Principles and Practices of Winemaking by Roger B. Boulton, ‘Vernon L. Singleton, Linda F. Bisson, and Ralph E. Kunkee ‘Wine Microbiology by Kenneth C. Fugelsang Winery Usilities Planning, Design and Operation by David R. Storm Winemaking From Grape Growing to Marketplace by Richard P. Vine, Ellen M. Harkness, Theresa Browning and Cheri Wagner Wine Analysis and Production by Bruce W. Zoecklein, Kenneth C. Fugelsang, Barry H. Gump, and Fred S. Nury PRINCIPLES anp PRACTICES or WINEMAKING Roger B. Boulton Vernon L. Singleton Linda F. Bisson Ralph E. Kunkee all of University of California, Davis ‘A Chapman & Hall Food Science Book &s ‘Am Aspen Publication Aspen Publishers, Ine. Gaithersburg, Maryland 1998ConTENTS Preface Inroduction A Base Philosopy ofthis Book Panning Before Begining Winemaking . General Sequeace of Operations a Winemaking D, Some Hazards Specific to Winemaking E, References Vilar for Winemakers A Species of Grapes for Wine 1. The Grape Vareg, Clones, and Vinwses €. Varies Selection 1, Elf of Vineyard Location St Vineyard Management F. Berry Compontion, Ripening, a Seasonal Variation CG, Selection of Sate of Ripenes for Harvest and Harvesting HL References Preparation of Must and Juice [A Crushing nd Destemaing B. Mat Handing C. Jule and Skin Separation for White Wines D, Jule Clarication for White Wines E, Joe and bust Treatments . Je Stage Atematis Yeast and Biochemisty of Ethanol Fermentation A Detiion, Ongin and idenufication of Wine Related Yeas Natural Geape and Winery FloraD. Yeast Merphology and Cellular Organization . Yet Nutiton and Geowth Characteristics Fermentation Biochemisry G. Fermentat=n Kinetes 1.” Nitrogen Metabolism During Fermentation JJ Sulfur Mebolm During Fermentation K. Problem Fermentatons L, ethan! Tolerance M. Fermentation Bouquet and Other Volatile Esters sed White Table Wines ‘Aspect of Wine Fermenstions 1B. White Table Wines D. Preparing Bate Wines for Sparling Wine E. Preparing Wines be Duties Fea Table Wines G, Foried Wises Det ramen farsa [A Desedifeation by Mallat Commersion 'B. Bacteriological Sabiliy Following Malolactc Fermentation C. Flavor Changes hom Mabolacic Fementaion D. Malolacie Fermentation and Wine Sie E. Contoling the Malolacte Fermentation F. Detection of Malolactic Conversion . Poxinalolacic Fermentation Operations HL. Wenuficason and Culttation of Mabolate Bacteria 1. Intermediary Metabolism of the Mallactie Conversion J References Fang and Claitcation of Wines ‘Aopect of Cian “The Fining Agens Wine Cacbeation lation Testing and Modeling References mrpoe Physical and Chemical Stability of Wine “raat Sabi Protein Sabi . ColloialSabiiy D. Immobilized Agen for Wine Treatment E. References (©) tinge Spt of Wine md Cone A Det he Soe Spee Sram Satie erat 20 2s 07 35 320 20 30 a M6 se 352 Diagnosis of Spilage a8 Microbiological Kinds of Microbiolageal Spollages of Wine entfcation of Wine Spoiage Microorganisms Spollage by Molds and Yass Spoilage by Lactic Ac Bactera Spoilage by Acetic Acsé Bacteria Spollge by other Aerobie Bacteria References (ie rie Marron nd Aging of Wines 1" mackground and Objectives 2 Time TompertieReladonhipandTraional Reynes fo Dleent Clases of Wines ©. nuk Maturadon™Vasaben, Chemisty, and Quill Ecco D, Wooden Cooperge E. Onidaion an Browsing F. Bending ete ging nd Poel ManraonSarage Rap Manton and Aging 1 edkerenees Sezomnee (At Jn Bowting and Storage of Wines ‘a Prepacation for Doing B. Botting Operations CTraneporeand Storage Considerations D, References 12 Jive Role of Sulfur Dioxide in Wine ‘a. "Physical Properies, Chemical Propeses es 1h, se WT Inrodvedon AL Types of Pumpe 3B, Pump Characteristics The Callison of Frictional Lawes D, Ahernatine rater Methods E, InLing Addiionr and Tretments F. Refertnces 14 ating ane Coning Aplications /A. Heating and Cooling Aplicaions BB. Heating and Cooling Caleulaions ©. General Heat Exchanger Desig Considerations D, Types of Heat Exchangers Cooling by Direct Heat Transfer F. Relvigeradon Stems G., Energy Requirements and Conservation H. Off Peak Generation of Cooling Capacity References 8) Juice and Wine Aciiny A. Acid Concentrations 406 415 4a a7 435 42 “7 re am aa 4 8 438— PREFACE . Predicing pH and Tinatable Aciy Vales 500 D. Estimating Changes in pit and Tittle Acidity 534 E. References 537 19) Preparation Anas and Baton of Experiential Woes A. Sie of Fxperimental Lo, Containers BK Representative Samplen . Control and Replication . Chemical and Physical Analyes of Experimental Wines E, Seasory Bratton E. References ® Appendices ~ clomary Index Historically, scientic and educational books can be classified into three categories: those ‘proving concepts and principles, those of- fering gathered information, and those pre- senting opinion or perspective (which may oF ‘may not be instructive) While there are many winerelated books of the third kind and some of the second, there are few of the frst, and this book attempts to fill hat void. OF course, some aspects of cate {ories two and three inevitably remain ‘Because our teaching program at Davis has allways been based on the interdisciplinaryap- proach to enology, we have pooled our expe- Fience to previde a volume that provides the benefits of such interaction and discusion rather than the more usual seifeyled expert approach to such books ‘Much ofthe material in this book is wed in ‘our university courses in enologs. These have been developed as part of our personal teach- Ing duties and generally include a mixture of Scientific understanding and practical observa: tion of the phenomena that occur during ‘winemaking and in wines. The aim is 10 con trol these phenomena to produce the highest quality of wine for the syle sought. Although many of the data presented and ‘examples ueed throughout have been drawn from studies within California, the concepts dercloped will be generally useful to enolo- fists Uhroughout the wort. Although his volume covers the basic prac tices and their rationale for successful wine production, wines and wine regions of the ‘world and desis of specialty wine produetion uch as vermouths, uit wines, ete.) are omit- ted as separate topics, although ineorporated as appropriae in general explanations. The emphasis upon commercial sale by no means precludes use of the material by smallviume ‘winemakers, ‘or whom the principles of wine- ‘making are equally valid, although practices may need to be adjusted forthe seale. Commer- al scale implies the consideration of eco- ‘nomics and sensible expenditure of effort and analyses to ensure that marketably good wine is produced, Winemakers have been consulted regarding vasious sections and practices con- sidered commercially advantageous. We hope tw have eliminated errors of omission or com mission; any lapses remain ours and, if in- formed, we will clarify them in following pub lations We intend, then, to meet the need for a universally useful, dewiled, deep, and broad text in English on the science, technology, and practices of nahing wine: Very woanpletemonthly with an aca’ bility 10 ripen a er tain arey of grape Bae temperseare of 10°C disnguished among areas growing co climate grape varieties bu ver base temper fares were beter for wasmer area. A ber ofthe indices were either inadequate or snnecewarily complicated. Degrees Chase 10°O were improned and then separated more clearly which groups of varices were more Sulabe for an area if they mere mesifed by inside (Northern or Southern) according 0 the formals DD (00 ~laitade)/10 = LBD, The LDD (lanudemodied degre day) mas litle oF no improvement and more cumber some than LT! Gattude temperature index) Galelated from the mean temperate of the ‘armest month mes (G0 ~ laude) in pre dicing a diste’s grapeipening capaciy and suitably for diferent varies Such calculations ae of tox elp in grasp ing the pial rellonships among Wiel seauered vineards and the varieties to be sown. Cleary, more complicated formulas taking into accoune further factors such a atiude and maritime ves continental varia tons could be developed, In sung mon new ‘ineyads, and pardctsty one within a Fen Sonabe distance from a gvcn winery aude wall not vary much and mesolimae factors become more important. They are les subject ‘9 calculation, bit ean be etiated rensonabl wel by condering the factors indicated and Comparing exiting vineyards inthe vin eran areas of Eaope the Chass iy han been uae as a Felerence againet which ‘ther varieties are compared and upon which regional difeences are based Similar come Pason wing other tatietes move appropr Ie depending on the counny are ceraaly teil E._ VINEYARD MANAGEMENT 1. General Vineyard management is sill important after the site is chosen and planted with a given eotstock/scion varietal combination, Of course, distances between vines interact with farming practices and a myriad of details ean be important from the training and telling system through fertlizaion, irrigation, pest control, cultivation, and praning- Again, fll ealls cannot be given here and viticultural references should be consulted for additional information. A few aspects, however, seem im Portant to orient prospective winemakers, 2 Overcropping, The dormant vine habia is pruned to re imme ‘ines. past prodaction, those poor Pluced, and 2 good portion of next yeas Petenal producers The manner of prening Gan range from meticulous hand rating a jted foreach vine acording to it age and Siento mass hedging and pruning complete by machine. The ler, of coure, ls'mack fiver and les laborintensve. There are ao. cas for both exmemes snd inermedate Pepose of ich pruning isto hep contol he Sze of nex year crop, Pruning down to four vet spur per vine might be normal to low: 18 fouriond sry per vine have been sexu alter pruning fo foreign vineyards noted forovereroping na very ev varius (most rain oF tuble grape) the bal buds are ot frail sod longer cies mus bei too many ful buds ae lf the vn's plotasathede capacity wil be inadequate vo Fipen all th cise. This sation stermed upping. Wf vines ae oveeopped, We Series lo develop norma ugar conten by nomal harvest dates, Harvest is cher igi Canty delayed, compared vo adjacent normaly Cropped vineyards the sme var, oF the tapes acer reach deed sugar levels Since Sat edt protic of photoes ihe lees and pe rapes Contin about 300 g/g oe vga the pricy ipa for cnereopping, Other components re afected Sve however wal petialy eoteerpee ‘ine prodice por wine not ony because te hol wl Below Delayed hanes in hot weather leads to flat wines with inadequate Acidity. In cool weather retained acid may be ‘adequate, but the wine remains unbalanced, Grape aroma and other constituents appear- ing late in pening are Wkely to be deficient. “Theoretically it should be sliple to deter ‘mine and specify the square centimeters of leaf surface necesary to mature one berry and extrapolate that to larger scale, Although st {es to that end have been informative, a num ber of practical problems complicate the pic- ture. Young leaves can be net consumers of photosmthate, not esporters. Position of a lea relative to its nearest chuster i factor. Expo: fre to sunlight is very important. Freeing vines fom viruses and other deleterious fa tors, improving canopy and fruit exposure to sunlight via better wellises, and control of vine vigor have all contributed to raising the size of crop that ean be matured to give excellent twine, Vields per hectare, especially in the best Vineyards, have riven in recent decades con- comitant with increased average quality of table wines produced, When true overcropping exists, decreased wine quality result, but it does not follow that lowering the crop below some optimum level further increases quality, although hiv is sometimes assumed. Agreement and research conclusions upon this point are rather equivo cal, but no one, grower, winemaker, or con summer, is well served if erop yield is lowered. more than absolutely necessary for bigh-qual- iy wine (Singleton 1990). Ivis clear that high> quality wine can be made from relatively igh Yielding vineyards (allowing for variety, sol, and weather conditions if that crop is pro duced on vines which are healthy and appro priately managed. Winemakers should moni tor development and ripening and be alert for carly indications that ‘optimum cropping is boeing exceeded. They should also be wary of tuying to lower yicld below the level giving high-quality wine. Unfortunately, the mx Se ickd fe fay cece alr lssot constant, nor perhaps an entirely definable point Overcropping occurs at widely different ‘Tm/ba depending upon raiey, weather, area, and traditional practices ‘vines/ha, trellis and ‘raining form, ete). Iti therefore nt pomible to specify yields beyond which overeropping will be the case. Penning-Rowsell (1985) de- seribes the ‘minimum alcohol content and ‘maximum crops permited for various Bor: Geaux appellaiuns contre. There is a basic ‘maximum but it may be rise in “exceptional years when quality and quantity coincide.” All those Bordeaux subregons producing dry table wines, white or red had a basic permit: ted maximum wine yield up to 1983 of 4.0 to 3.0 KL/ha with a minimum alcohol 10 to 13% depending on subregion. In 1988, a large vin. tage, the annual permitted maxima were all above the basic level, mostly 58 to 60 KL /ba. Tn 1983 the permitted basic mascimam was ‘ated substantially, wpically 15 kL/>ha for dry ‘white wines and 0.5 KL ta for reds. The basic ‘maximum in the Haut Medoe, one of the most prestigious red wine areas, was 43. KL/ha be- fore 1988 and 48 kL/ha in 1983. and after. These figures translate t about 5.5 and 6.5 ‘Tm/ba for Cabernet Sauvignon and related red varieties under Bordemtx conditions. Sin lar calculations from Bordeaux inclcate basic permitted maxima from 1983 for oppaason ‘mtiée Sauvignon Blanc or Sémillon of about 85 Tm/ha. (Crop levels can be regulated by means other than cane pruning, Spurs or cannes can be ‘pruned long and then a portion of the clusters may be removed after berry set and early development is past. Clipping off whole clus- ters (citster thinning) or pars of elasters (berry thinning) are, of course, labor-eostly opera tions and subject to some of the same uncer tainties ax cane pruning Clearly it must be done as early as posible to minimize overload. ing stress on the vine. Special management such as early water stress may keep berry size small and thus lover crop size. This is very dificult ta accomplish except on shallow oF fanedrining sandy soil in hot arn, At leat for ted wines, smaller bewies give redder and generally better wines (Singleton 1972)3. Vigor Level ‘That a robust vine apparendy bursting with healthy shoot growth is not desirable for the Production of wine grapes is not intuitively obvious. High vegetative growth is counterpro. ductive to desirable fruit production. Exces- sively fertile soils, excessive fertilization expe cially with nitrogen ferlizers, strong feeding and vigorpromoting rootstcks, and the pare ticular scion variety all ean contribute 10 ex cemive vine vigor. Excessive vigor results in decreased yield and decreased wine quality This is one reason wo be skeptical that the Excesive vigor has become more obvious a problem as viruses and other pests and. dis ‘eases are eliminated or successfully controlled Excess vigor is, for this reason and others, ‘more often a problem in newer viticultural areas with modem farming than in old, de- pleted, and traditionally managed vineyards Devigorating rootstacks are being sought and ‘other techniques such as topping or green pruning are being used or developed to cope With excessive vigor in specif situations Con ‘wol of water and nitrogen ean help avoid the problem, and the welling arrangement is an Importane factor. 