Materials and Selection Criteria

Materials Selection for
Engineering Design
Materials Selection
The designer of any product, other than
software must get involved with material
selection.
Only occasionally will the exact grade of
material be specified by the customer.
Even then the designer must understand
the material to be able to design the
product.
Decisions, decisions!
So many materials, so much information.
How do we decide?
How do we begin to choose?
First we need to look at the function of the
product product analysis
Product Analysis
J ust what it says analyse the product!
What does it do?
How does it do it?
Where does it do it?
Who uses it?
What should it cost?
Case Study a bike
What is the function of a bike obvious?
How does the function depend on the type
of bike?
Racing
Touring
Mountain bike
Commuter
Childs
Case Study a bike (2)
How is it made to be easily maintained?
What should it look like (colours etc.)?
How has it been made comfortable to
ride?
How do the mechanical parts work and
interact?
Component or system?
1
st
problem is.
Is it one component or a system of
components working together?
A spanner is a component, a cordless
screwdriver is a system.
System Analysis
When we analyse a system we need to
break the system down into individual
components and then analyse each one.
Cordless screwdriver
System Analysis the bike
The bike breaks down (we hope not!) into
various parts:
Frame
Forks
Wheels
Saddle
Etc.
System Analysis the bike (2)
We now need to look at the following for
each part:
Requirements (mechanical, ergonomic,
aesthetic etc.)
Function
How many are going to be made?
What manufacturing methods are we
going to use?
Manufacturing
Oh No!
We have to actually make it!
This is a key question which has a massive
influence on materials selection.
e.g. The frame, what materials could we
use?
Frame Materials
Steel
Strong, stiff, heavy, but cheap
Aluminium
weaker, lighter, more expensive than steel
Composite (CFRP)
strong, stiff, very light, but expensive to buy
and to fabricate
Bike Frame
Frame Design Detail
What Properties?
Mechanical
Strength, modulus etc.
Physical
Density, melting point.
Electrical
Conductivity, resistivity.
Aesthetic
Appearance, texture, colour
Processability
Ductility, mouldability
And last, but not least.
Cost, cost, cost!
Where do I find the data?
Textbooks
Databooks
Manufacturers literature
Internet Sites
Textbooks
Good for general information
Some have tables of properties
Not good for detailed specifications and
properties.
A useful first point of call
Databooks
One of the quickest sources of detailed
information.
Usually contain grades and specifications
as well as properties.
Small and perfectly formed pocketbooks
Easy to navigate around
Manufacturers literature
Variable in quality and usefulness.
Often only cover their products.
Usually do not compare materials.
Can be biased.
Good for final selection before ordering.
Internet Sites
Can be a real minefield.
Lots of poorly presented information.
Google searches bring up lots of rubbish.
Hard to find technical information.
Best to use non-commercial sites.
Materials Selection Charts
Modulus - Density Chart
Modulus spans 5 orders of magnitude
0.01 GPa for foams to 1000 GPa for diamond
The charts therefore use
scales, where twice the distance means
times.
This makes it possible to show the full
range on one chart,
23
Allow easy visualisation of properties
Show lots of different materials
Can be drilled down to specifics
Show balances of properties
e.g. strength v cost
Ideal for a first rough cut selection
Summary
1. Think about the design from ergonomic
and functional viewpoint.
2. Decide on the materials to be used.
3. Choose a suitable process that is also
economic
Steps 2 & 3 may be iterative. Dont forget
the
Bigger Picture
Is the product
driven or
driven?
This makes a huge
difference when
choosing materials.
Manufacturing Process
Although we usually
choose materials first
sometimes it is the
shape and process which
is the limiting factor.
Case Study (2) Drink Container
What are the
requirements?
Case Study (2) Drink Container
Provide leak free environment for storing liquid.
Comply with food standards & protect liquid
from health hazards.
For fizzy drinks, withstand pressure.
Brand image & identity
Easy to open
Easy to store & transport
Cheap for high volumes
Possible Materials
Steel
Aluminium
Glass
Plastic
Paper
Dpt. Materials Sci. and Eng. and Chem. Eng. UC3M
Topic 1: Introduction. Families of materials and applications
Universidad
Carlos III de Madrid
www.uc3m.es
TOPIC 1.1. FAMILIES OF MATERIALS, PROPERTIES
APPLICATIONS AND SELECTION CRITERIA.
- Historic evolution of Materials Science and Engineering
- The Science and Engineering of Materials
- Materials Classification
- General properties of Materials
- Going from Structure to Materials Properties
- Materials Selection
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
1 Sophia A. Tsipas / Dania Olmos
Stone age Bronze age Iron age
BC AD
0
HISTORIC EVOLUTION OF MATERIALS
3
Materials Science: basic knowledge about the internal structure,
properties and processing of materials.
Materials Engineering: fundamental knowledge applied to
materials in order to transform them into useful products required
by the society.
Structure
Processing
Properties
Applications
Sophia A. Tsipas / Dania Olmos
4
Material Composition Structure Properties
Metals Metals Crystalline
e
,
t
, R
Polymers
Chains of organic
molecules
Semi crystalline
or amorphous
e
,
t
,
Ceramics Metals + no metals
Crystalline or
amorphous
hardness,
brittleness
Composite materials: system or combination of materials that
results from the union (not chemical, insoluble between them) of two
or more components, creating a new material with specific properties
and characteristics, with properties different from the constituent
materials .
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
6
Nature of bonding properties type of materials
Type of material Character of bonding Examples
Metal Metallic Fe, steels
Ceramic and glasses Ionic/ covalent Silica (SiO
2
)
Polymers Covalent and secondary Polyethylene -(CH
2
)-
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
7
Metals and Metallic alloys
- Characteristic shine
- Electrical and thermal conductivity
- Workability
- Ductility
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Under_the_bridge_-
_Oresund_Bridge.jpg
File:Reduction_Gear.jpg
8
Polymers
- Principally based on chains of carbon
atoms joined by covalent bonds.
- Thermoplastics
- Thermostable
- Elastomers
- Thermal and electric insulators
- Good specific properties
- Low working temperature
9
Ceramics
- High hardness
- Brittleness
- Electric and thermal insulators
- Workability
- Good thermal and chemical stability.
http://perso.wanadoo.es/chyryes/glosario/cer_fun.htm
10
Composite Materials
- Great range of properties
- Depend on the constituent materials
- General classification as a function of the matrix and the reinforcement
- Ceramic matrix
- Metallic matrix
- Polymeric matrix
11
Structure:
- Distribution of e
-
affects the electric , magnetic, thermal , optical
behaviour, and the corrosion resistance.
- Bonding determines the type of material
- The positioning of atoms in space crystalline structure
influences mechanical properties
Properties
- Mechanical (R
mecnica
, ductility, R
impacto
...)
- Physico-chemical ( Corrosion resistance, electrical, magnetic,
optical.)
Processing
- Moulding process
- Plastic deformation process
- Joining process
- Mechanical working process
FROM STRUCTURE TO PROPERTIES
12
Structure, Properties and Processing
Transparent
Single crystal
without defects
Translucent
Polycrystalline
Grain boundaries
Opaque
Polycrystalline
Grain boundaries + pores
J.F. Shackelford, Introduction to Materials Science and
Engineering for Engineers; Prentice Hall.
William D. Callister Materials Science
and Engineering: An Introduction, John Wiley & Sons
13
Structure, Properties and Processing
Atomic Scale
Al alloys: ductile
Mg alloys: relatively brittle
J.F. Shackelford, Introduction to Materials Science and
Engineering for Engineers; Prentice Hall.
- planes and directions of high
atomic density
- easily deformed mechanically
- Ductility
Al: 12 planes and directions major capacity for de deformation
Mg: 3 planes and directions
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:149405.jpeg
14
Example of
application
Properties
Metals and alloys
Foundry products
Automotive motors
Castable, absorber of
vibrations
Ceramics and glasses
SiO
2
-Na
2
O-CaO
Windows
Optically transparent,
thermal insulators
Polymers
Polyethylene
Packaging and bags
Easily processed in thin
layers , flexible and
hermetic
Semiconductors
Silicon
Transistors and
intergraded circuits
Unique electrical properties
Composite Materials
WC-Co
Cutting and forming
tools
Elevated hardness and
relatively good impact
resistance
- Practical examples. Preliminary considerations
15
Which material is appropriate? Within a predetermined group, which is the best?
J.F. Shackelford, Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering
for Engineers; Prentice Hall
Steps for materials selection: gas cylinder
Evaluate requirements for storing gases at P (14 MPa)
Eliminate materials that do not satisfy the limiting characteristics: (R
mehanical
and strength ):
polymers and ceramics
Choose the one with the lowest cost: metals
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
- Practical examples. Preliminary considerations
16
Steps for materials selection: Spaceship
Evaluate requirements for a pressure container of a spaceship
J.F. Shackelford, Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering
for Engineers; Prentice Hall
- Practical examples.
17
Selection and/or inadequate
design
Improper use during service
Causes of materials failures :
Transport ship of the II Worla War . Brittle fracture of the
steel hull aue to low temperatures.
18
http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Materials-Science-and-Engineering/3-080Fall-2005/CourseHome/
EVOLUTION AND SUBSTITUTION
M.F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Butterworth-Heinemann
19
- Property Diagrams
M.F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Butterworth-Heinemann
Universidad
www.uc3m.es
CIENCIA E INGENIERA DE MATERIALES
TOPIC 1.2. BONDING IN SOLIDS. RELATION BETWEEN
BONDING, STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
- Introduction
- Bonding in solids
- Ionic bond
- Covalent bond
- Metallic bond
- Intermolecular forces
1
2
Structure
Processing
Properties
Applications
Nature of bonding <> properties <> type of materials <>
Processing and applications
INTRODUCTION
3
It forms between a metal and a non metal.
There is electron transfer from the less electronegative atom to the more
electronegative .
Bonding forces F electrostatic attraction between opposite charged
ions.
- Pure ionic bond: ideal.
- Always exists covalent participation
IONIC BOND
4
Ionic compounds are crystalline solids
It is a non directional bond formed by
strong electrostatic interactions
Born-Haber cycIe for LiF.
LATTICE ENERGY:
Energy released when a mole of
ionic solid is formed from its ions in
the gas state.
IONIC BOND
Na
+
Cl
-
Step H(kJ/mol)
Sublimation of Li 155.2
Dissociation of F
2 (g)
150.6
Ionization of Li
(g)
520
Gain of e
-
of F
(g)
-328
Formation of LiF from Li
(s)
and
F
2(g)

