X

Table of Contents Tensegritic Structures

9.1 Introduction The famous American Engineer, R. Buckminster Fuller is responsible for coining the word Tensegrity and for doing important early work on this topic. He noticed that tension and compression always coexisted in Nature. He also utilized the concept that members carrying tensile loads are much lighter than those carrying compressive forces. This concept has been fully utilized in our human body which has heavy bones and slender sinews. The invisible skin of water is an example of a tensile component of high structural performance. Any structural system needs continuity between its components to permit forces to pass through it to the foundation. In many structures the continuity is usually achieved through a series of compression elements, with isolated tensile elements. Fuller advocated that if this

Ca ble s (b) Vilna y Fig. 9.1 Tensegrity dome system (c) Tcnscgritic spherical shell

Tensegritic Structures situation is reversed, then very lightweight structural systems can be built. To these structures he gave the name Tensegrity which was derived from the words Tension-integrity. Hence, according to Fuller the Tensegrity system can be defined as a system which is established when a set of discontinuous compression components interact with a set of continuous tensile components to create a stable volume in space8. Tensegritic structures may be composed of bars and a cable net. The bars may be arranged in such a way that no bar is connected to another. Tensegritic shells may be constructed and a stable configuration is obtained by pre-sessing the bars against the cable net. When the shell gains its final shape no bar touches the other. An example of a tensegritic shell in the shape of a spherical dome is shown in Fig. 9.1. In many ways tensegritic shells are similar to pneumatic shells. In the case of tensegritic shells, the envelope, the cable net, is prestressed by the bars. In pneumatic shell, the envelope is pre-stressed by the compressed air. However, unlike pneumatic shells, no constant pumping of air is required in tensegritic shells. Hence they are attractive to the designer than pneumatic shells. Tensegritic structures may be constructed from simple modules. Elementary modules comprise three struts, four struts and six struts and can be derived respectively from a triangular prism having 3 struts and 9 cables (Fig. 9.2), a half-cuboctahedron having four struts and 12 cables (Fig. 9.3), and an octahedron having 6 struts and 24 cables (Fig. 9.4). For these three modules, all the cables have the same length (c) and all the struts have the same length(s). Hence they are called regular modules. During many years, only these regular systems were examined. Pugh8 gave a good description of these modules, which are completely defined by the ratio s/c. This ratio is equal to 1.47 for the 3 struts, 1.55 for the 4 struts and 1.63 for the 6 struts. Irregular shapes have also been subsequently developed. Some authors developed tensegrity system modules, not with straight compression elements, but with interlaced polygons, whose elements are in compression. Since their geometry must satisfy self-stress equilibrium, design of (Triangular prism) system

9.2 3 struts system Fig. 9.3 4 struts system Figu 9.4 6 struts (Octahedron) (Half cuboctahedron

Tensegritic Structures

)tensegrity system requires a form finding process. For regular systems, designed by one parameter (the ratio s/c), form finding is mono parametered. Multi-parametered form finding processes have been recently developed for irregular modules and assemblies (see Ref. 27 for the details). It has to be noted that in the assemblies of modules, more than one self-stress state exists and hence local collapse of a cable will not lead to the total collapse of the whole system. Playing on the ratio r = s/c, allows us to develop folding tensegrity systems27 by keeping the length of one component (cable or strut) constant and varying the length of the other component.

9.2 Tensegritic

nets

Vilnay12'2239'47 developed a different concept for tensegrity domes based on tensegrity nets. The main difference between Fullers dome and that of Vilnay is that in Fuller's dome the bars are relatively short. As a result, as the span increases, the curvature is reduced causing bars to interfere with one another. This problem is avoided in Vilnays concept; but the problem is that of longer bars, which, being in

Space Structures: Principles and Practice compression, are subject to buckling (see Fig. 9.1). The net is considered regular when in eveiy node the bar is connected to the same number of cables. The net is infinite when there is no limit to the number of nodes which can be added to a given net. Usually the nets are numbered according to the number of cables at a node. Figure 9.5 shows a net with two cables in a node and hence called Net No. 2. Similarly, Figs. 9.6, 9.7, 9.8 and 9.9 show net Nos. 3, 4, 5 and 6 respectively. Space nets can also be built using these

nets.

9.3 Tensegritic

structures The general arrangement of cables and bars in the various nets can be used to construct various structures. In Fig. 9.10, the Net no. 2 is used

No.2 Fig. 911 Spherical dome

using net no.6

Space Structures: Principles and Practice to construct a barrel vault. Similarly, Fig. 9.11 shows a spherical dome constructed out of Net No. 6. Tensegritic structures may also be classified according to their shape. Thus, if each strut is surrounded by four tendons defining the edges of a diamond shape, it is called a diamond pattern system. Similarly systems having interconnected struts which do not touch one another are called circuit pattern systems. Fig. 9.12 shows a larger circuit pattern system which has twelve decagonal circuits of struts which interweave without touching one another. In another relationship between struts and tendons, three tendons join the opposite ends of each strut and define a mirror image along it. Systems which have their struts and tendons aanged in this way are called zigzag pattern systems, though in many cases the zigzags of tendons will almost be straight lines. Figure 9.13 shows a larger system with 90 struts and 270 tendons based on a pentagonal dodecahedron whose faces have been divided into 45 triangles. It can be seen that the struts in these zigzag system do not touch one another, continuity being achieved through their tendon networks.