4. Canopy Management Interacting with both overeroppng and vigor smanagement i the arrangement of the feat an09y ofthe vines, The training of he vines and the wellsing tem upon whieh ey ae trained can he tery portant in to jor regards: the leaves” exposure to sunlight sad the fui’ exponure to ight and at Lees, a fr as pee, shoul each be dicey ee Bosed 10 the sm and ot shaded by ach Other or other vine o tells prt: New shes Production asthe crop ls matering i undese Ble, The concept icy obvious alight enables photonmthetc production of tt it fall implesentiion in, commer vineyard Not Varun ems 8 aig and welsing have been developed and i rovemenisare silting mae, Training ech tine up a sake and heading fat the top har ‘eon gel repisced by tring cordon rms along support wires. The nusber andar Tangement of further felge wes. aril love many pateras having common eb thes flying the cme andr sop tly as pombe a gen sation Its iportane forthe ut to be esposed 0 light and alr ices overhead sgh not asa became ris sunburnt ft sbnried wihin the canopy often als deep prope, paral wih regard colo Ful fruit expoaure by postioning of chimes and tal lea removal inctesey the Sugar neat sari by meaty 1 Bes (Rewer and Sart 1559, The aciy may alo be reduced peo Pertonalt the ado! pening Ao {nin may be doubled comparing Rl leat Shading to fl exponure of tie ete Fanted light peneuate the canopy beter tan Stoneroravelength ri light and nesters pomie increase the Bri more than cae {Remokds et a 190). Ber temperate sna cas bea for: Wesem exponed white grapes were 310 $C warmer ety hou of fe 84 Compare to shaded bere atthe nd Jay in New ork Red rapes are ordinary warner than white under these expsure Air creation is imporant to misinize fungal tack on the shoots and bers and to fact rapid dying i they reece ra, An adional actor the ane prin ay ‘areal favors (Cabernce, Sauvignon blanc. AD bs that he methonpyaine’ are unable to ght evident even hin the fut tes Math etal. 1986; Pacaolhowal ea 180). Expaure of the fruit (0 light lowers of te moves these herbaceous componcra of re ral ors and shacng retains them 5. Application of Sulfur and Other Pesticides Elemental sulfur as a dust oF spray of the weusble powder is frequently applied to krapevines at risk for powdery mildew. Early applcations, depending on conditions, sub. line any and do not fet harvested fu I pled to nea bares, sur an appear in ihe must and then vill be converted oy yeas fermentatioa w hydrogen sulle in te ne Secling of white mos before fermentation wal remove the sulfur inthe leen but the problem is more ficult with red wines tn tay cae the prevention of the problem the beter gual and in actinble by courting the applicions of doting sulfur Dow nildew is nlknown oF seldom a problem in teas ike Calfonia with ruler summers Bur ts contol ean pose special problems ts been consoled by we of Borden mix ture and other coppercontining material We are told that in cerain old European ‘nya copper ha accumulated tothe pnt Of deeresing vine hesih and yl. Copper Sls on the fruit cam cate coppercaaecd Oxidation snd hae formation fe the ine Control of oter diene and pv general tute speite to the area ad pest evoled td agin fal beyond the scope otis book Other fngics cared int tie ermena: son might inbibic yeas, but wth approved tpplcatons ths dows cot happen Bcsyone oncemed that usage and readies of. pale Sd are minal a sen this county, $2 most others al pester mu be gee Cay approved ate extensive creation be fore dey ay be acd legal on wine grapes Approval for ferent cop doc no cay ster to wine grapes The ning, ec an manner of sppicsion ae anally pecied a well behooves the winemaker to be sure tha hae vr have Ben followed Since ls afer, practices cannot be wandered a wl from country to county, fet of special n= teen to wine exporters od importers F. BERRY COMPOSITION, RIPENING, AND SEASONAL VARIATION 1. Berry Development and Ripening ‘The winemaker is direety concemed with the ripening of the berries, particularly inthe late stages. The period from berry set to verason. (onset of ripening) isles subject to problems such as overcropping, because the tiny berries, although numerous, are less total consumers of photosynthate than they become a ripen ing and rapid sugar accummalation begins. Nev- ertheless, considerable growth takes place dur ing this early period. Bery size increases but pulp composition remains relauvely constant especially in terms of high acid andl low sugar concentration. Inidal bery size increase is ‘mostly fom cell multiplication followed soon by both cell enlargement and cell multiplica- tion. In the final stages berry enlargement is exclusively from cell enlargement (Statadt etal 1986), ‘Two methods are commonly used so et mate the selative contribution of cell division versus cell enlargement: mitosis Occurrence and cell yolume mearurement. Mitotic cells become vanishingly small early in the develop= ‘ment of most fruits. The grape is no excep tion, although it may have a Jess abrupt aid carly ranstion from dividon to enlargement than some other fruits. Cessation of cell di sion in the epidermis is probably not as carly asin the pulp ofthe berry. Epidermal cells per berry only increased about 10% in the last 50 ays of ripening (Staudt etal. 1986). Cell div sion and enlargement cease eariest in the seeds, being complete well before veraison, For these reasons the relative proportion of the bery tissues changes. At veralion, and when ripe, representative proportions would be pulp 74, 88%; skin 18.84% seeds 13, 4% by fresh weight. ‘The pericarp tse (berry pulp berween the outer vascular layer by the skin ancl the seed. locules) accounts for lage part of ripe berry volume. The total number of pericarp cells became constant (Le, muldplication ceased) in Thompson seedless atout 25 days after flowering (Harris et al. 1968). The average volume per cell, however, gives a double sg moid curve as does bey volume or berry weight, Figure 21 shows « ypical ezcample af this curve. These data are from Tokay, 2 largerberry, lowersugar, ble grape, but are(Winer et al 1900. \ypical. Two periods of rapid volume increase are separated by a short slower lag period ‘The first rapid enlargement prior 9 veraison Involves growth from perhaps 50 mg to about 1g for a tical wine grape giving a 20-old increase. The second rapid growth period produced only another doubling or 0, but the amount of increased fresh weight is equivalent to or greater than the schol prewinns period Furthermore the moisture content is higher Woe ama) ea. wer auc sent, 22. The double sigma care of gro andthe accion otal wb wid in aoa Tay bese the fist stage with nearly all the sugar accu ‘mulation inthe later one, Therefore dry weight Increase is much greater late. Moisture stest fan affect the first enlargement stage espe ally srongly. The intermediate lag period marks the ttansidon from growing 10 ripening (Figure -D. Verason, the onset of ripening, marks inddes with the beginning of color changes (oss of chlorophyll and production of antho- ‘janins in red varieties) and sugar accumula tion. Veraison is an abrupt change in a bey, but varies a litle within 2 cluster and increas ingly over the vine, the vineyard, and the area. eraison is considered to follow the comple- tion of development of viable seeds. With seed maturity presumably assured (but at a similar stage for seedless varieties), the vine is fee t0 tnake the berry as atractive at possible for birds and other potential seed dispersers. De- sirable ripenes the culmination of the pro: ddsetion of more atactive odors and flavors bbegum at veraison. High sugar, lower acid, rich color, and full varietal fruiiness are criteria, for harvesting the ripe fui. ‘AL normal frit manurity, enlargement ceases and physiological accumulation of sugar ceases at about 2 Brix (Singleton etal. 19660) in wine grapes Further increase in the Brix of the juice Is the renult of water loss which decreases berry volume and turgor, eventually leading to raining. Shrveling ofthe berries is ‘ordinarily undesirable especially for table wines, since lose of modification of flavor land color aze likely. In overeropped berries with inadequate sugar, concentration vail 0c: ‘cur, but this is a poor way to compensate for ‘overeropping A few specialey lteharvested table wines, notably Sauternes from France and ‘Trocken beerenauslesen from Germany, make use of shriveling to get must sugar content so high that the wines remain sweet after fermenia- tion, In these eases, infection by the so called outer Winmaker 97 noble mold, Bitytis dame, is a requited, de: sirable factor. An appropriate weather oye of sufficient humidity for in‘eetion followed. by drying conditions is needed. The Botrytis in: fection makes the berry skin permeable to rapid water loss and debycration concentrates the sugar to 309% or more. Owing 12 red color Joss ia oxidation by the mold's erizyme lac- ‘ate, the process not suitable for red wines. Bourtizaton it a serious groblem even at low percentage for red table wines andl for any rape if continued high humidity’ leads to bunch ros of other ypes rather than dehydra- tion, In the special instances chat botiytization ie favorable, new and concentrated flavors de velop, in addition to ineeased sugar. Since the mold metabolizes some of the acid, exces- sive acidity in the wine is preventedl and the Acidity does not rice as fas asthe sugar during the evaporative coneentraion. One indicator tat Botts has been invohed is the procic- tion of gluconie acid, which can be found in ‘he must or wine 2. Climatic Variation Regional and seasonal climate affect the rate and diming of bery development and ripening in each varie. The same varie grown in & warm vineyard, a compared to a cooler one, {s expected to ripen eatler, accumulate more sogar by a given date, have less acid, ane have less ted color at a given sigar content Table 125 shows data drawn from Bive vintages of one specific red variety grown in several plots in “Tle 25, Average composion ovr Sir vintages by Cmte Hein in Califor of Petite Sah rapes and wine or fae Oe GAD tt 1 Oaie? 1978 as mo Spanien 36s ha WV Sewember25 19 G2 S68 Sepenbes 3757S Aeshol Add act Tannin bizary GGA) eq) end 13000 58 80 or me 58 OB.38 Vena or Wacahs ‘each of the five DD or HSU 10°C Climate Regions of California. The wines were made and they and the musts were analyzed in o experimental winery by constant techniques thereby minimizing extraneous variably, Nevertheless, vintages did differ considerably, especially in total phenol and color as shown in Table 26, In fuer these vintage differences statewide were as large or larger than the average HSU 10°C Climatic Region differ fences How much of this vintage variation could be retated to heat summation for the year falling outside the historical cassifiation for the areas is unclear, The topography and soils did of course, remain constant The tin. tage compositions over all xe HSU 10°: Cli- ‘matic Regions were generally consistent with higher Brix coinciding with lower must acid and higher pH, as expected. The decrease in total Gxed acids during ‘pening, and especialy in hot areas/vintages, 's party the result of respiratory catabolism of these acids by the grape being enhanced by the warmer temperature. L(+)araric acid the major grape acid, is resisant to such «catabolism, whereas the second-most predomi- ‘ant acid, L(—)-malic, is not. Therefore, the ratio of tartaric acid to malie acid of a given ‘arity of grape is increased as ripeness nears in the warmer districts. However, i the harvest | made very early in a warm region or nor ‘ally in a cool one this difference may not ‘exist Vintages may differ from expectations in this regard if no hot period occurs during Sipening in a normally warm vineyard or such ‘hot period does