-594.1
Ionic
SoIids
Lattice Energies
(kJ/moI)
MeIting point
(
o
C)
LiCl -829 613
NaCl -766 801
KCl -686 776
RbCl -670 715
CsCl -649 646
MgO -3932 2800
CaO -3583 2580
SrO -3311 2430
BaO -3127 1923
When the ion size lattice
energy and T
f

Valence +1
Valence +2
Valance number lattice
energy T
f

LATTICE ENERGY:
Many properties are dependant on the lattice energy
(melting point, hardness, thermal expansion coefficient)
IONIC BOND
6
- General properties of ionic compounds
Strong electrostatic attraction High melting and evaporation points
Hard and brittle solids at room temperature
They do not conduct electricity (except in molten state or when
dissolved in water)
Water soluble.
IONIC BOND
External force
Deformation
Repulsive forces -> Fracture
7
Generally it forms between the non metallic elements of the periodic
table
It forms by electron sharing
Examples:
COVALENT BOND

Bond pair
Lone pairs
+ +
8
= Q x r
r = Distance between atoms;
Q =charge
Units: Debye, D; 1 D = 3.33 10
-30
C m
Dipole moment
POLAR COVALENT BOND
X
i
: electronegativity of element i
General Chemistry Principles and modern applications, 8
th
ed., RF Petrucci, WS Harwood, G Herring
H H
= Atomic nucleus
Cl Cl
Cl
= center of + ve charge
= center of -ve charge
H
+
+

- Properties of the compounds with covalent bonds
9
Formed by a system of continuous covalent bonds
Non conductive LATTICES both in the solid and in the molten state
Diamond, boron nitride, quartz (SiO
2
), silicon carbide (SiC)
Covalent Solids
graphite
Hard and incompressible
T
f
high, non volatile
insoluble
Diamond
Substances with covalent bonds
COVALENT BOND
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Graphit_gitter.png
10
Applied force
Applied force
- Model of a sea of electrons
- Atomic nucleus surrounded
from a sea of e
-
.
- Metallic shine .
- Workability.
METALLIC BONDS
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
Deformation
11
- Band theory
- Alkaline metals
- Alkaline earth metals
ns
valence
band
METALLIC BOND
Energy
Interatomic distance
ns
*
(ns) (debonding)
(ns)(bonding )
M
2

M
3

M
N
metallic crystal
E = valence
band
Energy
For each individual atom there are discrete
energy levels that may be occupied by
electrons
As atoms come within close proximity, electrons are acted upon by the electrons
and nuclei of adjacent atoms. This causes each distinct atomic state to split into a
series of closely spaced electron states in the solid, to form what is termed an
eIectron energy band.
12
METALLIC BOND
band gap
band gap
conduction band
valance band
valance band
conduction band
conduction band
filled states
empty states
valance
band
empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states empty states
valance band
E
E
metal
metal
semiconductor
nsulator
The number of electrons available for electrical conduction in a particular
material is related to the arrangement of electron states with respect to energy,
and then the manner in which these states are occupied by electrons.
Primary bonds: (strong)
-Ionic bond: Transfer of e
-
cations and anions F
coulomb
(non
directional)
- Covalent bond: Sharing e
-
(directional)
- Metallic bond: e- shared externally and very little tightened by the nucleus
(non directional)
(>150 kcal/mol)
(>50-150 kcal/mol)
(>20-120 kcal/mol)
13
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Permanent dipole 1-10 kcal/mol It forms between molecules:
-that present constant dipole moment
-made of atoms with different electronegativity that are
united with covalent bonding.
Hydrogen bond 7 kcal/mol in H
2
O (permanent
dipole):
- In molecules with H and electronegative atoms
(Polar covalent bond: O-H, N-H, F-H).
- Asymmetric distribution of charge Permanent
dipole
Fluctuating dipole: < 2 kcal/mol. It forms in non
polar molecules in crystalline lattice

-Instantaneous fluctuations of electron charge
distribution fluctuating dipoles
Secondary bonds - weak (Van der Waals)
14
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
-

+
-

+
-

+ -

+ -

+
Bond
Type of
substance
Melting and
boiling points
Mechanical
properties
Solubility
COVALENT Molecular Low
Soft in the solid
state
Depends on the
polarity of the
molecules
COVALENT
Atomic,
covalent or
lattice
Very high
Very hard
brittle
Insoluble in all
solvents
IONIC Ionic High Hard and brittle
Soluble in
polar solvents
METALLIC Metallic High
Ductile and
workable
Insoluble in all
solvents
15
BONDING AND PROPERTIES
16
Nature of bonding properties type of materials
Type of material Character of bonding Examples
Metal Metallic Fe, steels
Ceramic and glasses Ionic/ covalent Silica (SiO
2
)
Polymers Covalent and secondary Polyethylene -(CH
2
)-
Topic 2: Structure of materials (I)
Universidad
www.uc3m.es
CIENCIA E INGENIERA DE MATERIALES MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
1
TOPIC 2: STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS
Topic 2.1:
-Crystalline systems.
- Important metallic and ceramic structures.
- Amorphous materials.
Sophia A. Tsipas / Francisco Velasco / Beln Levenfeld
2
CRYSTALLINE STATES
Na
+
Cl
-
3
Parallelepiped capable of reproducing the crystal-master model
UNIT CELL
Unit Cell
4
(a) Lattice of a solid in 3D space
(b) Unit cell showing the lattice
parameters
Lattice parameters or constants Vectors and angles of the lattice
- 3 lattice vectors: a, b, c with common origin
Directions of the 3 independent axes
- 3 lattice angles: , ,
UNIT CELL: LATTICE PARAMETERS
a
b
c

5
THE 7 CRYSTALLINE SYSTEMS
CrystaI System Axis AngIes
Cubic a=b=c
Hexagonal a=b c

Tetragonal a=b c

Rhombohedral a=b=c

Orthorombic a b c

Monoclinic a b c

Tricilinic a b c

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structure
6
Unit cell
The 7 crystalline systems define the geometric form of the lattice, but
there is also the need to establish the positions occupied by the
atoms/ ions/molecules in the solid BRAVAIS LATTICES
BRAVAIS LATTICES
7
The combination of the 7 crystalline systems and the 4 unit cells
(P, F, C, I) gives 14 fundamental lattices:
They are called Bravais Lattices
Centered cell
If we consider that each point is an atom, we have
crystalline structures
BRAVAIS LATTICES AND CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURES
8
THE 14 BRAVAIS LATTICES
1. Simple cubic (Cubic P)
2. Body-centered-cubic (bcc) (Cubic )
3. Face-centered-cubic (fcc) (Cubic F)
4. Simple tetragonal (Tetragonal P)
5. Body-centered tetragonal (Tetragonal )
6. Simple orthorhombic (Orthorhombic P)
7. Body-centered orthorhombic (Orthorhombic C )
8. Base-centered orthorhombic (Orthorhombic )
9. Face-centered orthorhombic (Orthorhombic F)
10. Simple monoclinic (Monoclinic P)
11. Base-centered monoclinic (Monoclinic C)
12. Triclinic
13. Rhomboedral
14. Hexagonal
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bravais_lattices
9
90% of the metals crystallize in 3 densely packed (compact) structures
as they :
- Normally they consist of a unique element, and therefore the
atomic radius is the same.
- The metallic bond is non directional.
- In order to reduce the lattice energy the distance between the
atoms tends to be small.
MAIN METALLIC STRUCTURES
10
Body- Centered Cubic (BCC)
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)
Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)
BCC FCC HCP
Atomic Arrangement E
minimum

MAIN METALLIC STRUCTURES
11
- Coordination Number: 12
- N atoms per cell = 8 +6 =4
- V
cell
=a
3
since 4R=a 2
74 % of the volume of the cell is occupied
FACE-CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (FCC)
File:Geometrie_cubique_faces_centree
s.svg
12
- Coordination Number : 8
- N atoms per cell= 8 +1 = 2
- V
cell
=a
3
as 4R=a 3
68 % of the volume of the cell is occupied
BODY-CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)
File:Geometrie_cubique_centre.svg
13
- N of atoms in the cell= 12
1
/
6
+2 +3 =6
Coordination Number: 12
Packing factor: 0,74
HEXAGONAL CLOSED- PACKED STRUCTURE (HCP)
Atom in third layer lies over atom on first layer
A
A
B
14
FCC: ABCABC. HCP: ABAB...
PACKING SYSTEMS
FCC HCP
15
There are 2 types of interstitials sites:
- TETRAHEDRAL (Coord. N 4)
- OCTAHEDRAL (Coord. N 6)
In compact structures is certain that:
- N of tetrahedral sites =2n
- N of octahedral sites =n
- n = N atoms in the cell
INTERSTITIAL SITES
TETRAHEDRAL
OCTAHEDRAL
16
INTERSTITIAL SITES : IN FCC STRUCTURE
Tetrahedral
interstices
Octahedral
interstices
Octahedral site Tetrahedral site
17
Fe-
(fcc)
Fe-
(bcc)
INTERSTICES: SOLUBILITY OF C IN IRON
18
Ionic structure : packing of anions with cations in interstitials
The ions tend to
pack densely in
order to reduce E
total
Sizes C
+
A
-
(r
cation
< r
anion
)
Electroneutrality
Coordination Index (By increasing C.I
increase stability)
Sharing of polyhedral (sharing vertices
instead of edges or faces (increases the
distance between cations)
ELECTRONEUTRALITY IN IONIC CERAMICS
19
Arrangement of A
-
around C
+

central and C.I.
Cation/anion
Radius ratio
r
C
/r
A
C.I. 8
Corners of a cube
0.732-1.0
C.I 6
Corners of an octahedron
0.414-0.732
C.I 4
Corners of a tetrahedron
0.225-0.414
C.I. 3
Corners of a triangle
0.155-0.225
PACKING OF IONS
20
Cl
-
: cubic
Cs
+
: centre of the cube
C.I.: 8
Ceramics that have this type of structure: CsBr, TlCl, TlBr.
SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE: CsCl
Cl
-