9.4 Tensegritic

structures and maxwells rules An interesting point about these zigzag systems is that three tendons and one strut meet and form a simple pinned joint at each strut end. But if a framework is designed with pinned joints, according to Maxwells rule, it should have a minimum of 3J-6 members if it is to

Space Structures: Principles and Practice

Zigzag pattern A. J. Pugh) system. Fig. Fig.9.12 Circuit pattern system of a tensegritic 9.13 structure. (Courtesy: A. J. Pugh) be simply stiff, where J is the number of its joints. But in this case only one strut and three tendons meet at each strut end. A zigzag pattern figure can only have 2J members, three-quarters of which can take tension only. According to Maxwells rule the 90 strut figure in Fig. 9.13 should have 534 members. But it has only 360 members and it can be checked experimentally that this frame is stiff. The frame thus constitutes a paradoxical exception to Maxwells rule. But Maxwell does in fact anticipate such exceptions to his rule, for he states (ref. (1), p.599, collected papers, Vol. 1) In those cases where stiffness can be produced with a smaller number of lines (bars), certain conditions must be fulfilled, rendering the case one of a maximum or minimum value of one or more of its lines (bars). The stiffness of the frame is of an inferior order, as a small disturbing force may produce a displacement infinite in comparison with itself. Maxwell might have intended to refer to a maximum or minimum value of the length of one or more of its bars. Fullers Tensegrity structures have tumbuckles in some members and they cease to be stiff if the tumbuckles are relaxed. There is a limit to the length of interior bars within the net formed by the outer members, and it was at this limit that the frame in fact became stiff.

Space Structures: Principles and Practice

This is presumably precisely the kind of maximum which Maxwell had in mind. Thus it seems clear that Fullers invention corresponds to an exceptional special case anticipated by Maxwell.Morphological studies Several morphological (morphology simply means the Study of Form) studies have been conducted on tensegrity structures. Most of them have the feature that bars are not in contact with one another. Only a few examples of these studies, representing milestones in the development of tensegrity structure morphology are highlighted here. Snelsons work 27,37 is of artistic nature. Many of his sculptures are of more or less free form or of low degree of regularity. From the structural point of view they are all characterized by having a single state of prestress i.e., the tensioning of one cable prestresses the whole structure. Fullers tensegrity dome2 is a multifaceted, single-layer tensegrity polyhedron, in which the cables form the outside skin and the bars form an internal layer (as already shown in Fig. 9.1a). Emmerich19'31 of France was the first to conceive double-layer tensegrity networks. In this configuration, bars are confined between two layers of cables or tendons. This configuration is obtained by joining together tensegrity prisms or truncated pyramids, or simplexes as Emmerich terms these objects. Flat and curved surfaces are also possible. Emmerich also investigated extensively and systematically tensegrity polyhedra, which can produce double-layer domes19. Vilnay inoduced the concept of infinite tensegrity networks which have already been explained in sections 9.2 and 9.3. Motro35'40 produced double-layer tensegrity grids by joining together tensegrity prisms at their nodes. As a result, his grids contained bars joined together at nodes, unlike other configurations studied, but bars are still confined between two parallel layers of cables. Hanaor31 carried out extensive investigations on Double-layer Tensegrity Grids (DLTGs) with non contacting bars. He also investigated the geometry of double-layer tensegrity domes by geodesic subdivision of a pyramid, employing DLTGs made of tensegritic pyramids. Grip24 extended the inventory of tensegrity polyhedra and hyper polyhedra, through the concepts of duality and space filling polyhedral networks to produce a virtually unlimited range of intricate and complex networks.

Tensegritic Structures

9.5 Characteristics

of tensegritic structures As already mentioned, tensegritic structures are similar to bubbles and hence to air-supported structures and balloons (see chapter 8). In these structures, the struts are on the inside of the system and the tendons on the outside. The stmts push outwards like the pressurized air inside the balloon but are restrained by the tendons which are equivalent to the tensile skin of the balloon. Another characteristic which is common to balloon and tensegrity structures is that they are already stressed. Though these structures need only to support the weight of the system, the prestress may be increased to improve the load bearing capacity of the system. If the structure can be prestressed and if it is stable under prestressing, the geometry of the structure is uniquely defined. Most of the tensegrity structures, like balloons are very sensitive to vibrations. However the vibration effects can be improved by the addition of extra tendons. The whole system can be deformed under load only to return to its original shape when that load is removed. The main feature that distinguishes tensegrity structures from conventional prestressed cable networks is that they are free standing and do not require external anchorages or continuous stiff ring beams. This feature, combined with the simplicity of the connection of the bars to the cables, makes this structural system particularly suitable for applications requiring deployability or demountability. An important point that should be remembered is that each tensegrity system is enantimorphic, each system having two versions which are mirror images of one another, so care should be taken when this could be critical.