occur in a cool region, Another, and often the more consistent reason for decreased acid concentration dur hng ripening, is enlargement. Total acid by ‘ation is usually about 30 g/kg in the green betes before verason. IF the weight per berry oubled without introduction of more acid, the concentration would fll 10 15 g/kg. In fact ina series of eight varieties, the tiratable atid calculated as tartaric was only 37 to 7.7 * / kg fresh weight when considered fly ripe Giewer 19658), The tartate/malate ratio generally favors tartaric acid early falls as malic acid rises during the onset and early sages of ‘pening, and chen the ratio rises agai in the final stages of ripening, Varieties differ consi- ‘erably within this general pattern. Acid retain. ing varieties doing relatively well in hot cz mates may lose nearly all their malle acid while reining tartaric (eg., Emerald Ries: ling) or may retain them both in nearly equal ‘proportions (eg, Colombard) (Kliewer 1965. Varieties high in malic acd, eg, Trebbiano or Malbec, are especially likely «0 go flat in hot vineyarts, Such relationships are important to winemakers because of the interactions with smalolactic fermentation and tartrate stabilza: ‘ion (Chapters 6 and 8). Several other acids fare present, including citric and ascorbic, but only in relatively small portions of the total cdiy, generally totaling lee than 10% Athied reason titratable acidity falls during ripening is that grape roots draw in against 2 ‘Table 36._Varaton by vine in Pett Sra ver lfv Clima Repos (ume ata abe 5. Vinge Bi ao ro ae 55 igh inn ae em Wa Pe Ge rai 308 =o 12 Te m3 am gradient cerain cations, notably potssium, ‘The roots and plant cells generally excrete protons by an energyrequiring membrane transfer to take these cations into the cell ‘The pH rice inside the root or cell concerned as does ash (mineral) content and alkalinity of this ash along with the potassium during berry pening. Part of the tartar and other acids is ‘us neutralized, and a larger part as ripening proceeds. Like many other fruit, grapes and ‘vine are relaively low in sodium and high in potasium. Low solubility of potassium bita- trate in wine requires chemical stabilization for permanently” precipitatefiee wine (ee Chapter 8. Glucose and fructose make up a very high percentage of the total soluble carbohydrates in grape berries. In iti vinijna sucrose very love, and seldom is over 10% of the total sugars in other Viti species Although the toral level of sugar is the major criterion for ripeness, all three of these sugars are easily fermented by yeast and the winemaker has Title reason to he coneered sath their rela- tive content in grapes. The rapid increase of sugar concentration during ripening in spite of further rapid enlargement shows that a reat deal ofthe leves' photonynthate i being accumulated in the berry. At verison, glucose is usually higher than fructose. Mort varieties have a glucose fructose ratio near 1.0 at ripeness but lower (move fuctose) when aver. ripe (Kliewer 1963a, 1965) The prevailing weather affects sugar accu mulation, acid loss, and directly or indirectly all other constituents important to eventual wine qualiy. Selecting the optimum harvest: ‘ng point can, if harvest season weather per mits, do much to compensate for varies-re ion-weather differences. At proper harvest maturity the desired compositon ls relatively ‘constant for good wines of a given pe and sole 3. Berry Composition The winemaker obviously i¢ concemed with the composition of the berry at harvest and the variations near harvest that can affect the wine's composition and, therefore, quality Classes of grape berry components in roughly decreasing order are water ané ther inor ganic subsances, earbobydrates, acids, phe ols of all ypes, nitrogen compounds, ter penoids, fas and lipoids, volatile odorants, of other flavorous compounds. In each of these ‘categories and among others not s© easly eat ‘gored, there usually are very many indivi tual substances. Analytical methods have been Improved in many cases and could be in oth- 18 to the point of devecion and quantitation ‘of parts per blkon (ppb) or less. One ppb is ‘equivalent to 1 mg per KL or in more readily ‘comprehended terms about 4 cm in the dis tance from San Francisco to New York, of 3 cm out of the London to Moscow distance or fone heartbeat in the life of a 25ear-old per son. Obviously, at some minimums the pres ence of a component or a contarninant be- comes unimportant. ‘New compounds in gmpes continue to be reported and added 10 the several hundred already identified. Again, grapes often diler by variety and source. Therefore, it does not appear particularly useful to attempt t0 tabu: Tate in detail all he known components of @ ‘ypical grape or wine. Rough estimates of gen eral analyses by clases are given in. Table 27, Some possible components ¢an he important jn trace amounts for particular reasons oF under peculiar circumstances (biotin asa yeast growth factor or pesticide residues for regu ton, for example) Another problem is the distribution of par ticular components within the grape. Even ma jor components are not uniformly distributed. For example, the most eully expressed juice usually comes from the outer fled or meso: carp. It is usually nesely Brix higher in sugar and often half the acidiy compared to the jce from nearer the seeds produceel by firmer but sll moderate pressure. Grinding ov hard pressing yields higher pR, higher potassium, higher alrogen au, wale sue ausveled ot ralsined beries are presert, lower stgar coo- pared to the more eaily expressed juice, SomeiReport woof componen a wine ripest hare ced tigi ti oe Ram Carbohydrates “ a : . Wrens ok ae a tis tea oe oa oe Teen te oy a tos SS ee hnanced in seeds, skins, or stems and ave par- ticularly variable in must or wine, depending fon the sampling and processing involved. Grape skins, for example, are ordinarily the sole source of anthocyanins. Pressure alone at 2 commercially practical level does not release much red color from fresh skins, but after heating wo about 70°C or greater or with aleo- hol asin fermentation the anthocyanins read- ily leach into the pressable fluid, Ignoring the possibility of leaves or other contaminants in commercially harvested rapes the fresh weight of ypical wine grape dusters are made up of about 3% (2 to 8%) stems, 15% @ to 20%) skins, 4% (0 to 6%) seeds, with the flesh/pulp /juice accounting for the remaining 78% (74 10 90%). Small berriedvariees have proportionately les flesh and more skins. Berry size increases with seeds per berry (minimum zero, maximum four) considerably more than just the added weight fof each seed within a specific varietal harvest. Of course, varieties and harvests having small berries and average seed mumbers approach: ing four have the highest percentage of fresh ‘weight as seed. These figures become impor: tant o wines made by fermenting, and thereby extracting, these relatively slid tissues along with the juice. For example, only about 10% of the tual phenol of the berry are present in the juice whereas about 80% is in the skins About half of the total extractable phenol of the berries appears in red wines. a. Water and Minerals ‘Traces of almost any leachable component of the sol can be found in grapes, but not in the same ratior—some are favored and some are excluded by grape roots Grapes require the same minerals all plants need. Potassium is by far the major cation taken up followed by magnesium and calcium, Major inorganic an. ious are nitrate and phosphate. These pls ‘utr, fon, and ceri trace minerals are all rnosded in varying amounts as sine nutrients. ‘Taal ash content of ripe juice is of the order of 106 g/kg The mature grape vine via is very deep oot system is reasonably tolerant of dry condi- tions. Mild water stress as harvest approaches speeds sugar accumulation by slowing vine froth, and is generally considered good for quality. Nevertheless the vine's capacity to minimize water needs by restricting bery size, ete, is limited, and the water content of an ‘unthrveled ripe berry is high and relatively b. Carbohydrates Berries contain in their vascular and other tougher dics some cellulosic polymers ‘These are insoluble and do not appear in juice or wine, Peetins are sizable polymers of galac turonte acid and its methyl ester with a small, proportion of other sigar units. Total pectin per berry approximately doubled after veri Son but, since berry enlargement was greater Groped in concentration (Siaect and Morti- son 1990), A majority ofthe pectin is bound to ‘he cell wall, presumably via calcium linkages since it can be freed by a chelator. Watersolu- ble free pectin increased during ripening and vwas higher in a warmer climate vineyard. The {otal of pectic polysaccharides at ripeness was bout 0.75% of the fresh weight of Cabernet Sauvignon berries and those that were water soluble made up a litle less than oneend of that concentration, ‘Glucose plus fructose are by far the greatest portion of total saluble solids in the grape ot tis juice. Suerose is low in grapes, especially Vitis vinfra, and is readily hydrolyzed to gu cose pls fructose. Asa consequence, Brix (by Gefintion g of sucrose /100 g solution), prop erly determined in juice by densitometry oF refractometry, is often considered a sigar con ‘centration measure. It is important to remem: ber that other sugars, acids, and other soluble solide are present and may contribute to mouth fel, but the tnfermented, nonvolatile extract in dry wines is only of the order of 2 Brix when the must Brix was 22 Brix. One would expect about 100 g/kg (110 g/L) each of sghucose and fructose in that must Fructose expecially and glucose as well are sneet and! contribute this feature to juice and, if stl present, to wine. Several other sugars have been identified from grapes and /or are known to be present owing w biosynthetic considerations, Arabinose, shamnose, ribose, rylose, fucose, maltose, mannose, melibiose raffinose, and stachyose may be mentioned Yeast may modify these or contribute others. wine, Some carbobydeate derivatives are pro duced by molds Guch as gluconic and glu- ‘euronic acids) or by pectinases (such as galac- turonie acid). These are alo carboxy acids, of coune, and thus confuse classification. Simi- larly anthocyanins and certain other phenal and terpenes oceur in grapes as glycosides, malvidin-glucoside for example, and also muddle eary categorization. For the most part the winemaker ean focts 00 glucose and fructote and ignore other carbotayirates as such except in special cass such a pentoses, lunfermentable by yeass, or anthocyanin: S.bdiglicosides as indicators of monvinifera parentage © Alcohols Ethanol is nearly absent in musts prior to fermentation unless carbonic maceration of the grapes has been practiced (see Chapter 3) This is true of most other alcohols. Traces of inositol or glycerol are peesent in grapes. Methanol in parts per million Is. fotind in ‘musts or wine from hydrobsis of pectin methyl galacturonate d. Acids Free acids and the resultant low (3.1 to 3.5) [pH ave the causes of tart favor; ancl also help Keep the microbiologieal and chemical reac~ tions properly controlled Sinall amounts of ‘many acids oceur in grapes or thelr product Many, such as amino acids or fy acid, are considered in other categories and. contribute Title to the total guration value of wines. In addition to the major acs mentioned earlier artaric and matic) sma amounts of clic, feoctrc, aconitic, glutaric, fumarie, prroli- done carboxylic, 2ketoglstaric, and shikimie ‘acids may also be found in musts. Caftarie (Calfeoyl tartaric) acid and it relatives are the major phenols of fresh juice. Additional aids, notably lactic and succinic are found in wine. Acetic acid i high in wines turning to vinegar, land propionic or buprie acids may also be found! in spoiled grapes or wines fe. Phenols Phenolic substances are very important 1 ‘grape and wine characteristics and quali. Collectively they include the red pigments, the ‘rownforming substrates, the astringent fla ‘ors and the known biter substances of grapes nd wine. Some af them. are easily oxidized and participate in farther reactions, At leastthree entire books have been witten about thisimportant, diverse, and complicated group ‘of compounds from grapes (Durmishize 1955 Singleton and Esau 1960 Paronetto 1977), The ‘qualtave mixture of particular phenols is ge netically controlled and grape varieties difer oth qualitatively and quantitaively over @ considerable range. Vintage differences of Io- cation diferences with a specific variey also can be quantitauvely large. To simplify considerably, the major groups of phenols dhe winemaker need be particularly Concerned about in the grape are the pheno- lic acids, the flavonoids, and the tannin poly mers. Beware that in older or less critical Iiteratare they may be all amped as tannins Each group dilfere in berry location and sen- sory or reactvy contributions ‘The two major subgroups of the phenolic acids are the hydroxyeinnamates and the hy iy vo Me-38, suc: ofeprocnnive pen eorenscain The npor tant bydonpinn ae ta gas ts Serato oF eis Cumanc and frac sid. They ovewr Po marly in the easly exprene Juce and are ‘Sout the same eld vere varia) in fel pia Theses em fpape in as ener on trurieaco—eafta Cove and ferric aude Eigue 29). A thomgh niece cca varie erties wel plc Tones we pre “ented e respecttey about 180,20, and 1 ‘g/L (Singcton e 19860. About 20% of iSite taaky ts oe bce Be coo dd ony about 3 freer nid. Poubarvest hydro, especialy by pectin ester, ees ea pr the hoon, amas of grapes foc ter era portion ‘Thug he ee eigial compounded thc Dees pte roc cd dem MALVIDIN-3-D-GLUCOSIDE mers total 12 phenolic substances capable