Cs
+

21
Ceramics that have this type of structure: MgO, CaO, FeO, NiO
Cl
-
: FCC packing
Na: all octahedral interstitials.
4 Na
+
and 4 Cl
-
per unit cell C.I.=6
FCC STRUCTURE: NaCl
Cl
-

Na
+

22
S
2-
: FCC packing
Zn
2+
: tetrahedral interstitials
4 Zn
2+
and 4 S
2-
per unit cell
According to Pauling bond Zn-S ~87% covalent
Ceramics that have this type of structure: Typical semiconductors : CdS,
HgTe, NiAs, SiC, GaAs
FCC STRUCTURE: Zn Blende-ZnS
S
2-
Zn
2+

23
O
2-
: HCP packing 6 ions
Al
3+
: 2/3 octahedral interstitials 4 ions
I.C.(Al
3+
): 6 ; I.C.(O
2-
): 6
Ceramics that have this type of structure: Cr
2
O
3
, Fe
2
O
3
, AI
2
O
3
.
HCP STRUCTURE: CORUNDUM (ALUMINA)
Al
3+

O
2-

Closed-packed layer of O
2-
with 2/3
of octahedral sites filled with Al
3+
Unit cell
Top view
24
The same element or compound can exist in more than one
crystalline state under conditions of P and T.
Diamond-Graphite:
Diamond 3D covalent structure hard , transparent, insulator
Graphite Laminar structure Secondary bonds between layers
soft, non transparent, conductor
C
diamond
C
graphite

POLYMORPHISM AND ALLOTROPY
25
Zirconia (ZrO
2
) :
-ZrO
2
in Al
2
O
3
increases the mechanical properties of alumina
-ZrO
2
(cubic) ZrO
2
(tetragonal) ZrO
2
(monoclinic)

structure CaF
2
-fcc dimensional deformation
that consumes energy toughness
Iron (steels):
BCC at room temperature; FCC from 910 C possibility of thermal
treatment
POLYMORPHISM AND ALLOTROPY
26
Contraction
due to
solidification
AMORPHOUS MATERIALS AND SOLIDIFICATION
27
A. Amorphous
B. Semicrystalline
C. 100% crystalline
T
n
: MeIling Tenpeialuie. Associaled vilh ciyslaIIine zones
T
g
: G!ass TransItInn Tenpeialuie. Associaled vilh anoiphous zones
T<T
g
Glass state
T>T
g
Rubbery or leathery state
GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE
28
Chains of polymeric molecules NOT necessarily straight :
MOLECULAR ARCHITECTURE
Linear
Branched
POLYMERS: CHAIN STRUCTURES
Crosslinked (branched polymer
interconnected forming a network)
109
o
29
Amorphous
zones
Crystalline zones
(lamellas)
Amorphous polymer: Structure of disordered polymeric chains (as in liquid) but
it behaves like a solid
Semicrystalline polymer: Amorphous regions (disordered chains) and
crystalline regions ( ordered chains )
Chain-folded model
POLYMERS: AMORPHOUS AND CRYSTALLINE
30
Shperulites
Some polymers that are crystallized from
a melt form a spheruIite structure.
WiIIiam D. CaIIister, Jr., MateriaIs Science and Engineering
An Introduction: John WiIey & Sons, Inc.
31
Fringed-micelle model
of a semicrystalline polymer
A semicrystalline polymer consists of
crystalline regions (crystaIIites), which are
interspersed with amorphous regions of
randomly oriented molecules Amorphous polymer
Semicrystalline polymer
32
Amorphous solid
Semicrystalline solid
Oriented semicrystalline
solid
ISOTROPIC
ANISOTROPIC
POLYMERS : STRUCTURE AND ISOTROPY
Topic 2: Structure of materials (II)
Universidad
www.uc3m.es
CIENCIA E INGENIERA DE MATERIALES
TOPIC 2. STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS II
Topic 2.2:
-Atomic positions.
- Directions in the crystalline cells.
- Planes in the crystalline cells.
- Calculation of the atomic density.
1 Sophia A. Tsipas / Francisco Velasco / Beln Levenfeld
ATOMIC POSITIONS IN THE CUBIC CELLS
2
(0,1,1)
(0,1,0)
(0,0,1)
3
The properties of materials depend on the direction in which they
are measured they deform in the directions in which the atoms
are in close contact.
"crystallographic direction indices are the vector components of the
directions resolved along each of the coordinate axes and reduced at
the smallest integrals
DIRECTIONS IN THE CUBIC CELL
y
z
x
[111]
[110]
[100]
Procedure for determining crystallographic directions:
1. Choose a vector of appropriate length that passes through the
origin (parallelism must be maintained).
2. Determine the length of the projection on each of the three axes
measured in terms of the unit cell dimensions a, b, c.
3. Multiply or divide by common factor to reduce to the smallest
integer value.
4. Notation: enclose the three indices in square brackets, without
comma [y v w]
DIRECTIONS IN THE CUBIC CELL
5
Individual directions: [uvw]
// direction vectors the same indexes
Equivalent directions in the network (indices of a family): <uvw>
When the spacing along each direction is the same
Cube axes: [100],[010],[001],[010],[001],[100]= 100
Cube diagonals : 111
Cube face diagonals: 110
[110]
[1 0 0]
[111]
[210]
[110]
DIRECTIONS IN THE CUBIC CELLS
6
Miller indices are used: "reciprocal of the intersections of the
plane with the axes determine x,y,z"
Procedure :
1. Choose a plane that does not
pass from the origin
2. Determine the length of
intercepts of the plane with the 3
axes
3. Obtain the reciprocals of these
intersections
4. Determine the smaller set of
integers that have the same ratio
as the intercepts
5. Notation: enclose them in
parenthesis without coma (h k l)
PLANES IN THE CUBIC CELL
b
c
a
ntercept at
ntercept at a
ntercept at b
7
x=
y=1
z=
(210)
x=1
y=1
z=
(110)
x=1
y=1
z= 1
(111)
x=1
y=
z=
(100)
PLANES IN THE CUBIC CELL
directions are to the plane with the same Miller indices
b
c
a a
(010)
b
c
a
b
a
(020)
b
c
a
b
c
a
(111)
b
c
a
b
(111)
-
8
In lhis case lheie aie 4 axes: 3 in lhe lasaI
pIane and lhe c axis
asaI pIane (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) +Axis c

uvl v
They can le expiessed in 3 laking
l= -(u+v)
(uvv)=(uvlv)
PLANES IN THE HEXAGONAL CELL
9
a
1
=
a
2
=
a
3
=
c= 1
(0001)
Basal
plane
a
1
=
a
2
= 1
a
3
= -1
c=
(0110)

plane
PLANES IN THE HEXAGONAL CELL
a
1

a
2

a
3

c
a
1

a
2

a
3

c
(0110)
(1100)
(1010)
10
In lhis case lheie aie 4 axes: 3 in lhe lasaI pIane and
lhe c axes foi lhe heighl
asaI pIane (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) + c Axis

uvl v
They can le expiessed in 3 laking
|= -(u+t)
|u v vj |u v l vj
|1 O Oj |2 1 1 Oj
|1 1 Oj |1 1 2 Oj
DIRECTIONS IN THE HEXAGONAL CELL
a
1

a
2

a
3

c
[110]
[1100]
[110]
[1120]
[010]
[1210]
[111]
[1123]
[001]
[0001]
CubIc Crysta!s:
- Dislance lelveen // pIanes in culic ciyslaIs : d
hkI
- Ioi oilhogonaI ciyslaIs, in geneiaI:
Braggs law
The magnitude of the distance between two adjacent parallel planes (i.e. the
interplanar spacing d
hkl
is a function of the Miller indices (h, k, l) as well as the lattice
paremeter(s)

12
ATOMIC DENSITY IN CRYSTALS
Volume density of a crystal
13
n: number of atoms /unit cell
M: atomic weight
V
C
: volume of the unit cell
N
A
: Avogadro number
(6.023x10
23
atoms/mol)
g/cm
3
from the bibliography
ATOMIC DENSITY IN CRYSTALS: examples
14
BCC
ATOMIC DENSITY IN CELLS
Linear Atomic Density:
15
ATOMIC PLANAR DENSITY IN CELLS
A
B
C
D
E
B A
C
D
E
N =4
R= (a-2r)=0,41r
N =6
R= (a-2r)=0,15r
N =6
R=0,41r
N=8 N=12
N=12
R
t
=0,225r
{111} there are 4 {110} there are 6 {0001} there is 1
<110> there are 6 <111> there are 4 <2110> there are 3
Summary
Topic 2: Structure of materials (III)
Universidad
www.uc3m.es
TOPIC 2. STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS III
Topic 2.3:
- Crystalline defects.
- Solid solutions.
PERFECT AND IMPERFECT CRYSTALS
2
Perfect crystal: All the atoms are in the ideal lattice positions (only true
at 0 K).
Real crystal: atoms vibrate
- There positions that are not occupied (vacancies)
- atoms displaced from ideal positions
- There are defects that modify the properties
3
Thermodynamics Justify of defects, as G
crystal
Creation of a defect H > 0 and S > 0
Configuration Entropy S = k
B
ln W
K
B
= Boltzmann constant =1.380622 10
-23
JK
-1