9.6 Stability

of tensegrltic structures To fulfil equilibrium conditions at every node, every bar has to be connected at least to three cables not in one plane or two cables where bar and cables are all in one plane. Nets with two cables at a node can be prestressed only in that plane. Only nets with three and more cables at a node can be prestressed for any desired geometry. The structure presented in Fig. 9.10 cannot be prestressed and

Space Structures: Principles and Practice

hence is not stable. The structures given in Figs. 9.11, 9.12 and 9.13 can be prestressed and will be stable when the length of bars and cables is appropriate. The stability of the prestressed structures in most cases is selfevident; the prestressed net No. 2 in the plane is not stable since it will collapse at any movement of any node perpendicular to this plane. The prestressed structures given in Fig. 9.11, 9.12 and 9.13 are stable because these have features common to a pneumatic structure where the cables act as the skin and the bars transfer the inner pressure. The most convenient way of prestressing is by lengthening the bars until equilibrium is reached. In most of the cases the geometry of the prestressed structure will differ largely from the prepresessed structure. A geometric nonlinear analysis must be used to calculate the geometry of the net under prestressing.

9.7 Application

of tensegritic nets Since tensegrity can be defined in such general terms, there is a chance that it has very important implications outside the realm of large scale engineering. The basic concept of establishing a structure through an interaction of forces, rather than through a preconceived arrangement

Tensegritic Structures

of

components could be very important. Masts can be formed by joining several figures together as illusated in Fig. 9.14 (The thick lines represent the compression members and the thin lines represent tension members). Many lightweight lattices can be formed from tensegrity systems, especially the less complex ones.

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Space Structures: Principles and Practice

Since the struts and tendons of the models represent forces in the system, they can be replaced with other components, provided those components cany those forces. For example domes can be formed using compression elements and tensile skins where the tensile skin

Fig. 9.15 Model of Tensegritic dome with tensile skin. (Courtesy. A. J. Pugh) acts in a way similar to that of the network of tendons (see Fig. 9.15).

9.8 Analysis

and design of tensegritic structures Tensegrity structures are, from the structural analysis point of view, prestressed pin jointed networks similar to cable networks. Except

12

Space Structures: Principles and Practice

in some special configurations, they are geometrically flexible-they contain internal mechanisms. As in the case of cable network, the analysis consists typically of two major phases: A shape finding phase, aimed at obtaining the equilibrium pre-stressed geometry, and the static (or dynamic) analysis which determines member forces and nodal displacements under applied loads. An intermediate phase of investigation of stability, mechanisms and states of prestress is sometimes employed, mainly for research purposes31. Motro and his co-investigators (Ref. 18, 27, 34 and 35) applied the technique of dynamic relaxation to the shape finding problem. They also performed analysis of tensegrity prisms19 and simple double-layer networks. Vilnay, in his book 22, outlines the principles of the investigation of mechanisms and states of prestress and the shape Finding, static and dynamic analysis phases, but his procedure is not very suitable for computer implementations. Hanoar36 presented a flexibility based model for investigating mechanisms and states of prestress and for the static analysis employed a stiffness based procedure, which is computationally efficient, for the actual analysis of sizable networks. Vilnay39' 47 used linear algebra to determine the nodal displacements as well as the forces induced by the prestressing. The internal forces and reactions p due to the external forces Q acting at the nodes of these structures can be calculated using the following equilibrium conditions at every node: [A] {P} = {0} (9.1) where [A] is the statics matrix as defined by the geometry of the prestressed structure. In Eqn (9.1), the cables are eated as bars, when the prestressing action ensures that the forces in the cables will remain tensile under the given external forces. In each node there are three equilibrium equations and the number of unknowns around each node is half the number of cables and bars which meets there. In solving Eqn (9.1) three situations arise: (1) when the number of unknowns is larger than the number of equations, (2) when the number of unknowns is equal to the number of equations and (3) when the number of unknowns is less than the number of equations. Under condition (1) the structure is indeterminate, under condition (2) the structure is determinate and under condition (3) the structure is unstable.

