to current, voltage, …
Sensors
Classification Properties
• Classification 1 • Input range: the operating range to which the sensor is
– Internal sensor sensitive.
Provides feedback on internal state of the robot (battery level, – E.g. Temperature sensor operating reliably from -5°C to 40°C.
wheel positions, joint angles of a robot arm). Also called Outside this range the sensor’s fault tolerance is exceeded.
proprioception.
– External sensor • Output range: range of the output signal.
Provides feedback on external state of robot (light in the
environment, temperature, humidity). – E.g. Temperature sensor returns voltage between 0 and 5 V.
• Classification 2
– Passive sensors • Sensitivity: How is a change in the input signal mapped to
Passively receive energy from the environment (light sensor, the output signal?
camera). – E.g. an inclination sensor produces a change in output voltage of
– Active sensors 1mV for every 2.30°.
Make observations by emitting energy or by modifying the
environment (ultrasonic sensor, laser range scanner).
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Properties (2) Operating regimes
Linear out Logarithmic
• Latency: Speed with which the sensor reacts to change. out
Logarithmic
– E.g. A temperature sensor having a latency of 14 s per 10°C.
in in
Binary Exponential
out out
• Internal noise
noise
– White noise (uniform)
• E.g. thermal noise
P = k .T .∆f f
noise
– Pink noise (1/f)
f
Autonomous Systems – Tony Belpaeme Autonomous Systems – Tony Belpaeme
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Modeling sensors and noise How to estimate the noise term n?
• Ideal sensor • Often noise can be estimated with a Normal distribution
r = reading
f = sensor function
e = physical property
r = f(e)
r = f(e) + n
• Why sample?
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Nyquist:
Nyquist: example Cancelling out Normal distributed noise
• By increasing sample rate and averaging
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External noise Cancelling out external noise
• Is often very difficult!
– If it has no random or Normal distribution.
– Dependant on complex environmental interactions.
Cancelling out external noise (2) Cancelling out external noise (3)
• This is what our problem look like
Emitted signal
Measured
signal = ideal
signal +
external noise Signal
received back
The actual
signal External noise
External noise
caused by caused by
sunlight sunlight
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Cancelling out external noise (2) Sensor technologies
– (3) Sensor fusion. Using different sensors to get a more accurate • Light sensing
combined measurement. • Contact and proximity
E.g. when looking for obstacles, do not rely on infrared alone. But • Distance sensing
combine the information gained through infrared with information
gained through ultrasound.
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Properties of light sensors Far IR sensors
• Sensitivity of light sensors. • Also called pyro sensors, because they are
sensitive to infrared heat, or passive IR
sensor.
• Each body emits heat, according to
Boltzman equation
E = ε.σ.T 4
λd λ • ε is the emissivity of a body, σ is the
Boltzman constant (5.670.10-8 W/(m2K4)),
• Logarithmic or linear versions. and T is the temperature (K)
• Sensitivity. • Humans emit 80 to 100 W at 10 µm.
• Angle (8 to 60 degrees). • Consists of two layers converting heat to a
current, a differential current can be
detected.
• Pyro sensors are motion sensors, not
presence sensors.
Autonomous Systems – Tony Belpaeme Autonomous Systems – Tony Belpaeme
– Saves volume.
– Creates corridors where sensor is insensitive (both a
disadvantage and an advantage).
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Contact sensors Force sensors
• Binary or analog • Strain sensors and pressure sensors. Operate on principle
– Binary sensors are just switches. Either pressed or not. expressed in Kelvin’s law. Resistance of a conductor depends
– Analog sensors are often spring-loaded. A force F is needed for on length l and area A, and conductivity r.
pressing the switch, the force translates into a value.
l
R = r.
• Sizes: from micro switch to power switch. A
• Can be mechanically extended to get whiskers
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Ultrasound or sonar Ultrasound (2)
• Sound Navigation and Ranging
• Depends on
– Reflection strength, depends on type of material.
– Multiple echos: system needs to wait until echos dies out.
– Low angular resolution, eg. Not able to see doorways.
– Polution.
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d = ct
2
• Time-of-flight depends on speed of sound
T
vsound = 331.4 m s .
273K
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Ultrasound (5) Laser range finder
• Problem: region of constant distance (DCT). • Active laser emitter and sensor.
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Gyroscopes (2) Accelerometers
• Gyroscopes are no longer rotating wheels. • Spring-mounted mass.
• Solid state gyroscopes are sturdier and smaller. • Newton’s law and spring-mass relation
F = ma
F = kx 2
k .x 2
a =
m
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