W=way of distributing n defects in N possible
positions arbitrarily
In 1 mol of C
+
there are N
A
possibilities to create 1 vacancy
W 10
23
When T [defects]
Vacancy or defect:
H<T S
G= H-T S<0
PERFECT AND IMPERFECT CRYSTALS
4
1. Point :
Vacancies
Interstitials
Substitutional
Schottky
Frenkel
Order-Disorder

2. Linear: dislocations:
Edge
Screw
Mixed
3. Complex: "clusters"
4. Planar or Extended
External Surfaces
Grain Boundaries
Twin Boundaries
Stacking Faults
DEFECTS TYPES (according to dimensions)
5
Vacancy: When an atom is missing from a position where it should be.
Interstitial: An atom from the crystal occupies the place of an
interstitial (self-interstitial or interstitialcy)
n
v
= n vacancies per cm
3
N= n of lattice points per cm
3
n
v
/N = fraction of vacancies
H
v
= Formation energy (J.mol
-1
)
They are produced : during solidification (impurities, alloys)
by particle bombardment with E
during plastic deformation (processing)
when T thermal vibrations n
v
vacancies concentration
at equilibrium
POINT DEFECTS: VACANCIES AND INTERSTITIALS
6
Schottky Defect: Vacancy in an ionic crystal.
In order to maintain neutrality Anionic and cationic vacancies
appear
Frenkel Defect: migration of an ion from its normal position to an
interstitial position (combination vacancy-interstitial)
POINT DEFECTS: SCHOTTKY AND FRENKEL
DEFECTS IN IONIC CRYSTALS
7
N of Schottky defects: n
s

N of Frenkel defects : n
F
H
S
= E for Schottky defect creation
H
F
= E for Frenkel defect creation
N= n of lattice positions
N
i
= n of interstitial positions
T= Temperature (K)
In a crystal H
S
H
F
the defect with the
lowest H will form
n defects increases with temperature
8
NaCl (T
f
=801 C) H
s
= 3.69x10
-19
J
T=300K n
s
= 2.64x10
4
vacancies/mol
T=1000K n
s
= 9.38x10
17
vacancies/mol
MgO H
s
= 10.57x10
-19
J
T=300K n
s
= 2.12x10
-32
vacancies/mol
T=1000K n
s
= 1.39x10
7
vacancies/mol
H
s
(MgO) > H
s
(NaCl)
n
s
low, more difficult to create vacancies.
Compound H (eV) H (10
-19
J)
Schottky defects
MgO 10.57 6.60
CaO 9.77 6.10
LiF 3.75 2.34
LiCl 3.40 2.12
NaCl 3.69 2.30
KCl 3.62 2.26
Frenkel defects
ZrO
2
6.57 4.10
CaF
2
4.49 2.80
SrF
2
1.12 0.70
AgCl 2.56 1.60
AgBr 1.92 1.20
9
Order-disorder phenomena (in substitutional solid solutions):
Atoms of one sub-lattice occupy positions corresponding to the other and
vice versa (metallic alloys). Solids with elements that have similar
electronegativity
' Cu/Zn (bcc)
450 C
T>390 C
Disordered
T<390 C
Ordered
Cu-Au Alloys
Brass (ordered)
Brass ': Cu centre Zn corners
Brass : Cu and Zn arbitrarily distributed in BCC
POINT DEFECTS: ORDER-DISORDER IN SOLID SOLUTIONS
Topic 2: Structure of materials (IV)
Universidad
www.uc3m.es
TOPIC 2. STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS IV
Topic 2.4:
-Mass transport: diffusion.
DEFINITION OF DIFFUSION
2
Diffusion (transport phenomena): mechanisms by which material is
transported through the material.
Diffusion: movement of atoms through the material.
3
DIFFUSION is RAPID in...
Open crystalline structures
Materials with low T
m

Increasing the T
Small species
DIFFUSION is SLOWER in...
Compact crystalline structures
Materials with high T
m

Covalent materials
Large species
STRUCTURE VS DIFFUSION
4
What is necessary
for diffusion?
EMPTY SITE
ENERGY
Mechanisms
of diffusion
Vacancies
Interstitials
DIFFUSION MECHANISMS
DIFFUSION MECHANISMS
6
Atoms movement
As T
[defects]
E
thermal
<>

E
act
diffusion
1) E
thermal
to overcome E
activation
2) Displacement of vacancies or defects. Vacancies
are defects in equilibrium and are always present.
VACANCY DIFFUSION
A B B A solution
solution
MeIting Temperature
(
o
C)
CrystaI
structure
Activation
energy (kJ/moI)
Zinc 419 HCP 91.6
Aluminium 660 FCC 165
Copper 1083 FCC 196
Nickel 1452 FCC 293
Molybdenum 2600 BCC 460
7
When T
melting
E
a

Given that if T
m
E
bond

ACTIVATION ENERGY
8
Atoms in interstitial positions are displaced to other interstitial positions without
displacing permanently any atoms of the matrix
The atoms that diffuse
interstitially are small with
respect to the matrix (i.e.:
in metals: C, H, O, N)
INTERSTITIAL DIFFUSION
Vacancy
nterstitial
9
J=n atoms (or mass) per unit surface and
time along distance x (at/m
2
s or kg/m
2
s)
C/ x= concentration gradient in x direction
(at/m
3
or kg/m
3
)
D= diffusivity or diffusion coefficient (m
2
/s)
STEADY STATE DIFFUSION : Fick's 1
st
law
Unit area
10
Steady state conditions: The concentration of solute atoms at any point
does not change with time.
The diffusion flux does not change with time
STEADY STATE DIFFUSION : Fick's 1
st
law
11
ExampIe: Diffusion of inert gas through a Iayer of Pd. H
2
Purification
STEADY STATE DIFFUSION : example
12
NON-STEADY STATE DIFFUSION : Fick's 2
nd
law
Distance x
The diffusion flux and concentration gradient at some particular point in the solid
vary with time, resulting in net accumulation or depletion of diffusing species
13
nd
law
14
Example: diffusion of a gas (with constant surface concentration) in the interior of a semi
infinite solid (carbon diffusion in steel, saturation of a metal with atmospheric gases)
nd
law
C
t
may be determined at any time and position if the
parameters C
o
, C
s
and D are known
15
DIFFUSIVITY
SoIute SoIvent
Structure soIvent
Diffisivity at 500
o
C
m
2
/s
Diffisivity at
1000
o
C m
2
/s
Carbon ron FCC 5 x10
-15*
3 x10
-11
Carbon ron BCC 10
-12
2x10
-9*
ron ron FCC 2x10
-23*
2x10
-16
ron ron BCC 10
-20
3x10
-14*

Nickel ron FCC 10
-23
2x10
-16*

Manganese ron FCC 3X10
-24*
10
-16
silver Silver (crystal) - 10
-12

silver Silver (grain
boudnary)
10
-11
-
Carbon Titanium HCP 3x10
-16
2x10
-11*

*
metastable phases

16
a) Diffusion mechanism: Atom size
C diffuses interstitially in Fe-
Fe diffuses by vacancy diffusion in Fe-
b) Type of crystalline structure of the matrix lattice (solvent)
D
(C in Fe- , FCC)
=5.10
-15
m
2
/s < D
(C in Fe- , BCC)
=10
-12
m
2
/s
packing factor (BCC) < packing factor (FCC)
d
interatomic
(BCC) > d
interatomic
(FCC)
c) Type of imperfections or defects in the crystal:
Open structures (more holes) D
D
surface
> D
grain