13

Space Structures: Principles and Practice

Hanaor2031 carried out parametric analytical investigations of double-layer tensegrity grids of varying geometries, including domes and geometrically rigid configurations (statically indeterminate, with no internal mechanisms). From these studies, he found that domes are stiffer than plane grids over a given span and geometrically rigid configurations are stiffer than geometrically flexible ones. There is a direct correlation between stiffness and load carrying capacity for a given span and topology. Hanaor20,31 investigated the various configurations of double-layer tensegrity grids (DLTG) covering a circular span of diameter 27 m and ( compared them with double-layer grids. The results indicate that, so long as the principle of noncontacting bars is maintained, all DLTG configurations are heavier than the double-layer grids, due to the long bars. From the tests conducted by him21, he concluded that it is desirable to design DLTGs for bar buckling as the governing failure mechanism. High bar slenderness ratio can provide ductility and enhance force redistribution capabilities.

Space Structures: Principles and Practice

Experimental tests were carried out by Hanaor21 and by Motro, et al.34 on small models. Hanaor performed static tests on small DLTG models of various configurations. Motro et al. performed dynamic tests on single triangular prism (simplex) models. All tests indicate good agreement with theoretical predictions. However Hanaor and Liao20 suggest that the design of tensegrity grids must be based on a nonlinear analytical model accounting for large deflections. A linearmodel was found to produce an unsafe design.

Other aspects Structures built of infinite regular tensegritic nets having appropriate boundary conditions can be pre-stressed if atleast three cables meet at a joint. If the net has less than five cables at a joint the pre-sessed structure can carry in its prestressed geometry only a limited number of families of external loads. For other external loads the structures change their geometry a great deal. Structures having more than five cables at a node can carry external forces in any direction. These structures will deform only because of their elasticity under external forces. It is clear that the tensegrity structures display Fiillers ingenuity in designing large but easily packed and portable structures: an obvious saving in weight results from title fact that about three-quarters of the members are wires rattier than rods. On the other hand, if the aim is to design economical but stiff engineering structures, it is not clear that there is much point in making the outer network so sparse that the resulting frame has a number of infinitesimal nodes whose stiffness is necessarily low. Hence there is a need to study these structures experimentally, with and without additional wires which will make the tensegrity net satisfy Maxwells rule. One of the main technical aspects in the implementation of tensegrity structures is the roof covering. Most configurations are geometrically flexible. Hence roof covering has to be a flexible membrane. However, not many studies have been carried out on
9.9

Space Structures: Principles and Practice

tensegrity structures with surface membranes. It is important that the membrane forms an integral part of the design, as the problem of ensuring a crease-free, flutter-free surface, is by no means trivial. For deployable applications, it is highly desirable that the membrane serves as a structural, as well as functional role, reducing the size of cables or even eliminating them18,31.

9.10 Cable

(tenstar) dome In the search for solutions which retain the advantages of air supported structures while avoiding the disadvantages, several tensile structure systems have been developed. First practical example of application of the tensegrity dome was provided by a Polish Engineer, Waclaw Zalewski in 1961, three years before B. Fiiller patented his idea in 1964. Zalewski covered an auditorium in Katowice, Poland, using the first version of tensegrity dome52. David Geiger, who designed the famous cable restrained air supported roof for the U.S. Pavilion at Expo 70, modified the principle of Fullers tensegrity structure and developed a radial cable dome43 called the tenstar dome.

Tensegritic Structures

16

Fig. 9.16 Schematic diagram of Tenstar Dome Ridge 15-7 ^/~Ridge cable Valley net cable cabl Ridge Fabr connector Cable domes were first adopted ic for the Gymnastic Arena (dia. 120 m) Tension Diago ring nal cable Roof section Fig. 9.17 Cable (Tensegrity) dome

Ridge cable Ponding cable as required Roof plan

Valley cable

Compression ring Generalized plan of Tenstar Dome Post Section thro Ten star Dome

Diagonal cable Hoop connector

Space Structures: Principles and Practice

Upper fabric

Strand Section Y - Y Fabric clamp (each side) FlixSE Lower fabric Section X - X Bridge rope * ---<L Post Upper casting Section A-A A Lower casting assembly Fig. 9.18 Cable dome details; casting, post, strand assembly44

V_ _____I Diagona! strand 1^

Tensegritic Structures

anchorage Section Z-Z '

and the Fencing Arenas (dia. 90 m) of the Korean Olympic Games at Seoul, in 1986. The schematic diagram of the tension roof is shown in Fig. 9.16 and the details of the roof over the Gymnastic arena are shown in