of Giving diferent HPLC (high performance liq tid chromatography) peaks. There are addi- ional bound forms of these acids in grapes, for example powmarate and caffeate acyl groups on anthoganin sugars. Caftarie and Coutaric acids give the same quinone when ‘oxidized by polyphenoloxidase (PPO). This and other quinones from the vicinal diphenols ‘of grapes react rapidly with sulthydryl deriva ties. In grapes the frst product i ordinarily 2Sglutadionyl cafearic acid (Figure 23) ‘While this product does not occur in undam- aged grapes, its formation is so rapid that ‘extreme care must be taken in preparing sam ples to be sare they reflect the grape’s original fontent. Loses, reactions, and color changes (golden through amber) in musts and wines Aepend upon original caftariccoutaric acid tontent, exposure to air, PPO content and actviy, other phenolic substrates, pH, and slutathione (or other reactant) content Individual V. winifra varietal samples vary in all these components, Caftaric acd ranged from 16 mg/L. in Calmeria to 485 mg/L in Carnelian; eoutarie from a wace in Calmeria and 4 mg/L in Gewirzraminer and Thomp- Son Seediess to 58 mg/L in Emerald Riesling (Singleton et al. 19863). Other Vitis species varied even more widely with V. mewndjlia lacking these specific compounds, commercial varieties derived fiom V. lobusaz weraging bout 100 mg/L higher than V. vénifera, and V.aestivats the highest at 1350 mg /L. caftaric and $40 mg/l. total coutaric acl. Within a given varieyy these compounds increase over the ripening pesiod on a per berry bass show- ing net biosynthesis (Singleton et al 10860). This synthesis is usually adequate to maintain the concentration neatly eonstant if all oxid tion is prevented in sampling (Table 2). In the pical commercial stuation with pH in- crease, ete, the residual must sample concen: tration decreases with ripening. “The hydroxyeinnamates are important 10 the winemaker at the ewentally irreducible minimum phenols of all musts and. wines and 4s a preferred PPO substrate leading at least initially to desable golden colors for white wines. They are in most wines, at Teast those not subjected to appreciable barrel extraction, the major phenols that are not flavonoids. The hydroxybenzoic acids and other srmaller phe- ols are primarily degradation produels and ‘most only appear, then in small amounts, with mold action or wine aging. The most impor- tant is gallic add (Figure 2). Ordinarily low in fresh juice (1-2 mg/L) allie actel increases ‘with pomace centact yet wat very low in grape ‘skins of four white varieties over Ewo seasons (Singleton and Trousdale 1983). These and other data indicate that hydrolsis of Qepi- cor ni conten ffeceyHpenese ‘arena oma Ad 1 Tae 2 rr os u 8 Las o 0 8catechin gillate is probably a major source of gallic ack. This gallate ester is found in seeds and decreases a grapes ripen (Singleton eta 19640; Su and Singleton 1969). The flavonoids make up a very lage frac- tion, 85% or 50, of the total phenols of the usual seeded grape berry. As a group they are ery low in juice, quite high in seeds, and generally high in Skins but variable by varie The skins have, except for red juice vaitis, all the anthocyanins of the grape, They have fome but variable portions of the flavan-+ols* (catechins) and most if not all of the small amount of flavanal and flavanonol glyosides. ‘The seeds have the rest of the monomeric catechins and. large portion of the bery’s ‘dimeric and larger catechin polymers. The latter are the condensed or nonhydrolyzable tannins of the grape. Gallates esterified to Gepieatechin, C)gallocatechin, their poly- mers and possibly other units in that series ‘might be confused with gallorannins or elagi- tannins, bur these later truly hydrolyaable tan nins are believed absent in V. vine grapes ‘They are found in aged wine from barrel ‘The anthocyanins of vinifera varieties are ound as Sgucoses ofall nauire’s most com mon anthoeyanidins except pelargoniia, Le yanidin, peoaidin, delphinidin, perunidin and malidin. Malvidin-B glucoside, a least i most of the dark red wine varieties, the ‘major anthocyanin representing usually 40% for more and it apparently makes up a majority ‘of those red pigments that are acylated. The acylated pigments of the grape have acetate Peoumarate,caffeate, and perhaps other acids ‘esterified to carbon six of the sugar. In most nonvinifera varieties anthocyanin-3,3dighico- sides abo occur. Most rea juice dyer (see Gloe sary) varieties including Rubired and Alicante Bouschet have Vide nipesris parentage and ‘35iglucoside pigmens. Some countries, no= ‘ably Germany, do not allow growing of frult ing varieties with nonvinifers parentage and exclude wine importaions having this fearre. There i nothing wrong with rush groper oF wines, but they have heen proscribed in con- rection with local control of the insect pest pholloxera. The thinking appears to be since ‘cur growers are forbidden to grow nonviifera tarieties, we wil not permit importation of vines from such varieties, Presence of 35-ig Incosde anthocyanins is the identifier ued for red nonsinitera ‘Red grape varieties can generally be distin. {mished from one another or at least divided luo groups by their specific ratios of the dif. ferent anthocjanins. The chemistry of these ‘eompounds $s complex with the pt of the medium having a great effect on the color intensity displayed. Copigmentation (color ef- fects related 10 concentration and association with cher noncolored phenols and other sub analyses and apparent content. For our pur ptes here it most useful to consider antho- fyanins as a group. Calculated as malvidin&- gucoside (Figure 25), the total amount of Pigment in berries of « dark red wine variety fich as Cabernet Sauvignon is ofthe order of 1000 mg/kg fresh weight. Le may be as high as 500 mg/kg for a dyer (red juice variem) like Alicante Bouschet. Lighter varieties, especialy ‘fa hot growing season preva, have a fra tion of Cabernet’ value down to perhaps 10 s2g/kg for pink varletes and, of course, zero for eit, Verason, the onset of ripening, is easiest note in red varieties as the point at which anthocyanin accumulation begins in each berry. Seed flavonoids are high early and gen: cally do not change grealy in total amount daring ripening. The other flavonoids of skins anthocyanins, and along with them the bery's total phenol content increase on a per berry bass und the sugar content i fly well de veloped (Singleton 1966). Inthe last month or tof ripening the total per berry tends to be faely constant and then may fll with high ripeness. On the other hand, since the seeds fre high in phenol and mature eary, the juice {slow and fairly constant in content, and berry enlargement grea, the concentration of total ‘curacuble phenol a2 a portion of the fesh Weight in fpical variety falls from perhaps 3 (eg oF 0 at vernvon to 9104 g/kg caleu fied gale acid wen ful pe “The faranS-ols(eatechina are the mos the most prevalent of this group are (+> fntechin and (epleatechin igure 2. Al though high nthe seeds aod uaa roughly fal amounts they are also found inthe ‘Sins but in warily sible amount Sin itn aru Ean 1808, Singleton and Tow {al 1980, Toma contentin the bery of ie seeded Vina wine varices is ofthe order F500 mg/g fresh weight for each of these tho catechins with much smaller amounts of Frllocechine and epuatechin gallate. The Bt DIMER Ho, : H oH Oy flavan-ols are not found as glycosides, ethoxylated derivatives, or, except for gal- lates, acylated forms. They occur free (or as dimers and polymers which we will consider as tanning. Catechins contain to chiral centers or asymmetrically substicuted carbon atoms and therefore ean have four somers for each group (Gatechine of gallocatechins, Figure 2-4. The asymmetric carbon two is set by biosynthetic Considerations in the Reetus forms, whereas both earbon three isomers, R and §, exist in grapes giving (+)-catechin and ()-epicatechin Gnd not all catechin or = catechin as is sometimes erroneously sated). The: same con- on 6 OH Oc ‘OH 8 H EPICATECHIN GALLATE A POLYMERIC CONDENSED TANNIN gt. Sous cfveprenntatne Harn ol of ape. oition prevails in the gallocatechin series. This {s tue in tea and plants in general altiough isomerization at both centers is posible. Any fone isomer can give all four, if fully isomer- ined. This does not seem to occur with wines tunder usual processing or aging. (+ }Catechin and (hepicatechin have different rates of re fevvity In certain situations and therefore should not be considered equivalent ‘The catechins are dimerized in the grape and all four posible isomers four-eight inked between eatechin and epicatechin occur (Lea eval. 1970), In the sense that these dimers ‘easily precipitate with added gelatin and the monomers do not, they are tannins. The for imation of timers tetramers, and larger tan fins apparently proceeds similarly in grape seeds producing all possble isomers but not necessarily in equal proportions. Consider that the foureight earbon linkage produces a new chiral center at carbon four and thus doubles the possible isomers, That, plus other linkages such as foursig and different order and pro- portions of eatechin, epicatechin, and some tillocatcchins and gallates make the poly ‘erie group potentially very diverse, They all are astringent bitter, and precipitate with pro> teins, The molecular weight of these tannins appears to be about 4000 and less oF roughly decamerie maximum. They are called tanidins because when appropriately treated with acid and oxidation they yield canidin To the extent chat gallocatechins are present they yield delphinidin as well, but that seems usually very small with grape tannins Because of their important effects in wine and on its characteristics the winemaker should be very concerned with these tannins, The total amount in seeded wine grapes is of the ‘order of 1000 mg/kg fresh weight. Seeds are the main souree of these compounds in the ‘berry. They are absent in the juice of commer: ial vinifera varieties and variably low in skins. Stems contain tannins, but tend to be dificult to comtrol in winemaking and to yield off flavors. From 2 viticultural view the wine Aliffrences, but there are considerable dif ferences by region and year. In general, pro: ving the apes ge pe, cooler condtons ‘Ganins, Too litle red color in grapes from hot climate vineyards is compounded in che wines by too litle tanain (Singleton and “roudale 1992) TF one tabulates all the individual phencls which have been identified in grapes it i a Substantial list. Compounded by changes ‘wrought during must preparation, ferment tion, processing, and aging, several hundred Gfferent specific phenolic substances may be prevent in aged red wines. Their characters- es, reactivity, and sensory contributions vary tuemendously by class and even individual, ‘wing to their rather high amount and wide range of properties, they are considered the fnost important compounds in differentiating grapes and wines of different types. f. Nitrogenous Substances Ammonium salts, amino acids and peptides, frotins, and nucleic acid derivatives are the Inajor nitragencontaining components of (rapes. Minor amounts of others may be pre- fenit and important in some contexts, eg ‘yrazines in Cabernet or Sauvignon blane aro Fas From the winemaker's viewpoint the frape's nitrogen compounds are important 23 futrients for the yeasts fermentation, 28 ef ‘mes such as phenolase (PPO), and as factors involted in haze formation especially in white vines, Another recently recognized concer is With urea in wine because with heat or time trea combines with ethanol to yield urethane ‘While this is primarily a wine fermentation and processing matter (because urea is not present in grapes), the amount produced dur Ing fermentation depends pardy upon the figinine content of the must. Arginine is higher if grapes have plentiful nitrogen and thi is also true of other free amino acid, Arginine can be the highest amino acid in must and usually isin other vine pars (Kliewer 967). Reynaud and Mavrié (1955) showed that the tal nitrogen content increased during ipening in Bordeaux during August 25 10 October § from 1.00 mg/berry to 1.27 img/berry for Cabernet Sauvignon, 1.07 to 151 for Merlot, 0.95 to 1.93 for Sauvignoe lane, and 0.97 to 1.59 mg/berry for Sémil- Ton. During the same period the berry weight increased, respecively, 216, 182, 184, and 199%, and thus the concentration of total nitrogen per kg fresh weight decreased in all ‘but the Sauvignon blane. The tonal nitrogen per berry in the weds was relatively high with slight intermediate maximum, whereas that in skins and pulp or juice increased during this ripening period. Table 29 gives te rela~ tive distribution of the tua nitrogen on Octo ber I which had the highest sugars. The rela- thely high percentage of the total nitrogen in the skins and seeds is probably a reason po- tmacefermented wines more rarely stick for Jack of yeast nutrients than do juice wines. Some of this nitrogen is usable by the yeas, but a relatively large proportion, compared 10 juice, must be in polymeric and less soluble forms including proveins and nucleic acids Much of this material is not extracted or pre~ ipitates and is earied away in discarded po mace and lees rather chan appearing in the “Juice contains from 0 10150 mg/L of nitro gen a8 ammonium salts (Cordonnier 1966) Ammonium content depends upon nitrogen availabilty to the vine and is rapidly used by yeast. The majority of the proteins that can Cause haze in white wines come from the rapes and at least part survives fermentation. The usual wine yeasts are not very good at hydrolyzing and ‘sing polypeptides o¢ pro: teins. Most ofthe nuclei acid fragments found in wine apparently arise