boundary
> D
volume
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DIFFUSIVITY
17
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE DIFFUSIVITY
18
Cementation of gears CH
4
H
2
Fabrication of integrated circuits with Si wafers : diffusion of
impurities.
Si powder nitriding : Si
3
N
4
Diffusion soldering
Sintering
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS EXAMPLES
Titanium nitride coated drill ; http://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Titanium_nitride_coating_90.jpg
Aluminium Titanium Nitride coated Endmill recoated tools
File:AlTiNCoatedEndmill_NanoShieldPVD_Thailand.JPG
19
Case Hardening - Cementation
(Interstitial diffusion) Diffusion of C
atoms in the surface of a steel
component .
The C atoms "block the movement of
dislocations, deform the lattice, make
more difficult plastic deformation
Hardening
The excess of C in the surface leaves a
state of residual stresses in
compression
CASE HARDENING - CEMENTATION
William D. Callister, Jr. , Materials Science and Engineering : An
ntroduction, John Wiley & Sons, nc.
Topic 3. Phase diagrams
Sophia A. Tsipas & Miguel Angel Martinez Casanova
Universidad
www.uc3m.es
Materials Science and Engineering
1
TOPIC 3. Phase Diagrams I
Basic concepts:
Component, phase, micro constituent.
Unary or one component phase diagrams.
Binary isomorphous phase diagrams.
Gibbs Phase Rule.
Tie line and lever rule.
Binary eutectic systems.
Precipitation in solid state.
Invariant reactions.
Intermetallic components.
Congruent and incongruent melting.
2
Component
Chemical substance or compound with fixed composition that can form part of a
phase or alloy. Examples: Aluminium (Al), Alumina (Al
2
O
3
).
Phase
Chemically and structurally homogeneous area that forms part of the
microstructure. Could be formed by one or various components. Examples:
Ferrite (solid solution Fe-C with BCC structure) austenite (solid solution Fe-C
with FCC structure), calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
)
Microconstituent
Each one of different structures that
can be observed
on a polished surface
of the material.
Can be formed by one
or various phases
1
2
3
1: Ferrite
2 and 3: pearlite (ferrite + cementite)
BASIC CONCEPTS
Secondary electron image of a polished and etched section of a steel
helical gear. Microstructure consists of pearlite in a ferrite matrix.
Etched in 3% nital. 2000X
3
Equilibrium diagram :
Map of the phases in thermodynamic equilibrium that are present in a
system of materials at different pressures, temperatures and compositions.
- There is no liquid CO
2
at T
room
and
ambient pressure.
- Gradient of P/T > 0, as it is in almost all
substances.
- Triple-point: gas, liquid and solid are at
equilibrium.
- At T below the triple point CO
2
can
sublime: gas solid (dry ice)
- Above T
c
= 32 C and P
c
=73 atm supercritical
CO
2
fluid (used to extract caffeine from coffee)
Dry ice or card ice: solid CO
2
Phase diagram of CO
2
DEFINITION OF EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAM
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dry_ce_Sublimation_1.jpg
4
Phase diagram of water
UNARY OR ONE COMPONENT PHASE DIAGRAM : P-T
Cooling curve for water at 1 bar
T
m
T
v
phase diagram of water
The unary phase diagram shows
the P and T conditions at which
thermodynamically distinct
pahses can occur in equilibrium
5
Design of a phase diagram from the cooling curves
BINARY ISOMORPHOUS PHASE DIAGRAMS
SYSTEMS OF 2 COMPONENTS WITH COMPLETE SOLID SOLUBILITY
6
GIBBS PHASE RULE
F = Degrees of freedom (No. of independent
variables available to the system)
C =No. of components
P =No. of phases
N=No. of noncompositional variables (e.g.
pressure and temperature)
F = C - P + N
F = C P + 2
For routine processing of materials,
we can consider the pressure to be
fixed at 1atm:
=> F = C - P + 1
1- 1 2 2
1- 2 2 1
1- 2 2 1
1- 3 2 0
1- 2 2 1
7
Complete Solid Solubility
Complete solubility in
solid state.
The alloy does not
solidify at a constant
temperature but at a
range of temperatures
Polycrystalline single
phase material.
Its microstructure is not
different from that of
the pure metal.
When solute is added,
T
m
is modified
All liquid
Crystalites of
solid (SS) in
matrix of liquid
Polycrystaline
solid (SS)
TIE LINE AND LEVER RULE
- Determination of Phase composition: Tie line
- Determination of Phase Amounts: Lever rule
Phase composition (Tie Line):
- Intersections of the tie line with phase
boundaries
- Composition of the respective phases
is given by the composition axis
8
LEVER RULE
Determination of Phase Amounts
- The fraction of each phase is
computed by taking the length of
the tie line from the overall alloy
composition to the phase
boundary of the phase, and
diving by the total line length
W
L
= fraction of liquid phase
W = fraction of phase
9
Non-equilibrium solidification
Microstructures of
heterogeneous composition are
produced
MICROsegregation (or cored
structure)
Microsegrgation (or coring) can be
eliminated with homogenization
heat treatment at T below solidus
(Example: T
TT
< T
7
). During heat
treatment solid state diffusion
occurs
11
Eutectic reaction
L
INVARIANT REACTIONS: They are produced at a fixed composition and
temperature for a given system, and the result also remains fixed
In a system of two partially soluble components a solidification reaction is produced at a
fixed composition and temperature with a profile of temperature gradient similar to pure
solids.
BINARY EUTECTIC SYSTEMS
Cooling curve at eutectic Temperature
12
Eutectic product
Eutectic reaction and microstructure
Photomicrograph of lead-tin
alloy (eutectic). Lead-tin
eutectic. Magnified 750
diameters.
Photomicrograph of steel. Pearlite, steel (carbon about 1%)
forged and annealed at 800 C. Magnified 1000 diameters
13
a) Sn-50%In. globules of
tin-rich intermetallic phase
(light) in a matrix of dark
indium-rich intermetallic
phase.
b) Al-13%Si. Acicular
structure consisting of
short, angular particles of
silicon (dark) in a matrix of
aluminum.
c) Al-33%Cu. Lamellar
dark platelets of CuAl
2
and
light platelets of aluminum
solid solution
d) Mg-37%Sn. Lamellar
Mg
2
Sn Chinese
script (dark) in a matrix of
magnesium solid solution.
Metallography and Microstructures,
Vol 9, ASM Handbook, ASM
nternational,
14
Hypo-Eutectic composition
Microstructure:
primary and eutectic
micoconstituent
Hypo-Eutectic cooling curve
eutectic
L
L
L
Lead tin alloy 50 wt% Pb. primary
lead-rich phase (large dark regions)
within a lamellar eutectic structure
consisting of a tin-rich phase (light
layers) and a lead-rich phase
(dark layers).
Metallography and Microstructures,
Vol 9, ASM Handbook, ASM
nternational,
Hyper-Eutectic compositions
Microstructure:
primary and eutectic
micoconstituent
Hyper-Eutectic cooling curve
eutectic
L
L
L
Metallography and Microstructures, Vol 9,
ASM Handbook, ASM nternational,
Sn-30Pb hypoeutectic alloy
showing particles of tin-rich
solid solution in a matrix of tin-
lead eutectic.
16
SOLID STATE PRECIPITATION
L
L
phase precipitates at grain boundaries (typical)
Uniform dispersion of phase precipitates
can be achieved with a precipitation
hardening heat treatment
phase precipitates uniformly (ideal)
LEVER RULE IN BINARY EUTECTIC PHASE DIAGRAMS
W
e
= fraction eutectic microconstituent
W
L
= fraction of liquid phase
W

= fraction of ' phase (primary )
W = total fraction of (primary + in eutectic)
W =fraction of phase (total)
17
P Q
R
18.3
C
o 61.9

97.8

18
MONOTECTIC
INVARIANT REACTIONS
Mototectic reaction:
L
1
L
2
+
It occurs when there
is a miscibility gap in
the liquid phase:
Miscibility gap: two liquid
phases co-exist
19
PERITECTIC
INVARIANT REACTIONS
Peritectic reaction:
L
PERITECTIC
20
EUTECTOID
INVARIANT REACTIONS
Eutoctoid reaction:

EUTECTOID
Eutoctoid and Peritectoid reactions:
Solid state reactions
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phase_diag_iron_carbon.PNG
21
PERITECTOID
INVARIANT REACTIONS
Peritectiod reaction:

PERITECTOID
Two solid phases react to give a completely different solid phase

22
INTERMETALLICS
- Intermetallic compound (or intermediate solid solution) : made
up of two or more components, producing a new phase with its
own composition, crystal structure and properties
CONGRUENT AND INCONGRUENT MELTING
- A component is said to melt congruently when the liquid formed
upon melting has the same composition as the solid from which it
was formed
- e.g. pure metals
- A component is said to melt incongruently when the liquid
formed upon melting has a composition other than the one of the
solid from which it was formed
- e.g. peritectic reaction: + L .
23
INTERMETALLICS. CONGRUENT AND INCONGRUENT MELTING
Congruent melting:
Ti
5
Si
3
; TiSi
2
ncongruent melting:
Ti
3
Si ; Ti
5
Si
4
; TiSi

Topic 4: Mechanical properties (I)
Universidad
www.uc3m.es
Materials Science and Engineering
1
TOPIC 4. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

1.Definition of mechanical properties.
2.Stress-strain concepts
3.Elastic Deformation.
4.Plastic Deformation.
Slipping Systems.
Strengthening mechanisms: Solid Solution, Grain Size Reduction and Strain
Hardening.
5.Ceramics : Flexural Strength or Modulus of Rupture
6.Polymers: Particularities. Deformation Mechanisms, rate, temperature. Creep testing .
7.Hardness: definition, qualitative and quantitative testing: Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers.
Relation of hardness with other mechanical properties.
Sophia A. Tsipas / Mnica Campos / Elisa M Ruz-Navas
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
2
Mechanical properties: strength, hardness, ductility, stiffness ...
Mechanical properties determine the behaviour of materials determine
applications.
Simple tension : wire
A
0
= area res|slarl lo l|e lorce
F F
( < 0)
h
< 0
Load
Deformation
Microstructure
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
3
Test types
How is the response of a materiaI to a
F
appIied
measured?
Determine materials properties and determine their
possible uses.
Quality control in the fabrication process.
Determine the previous history and composition of
materials.
Establish the failure causes of the material during
service
Study new type of materials
Knowledge of
mechanical
properties:
TESTS
Service Conditions
UNIAXIAL TENSION TEST
4
Test mostly used NORMALIZED
-It is realized at a constant load velocity
-Destructive test
SHACKELFORD, J.F.: "nt. to Materials Sci. for Engineers",
Prentice Hall, 4 Ed.,
Material to test : SPECIMEN uniform transversal
section
Calibration length Should be long enough so that is
transmitted in a uniform way
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tensile_specimen_nomenclature.svg
STRESS - STRAIN CURVE
5
-MPa (10
6
N/m
2
)
-psi (pounds/inch
2
)
Nominal stress (
n
):
Nominal strain (
n
):
CURVE PARAMETERS
Youngs modulus Tensile Strength
Yield stress (
y
) Resilience
Strain Toughness
Plastic zone
>
y