Space Structures: Principles and Practice

Fig. 9.17. These cable domes span the space using continuous tension cables and discontinuous compression posts. Loads are carried from a cenal tension ring through a series of radial ridge cables, tension hoops, and intermediate diagonals until they are resolved (and anchored) in a perimeter compression ring44. The tension hoops are 14.5 m apart. Three tension hoops were used for the Gymnastic Arena and two for the Fencing Arena. The ridge and diagonal cables separate the roof into sixteen equal

segments. For roofs with equal segments, equal hoop spacing, equal loading on tributary areas, and corresponding vertical geometry, title corresponding members of cable domes of different diameters carry the same load as one moves from the centre of the dome outward44. By analogy, the dome behaves as two cantilever trusses not quite touching at the cene. This has resulted in significant repetition of details and allowed the use of same castings (see Fig. 9.18) at the connection points where posts and cable meet. As a consequence, the two rings of the Fencing Arena share the same castings at the top and bottom of the posts and the Gymnastics Arena required another set of castings for the top and bottom of the posts of the outermost hoop. The components of the roof consisted primarily of continuous, parallel 15 mm diameter prestressing strand (ultimate capacity 266 kN) and metal castings. Bridge rope with pinned sockets run between castings, confrols the geometry and provides equilibrium at the castings. The elements were assembled at ground and hoisted into a hanging position where they were jacked into final position using two hand held jacks at the base of the posts of successive hoops. After the cables were erected, the fabric was deployed and clamped to the top of the ridge cables. Then the valley cables were presfressed, thus inducing the required prestress into the fabric. The structural behaviour of these domes was found to be highly nonlinear44. The cable, hoop, post structure, however, is statically determinate for the snow load case; if the valley cable has zero load (this may be assumed as the initial configuration for the nonlinear analysis program). Use of title parallel cables builds redundancy into the cable dome system. These low rise cable domes permit the construction of very economical and lightweight domes. The domes in Korea, translucent and insulated to RIO, weigh only 14.65 kg/m2 and were constructed at a cost of approximately us $215 per sq.m44. A cable dome over an elliptical plan (78 m dia. X 92.65 m dia.) for the Illinois State University (with only one hoop cables) and a 210 m diameter Florida Sun coast dome (with four hoop cables) at St. Petersburg, Florida (Total weight of the structure = 8,258 kN, i.e., 0.24 kN/m2) have been constructed by Geiger and Associates. The details of these domes may be found in Ref. 45. It has to be noted that neither the weight nor the cost of these cable domes increase significantly with the increase in span or change from circular to super elliptical plan configurations41,44. Cable dome made its debut in Japan in Izu Shizuoka Prefecture. Weidlinger Associates designed the largest hyperbolic tensegrity dome over the Atlanta Stadium in Georgia, which has drastically changed the

existing concepts regarding construction methods used for stadia 52 55. The Georgia Dome roof (built in 1994) also has concentric rings. But (reverting back to

Fig. 9.19 Support system of HB cable dome Buckminster Fullers invention) they are supported by triangulated cables thus adding to the complexity. There is no doubt at all that tensegrity domes offer many advantages over more conventional skeletal types and will be used in an increasing way during the years to come. Geiger has also presented cost comparison of double-layer grids (the Takenaka Truss), air supported roofs and the cable domes41. His comparison includes energy considerations, roof membrane comparisons and insurance costs. He has illustrated the impact produced by the introduction of tensegrity domes upon lightweight low cost space structures for large span buildings. Because of the economy and ease of erection, cable domes have generated widespread interest and resulted in investigations and extensive testing by several other researchers5051. Berger54 has suggested a system called composite cable dome consisting primarily of intersecting cables whereby each cable supports two struts and each strut rests on two intersecting cables as shown in Fig. 9.19. This was originally developed for the St. Petersburg Sun dome (though finally Geigers system was adopted for that dome). This system is simple to install and provides a considerable degree of redundancy. The advantage of this system (and any cable dome) is the predominant use of tensile members. The disadvantage is the very long and complex force flow though high strength members which results in large forces and deformations (and hence not suitable in areas with large snow

loads). To avoid these problems, Berger suggests a composite system in which the predominant uniform loads are carried to the supports in a direct way by the use of arches (see Fig. 9.20). The

Fig. 9.20 Section of arch reinforced cable dome cables and struts in this system permit an erection process without interior temporary supports and provide stability for the arches and the reinforcement for unbalanced loading. This composite cable dome system has been adopted for the replacement of the Unidome roof at Iowa, U.S.A. and the stadium with the new roof was opened in 1998s5.

9.11 Tension

strut dome The first tension strut dome (TSD) (Amagi dome, with a diameter of 43 m) was built in Japan in 1991 to cover the multipurpose gymnasium at Amagi Yugashima Town. The TSD dome has similarities to the cable dome, which was originated by Geiger in the U.S.A. There are, however, major differences53.

(1)

Cable domes use membrane material. They are constructed so that the rise of the domes is secured by a combination of diagonal cables and hoops as shown in Fig. 9.16 and 9.17. Whereas, the TSD dome is supported by a central lensshaped cable girder (see Fig. 9.21 b). This is suspended by a self supporting tension truss which is anchored in cables below and a circular tension ring above that stabilizes the cable gder. In other words, it is a new system that integrates two different structural systems.