nt from the grapes but from the yeasts About 23 mg/L of one wine's nitrogen was from nucleic” acid frag ments (Tercel 1965) and the content is pi ‘aly low. Using the usual conversion factor, if Tig N/Ag fresh weight were all protein (of course it is nod) the maximam total protein would be 6:25 g/kg fre weight. Murphey et 1 (1989) found 70 to 12) mg/L of protein in Jjuice of Gewiretraminer and Riesling increase ing with increasing pl in the 2-9 to 3.6 range. No soluble protein was detected in juice be- fore veraison, but it accumulated afterward in parallel with sugar “Table 210 (rom data of Peynaud and Mau ‘ig 195) indicates about 300 mg /L of total nitrogen in juice. Other studies re port 200 to 2000 mg/L or 30 in all forms in muss (Ough 1968), Protein at about 280 mg/L is indicated in Table 210, About 100 mg N/L. as polypep- tides should mean about 625 mg/L. of the pepiides themselves and one would expect to fal amino acide to be of the same order of magnitude, Cantagrel et al. (1989) report val- tues for mg of amino acids/L of must to cover 4 two- to aiafold range in any one variery and. fverage from 400 mg/L for Grenache to 2.15, {2/1 for Pinot ncir. In view of such variation ‘ne must beware of generalizations. A large fraction of the amino acids of juice ‘ordinarily is proline. Ough (1968); and Ough tnd Stashak (1974) reported proline was ap- preciable in all chustertssues, although low in Ktems, OF the whole cluwer's proline 52 10 "76% was in the juice from five varieties. Pro- Tine nitrogen accounted for 8 to 30% of the “Tble 29, Dien of wal logeni pe bers of four vara Poa and Ma 195), Sugeest mng/tete ight Seah Merce ma HH & S 8 Simone ic z = = x 2 i ee ee‘able 210. Divito foal arogenin ip ue of four vets Pend and Maré 188) Senilon Se a haa ___Pobpepi total juice nitrogen and the percentage in shins or sees may raise the v if pomace is creased during ripening while ammonium salts «fermented with the juice. fell. The range of proline content was 304 to 4850 mg/L. of juice and the mean was T42 ‘mg/L for 78 samples involving several var ties, A Malbec sample was the highest in oe niogen (2160 mg/L) and proline (1660 mg/L) but Ruby Cabernet was highest in the percentage of nitrogen in the proline fraction and second highest in proline, 1190 mg/L. Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon average high in proline while Riesling and Sauvignon blanc are low. Among 20 amino acids usually found in musts, pokine was almost always the highest one and frequently half of the total (Huang and Ough 1999; UsseglioTomasett nd Bosia 1990). Only 10% oF s0 of the pro line was in peptides. Some other amino acid, cg glutamic acd, had a larger portion in the peptides. The second most abundant amino fcid wat present usually of the order of one fourth of the proline content. It varied by grape variety and was arginine with Cabernet Sauvignon, Barbera and Riesling, serine derivatives with Cortese, and alanine with Nebbiolo, The amount and distribution of the various amino acide were considerably affected by variety, vineyard, and rootstock (Huang and ugh 1980), ‘Most of these amino ales are readily ut lized by yeasts and their content drops oF disappears with fermentation. Proline ix an ‘exception (ngledew etal. 1987). Under usta wine fermentation conditions—anaerobic, high initial sugar—yeasts do not use proline and may excrete some 40 that the content in Senpeease ee come strobes Maga than ia the juice. OF course, extaction from 8 lipids and Related Compounds ‘The extractable fat content in grape seeds is about 10% as an average but can range from About Ito 20% (Kinsella 1974). Grape seed oil ‘can be a ueefal byproduct, but has no known direct effet in winemaking. About 90% of the faty extract is triglycerides with about 75% linoleic and 10% oleic ackd. Te is a good semidrying, edible oll and has a relatively high iumia E content “There is lipodal material extractable from ‘other berry parts including glycolipids, phos- pholipids, perhaps free fay acids, bloom wax fn the skin, ete Callander and Peng (1080) reported 1.3 to 24 g/kg of fresh weight inthe flgh and skins Polar lipids made up more than half of this total with V. vinija and the reverse for V. lace sarietes tested. In the reutral fraction the major fatty acids were palmitic, stearic, arachidi, and behenic acids for all varieties. In the polar fraction, linoleic and linolenie were major contributors for V. infra and palmitic acid for V. laresca. The tora faty aces released by saponification From flesh and skins was rather similar, 408 wo 519 mg/kg berries for one white and three red vinifera varieties (Roufet et al. 1987). The con. tent in the skins was one and one-half wo three times that in the seedree pulp. Although generally reaching maximum content during the final stages, the lipid content was quite ‘atable over the last month of ripening (Bar ron etal 1980). The variability did not appear tobe random or experimental, but related 10 an altemating sequence, Also extracted by lipophilic solvents along with true Bipids would be small amounts of ‘arotenes, chlorophylls, and sterols. Fauy acids tnd sterols can have a role in yeast multiplica- tion. Lipoxygenase ation on unsaturated fatty acids produces hexenal and derivatives con tributing to grassy odors sometimes noted. Barron and Santa Maria (1990) have suggested ‘role for triglycerides asa ripening indicator based on their portulated status as an energy 1h. Terpenoids Terpenes are metabolites of mevalonie acid characterized by multiples of branched five farbon units resembling isoprene. Carotenes and sterols have already bees mentioned un- er lipids because they are extractable with fats by solvents such as ether. The group of primary interest to grape growers and wine- ‘makers is the monoterpenes and their deriva Monoterpenes ate 10xarbon compounds ‘many of which are volatile and odorous. Some such as pinene in turpentine have solventiike, resinous odors, are hydrocarbons, are not very table and not always pleasant. Many, such a igeranil and linalool (Figure 25), have pleas: fant loral odors. This group is the important factor in the aroma of the Muscat family of aromatic grapes (Suaus et al. 1986; Rapp 1988). Renewed stds in recent years have shown the great complexity possible among the ter- ppenoid odorants of grapes. It has also been found that a considerable portion of these compounds occurs in bound forms, particu- larly gheosides. These bound forms are too large and water voluble to have odors and they do not seem to contribute appreciably to bit terest, but when they are hydrolyzed the odor 's releaed, Furthermore, others including dlferent C,, norisoprenoids have bees found in varieties outside the Muscat group, (Chardonnay for example (Sefton et al. 1989) Examples include visspirane, 1,2,6erimethy- 1.2dityeronaphthalene (TDN), and_damae cenone (Figure 25). These three are present in juice of mainly Riesling largely as precur: sors that convert to these compounds upon Ineating (or aging) at up to about 150, 100, 70 ng/L, respecuvely (Saws et al, 1987). Tn Museat Alexandria the free and espe ally the bound terpenes increased about threefold during ripening reaching, a toxal of about 2000 yug/ig fresh weight (Park et al 1901), This was diswsbured about 48% in the fess, 4256 in the skins 1 bound forms, and 1% in the flesh, 4% in te shins in free forms, Although the total amount and distsibusion of fndividual terpenes varies, chese relationships appear typical ‘The distribution and amount of monoter- ppenes appeared to flucuate in response to temperature (Park et al. 1991). ‘The bound forms increased even in overipening but the free forms decreased suggesting loss by volatilization, In Gewiiraminer in. distine- tion from Muscat, Uinalool is low relative to geraniol,nerol, and citoneliol (Marais 1987) The total of fee moncterpenes in freeran Jjulee was the order of 740 g/L for Muscat Alexandria, 25 ag/L for Riesling, and 35 {ug/L for Bukettsube iMarals 1986; Marais fand Van Wyk 1986). Gesirtraminer berries fexposed to light had more bouncl monotes- ppenes than chose partly shaded and they hhad more than fully shaded ones (Reynolds and Wardle 1989), The tol free monoter ppenes were relatively constant about 1200 g/L in theie rather coo! (British, Columbia, (Canada) vineyard ‘The ghycosidically bound forms can be con- verted to the free odorons form by time, heat, fr hydrolysis with gleosdases. Adaptation of this knowledge to winemaking is being exten- sively studied. The empcical treatments prac ticed years ago by museatel makers involving heating of muscat muse with their skins 10 increase aroma are now seen to have had a sound bass i. Volatile Aroma Compounds Im addition to monoterpenes, there: are many ‘exdorous compounds and their precursors pre Sent in grapes. Relatvely large amounts of50 Vit or neater ek, GeRANIOL ViTisPiRANE 1s _ Yyon wn ‘ Linavoot RIMETHYL-\2-DINYORO- WAPHTHALENE DAMASCENONE — Cit, ct “TON fs a= 0 Son, af Shy IG T i. ho ony, ete Sy ‘cHy CABERNET ve ETHYL CAPROATE ae ee ke rig 15. Seerursof representative erpnoinand oter oder fond nome grapes o wines volatiles, expecially ethanel, the fuse! alcohols, ‘thy acetate, and acetaldehyde derivatives, are prorhced in all products fermented by yeast Jncluding wine, The other specific volales land their ratios that distinguish grape wines from other beverages and varietal wines from tach other obviously depend on grape con- Siituents. The ists of such compounds are very Tong (Spkdinen and Suomalainen 1983), Ws far as sinks for photosynthetic carboo, the specif grape aroma compounds are not very significant since their amounts individ ly and collectively are small. Nevertheless they can be crucial to varietal distinctiveness fad wine quality. Bren some of the fermenta- tion products ean reflect grape composition indirect. For example, fusel alcohols can be affeced by the nitrogen nutrient starus Excess Glan amino acid revuls in i conversion tn the fuseliype alcohol resulting from decar bowjation and deamination. Conversely, in the process of synthesizing its own amino acids the yeast may make excess of a carbon skele ton from grape sigar. This skeleton can be convened to an alcohol depending upon the yeat’s nitrogen nutrient status, oxidationre- Aisetion conditions, and odher factors. ‘Biosynthesis of these aroma compounds is ordinarily fairly late in pening. Although new fenaymes may be required, some of the aroma compounds appear to be degradation prod: tes They generally reach maximum 2s sugar accumulation slows and before senescence ses in (Deibner, Mourgues, and Cabibel Hughes 1965). This is the basis of the known high auractveness of fruit full ipened on the vine Birds recognize it as well as we do and some times appear to descend en masse on the vineyard just aa we are preparing to harvest. It Seems nature's way of encouraging seed dis- petsal. Since these products are volatile and Ean be sielled around the ripe fruit, they are ‘being lost. This is thought to be one reason varietal aromas tend to be stronger in fruit ripened in a cooler area Not all the odorant are highest at the ripest sage. The clearest example isthe pyra zine family. They are ordinarily maximum at ‘etaison, decreasing both in concentration and mount per berry fom peshaps $0 to 1 ng/L. fr les in warmer vineyards in unshaded fruit (Lacey et al, 1991. Destruction of the odorant forms by light ia factor. This particular flavor can be too strong, but some is a part of cist fguishable varietal character. The sensory thresholds are of the order of 2 ng/L. A small portion of a Cabernet or Sauvignon blanc Vineyard could be managed to give shaded fruit while the majority was exposed to Tight. The wines made separately would allow the winemaker to adjust the final syle by judicious blending, From the above dat, inclusion of Jateripening second-erop fruit could affect this herbaceous character greatly in the Wine. ‘The aroma compounds and their ratios are so varied and present in such small amounts that further useful generalizations are difficult (One approach has been to determine the total volatile material. Egoror et al. (1978) found the total volatile oils including aleobols, esters and terpenes increased in the last month of ‘pening from 4M mg/kg 10 70 mg/kg for Riesling and from 59 to 117 mg/kg for Caber~ ret. Ester increases were, respectively, 18 t0 92, and 97 to 62 mg/kg. The designation volatile and poteatial contributions to odor in this work might be questioned since, for ex ample, ethylinoleate was included, but the trend and amounts are ilustrative. J. Miscellaneous Compounds, Vitamins ‘The study of grapes and wine in a practical way goes back atleast 5100 years and a great ‘eal of know-how developed even ifthe know why was weak. In the development of tnodem-type scientific research by Pasteur and others before and after 1856, wine, grapes, fnd fermentation were foremost among oF annie, biod sobiologea sys te uned. One might ncoreciy sumac that following this ery and intense research trenthing is Eoown about grape composton tnd how itr modied in winemaking. There is great vali among varices and large diferences wrought by dewlopmentand wine rd condi ts we tare posed ou How Ther, one an be confident that no. major porion of he heance of grapes or wine i Tninown, Neverthelew imporant sew facts are regulary brought light in order to ctubah a raional base and contribute nox well’ to winemakers, we hve done cur beso categorie and sem: ae the topic rater than liter it wp ith txcenive dell Ducoverycontiniesof further few compounds in the categories decid hove and of new compounds not ex fing thems cuepaicn The orci of uct tnt {hove found o hae some specie funtion oF role and net jst one more identified com