Engineering strain (
n
)
Elastic zone
<
y
STRAN TO FRACTURE
UNFORM DEFORMATON
YELD STRENGTH
yielding occurs at the
onset of plastic or
permanent
deformation
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: ELASTIC ZONE <
y
6
a) Linear

= E Hookes law
E: Young's ModuIus or EIastic ModuIus
Stiffness of material or resistance to elastic deformation
When the load is removed The specimen recovers its original shape
Elastic means reversible !
F

Linear- eIastic
1. nitial state 2. Small F 3. Unload
F
extension
bond
Returns to initiaI
state

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: ELASTIC ZONE <
y
7
E: Young's ModuIus or EIastic ModuIus
Stiffness of material or resistance to elastic deformation
When the load is removed The specimen recovers its original shape
b) Non linear
It is produced in some materials (some polymers, concrete, gray cast irons)
2
1
Modulus secant
between origin
and
1
Modulus tangent
in
2

ELASTIC DEFORMATION: ATOMIC SCALE
E= f (bond strength) if bond strength E
Mechanism associated with Elastic deformation= Bonds relaxation.
E
ceramics
>E
metals
>E
polymers
At atomic scale the macroscopic elastic deformation
it appears as small changes in the interatomic
space and the bonds between atoms are stressed
(the atoms are displaced from the original positions without
reaching other positions)
Bond force T melting
9
Separation r
+
-
0
Strongly bonded
weakly bonded
Material Modulus
E (GPa)
Density
(Mg m
-3
)
Specific modulus
E (Gpa/Mg m
-3
)
Steels 210 7.8 27
Al alloys 70 2.7 26
Alumina Al
2
O
3
393 3.9 100
Silica SiO
2
69 2.6 27
Cement 45 2.4 19
E VALUES FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS
10
MateriaI ModuIus of
EIasticity (GPa)
ModuIus of
EIasticity (10
6
psi)
MetaI aIIoys
Tungsten 407 59
Nickel 207 30
Titanium 107 15
Ceramic MateriaIs
Alumina (Al
2
O
3
) 393 57
Silicon nitride Si
3
N
4
345 50
Zirconia 205 30
Magnesium Oxide (MgO)
Soda-lime glass 69 10
PoIymers
PVC 2.41-4.14 0.35-0.60
PET 2.76-4.14 0.40-0.60
PS 2.28-3.28 0.33-0.47
PMMA 2.24-3.24 0.33-0.47
HDPE 1.08 0.16
Poisson's ratio Relation between transverse and axial strain
All elastic longitudinal deformation dimensional transverse
11 Sophia A. Tsipas / Mnica Campos / Elisa M Ruz-Navas
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: PLASTIC ZONE >
y

-If F=0 >0
Breaking and formation of new bonds no recovering of
initial form
is not proportional to Permanent deformation
Forming through
deformation
n the majority of metals
plastic max.
= 0,5%
Dislocations
movement
The atoms are displaced
permanently from their initial
positions to new positions
12
2. F
F

Plastic means !

pI stica
Bond
extension
and sIip
2. F
3. Unload
F

eIastic + pIastic
permanent !
1. nitial state
pIastic
SIip remains

F

pIastic
Linear- eIastic
Linear-
eIastic
-
P
without dislocations: we have to break simultaneously various bonds and
remake them through slipping.
-
P
with dislocations: The breakage and formation of bonds is sequential
Lower energy consumption When dislocations are moving, it is easier to glide atoms
Consequences: they could be displaced inside the crystal with relatively low forces and
produce the complete displacement on crystalline planes .
Explain:
- Plastic deformation in
metals (workability and
ductility)
- E
theoretical
> E
exp
.
Gliding of dislocations
13
PLASTIC DEFORMATION: SLIPPING OF DISLOCATIONS
TEM micrograph of (precipitate and dislocations in austenitic
stainless steel http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TEM2.jpg
For plastic deformation without
dislocations: several bonds have
to be broken simultaneously and
remade after sliding.
Dislocations allow for a step by
step (incremental) breaking and
creation of bonds: much less
energetic cost!
Dislocations movement parallel to the directions of maximum packing smaller
burgers vector (repeat distance) and greater distance between planes easy
slipping
A.R. West. Solid State Chemistry and its
applications. Wiley.Chichester,1992
Compact Direction
NON Compact Direction
E
b
4R
2

E used to move a dislocation= E |b|
2
|b|= 2R
15
E
b
8R
2

PLASTIC DEFORMATION: SLIP SYSTEMS
16
Slipping directions and planes SLIPPING SYSTEMS
CrystaI
Structure
SIip pIane SIip
diraction
Number of
sIip systems
ExampIes Unit ceII
geometry
bcc {110} <111> 12
-Fe, Mo, W
fcc {111} <110> 12
Al, Cu, Fe, Ni
hcp (0001) <1120> 3
Cd, Mg, -Ti, Zn
PLASTIC DEFORMATION: SLIP SYSTEMS
Direction of force
Slip plane
Slip in a zinc single crystal. (From C.
F. Elam, The Distortion of Metal Crystals,
Oxford University Press, London, 1935.)
n a single crystal slip commences on the most
favorably oriented slip system when the resolved
shear stress reaches some critical value.
Slip occurs at various positions along the specimen
length along a number of equivalent and most
favorably oriented planes and directions
above which permanent deformation is produced
Criteria for the calculation of the Yield Stress
Yield stress (
y
) or Yield Strength
F 0 ,
t
=
e
+
p
F=0,
t
=
p
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: CALCULATION OF THE YIELD STRESS
Design parameter
Conventional Yield Stress: The most frequently used in metals 0,2% of
Depending on the deformation of material we adopt criteria
y
= (0,2% of )
18
elastic plastic
Strain (mm/mm)
above which permanent deformation is produced
Criteria for the calculation of the Yield Stress
Yield stress (
y
) or Yield Strength
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: CALCULATION OF THE YIELD STRESS
19
Discontinuity phenomena in the yield point:
Low carbon steels ,some polymers , etc...
Depending on the deformation of material we adopt criteria
Strain
Upper yield point
Lower yield point
Tensile strength
Due to the variability in mechanical properties
Design
security
(
w
) working stress
y
= yieId slienglh
N= 1.2 -4 (+ usuaIIy 2)
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: SECURITY FACTOR
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: CALCULATION OF UTS AND
fracture
Tensile Strength or Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
Maximum nominal stress that supports the specimen under tension
21
ENGNEERNG STRAN (
n
)
UNFORM DEFORMATON
STRAN TO FRACTURE
YELD STRENGTH
Tensile strength
0.002
James F. Shackefold, ntroduction to materials
science for engineers, Prentice Hall
Necking of the material begins at maximum stress
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: CALCULATION OF UTS AND
fracture
Stress that the material supports at the point of fracture
Fracture stress or Fracture strength
The more ductile the material, the higher the amount of necking or constriction,
The
fracture
gives an idea of the presence of defects (porosity, inclusions) in the
material if the value is very low
22
ENGNEERNG STRAN (
n
)
UNFORM DEFORMATON
STRAN TO FRACTURE
YELD STRENGTH
Fracture strength
Side view of a flat broken tensile sample, showing
the necking and the 45 direction of fracture.
It is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation
grade that can be supported by a material before
fracture, f(T)
% Elongation after failure Percentage of plastic strain at fracture
l
o
is the initial gauge length between marks
l
f
is the final length between marks after
fracture
Before fracture F 0 ,
t
=
e
+
p
After fracture F=0,
t
=
p
23
It is measured once the specimen
has fractured The material has
recovered the elastic deformation
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: DUCTILITY
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: DUCTILITY
% Reduction in area
(constriction)
Area under the curve
It is measured when the specimen
has fractured. A
o
is the initial
cross sectional area
A
f
is the final cross sectional area
It is a measure of toughness: "Ability
to absorb energy up to fracture, by
elastic and plastic deformation
Normally (%) AR(%)
The ductility indicates to the designer up to what point a material can deform before it
fractures and how many forming operations can be performed. Eg.: lamination
24
Strain
DuctiIe
BrittIe
Tensile strength
Fracture strength
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: TOUGHNESS
Ability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture, by elastic and plastic
deformation
Important in structural
applications
Ability to absorb energy
(protection and security systems,
automotion)
Fracture type (ductile,
brittle)
Fracture toughness
E
elastic+plastic

deformation
per unit Volume (Pa or J/m
3
)
25
The stress-strain curve gives the ability of
the material to absorb energy up to
fracture, by elastic and plastic deformation
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE : RESILIENCE
E
deformation
per unit Volume (Pa or J/m
3
) necessary to deform a material up to the yield point
Integrating, if the elastic region is linear
Materials with Resilience:

y
E
Capacity of a material to absorb E
elastic
when it is
deformed elastically.
Area under the curve
Application: alloys to fabricate springs
26
Modulus of Resilience U
r
TRUE STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
Original dimensions change during the test
real
>
eng
and
real
<
eng

True Strain: when the strains are large (plastic
zone) the longitudinal base changes during the
test.

r
= ln (1 +
eng
)
We define L = L
0
(1+
eng
)
After necking: deformation is not uniform. The volume affected remains the
same V = 0 it is true that AL= A
0
L
0

A: area at any instant
A
0
: initial area
Before necking
After necking
27
TRUE STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
Original dimensions change during the test
real
>
eng
y
real
<
eng