24

Space Structures: Principles and Practice

The Cable dome system introduces tension to cable members in a continuous way through various pulleys which are situated at the top of each of the posts. The TSD dome system utilizes tension in all of the upper and lower chords. These chords are 2 1 5

Fig. 9.21 Details of Amagi (T.S.D.) dome, Japan53

situated independently and do not make use of any slip metal fittings.

Tensegritic Structures

The tension to a cable dome is introduced through numerous diagonal cables in gradual stages. It is a step by step system that uses wedges to increase the tension gradually. Tension can be introduced to a TSD dome by pulling the ends of the upper chord cables in basically one movement and at one time.

Fig 922 Interior view of the Amagi Dome, Japan. (Courtesy. Prof. K. Ishii) The original configuration is therefore easily monitored and maintained, and it remains more stable as a whole. The TSD dome system can be appreciated as a realistic and practical design in the field of tension dome structures. Complexities regarding slip fitting technology and construction procedures used by cable domes have been improved with the development of this TSD system. The self-supporting tension strut Amagi dome is connected to its substructure through a complex of V-shaped steel beams. These beams are fixed to a reinforced concrete compression ring (see Fig. 9.21).

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Space Structures: Principles and Practice

It is difficult to solve the problem of supporting the compression reaction force created from the laige roof tension dome at the tips of the V-shaped beams. These compressive reaction forces may be supported by a ring truss consisting of two rings: (1) an upper compression ring placed at the tips of the V-shaped beams where all the compression reaction forces concentrate, (2) a reinforced concrete compression ring placed on the substructure. However by adopting this method the continuous wave shape of the roof is distorted. Hence in the Amagi dome, the tops of folded plate wall and the tops of V-shaped beams were connected decty with stays which continued along the line which extended to form the upper chords (see Fig. 9.21).Using this method, the compression reaction force can be directly transferred from the chords to the V-shaped beams-then to the stays and to the folded plate wall. With this method it was thus possible to concentrate the compression reaction force onto the reinforced concrete compression ring which has been placed on the tip of the folded plate walls. The grandness of a TSD dome lies in its astonishing lightweight roof generally less than one-fifth the weight of any dome made from ordinary metal. Using the advantages of its lightness, a lift-up construction method has been adopted for this dome. This method involves the lifting of the completely fabricated roof structure from the ground floor in a single, unbroken movement. More details about this dome may be found in Ref. 53. The interior view of the completed dome is shown in Fig. 9.22.

9.12 Other

types of tensegrity domes Based on their work on flat double-layer tensegrity grids, Kono, Kunieda28 presented a numerical form finding method, a shape formation process and the static response of a new type of pretensioned double-layer tensegrity grid dome. The double-layer

27

Space Structures: Principles and Practice

domes investigated by them are formed by tetrahedron-like tensegrity modules as shown in Fig. 9.23. Two adjacent modules were connected by a single compression member (see Fig. 9.24). Each module can be independently prestressed, and the presfressing is used for the shape formation of the cable dome. The number of infinitesimal mechanisms the grid dome contains is relatively small. These domes feature deployment type construction methods and found to be greatly stiffer than initial flat grids28.

Tensegritic Structures Wang29 discusses a new type of cable dome, called Wangs dome, which is a cable dome strengthened by additional cables to make the conventional kinematically indeterminate cable dome into a kinematically determinate one. It is capable of sustaining all loading conditions without relying on prestress. The additional cables work and slacken under varied loading conditions, removing all possible mechanisms effectively. Unlike cable domes, in which the structural shape has to be adjusted during erection by proper prestress distribution, Wangs dome does not pose any problem during erection. It can be applied to rectangular plan layout also. Wang29 also discusses about tensegrity ring beams, which can interact with a cable dome to form a truly self stressed, self equilibrium tensegrity system. The tensegrity ring beam can be constructed of tensegrity prismatic or pyramidal simplexes and by radially linking them. Besides, boundary struts must be added to reinforce the ring after all simplexes are prestressed and connected. Wang29 also discusses new concepts such as tensegrity frames and Linear Complementary Equation (LCE) method for solving cable-Truss structures stabilized by cable tension (TSC) Fig. 9.23 Tetrahedron like tensegrity modules used by Kono and Kunieda28

Tensegritic Structures Fig. 9.24 Flat double-layer grid formed by using Tetrahedron modules slackening problem of cable-strut systems. A four-bar link system as shown in Fig. 9.25a, forming a lozenge configuration is a kinematically indeterminate frame. It has inextensional displacement modes and usually cannot be used for structural skeletons.