pound, Some compounds, even those present Irsmall amount evn prove t0 have ial ac: thos once they ae dsonered. ‘Glutathione, pepe wth tana ink age. is the najor soluble compound of grape juice bearing a ee sllindel group. Since tadhione secur in mos ng things twas fo be expected in grapes, but it was not iden fied unl shown to be part of an oxidation product in moss (Sogeton et al 1885). Other ital compounds, including cysteine and ‘ren hydrogen ule ale react with quinones to for he ethers and regenerate the color tea onfocydonpenol (Singleton 1957 Gtuthione has important role in other bio hemi! seems ad should be important in fre in aldion to moastbrowning inhibi fom The anount present in grape leaves omsidersbly higher than in frit Adams an {iyanage 190 The lve! in berries was some- thar abl by rariey, 17 wo 114 mg/h with In overage of 4 ng/kg in 34 vattes (Cueynier a 1989, “Anoiber cogent example is the dicovery that pursine res 204011 or more tn grape tome lets aettine oes not ro en52a fr Minar potassuan is deficient (Adams etal. 1990). The levels are small, about 40 mg/kg for purresine and 90 mg/kg for spermidine in leaves with normal potassium and about half that in ripe fit flesh, Further research with these polyamines and similar work with other trace Components should lead wo deeper under. sanding of grape biochemistry and ‘metaboliam, which, in tur, should enable im- proved farming and winemaking. ‘Vitamins are biochemically important com- pounds over and above their role in human ‘utriton. Fatsoluble vitamins and heir pre ‘cursors, with the exception of Ein grape seed cil, are low to absent in grapes or wines. The ‘watersoluble B vitamins generally occur but not a levels sulfcient to make these sources ‘especially attractive nutritionally in the human diet. Thiamine is low in stored or SO,treated Juices or wine. ‘Ascorbic acid, vitamin G, is eypealy present atabout 100 mg/kg in fresh grapes. This level Js sbout 1/10 that of ius Frit, but can be {important in processing. More may be added to wine later, bat for andoxidant not muti tional reasons. In the course of normal po: cessing of grapes, especially if phenolase (PPO) hnas not heen inhibited by sulfur dioxide, most fof the ascorbic acid is likely co have been removed by oxidation. Ae long a itis present in excess, oxidative brovning is minimized or prevented G._ SELECTION OF STATE OF RIPENESS FOR HARVEST AND HARVESTING 1. General The culmination of the vintage is sealed atthe moment of harvest, atleast so far a viticulture fsconcemed. Harvesting is the irrevorable step linking enology and viticulture. The wine maker and the grapegrowers must closely co ‘operate In selecting the time to harvest each vatleg in each vineyard as near as possible 1 its optimum stage under the prevailing ei. ‘cumstances, Another good recent reference to thie topic is by Hamnilion and Coombe (1992), Tn commercialscale operations the decision to harvest Is not only affected by the grape ‘composition that is expected to give maxizmum ‘wine quality. In most wineries the vintage pe tod is rather hectic. Logistics and capacides may force compromises. large uniform vine~ yard cannot be harvested instantaneously and epending on crew size or the machinery available may take several days. Transport and reception equipment may be limited. Vine yards expected to ripen differently may be ready simultaneously If the weather is hot, iis imporant to harves promptly before acid i too low or shriveling becomes a problem. If weather promises to be sunny and cool, walt fing can be tolerated; if rainstorms or heavy frosts loom, undersipeness may be chosen. IF grapes or wines are accepted that have a com: positional deficiency the harvest of other vine yards may be adjusted so that blending may ‘compensate ‘There are two extremes of fruit sampling techniques that it may be useful to outline ‘They may’ be termed geneal versus intensive ‘commaral versus rsarch. The general or com ‘mercial wold be those tests intended to select, the moment to start fll harvest in a given vineyard They would be the minimum effec tive procedure: the pressures of the season, mitigate against tedious, detailed testing. Nev ertheless, if they are inadequate or slapdash, wine quality will likely suffer. At the other extreme, very deualed and more carefully con- twolled sampling during the later stages of pening plus more detailed anahses ean be applied, The work involved may make the value rewospective, Le, the optimum harvest, may be past in the vineyard sampled before the results are available. These researchaype analyses are the basis of mach of the data Already cited upon the detailed changes of ‘grape components during ripening. As new relationships are investigated, such studies must continue, They can be very useful to ‘commercial wineries and vineyards to deter- mine detail of ripening with their clones Ia their locations. The results can be guides for future harvests and, ay specific tests are found to be important and simplified they may be- come useful as harvesting erteria in current vintage seasons. Requirements for adequate ‘smpling can be rather different if small re search plots are being tested compared 10 ‘hole vineyards for harvesting decisions, see further discussion under sampling grapes. 2. Criteria for the Time to Harvest a. Date “The date of previous harvests can be some guide to when the grapes should be ready 1 pick, If data are available for each variety in tach vineyard and the weather of the area is Telavely uniform year to year, the estimate will be closer, However, such dates alone ‘Should never be relied upon exclusively. Field sampling should begin about four weeks be- fore the probable date of harvest to obtain compositional data 30 that the final changes fan be monitored and banesting date ad Jjusted for the current season. Sampling should ‘continue about every five o seven days, more often ifthe weather is hot, 0 that the rates fof change and optima can be followed. Mean Brix rise of 0.5 to LO Brix per week (Gaore in hot sunny weather) i fairly ypicl in California. Tes assumed that for most wine grape vine- yards there will be a single harvest This is Tmandatory for mechanical harvesting and less ‘ot for manual harvesting. Selective harvest~ ing by passing over the same vines more than ‘once not usually practiced, although selec thely leaving unharvested. second crop or damaged cluster often is. The focus here i to ‘hooge the timing of the single harvest 0 the best advantage, For specific, highest wines, Sauternes for example, there may be several pickings in the same vineyard to get the de- fired effect, botrytization and shrivling in cis example, More commonly, it is possible pick portions of the same monovarietal vine Jard Wifferendy for different product objec: Se ee tives such as sparkling wine base, dry table, ‘weet table, and fortiied dessert wines. b. Sugar ‘Sugar i by far the greatest par of the carbon substance and dry weight of ripening grapes, Ripening is fundamentally defined as the ac: cumulation of sugar. A juice at 22 Brix i Considered to be ftom riper grapes than one 120 Brix. Sugar accumlation in V. sinifers igrapes levels off and appears to cease at about 235 to 26 Brix (Singleton et al. 1966a). Sugar per berry does not rise further but sugar per kg fresh weight will f berries shrivel. Ic follows that sugar content and its change must be considered when deciding to harvest grapes. It is a convenient meanure because dissolved solids (Gagars being predominand can be readily estimated by Hydrometry (vith rain ‘mum juice sample volumes of the order of 100 mal) of refractometry (even one bern). Unlike some other criteria such as anthocyanins, sugar is easly evaluated in the juice. Sugar alone, however, is aot a fully adequate criterion for hanexing wine grapes The accepuable sugir level wil ary with the wine ype to be made and the immediate prospects for further changes. In a hot, earpripening season bar- esting should star at the lower end of the Brix range in order to preserve desirable ace In coo, lateripening years it may be desirable to wait for the higher end of the preferred Brix range in order that acidity will drop as ‘much as possible. The later situation predom- inates in Northern Europe and the former ia much of California, Southeastern Australi South Aftica, and Southern Europe. Table 2-1 fives some approximate ranges recommended for harvesting grapes for different wines. Acidity ‘Alo in Table 2-1 are given general approx ‘mations for tiratable acidity and pH. Remen- ber that low must pH and high acidity would be associated with a higher proportion of malic acid, After a malolactic fermentation, wine from a high malic aed must drops most inVan for Woah Spc ae 160-200 Secetable 220-80 Dene 20-80 General ecommendtions or mart componon a bret for various wine pe cnn acidity and rises most in pH. Precipitation of bound terpenes in Muscat grapes may prove potassium bitarate lowers titratable acid. Un- ,to be an exception, but more detailed analyses ‘usually highpotassium musts can have both high tratable acid and high pH. Acidity tends to move oppositely, going ‘down (pH rising) as sugar rises For this reason and because of acidity’s effects on flavor and Processing it is considered the essential mini ‘mum to combine somte measure of acidity with sugar content when deciding whether it is time to harvest given group of vines for wine. d. Weight Although seldom included in picking esti- mates, the average berry volume of weight can bbe a useful criterion and one that isnot dif feu to obtain orto understand. Berry weight Increases during ripening but levels of at mat ‘uration and with dehydration (termed ovat- tation by some) will decrease. Ifa sequence of representative samples is taken, full matura- tion by sie, the initiation and extent of shri cling, and the effects of leimed ras or ierga- tlon ean be noted. Furthermore, if herr size i ‘ypieal for the variery but Brix low, overcrop: ping is doubly indicated (Singlecon etal. 1973). Other Criteria for Ripeness to Harvest Anthocyanin content and total phenol content fare of interest, but require more equipment land laboratory expertise to analyze than may be quickly asailable during vintage. Further ‘more, inadequate color oF tannin it not read. iy improved by a small shift ia the harvest, date. ‘Similarly, varie aroma and general frultinss can be very Important, but difficult to measure and tend to be lost rather than improved by oVermanuration. Volatile and hhave noe been very useful for timing eommer- dal harvesting. Bery tasting can substitute 0 ‘a degree for volatile favor analysis by physico- ‘chemical means. In a review of data on the optimum grape maturigy in relation to wine quality Du Plesis (1984) coasidered aroma compounds, polysac- ccharides, pH, potawsium, phenolis, nitroge- nous compounds, urbidity and insoluble solids, other physical aspects, and Borys ‘nares, a8 well as sugar and acidity. Picking at the proper maturity was often as important 10 {quality or more so than climate, sol, vitcul> tural practices, and winemaking methods. ‘Short of more research involving more param- ‘ters sudied at once and correlated staist- ‘alls, no obxious improvement over proper sugaracid mesrurements was apparent ‘Sugaracid relaonships have been used with a good deal of success, especially in warmer ‘Barron and Santa-Maria (1990) were able 10 ‘explain 87% of the variance over all samples during the latter stages of ripening ofa white and a red variety sia factor analyses with the firs thee factors. Factor Iwas considered an energy reserve factor and correlated with total lipid content and the major trighicerdes. Fac: tor Il, considered a secondary metabolism fac- tor, correlated with phenols, sugar weight, tartaric/malie ratio, and wiolein content Fac- tor I, considered the primary metabolism oF physiological maturity indicator, had high cor- Felations with sugar /acidity, glucose /ructose ration and sugars weight. These factors have ‘ot yet been reduced to easy application, but factors If and TIT encompass the usual ripeness indices used commercially “Another factor that may need consideration is mold and bunch rot incidence and likely progression. The conditions leading to incl Son of more of les material other than grapes (MOG) in a harvest are not usually but may be related to ripeness (leaf dryness, juice stick ness, ete). f Ripeness Indices for Field Use Various methods have been tied to combine measurements into a single index for timing the harvest to get the bes quality of must (Du Plesis 1984), For simple commercial use one ‘would recommend some combination of sugar and acidity measurement coupled with more Subjective estimation of flavor, color, health, And general prognosis In spite of myths to the ‘contrary, no one ean accurately estimate sugar and acidity of grapes by taste, but though tal ‘examination and tasting preferably by 8 small panel inchiding the winemaker and the grower fan give some perspective on varieul aroma olor, balance, and potential good and bad features of a particular harvest. These wll sup plement normal sugar and acid analrses and perhaps alert one to the need for additional Analyses in a given case if ume and facies permit. After several vintages fom a given variety in a given area, experience will end Validity to the more subjective estimates, if they can be backed up with good harvest and wine quality data "The range in Brix /acid rato values reflects the acidity, presoming sogars in the 18 0.26 Brix range bur acids in the range of 4 to 9 g/L as tartaric acid, and therefore B/A 2.0 to 65 with pechaps 3.1 ideal. If blindly ap. plied, this index ‘can’ be met by deficient ‘rapes. For example, an overcropped late har- ‘est may be so deficient in sugar and acid that thas a proper ratio but cannot make accept- able wine, For such reasons tis recommended that the best combination of components be sought by the winemaker by considering each ‘upect rather than combining them into a Single value. Nevertheless, such indices can provide perspective and furnish taseful speci fications for grapegrowers. Tabulation of ranges considered acceptable for 52 varieties and all regions for Brix and acidity established ‘commercial grades for California wine grapes Berg 1960), For dry tale wines Brix pH® was better ae a. qually predicwor at harvest. than Brix/Adid, Brix x Acid, and Bix > pH (Coombe etal 1980). The use of the pH value gies consieration to the high-potassium, high pH, highacid possibility. Iealso relates te the fact that pH har more influence than does titratable ach on fermentation and procesing reactions, The range of Brix x pH considered ‘optimal was ronghly 200 to 270 (85% range) when the same daca gave 2 Brix/Acid of only 28 to 82 (14% range). Thus, Brix x pH” {give a relatnely wider and more integral range {or comparions. ‘Van Rooyes etal. (1984) showed that Brix X pH was better than Brix alone or B/A in predicting grape maturity relationships to table Twine quality in Pinotage or Cabernet Sausi sgnon. It gave a narrower optimurn range and iin contrast othe other qwo gave similar results ‘with both exivars. A value of about 85 to 95 ‘was satisfactory for both. Principal component Snaljis shoved in the same wines that aroma ‘components separated by gas chromatography Gistinguished the svo varieties fron each other but gave inconclusive results within a variety in predicting wine quali. Wich Chenin blanc fand Colombard it was not possible to select a specific index for optimum maturity to predict, twine quality in all cases. Optimuma values for fach index including Brix x pH differed ac- cording t0 geographic locality (Ellis et al 1985), Phenol analysis was shown to be unim= portant to the quality of these white wines by principal component analss. 