True or real stress (
r
):
Since V = 0 it is true that AL= A
0
L
0

(until the beginning of necking)
After necking:
28
STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS
29
TYPES:
Strain Hardening
Solid Solution Strengthening
Precipitation Hardening
Grain Size Reduction Strengthening.
The plastic deformation dislocations movement
A restriction exists towards the movement of dislocations
Necessary stress to activate the slip system STRENGTHENING
STRAIN HARDENING
It is the increase in strength and hardness when a material is plastically deformed
The cold plastic deformation generates dislocations (of 10
6
m/m
3
to 10
12
m/m
3
) and the
increase in dislocation density makes difficult further plastic deformation
30 Sophia A. Tsipas / Mnica Campos / Elisa M Ruz-Navas
31
-Cu-Zn
Fe-0.3-0.4%C
-Cu-Zn
Fe-0.3-0.4%C
STRAIN HARDENING
William D. Callister, Jr., Materials Science and Engineering : An ntroduction,
John Wiley & Sons, nc.
SOLID SOLUTION STRENGTHENING
32
Interstitials
A vacancy occupied by a solute of smaller radius:
atoms of the solvent submitted to tension
A vacancy occupied by a solute of greater radius:
atoms of the solvent submitted
to compression
Lattice
Distortion
The movement of
dislocations becomes
difficult
Hardening
Cu-Ni
Alloying elements:
- Improve mechanical properties (yield strength, UTS,hardness)
-Decrease ductility, R
corrosin
,
electric
33
SOLID SOLUTION STRENGTHENING
GRAIN SIZE REDUCTION STRENGTHENING
34
The grain boundary makes difficult dislocations
sliding Angle between grains
The grain boundaries separate crystals with different orientation.
The grain boundary width: 2-5 interatomic spaces
William D. Callister, Jr., Materials Science and Engineering : An ntroduction,
John Wiley & Sons, nc.
Grain
boundary
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Joint_de_grain_reseau_coincidence.svg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Joint_de_faible_desorientation.svg
Topic 5. Metallic materials (III)
Sophia A. Tsipas, Elena Gordo & A. Jimnez Morales
TOPIC 5. METALLIC MATERIALS
Topic 5.3:
Most important ferrous alloys:
Low alloy
Stainless
Tool steels
Cast Irons
Light Alloys:
Aluminium alloys
Titanium alloys
Copper-based alloys: brasses and bronzes
1
Universidad
www.uc3m.es
Steels
< 2 %C
Cast Irons
> 2 %C
Ferrous Alloys (90%)
METALLIC MATERIALS
Low alloy
5% alloying elements
High alloy
>5% alloying
elements
Grey Iron
Ductile or
Nodular Iron
White Iron
Malleable Iron
Low C (< 0,25 %)
- plain
- HSLA
Medium C (0,25 - 0,6 %)
- plain
- Heat Treatable
High C (0,6 - 1,4 %)
- plain
- Tool
Tool steels
Stainless steels
3
STEELS CASTINGS
Hyper-
eutectoid Hypoeutectics
Hypereutectics
AUSTENITE (Fe )
FCC Structure
FERRITE (Fe )
BCC Structure
Hypo-
eutectoid
Peritectic
Eutectic
6,67
Fe-C SYSTEM
Eutectoid
A
3
A
cm
A
1
Ferrous Alloys: Low alloy steels
4
0.1 - 0.25 % C Ferrite proeutectoid
+ Pearlite (small quantities)
High formability, high ductility: deformation: ~30%
Relatively low strength; yield strength 200~400MPa
Good weldability
Can NOT be hardened by heat treatment
Normally hardened by cold working
Typical applications: pipelines, sheets, car body components, cans, structural
shapes, I beans, etc.
LOW-CARBON STEEL (Mild Steel)
(0.18% carbon)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:I-
Beam_002.JPG
http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/File:Steel_tower.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
114_inch_pipe_installation.jpg
File:Hyundai_car_assembly_line.jpg
Ferrite (light gray) and perlite (dark
gray)
100m
5
0.25-0.55%C Ferrite proeutectoide + pearlite
Good combination of strength and ductility
Yield strength: 300~ 600MPa
Tensile strength: 400~ 800MPa
Deformation: ~25%
Strengthened by heat treatment
Weldable (weldability as % C )
Used for structural applications, railway wheels and tracks, crankshafts,
gears, heavy machinery, mining, cranes
MEDIUM-CARBON STEEL (STRUCTURAL STEELS)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Reduction_Gear.jpg
File:DrillingMachine_Drill_bits.jpg
http://
commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Cranes.jpg
6
Steels for springs: 0.6~0.8%C Pearlite (predominantly)
Normally strengthened by heat treatment
High strength / moderate toughness
Tool steels :
0.8~1.2%C Cementite proeutectoide + pearlite
High hardness, low toughness, difficult to machine
Used for chisel, hammer, knifes,
saw blades, drill bits, dies, punch,
cutlery and wear applications
low weldability and machinability
Punches and dies
HIGH-CARBON STEELS
springs
http://
commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Spring05.jpg
http://
www.winstonandallan.co.uk/
punches_dies.html
7
Steels with high yield strength
Composition: C: 0.05-0.1% Nb, V, Ti: 0.1%
Properties:
strength,
y,
good toughness (T
trans
.=-70 C),
Cost
Microestructure:
Fine Ferrite grain with MC and MN precipitates.
MICROALLOYED STEELS: High Strength Low Alloy, HSLA
Applications: big welded structures (Sydney bridge), marine laminated sheets,
marine platforms, tubes for pipelines, pressure vessels and storage tanks.
8
General considerations
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Cost
Weldability
Most used
Relatively low strength
Low hardenability
Low corrosion resistance
9
Fe-C with more alloying elements: > 5% in weight of alloying elements
- They are stainless if weight % of Cr> 12%
(STAINLESS STEELS)
(>20%Cr: excellent high temperature oxidation resistance: REFRACTORY STEELS)
Corrosion resistance:
Cr presents affinity for O
2
protective impermeable Cr
2
O
3
layer
TYPES: AUSTENITIC Stainless Steels
FERRITIC Stainless Steels
MARTENSITIC Stainless Steels
- High mechanical properties: hardness
(TOOL STEELS)
Corrosion resistance:
Austenitic>Ferritic>Martensitic
MechanicaI strenght
Martensitic>Austenitic>Ferrtic
Ferrous Alloys: High alloy steels
13
Can be plain carbon steels, or alloyed steel, that can be heat treated by quenching
and tempering.
They are fabricated by melting and forming in order to achieve the desired
properties.
They can be used as hand tools, or as machine components for cutting and forming both
for cold or hot working.
In all its applications wear resistance, mechanical strength and toughness are
necessary requirements.
Ferrous Alloys: Tool Steels
Their properties are a consequence of the martensitic
matrix and the presence of carbides (high hardness
particles) in the microstructure.
14
punching dies and cutting tools
Properties
harness (up to 65 HRC)
Hardness at high temperatures
Toughness
Hadenability
Wear resistance
AISI CIassification
(American Iron and SteeI Institute)
Quenched in water
Low alloyed for special applications
For dies
Resistant to thermal shock
For cold working
For hot working
High speed steel
Ha|n a||oy|ng e|ements
6r, V, w, Ho, 6o, Hn
( - } a||oy|ng e|ements
( + } a||oy|ng e|ements
Cr, V, W, Mo: carbide forming
Mn: hardenability
Co: high temperature resistance
Drill bits
File:TiNCoatedPunches_NanoShieldPVD_Thaila
nd.JPG
In HIGH SPEED STEELS
(HSS) the phenomenon of
secondary hardness its
observed.
During the tempering
process after quenching, the
materiaI hardens, as opposed
to conventionaI steeIs where
they become softer.
In general, for tool steels, the heat treatments
performed after forming are very important.
Alloying compositions of common high speed steel grades (by %
wt)
Grade C Cr Mo W V Co Mn Si
M2 0.95 4.2 5.0 6.0 2.0 - - -
M7 1.00 3.8 8.7 1.6 2.0 - - -
M35 0.94 4.1 5.0 6.0 2.0 5.0 - -
M42 1.10 3.8 9.5 1.5 1.2 8.0 - -
Note that impurity limits are not included
Ferrous Alloys: Cast Irons
CAST IRONS (low melting T
casting)
Fe-C alloys with %C > 2 %
White Cast Iron
Solidification according to the
metastable Fe-Fe
3
C diagram
Presence of cementite. No graphite.
High hardness and wear resistance;
brittle. Limited applications -
compression
Gray Cast Iron
Solidification according to stable Fe-
C diagram
No eutectic cementite. Graphite
present in different morphologies.
Most used industrially.
Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction,
William D. Callister, Jr. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Light alloys Cu alloys
NON-Ferrous Alloys (10 %)
METALLIC MATERIALS
Super alloys Refractory
metals
Al alloys
Ti alloys
Mg alloys
Bronzes
Brasses
Alpaca
Co based
Ni based
Fe based
W, Mo, Ta, Nb
Light Alloys vs. Iron
Units Aluminium Titanium Copper Iron
Crystalline
structure
FCC
Hexagonal
882C
BCC
FCC
BCC
910C
FCC
1410C
BCC
Density g/cm
3
2,7 4,5 8,9 7,8
Mleting Temp. C 660 1660 1356 1535
Specific Heat cal/g.C 0,215 0,124 0,092 0,114
Expansion
coefficient
x 10
6
23,5 8,9 17 12
Thermal
conductivity
W/m.K 238 17 397 71
Electrical
conductivity
% 64 4 100 17
Electrochemical
potential
V -1,7 -1,6 +0.34 -0,4
Voxide/Vmetal 1,3 1,7 1,6 2,2
Corrosion
Resistance
M-R-B-E Good Excellent Good Regular
Young's Modules GPa 70 120 130 200
Tensile Strength MPa 700 1400 220 1600
Content in earth's
crust
% 8 0,9 0.12 5,8
Relative price 1 5 1 0,1
Classification of aluminium alloys
Light Alloys: aluminium alloys
Classification of aluminum alloys
Non heat-treatable Wrought aluminium alloys
1xxx - Al high purity > 99,0
3xxx - Al-Mn, Al-Mn-Mg
5xxx - Al-Mg
8xxx - Al-Ni-Fe, Al-Sn-Ni-Cu, Al-Li
DESIGNATION SYSTEM FOR AL-ALLOYS
Numerals Major alloying elements (s)
1XXX None (> 99.00% Al)
2XXX Cu
3XXX Mn
4XXX Si
5XXX Mg
6XXX Mg and Si
7XXX Zn
8XXX Other elements
Heat-treatable Wrought aluminium alloys
Alloys 2xxx (Al-Cu)
Alloys 6xxx (Al-Mg-Si)
Alloys 7xxx (Al-Zn-Mg-Cu)
1XXX None (> 99.00% Al)
2XXX Cu
3XXX Mn
4XXX Si
5XXX Mg
6XXX Mg and Si
7XXX Zn
8XXX Other elements
Heat treatment: solution heat treatment
+ quench + aging or precipitation heat
treatment precipitation hardening
Typical phase diagram in order to be able to
apply precipitation hardening heat treatment
(necessary, but not sufficient condition for
precipitation hardening)
Heat-treatable Wrought aluminium alloys
Alloys 2xxx (Al-Cu)
Alloys 6xxx (Al-Mg-Si)
Alloys 7xxx (Al-Zn-Mg-(Cu)
1XXX None (> 99.00% Al)
2XXX Cu
3XXX Mn
4XXX Si
5XXX Mg
6XXX Mg and Si
7XXX Zn
8XXX Other elements
Dislocations are anchored due to the formation of precipitates that hinder their
movement.
Precipitation hardening or age hardening
Precipitation hardening
L
Equilibrium microstructure coarse
precipitates at grain boudaries
100% solid solution
(retained upon cooling)
Fine dispersion of
precipitates within grain
(retained upon cooling)
coherent precipitates
Solvent
(Al) atom
Solvent
(Cu) atom
phase particle
phase particle
Stages in the fortmation of the equilirium precipitate ( ) phase.
Supersaturaed solid solution
-matrix phase
Equilibrium phase within the
-matrix phase
Transition precipitate
The alloy has
maximum strength
when the
precipitates are
coherent
Schematic diagram showing strength
and hardness as a function of the
logarithm of aging time at constant
temperature during the precipitation
heat treatment.
Incubation rate = f (T)
T lack or precipitation
hardening
T 150C: Overaging
Micrograph of the wing of an aircraft
(precipitation hardened Al-alloy)
Hardening process is accelerated
with temperature
Boeing 767
Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction,
William D. Callister, Jr. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Age hardening curves at different
temperatures
Cast aluminium alloys
- % Si : 10-13
- High fluidity
- Short freezing range (eutectic concentration)
- Low hardenabillity by quenching + tempering
- Applications: kitchen utensils, carburettor bodies,
tubing accessories.
Aluminium-Silicon (series 4xx.x)
Effects:
T
crist.
Si
Displaces the eutectic to higher %Si and lower T
eutectic Structure or hypereutectic to
hypoeutectic
File:Diagramme_binaire_al_si_fonderie.svg
Cast aluminium alloys
Special Aluminium-Silicon alloys (series 3xx.x)
Hypoeutectic Aluminium-Silicon alloys (4-10% Si) + Cu, Mg and/or Mn
Mechanical properties: UTS= 20-25 Kg/mm
2
and A= 1-6%
Effect of alloying elements :
Mg (0.3-1%) : strength (precipitation hardening Mg
2
Si)
Cu (1-4%) : strength at high T
Applications: pistons, cylinders blocks and lids (combustion motors)
automatic transmissions
Light Alloys: titanium alloys
Units Aluminium Titanium Copper Iron
Crystalline
structure
FCC
Hexagonal
882C
BCC
FCC
BCC
910C
FCC
1410C
BCC
Density g/cm
3
2,7 4,5 8,9 7,8
Mleting Temp. C 660 1660 1356 1535
Expansion
coefficient
x 10
6
23,5 8,9 17 12
Thermal
conductivity
W/m.K 238 17 397 71
Electrical
conductivity
% 64 4 100 17
Electrochemical
potential
V -1,7 -1,6 +0.34 -0,4
Corrosion
Resistance
Content in earth's
crust
% 8 0,9 0.12 5,8
- 4 most common metal, after Al, Fe and Mg
- High cost (difficultly in extraction and processing, very reactive)
- Light Metal: density ~4,5 g/cm
3

