. (The standard right-hand rule axis system is used with Y being the vertical axis. All weight calculations are based upon gravity exerting a negative Y force on the piping system.) Now we are ready to begin assigning data point numbers to all pertinent piping components in the piping system. All such data point numbers should be placed on the isometric drawing. A data point must be assigned to any location in the system for which output data is desired. The data point describes the specific location in the system and the preceding segment of the piping system. Assign a data point number at each blind end or nozzle (which begins a Branch). Even if an Anchor is totally free to move and rotate, it will still be specified as an Anchor point at the beginning of a branch.

11.0 11.1

PRESSURE TEST OF PIPELINE General Prior to acceptance and initial operation, all piping installation should be inspected and

tested by a competent person to ensure that the materials, design, fabrication and installation comply with the technical and safety requirements of the Gas Supply Regulation 1997 and recognized standard. Inspection should consist of visual examination during or after fabrication, assembly or test as appropriate. In the event of repairs or additions are made following the pressure test, the affected piping shall be retested, except that in the case of minor repairs or additions retest may be omitted, when precautionary measures are taken to assure sound construction. Because it is sometimes necessary to divide a piping system into test sections and install test heads, connecting piping, and other necessary appurtenances for testing, it is not required that the tie-in connections, however, shall be tested with soap solution after gas has-been introduced and the pressure has been increased sufficiently to give some indications should leaks exists. The test procedure used shall be tested and shall be selected after giving due considerations to the volumetric content of the section and to its location. A piping system may be tested as a complete unit or in sections as the constructions progresses. Under no circumstances shall a valve in a line be used as bulkhead between gas in one section of the piping system and test medium in an adjacent section, unless two valves telltale located between these valves. A valve shall not be subjected to the test pressure unless it can be determined that the valve, including the valve closing mechanism, is designed to safely withstand the pressure. Regulator and valve assembles fabricated independently of the piping system in which they are to be installed may be tested with inert gas at the time of fabrication.

11.2

Test Medium

The pressure or leak test medium should be air, water or an inert gas (e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide), oxygen shall never be used. When testing hydrostatically, pipelines shall be tested to at least 1.5 times the design pressure. Hydrostatic test shall be only applied up to service line. Gas may be used as the test medium at the maximum pressure of 3.5 kPa (or 0.5psi) which is available in the system at time of the test. Soap bubble may be used to locate leaks if any joints are accessible during the test.

11.3

Test Preparation Whenever possible, pipe joints, including welds, shall be left uninsulated and exposed for

examination during the test. If the pipe end joints have been previously tested in accordance with this standard, they may be insulated, covered or concealed. Expansion joints shall be provided with temporary restraints, if required, for the additional thrust load under test. Appliances and equipment which is not to be included in the test shall be either disconnected from the piping or isolated by blanks, blind flanges or caps. Flanges joints at which blinds are inserted to blank off other equipment during the test need not be tested. Where the piping system is connected to equipment or components designed for operating pressures of less than the test pressure, such equipment and their individual shutoff valves shall be isolated from the piping system by disconnecting them and capping the outlets(s). Where the piping system is connected to equipment or components designed for operating pressures equal to or greater than the test pressure, such equipment shall be isolated from the piping system by closing their individual manual shutoffs valve(s). All testing of piping systems shall be done with due regard for the safety of employees and the public during the test. Bulkheads, anchorage and bracing suitably designed to resist test pressures shall be installed if necessary. Prior to testing, the interior of the pipe shall be cleared of all foreign material.

11.4

Test Pressure Test pressure shall be measured with a pressure measuring device designed and calibrated

to read record and indicate pressure loss due to leakage during the pressure test period. The source of pressure shall be isolated before the pressure tests are made. The pressure and duration of the test shall be in accordance with Tables 11.

11.5

Detection of Leak and Defect The piping systems shall withstand the test pressure specified without showing any

evidence of leakage or other defects. Any reduction of test pressures as indicated by pressure gauges shall be deemed to indicate the presence of a leak unless such reduction can be readily attributed to some other cause. The leakage shall be located by means of an approved gas detector soapy water solution or other approved leak detection methods. Matches, candles, open flames or other methods which could provide a source of ignition shall not be used. Since some leak test solutions, including soap and water, may cause corrosion or stress cracking, the piping shall be rinsed with water after testing, and unless it has been determined the leak test solution is noncorrosive. When leakage or other defects are located, the affected portion of the piping systems shall be repaired or replaced and retested. Records shall be made of inspections and all test performed. These records shall indicate which portions of the piping system conform to this standard or were pressure tested.

11.6

Leakage Check after Gas Turned On Before gas is turned in to a system of new gas piping, or back into existing systems after

being shut off, the entire system shall be checked to determine that there are no open fittings or ends and that al valves at outlets and equipment are closed. Immediately after turning on the gas, the piping system shall be checked to ascertain that no gas is escaping. Gas utilization equipment may be placed in operation after the piping system has been tested and determined to be free of leakage and purge.

11.7

Purging The processes of voiding a gas pipe line of fuel gas and replacing the fuel gas with air, or

charging a gas pipe line that is full of air with fuel gas, require that a significant amount of combustible mixture not be developed within the pipe line or released within a confined space. When gas piping is to be opened for servicing, addition or modification, the section to be worked on shall be turned off from the gas supply at the nearest convenient point, and the line pressure vented to the outdoors. All remaining gas shall be purged with an inert gas. When piping air or testing medium is placed in operation, the air in the piping shall be displaced with fuel gas, the air can be safely displaced with fuel gas provided that moderately rapid and continuous flow of fuel gas introduced at one end of the line and air is vented out at the other end. The fuel gas flow should be continued without interruption until the vented gas is free of air or testing medium. The point of discharge shall not be left unattended during purging. The vent shall then be closed.

Table 11: LPG piping system pressure/leak test requirements