3. Sampling Grapes In the context being discussed, sample of grapes is desired for analysis so that the Progres of ripening cin be evaluated and plans made t© harvest the vineyard at the‘optimum sage, In this situation relatively few rapes must represent the whole vineyard. In research plots the problem may be simpler since the number of sines per plot is limited, the vines within a plc should be uniform, and the plow are replicated according to a statist cally governed plan. The research sampling ‘must include proportionately each replication plot of every treatment. Furthermore, the in dividual samples must be sufficiently large to Provide the tissue needed and to allow for extraneous variation within plots not part of the experiment. The withimploc and bemveen replicate plot extraneous variation and the Yaiation caused by treatment may be diferent depending upon what is being measured, The sample size must be larger if the extraneous vation is larger and a ghen degree of treat- ‘ment difference is sought with a high degree of confidence. In plot research, but ordinarily ‘ot in field sampling, you also may need to consider the depletion of fruit by sampling and the effect on following samples of removal of earlier ones, To obtain a sample representing a vineyard Population the whole vineyard must be sam- pled. End vines and, unless they make up a sizable portion of the whole, perimeter rows should be omitted as should vines adjacent to spots with missing vines or under tees, et. If the vineyard is large or has topographically or otherwise dstinedy diferent sections, appro- priate subsections should be specifically sam pled, Even if relatively uniform, a large vine yard being managed as a unit should be di vided into approximately 2ha portions for ‘careful subsampling. This wll provide addi ‘ional replication and will indicate whieh por. tion should be harvested first, A systematic method of ensuring all vine~ yard section coverage should be followed in selecting the grapes for the sample to be ana Iyzed. A’common and satisfactory method is to alk along alternate balks (spaces between vine rows) and take a grape sample every 10th (or ther appropriate nlimber) vine, alternating right or left Tee generally recommended that the fruit selected should be as random as posible, but from all areas such as high or low fon the vine on its sunny and shady sides in approximate proportion to their yield. How: fever, if sufficient numbers of vines are sau pled, grab sampling may be as effective as randomized sampling for luster weight, Brix, and acid (Rankine etal. 1962). ‘Comparing random selection of 10 to 200 berries from a large number of vines, random sélection of 10 to 20 clusters from a smaller rmumber of vines, and complete harvest of a “few vines, Roessler and Amerine (1958) found the variance to be greatest among means of single vine samples, lese among cluster sa ples, and leastamong the berry samples (Table 2.12), From these data, 95% of the time you should miss the population mean not more than ewice the standard deviation by using the sample means for the sampling indicated. For example, to come within 0.78 Brie of the population mean Brix, you would average (wo 100-berry samples, four 10-cluster samples, and 11 whole vine samples, Application of these sampling methods to 10 varieties again showed the lowest standard error for 10 berry com= pared to I0-cluster oF single vine samples. [a “Tuble 12, Aprosinte egualent members of ts foceqel relat Sundar fMteams Beret Chien. Vines Tre G/tserans) os ae 0 003 es » the seven cases where the whole winery har- vest was compared, berry sample Brix agreed within 0.5, acid within 0.5 g/L, and pH within 0.17 ofthe winery value (Roessler and Amer ine 1968), The most effective sampling is to take a ‘minimum amount of grapes from a large number of vines (Rankine etal. 1962). Ii gated vines were more sariable than nonire gated atleast up to 20 Brix. Mean sugar con- lent per vine was inversely proportional and. acid content directly proportional to yield With Concord grapes also (Wolpert etal. 1980), vines contributed an average of 60% of the varlance in cluster weight, soluble solids, and acidity. Exposure and cluster postion along the shoot together conuributed most af the rest of the variance with only about 7% unex plained, Kasimatisané Vilas (1985) found berry samples did not as easily represent the true Brix of population as did adequate cluster sampling, at leas in part because outer ex ‘posed berries tended to be higher in Brix than the rest of the cluster, Particularly with tight ‘users, inclusion of berries or cluster sections from all pars of the clusters in approximate proportions can be recommended. Sample Variance in Brix measurement dropped rapidly as berries per sample increased t0 about 70, but lite thereafter. Another point that needs wo be made i that the method of converting the fruit sample into the juice to be analyzed affects the results In ‘measuring ripeness to decide when to harvest, aan objective is to predict the Brix and acid that the whole crushed harvest would have in the winery. Ione is using a hand refractome ter and squeezes each berry on the prism for measurement, wo systematic errors are likely to be present. First, the outer berry which has Jbeen chosen is likely to be higher in Brix as Just noted. Second, the fist few drops of juice ‘come from the softest pulp tssue highest in Brix. In our experience an average of such values i likely to be nearly 1 Brix higher than the whole harvest even on small plot. Fur thermore blending the whole dssue compared to expressed juice leads 19 02 © 0.8 higher pH (Carter et al. 1973). The best approach seems t9 be procesing the destemmed cliser sample into juice via an Auger or lever press in small amounts so that the pomace is fee of releasabie juice to about the same degre as the winery pomnace. Since red wines are fermented on the pomace, juice from blender-processed berries gave pH and acidity more rearly correspondingg to dhat of the fermented wines according to Carteret al (1972) This may be illusory, however, because grinding the steds and other testes changes the acidity, pH, and buf eapaciey in ways Gifferent from the mechanisms luring fer~ ‘mentation (Ough and Amerine 1988), lected berry or 4. Population Distribution Effects ‘The grapes of a monovarietal vineyard repre- sent a population at any one instant up to and including harvest that contains a more or less wide range of any one characteristic. Obtain. Ing a tepresenative sample is taly successful fly ifthe sample has the same variability and the same propertions of indivial berries with different characteristics. We tend to assume that t90 vineyards or two vintages giving the same must analpsis at harvest should give the same wine. This can be far from the truth even without diferences arising from process- ing. The simplest example is that the weighted average Brix, that in the must tank, ean re- main the same with very different population distsbutions. Ifthe winery must was 22.0 Brix, icmight be composed of a narrow clistsbation th Few berries at 20 Brix or below and few at 28 Brix or higher. It might be a wicle distribu: tiom with berries below 18 and above 24 Bri, and it could be the reslt of two overlapping populations wit their ow means peeaking at, perhaps, 180 and 240 Bris. Clearly the wines from these three situations would toe unlikely to be similar ir acidity oF any other variable charactritic except for alcohol content Populations of grapes can be characterized by Brix withour destruction by their distribu:58 esata Wontar sion ina series of flotation baths of decreasing easy (Singleton et al. 1966a, 1973), Since the ripening grape has no air space within it. flesh and the seeds and skins are more dense than Jule, the Juice Brix of a grape is a litte lower than that of a sugar solution in which it hhovers without floating or sinking. Using ‘loation solutions 1 Brix apart and comparing the juice Brix with the mean of the two sol ions in which it just sank or flaated, he regression equation averaged for six white seeded varieties wax: Juice Brix ~ 0,98(fot tion Brix minus 0.80). Perfect coreelation ‘would equal 1.0 rather than 0,98 and inter- cepts varied from 0.6 © “16 depending on vaniey. Berry weight and pH varied as ex pected with Brix over the ripening (increasing Julce Beis) sequence. This technique is bit tedious for everyday tue in monitoring ripening, bur it deserves ‘more use than it has had because it can pro- vide three Hinds of information not readily obtainable any other way, Itean characterize & ripe harvest population for comparison with others. Ie can give a ripeness sequence free from weather influences. All Bri categories from 14 t0 25 Brix or perhaps wider can be obtained at one sampling and these subeam- ples analved to determine tends in any other component related to that ripeness (Brix). For ‘example ths approach was very useful ia mon ltoring caftaie acid changes during the last stages of ripening (Singleton, Zaya, and Trous- dale 19860). Third, such segregation of whole Doerrcs by Brix can provide a restricted Brix Jraction that cam be analyzed in detail to char acterize vineyard or vintage differences feed of ripeness and population diversity differ ‘ences. For V. munjolia berries that develop fan abscsson layer and are harvested single berries, density segregation has been shown to Ihave potential 10 remove undersipe and Tester quality grapes from commercial harvests (Lanier and Morris 1979). Finally, density sey regation can be useful in demonstrating over cropping and the shift from physiological pro duction to increase of mgar by shivting Ione determines the Brix of each berry in a fairy ripe chster, berries are usualy found covering nearly the whole range of ripeness. ‘They are not very spsematically acanged, with various degrees of ripeness distsbuted rather randomly over the cluster. This is one reason that picking one berry at random from each of 100 ines is 10 succesful at estimating the population Brix mean for those vines. It is Siailar with berry weight, which, not counting Sot berries, may range from about 05 to 2.3 afberty in the same cluster depending on ‘ariey. One would expect that, a a normal ‘ineness progression, the increased Brix would be associated with increased berry weight Af the bezries all had the same number of seeds this should be true, However, berries without seeds are both a good deal smaller and earliensipening than those with one seed ‘on the same vines. The differences between ‘onesceded berries and those with two, three, ard finally four Seeds are in the same dieec- tion; more seeds give larger berry accumula. ing a given Brix more slowly and usually re taning acd longer. As an example, Peynaud. (1384) list: a Malbec progression from one seeded at 1.9 g/berry, 18.8 Brix, and 67 g/L. add 1 fourseeded at 32 g/berry, 45 Bris, and 80 g/L acid, In a density distribution, the highest ‘Brix berries are either unsceded berries, shriveled ones, or a combination of the two. In both cases they are smaller in weight Part of the reason berries in the same clus ter are not atthe same ripeness could be their diferent time of blooming, and this diter fence would be larger between clusters and laiger yet between vines. The atimber of seeds formed is seen to be another important vari- able and will spread the population further. The number of seeds per bemy and the amount of flesh per seed varies by ariety although the average seeds per berry is often Deoveen one and two for wine grapes, with four being maximum. Further data appears needed on the population distributions of these factors by vriety and season correlated 