Tensegritic Structures

Fig. 9.25 Unit structure Addition of a post and eight cable members, connecting each node of the truss to the two ends of a post (as shown in Fig. 9.25b), alters the framework kinematically determinate having one self equilibrated stress state. Introduction of this selfequilibrium stress keeps cable members in pretension and cables can act as if they were compressible. This presessed framework was named as Unit Structure by Kawaguchi and his associates58. Many unit structures may be assembled to form structures called truss structure stabilized by cable tensions (T.s.c Kawaguchi and his associates have investigated the structural behaviour of this truss system by means of numerical analysis. In order to grasp the actual performance of the frame they carried out two series of tests using full scale unit structures and a partial model of vaulted T.s.c. dome58. The vaulted T.S.C., having a dimension of 13.35 m X 22.5 m in plan, constructed and tested by them is shown in Fig. 9.26. A set up of tum- buckles was arranged on each tension member for the introduction of prestress. Mero type steel ball joints were employed at the connection of truss members. PVC coated polyester membrane was employed as the roofing to cover the T.s.c. skeleton of the dome From the tests it was found that there exists a difference in the behaviour between the nonlinear analytical model and the real model, especially after the slackening of the short members They also concluded that the initial sess of a unit structure could be irrtroduced through the operations of just one tum-buckle mounted on the longest tension member.

Tensegritic Structures

31

Wang29,63 has also discussed about these truss structures stabilized by cable tension, but calls them as Reciprocal prism (RP) and Crystalcell pyramids (CP). According to him, RP system is formed by linking self stressed equilibrium reciprocal prisms (see Fig. 9.27) at their middle joints directly and at their upper and bottom joints by additional connecting cables respectively. A rectangular RP simplex, for example, is made of a vertical strut, four enclosed horizontal stmts and eight edge cables connected by (frictionless) hinged joints (as already shown in Fig. 9.25). For each simplex, the elongation of the vertical stmt, either by telescoping or screw turning, will prestress the system conveniently. In the formed planar grid, most upper connecting cables P V C c o a t e d

(c) Plan

Fig. 9.26 The det ails of the TSC do me test ed by Kaw agu chi Et Ass ocia tes 58

32 Space Structures: Principles and Practice

(a) Square R. p. (a)

Triangular c. p. Fig. 9.28 c.p. Simplexes (b) Pentagonal R. p. (c) Hcxangular R. p. Fig. 9.27 R.P.Simplexes

(b) Rectangular c. p. (c) Pentagonal c. p. always slacken under downward load, but they can be used as ridge cables for the membrane roof or under upward load response29. Wangs CP system is formed by connecting self-stressed equilibrium crystal-cell pyramids (see Fig. 9.28) at their upper joints directly and at their bottom joints by additional cables. A rectangular CP simplex, for example, is composed of five inner stmts: one vertical stmt and four inclined struts and joined by eight outer cables by frictionless hinged joints. Like RP simplexes, there is only one state of prestress in a CP simplex, and if no cable slackens, there will be no inner mechanisms. Case studies conducted by Wang show that in comparison with a space truss of similar layout, cable strut grids can save about 2/5 of the self weight and further reductions are possible using optimal design employing small grid lengths. Also, each joint is connected with five bars

33 Space Structures: Principles and Practice

at the most and hence joint design can be simplified and consequently joint weight can be lowered. The reduced grid length increases the stability of struts with reduced strut forces. However, the self weight of the system is increased only slightly29.

9.13 Suspen-dome structure A Suspen Dome developed by Prof. Kawaguchi and his team, is a composite system consisting of a single-layer truss dome, and a tensegric system (struts and cables) as shown in Fig. 9.29. Connected to the struts suspended from the single-layer truss dome are radial cables, which radiate from the centre of the dome, and ring shaped hoop cables. Thrust of the entire dome, and sesses of singlelayer truss members can be reduced by the tensegric system with appropriate prestress. In the case of additional loads such a

Tensegritic Structures

snow increase stresses members

loads, in the of truss or the

s Fig. 9.29 Suspen-dome (structural system) deformations can be conolled because of the tensile forces produced in the cables. As described above, the suspen-dome structural system is characterized by sess and deformation control by the effective use of the tensegric system. In addition, excessive structural flexibility, as experienced in cable domes, can be prevented and the strength of the single-layer dome against budding can be increased. The suspen-dome system, therefore, enables the construction of safe and economical large- scale domes, which was impracticable with conventional methods60. Thus the suspendome has the following advantages: reduced burden on boundary structures increased strength against buckling and control of structural flexibility

Space Structures: Principles and Practice The behaviour of suspen-dome has been studied extensively by Kawaguchi and his associates at the Hosei University, Japan and its safety against buckling was verified with structural model tests60. Based on these studies, the Hikarigaoka dome was constructed in Nerima Ward, Tokyo in 1994. This dome is a 35 m span single-layer truss dome consisting primarily of Hbeams, as shown in Fig. 9.30. It has a height of 14 m and the total weight of the roof was about 1274 kN. Only the outermost ring of the trussed dome is stiffened with a tensegrity system. Cable prestresses were applied so that the axial stress in the outer ring girder under long-term loads may be close to zero. In this structure, prestressing steel bars are used as radial cables. The dome is supported by V-shaped steel columns jointed continuously, with both column capitals and bases being pin-jointed in the radial direction so that movements of the roof in the radial direction are permitted. The roof was finished with steel plates and the central part of the roof was glazed to obtain sunlight. The tensegric system consists of three components: hoop