5, Harvesting Practices Once the time is chosen and assuming a single harvest there are two primary objectives: get ting the grapes picked as completely and ex peditiously ax posible and getting them to the ‘winery in &8 near perfect condition as possible. ‘The main choice is beeween manual and max chine harvesting, Manual harvesting can (but ‘may nod be more selective and thorough, les damaging tothe vineyard, and less damaging to the grapes. Ic is adaptable t vineyards too hilly or otherwite nauitabe for machine har- ‘vests. Machine harvesting is faster, more eco- romical, less prone to error or skipping, and fan more easly work at night giving the ad~ vantages of cooler grapes at the winery. Prop- crly operated, modern machines give good Fecovery, sometimes better than harvesting by hand. The fraction of grapes for wine or juice harvested by machine has steadily grown since 1969 when an extimated 40% of New York's grapes and 10% of California's were so har ‘ested. By 1980, California had reached an estimated 25% and curvendy it is probably 135% overall with as much as 75% in the areas prodcing grapes for les expensive wines. Al though machine usage is more limited in areas noted for premium wines, iis sill apprecia ble, probably 10 to 15% of the tonnage. The use for premium grapes is generally accept able from a procesing viewpoint but more restricted because of uch factors as small plots and rough terrain, ‘Chardonnay harvested in a premium area by co typed of machine harvesters and by hhand gave no significant difference in the quantiy of fruit delivered or the eventual wine quality (Clary ee al. 1900). Although a taste Panel could differentiate the manual harvest from the mechanical harvests (but not the two mechanical harvests from each other) there twas no significant difference in preference The must was 22.2 Brix from the machine and 28.6 Brix by hand because ofa greater level of second crop in the mechanically harvested. For the same reason, the total acid and malic seid were higher in the machine harv must about 0.5 g/L each. In these valuable rapes (S1164/Tm), 6 to 8% jtrice loss by ‘mechanical harvesting pls extra. costs for re pairing wells and sprinkler damagge made the return to the winery slighly greater for hand harvesting, even though the actual cost of hand harvesting was $121/Tm versus $55/Tm by machine Tn the same paper (Clary et al. 1990) the previous erature was outlined. The results of many studies on mechanical harvesting are rather consistent. Most of the grapes are re: moved as berries leaving the stem (rachis) on the vine, Raisined berries and those early sun burned are mostly left atached to the vines as are lightweight rotten dusters. Second crop and clusters sll heavy but with buanch rot are ‘usually harvested. Proper use of lowers re- ‘moves leaves and ligt detritus fromn the grapes and they may be as dean or cleaner (less MOG) than piecework manual harvests. Since ‘many cluster stems are left on the vine, the sem content was half orles of that from hand hhanests and fewer bis got through the crusher. Typically, the machines miss or lose fon the ground fewer beries chan do hand Inarvesers, but lose more juice. “The key differences ‘rom mechanical har ‘esting relating to wine quality have to do with the handling and time between harvest and winery procesing. With hand harvesting the desired standard has been geting the grapes to the winery with no berry breakage. Depend: ‘ng on the handling, the roughness of trans- port, the depth of the ad, and the distance fo the winery this may not be achieved even with manual harvesting. Depencling on the Strength of the berry attachment and the skin ‘more or less damage will occur—variable by varieyy and conditions. With mechanical har Testing some damage is inevitable as the pedi ‘el rush is jerked from most of the bervies. portion of the berry is exposed to oxidation And microbial attack. Various ways of minimiz: ing detrimental effects have been. applied, but if times and distances are short enough wine qualcy need nt suffer60 Vian fo Wiamalen Machineharvested wine grapes in Califor- fla almost invariably receive metabisulite in the field, In some cases the mechanically har vested fruit is received directly into a mobile tank thar has been precharged with sulfur tlioxide or sulfite salts and with carbon dioxide to displace the air. The grapes may be pased through a destemmercrusher mounted on this tank vehicle. The sulfur dioxide inhibits phe- nol oxidase and undesirable microbes and the air exclusion ako helps prevent oxidation Upon arrival atthe winery the whole crushed _grape mass may be pumped to further process ing with perhaps even less exponire to delete- rious effeets than would have been the case fom manual harvesting, The total dime of maceration contact between the pomace and the juice would be the remaining considera toa and this will be addresed in later H. REFERENCES Ais, D. 0. KE. Fuss, and LP. Clases 1990, “Elevated puuescne levels In grapevine lesves tha cnpay mptoms of potasium dS eney” Am. J Baal. Ve 1:121°125 Apaus, D. 0, and C. Liat. 1991. "Modification ofan enzymatic glutathione asa for determina tion of total glutathione in graperine tsues” ‘Am J Bral. Vie. 4287-140, Arvin, H, (EA). 1967, Winbas. 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The ap pkation of sense undersanding to the Production ofthe best pombe wines requires Thar the sep to protec the most destable ponents othe ies, somites by intr to overcome natural deficiencies oF imbal trees that eat by tient adtions and physical eaten ‘Ope of the main purposes of uce prepare mon of tndeiable od ing sco ans 10 oo Vide the many options that est With ceopect to juice preparaion. The 2d Sree comps mentonedia A. CRUSHING AND DESTEMMING 1. The Role of Crushing Telewe fromthe grapes and ord sarily 100% ofthe bers wil be Broken. tis the begining of We juce, sin, pulpy and trod contact that wll iflence the’ extent of Trracion from these grape compa Soy per he ring ree Kins andthe iselaton and collection of them “dapostl Stems ae ofr shredded and 2. Crushing and Destemming Equipment lng tm ic action tae place rt. There are mre ems, The heres fall Uarough the vantages ofthis eqeence are theught 10 BeCrusher Location and Stem Removal oe ty ein 3. Special Condition of Crushingthe coresgonding plp Ines the tems or a ert pane Sher ssh ce As be employed for he ipa clare id carer) and chow whe ppy Mor calves an Sunn (Theme St ‘ap. Tie approa temper to prose ome SO who berries opi in uch pic Fat wine sein which partial o opine tome woody herbaceou fie ‘The we ct cle dome handing ppc {for are! pring s more comean in he Ins all ther cases, the vax majoriy of grape loads wil be #0 enhance ice release and wil be flestemmed as complciely as posible by the truhing equipment cise as complete ax posible BL MUST HANDLING A number of the defects and undesirable fs: tures of young wines such as low satable eid, high pl, the formation of sgifcane Inpdrogen slide or volte act, the inc dence of incomplewe fermentauon, and low incensiy of ut aromas can often be at > Inadequate tment of the original rus. The fr opportutity for the manipulation ‘fice componition swith the freshly erashed grapes. A number of important wine comp Sous re been shows to cigley direst Concentrations between the central juice and pulp and te skin, The mos abnious of thee Iie the anthocyanin, tanning, potas and other miners inthe in, che fawonoid and procraniin phenol it the sins and seeds 2 umber of te terpene fraction (Wilton eta 1085; Maras 1987) and oder volatiles related to varietal character of the Saumignon ‘amily—Sauvignon blan, Sémillon, Cabernet Sauvignon. Cabernet franc, and’ Merioc— (Bayonove et al. 1975; Auguasm etal 1988; Heymann etal 1985; Lay e¢ al 1991, The desire to promote the extraction of these and other flavorants has led to the practice of ain Contac, which invoives the awe of pectic and yates tases enryoes Ga a Yidespread introduction of membrane presser That favor jee release with x minimum of repent inappropriate test 1. Skin (or Pomace) Contact The purpose of deliberate contact bereen {ins aad juice of white grapes isto provide time aml condiions for an extraction tat ‘innot be duplicated by exracuon during fe von prima ofthe favonod phenols Socimed wit the si and sees 2 well dhe es wlrefne avoran Raney etal {85, Tin preferably dome at iteredine temperatures 1 to 80°C 69-657 in der the organs These manipula can "ary oe tov wthow contol of temperature “ihoat mixing ule pumping and impre he umes bemcen 1 and 34 hours, wo cooled Gh often blanketed with an inert gs, 0 iether with pumpover opera Eines 20 thar a predefined degree 0 Son is obtained, generally measured 8a spe: ‘rophotometric uty ofthe phenolic content Depending onthe winery facilities in partic Tarte abi to dra ces quickly, some skin Contact wil become ineable ad this should a White Mosts In general, the best white table wines ofthe Young varietal sie are obtained primary Eom feevun joes and low phenolic pres factions: The greatest. potential for the ma Sipuladion of juice flavor es in the weatment fhe terpenetbasedealtars by heat, pH, and Commercial ennyme preparaions The com tere evailabiliy f lyeosidases of microbial rg permis be option of in and ee freaument of Riesling, Muscat, “and CCenfireraminer cultivars for the eelease of free terpenes from ther more common non: Colac ghveendes (Willams eta. 1980). Seu Jes of che influence of temperature 00 dhe fates of the enayme-baed rol fa juices cre not present avalable Aor are studies of the desintoliy of a sleeve treatment of the ‘Sins rather than the juice iuelE Th the past, the use of wrew presses, which result in more sin tearing, provided desirable perci yiianet iin skin compond eel of tnine. Much Chardonnay and Sausigran Blane can now be uldvars sich 8 Drones without their cerespondling anol. ithough these pres actions can often pro- components that Would or akin contact, they cannot ngverm diffsional. extractor realy revalt B replace che 1 and chee the akin contact period expecially when © ‘momedioted reactions woth cultivars such a6 (Gemietraminer, Reng and the Muscat are Tescons that may occur during b, Red Musts Wi red masts, the time asalable and the trivent conditions for sleeve extraction of flaorants are much grates. The application fof shia contact for color and favor extraction prot Freon has eel ced Son of the anthoqania pigments dating the fermeneation is sil ot completely under a Pareular interes in obtaining ear Ter anthocyanin extracion together with al ternatve tannin extraction patterns, but al ‘mont al ofthis is obtained by way of a conven fl warm fermentation. "Theres limited intrest in thersnal extrac tion conditions such a those generated by the proces referred 10 a8 thertovintfieation, in Thich jules are eared to temperanres of bemecn 30 and OC (22°F and 140°F) and mixed with the kins provide a rapid. shor Spreially with hybrid grapes & the se of Se warming o promote the activity of added eat enrymesand to acliate pressing ofthe ins Red juices prepared in thi way for ci- ther fermentation of soncentation have the Sdvantage of having kept the skins out ofthe fermentor, but the extaction conditions result ta the predution of wines diferent to those sade in the conventional manner10 Prepon Mat ode 2. Must Cooling or Heating Requirements The use of must cooling will be dependent on the temperature ofthe grapes when delivered ‘nd for white must, the desired temperatare for skin contact (if i isto be used) and the time delay associated with the draining opera ton belore juice cooling ean take place. One sdinadvamiage with must cooling is the slowing of the activity of any added enzymes such a Pectic or other hydrolytic enzymes. The con. ‘cern with a warm must lies in the accelerated enzyme reactions resulting in both more exe tensive browning and oxygen consumption and faster growth of native organisms. The ability to cool the juice and che addition of sulfur dioxide are’ often deferred. until after skin separation has taken place ao that a significant amount of the reirgeraton energy is not wasted by cooling the skins. A more complete iscussion of the heat wansfer calculations 2 sociated with juice cooling ean be found in Chapter 14, 3, Inert Gas Blanketing ‘The juice released from the grapes at crushing wil initaly be sarurated with oxygen from the air, The mixing of oxidases and their sub strates in the juice wil generally rest in the complete consumption of this dissoled oxy gen in a matter of minutes under natural conditions. The pickup of oxygen from the air during the harvesting, transport, crushing, raining, and pressing operations can be min imized by the use of inert gas blanketng, Carbon dioxide isthe gas of choice because iis heavier than air and al fall and displace the air from the must or juice surface in a partially filed container. Applications vary from the use of solid CO, blocks and chips ia harvesting bins and crusher and press sump, to the imine sparging of musts with liquid CO, and gas dispersal over the must surface with gas from storage cylinders. Although fis seldom practiced, fermentation gases ean be recovered from fermentors and used during Jie transfers and wine storage for potential Savings, especially in larger fallities. ‘The use of solid and tiquid CO, have the additional shantages of proving must cooling by direct. heat transfer a5 they sublime or evaporate to form the inert gas blanket (Chapter 14), how. ‘ever, this process is relatively expensive when compared to conventional refrigeration The use of nitrogen, argon or other ase offers no advantage at this poi in wine raking, although the solubility of the gas be

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