Fig. 9.30 Principal components of the Hikarigaoka dome60

Space Structures: Principles and Practice cables, radial cables and struts. A method was developed and adopted by Kawaguchi by which prestress was applied by extending the struts60. Static load tests and vibration tests were conducted on this full-size dome. From these tests it was concluded that (1) the design stiffness duly reflects the actual conditions, (2) no significant difference exists between the natural frequency characteristics of the suspen-dome and the single-layer truss dome and (3) the eigen value analysis showed good agreement with the test results in frequency and vibration mode28'60. Thus, these tests verified the effectiveness of the Suspen-dome system. Another dome, Fureai Dome, has been constructed using the Suspen- dome system in Nagano Prefecture, where there is heavy snow fall. It is proposed to measure the changes in cable tension forces due to the snow fall and temperature changes.

9.14 Flying

mast fabric roof system Another type of tensegritic structure has been adopted over the Shanghai Sports Centre, China61. When this fabric roof was planned, the American team prepared two schemes: (1) A cantilever steel trussed structure with secondary bow string arches to support a fabric roof, (2) A cable supported fabric roof anchored to the perimeter concrete compression ring beam (Tenstar dome). However, a third scheme with flying mast fabric roof structure based on tensegrity concept was developed and accepted as the final solution61. The flying mast fabric roof structure layout was governed by the arrangement of the cantilever steel trussed roof structure and consists of 32 bays and 17 different types of fabric roof panels. Like large umbrellas over the heads of 80,000 spectators, 57 flying mast cable and fabric panel systems hover over the Shanghai Stadium. Completed in October 1997, the stadium has a floor area of 150,000 m2. The roof is a saddle shaped ring that is

Space Structures: Principles and Practice a cantilevered spatial structure composed of radial and circular trusses. It is made up of 57 umbrella-like cable structures covered with an advanced fabric membrane. The panels appear to be flying because they are up in title air. The long cantilevered trusses make the effect even more striking. Birdair Inc., Buffalo, N.Y., manufactured the panels and designed them with assistance from Weidlinger Associates Inc., New York. The Shanghai Institute of Architectural Design and Research designed the stadium. Design wind loads were established through two wind tunnel tests in China and one in Canada. A 1:35 model was made and tested under four different load cases. The concrete superstructure consists of an underground athletic centre, a parking garage, an event area, seating boxes and a hotel. The building and roof were finished in about 20 months, with as many as 3,000 workers on-site at one time. The plane projection of the roof is in the form of two ellipses, one inside title other. The outer ellipse measures 288.4 m in the East-West dection and 274.4 m North-South; while the inner ellipse is 150 X 213 m. The highest point of the roof is 62.5 m above ground on the Western part of the roof, 41.2 m on the Eastern side; while the highest points on both the Northern and Southern sections is 31.8 m. The maximum overhang of the roof is 73.5 m. The 28,000 m2 fabric roof rests on 32 steel cantilever steel trusses that span 21 to 73.5 m, some of the longest in the world. The frapezoidal fabric panels inserted between the trusses are supported by a mast and cables (see Fig. 9.31) to provide a translucent, lightweight roof. To erect the panels, the telescopic masts were pushed up into the middle of the fabric, like an umbrella.

3 8 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e T h e tr u s s e s

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4 4 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e e tr u s s e s. D e

4 5 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e p e n d i n g o n

4 6 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e t h e le n g t h o

4 7 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e f t h e tr u s s e

4 8 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e s, t h e b a y s b

4 9 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e et w e e n t h e m

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5 1 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e n e t o t h r e e

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5 3 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e s. T h e p a n el s,

5 4 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e m a d e o f T e fl

5 5 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e o n ( P T F E )c

5 6 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e o at e d fi b r e g

5 7 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e la s s f a b ri c, w

5 8 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e e r e s h i p p e

5 9 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e d t o S h a n g h

6 0 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e ai fr o m B ir d ai

6 1 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e r s m a n u f a ct

6 2 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e u ri n g p la n t i

6 3 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e n t h e U . S . A

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6 5 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e b y t h e C h i n

6 6 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e e s e c 1 s z C J m

6 7 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e Z '\ p

6 8 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e c

6 9 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e c

7 0 S p a c e S t r u c t u r e s : P ri n c i p l e s a n d P r a c ti c e

71

Space Structures: Principles and Practice

6. 7.

8.

Marks, R.W., The Dymaxion World of Buckminster Fuller, Reinhold, New York, 1960. McHale, J., Buckminster Fuller, J, Prentice-Hall International, London and George Braziller Inc., New York, 1962, p.127. Pugh, A.J., An Introduction of Tensegrity, University of California Press, Berkeley! 1976, p. 122.