- High strength
-
y
410 MPa (titanium comercially pure) - 1300 MPa (alloys)
- High strength/weight ratio (aeronautical and aerospacial industry )
- Excellent corrosion resistance in salt water or acids
- Microscopic protective oxide film over the surface
- At temperatures above 480C the oxide is dissolved in titanium causing
embrittlement resistance to high temperature (up to 480 C).
- High T
m

- Allotropic Metal ( hcp bcc, to 882C)
Generals characteristics
-stabilizing : Al, O, N, C
-stabilizing isomorphic: Mo, V, Nb, Ta
-stabilizing eutectoid: Cu, Si (active),
Cr and Fe (slow)
Neutral: Zr, Sn
They can be:
Interstitial hardening
Substitutional
Types of alloying elements
http://www.titanium.org
Influence of alloying elements
Ti
T [C]
cph

bcc

882
Sn, Zr
Neutral
Ti
T [C]

882
Al, O, N, C
alpha-stabilizing
Ti
T [C]
cph

bcc

882
Mo, V, Ta, Nb
Beta-stabilizing isomorphic
Ti
T [C]
cph

bcc

882
Fe, Mn, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Si, H

beta-stabilizing eutectoid
-transus
a-transus
Four commercial groups
Ti commercially pure
alpha ( ) alloys and "near alpha alloys
+ alloys
metastable alloys
Microstructure of Ti6Al4V alloy.
Basketweave (acicular)
microstructure from a cast and
annealed Ti-6Al-4V alloy.
Metallography and Microstructures, Vol 9, ASM Handbook, ASM International,
Phase Transformations in titanium
transformations:
- Martensitic transformation
- Rapid cooling
hexagonal martensite
massive (CP Ti and dilute alloys)
acicular (alloys with high solute content)
- orthorhombic martensite (distorted structure, high solute)
- athermal phase: alloys with Ms < room T
- Nucleation and growth (diffusion)
- Slow cooling :
- precipitation of at the grain boundary of laminar structure
- Higher rate: basket weave type structure (Ti-6-4)
APLICACIONS
Aeronautic Industry
Gas Turbine, compressors
Biomaterials (implants)
Chemical Engineering and other
Sports
File:Guggenheim_titanium_panels.jpg
F-22
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EJ200-
Eurofighter-Turbine-apel.JPG
Copper Alloys
Units
Aluminiu
m
Titanium Copper Iron
Crystalline
structure
FCC
Hexagonal
882C
BCC
FCC
BCC
910C
FCC
1410C
BCC
Density g/cm
3
2,7 4,5 8,9 7,8
Mleting Temp. C 660 1660 1356 1535
Expansion
coefficient
x 10
6
23,5 8,9 17 12
Thermal
conductivity
W/m.K 238 17 397 71
Electrical
conductivity
% 64 4 100 17
Electrochemical
potential
V -1,7 -1,6 +0.34 -0,4
Corrosion
Resistance
Content in earth's
crust
% 8 0,9 0.12 5,8
Marine Industry
Conduction energy electrical, electronic
Fabrication of manufacturing goods and industrial machinery
transport and automobile Industry
Construction
Food industry
- Corrosion resistance (E = +0.34 V; noble metal )
- stability against H
2
O
- Oxidation at T >450 C
Cu +O
2
CuO (granular eutectic) Corrosion resistance (welding problems)
- Embrittlement in H
2
presence (Cu not deoxidized)
Cu
2
O + H
2
2 Cu + H
2
O (g) V > 0 microcracks
Solution: - P addition
- O
2
Elimination (heat treatment in reducing atmosphere). Oxygen free
high conductivity (OFHC) copper
- Soluble in weak acids and NH
3
in air
General Characteristics
Applications
http://www.copper.org
Copper Alloys
File:Memos_Makris_00.jpg
DESIGNATION OF COPPER ALLOYS
C1xxxx Coppers and alloys with high content of Cu
C2xxxx Cu-Zn alloys (brass)
C3xxxx Cu-Zn-Pb alloys (leaded brasses)
C4xxxx Cu-Zn-Sn alloys (zinc-tin brasses)
C5xxxx Cu-Sn alloys (Tin bronzes)
C6xxxx Cu-Al alloys (aluminum bronzes), Cu-Si alloys (silicon
bronzes), and other Cu-Zn alloys
C7xxxx Cu-Ni alloys and Cu-Ni-Zn alloys (nickel silver or alpaca)
C8xxxx Cast coppers, cast brasses, Cu-Zn-Si alloys (bronzes and
silicon brass)
C9xxxx Tin bronzes and leaded tin bronzes, nickel tin bronzes,
aluminum bronzes, Copper nickel, aplaca, etc.
According to Copper Development Association (CDA)
Copper Alloys
Classification of copper alloys
Low alloyed coppers
- Common brass
Brass
- Alloyed brass
- Common bronze
Bronze - Alloyed bronze
- Special bronze
Copper
Brass
(Cu-Zn)
Berylium
Copper
(Cu-Be)
Bronze
(Cu-Sn,
Al,Si)
Copper
Nickel
(Cu-Ni)
Nickel
Silver
(Alpaca)
(Cu-Ni-
Zn)
Copper alloys
Cu-Sn Alloys
Phase diagram complexity
between 20-50% Sn
Copper Alloys: Bronze
Single phase bronze
Phase a, below ~ 16% Sn
Deformable (FCC) and work
hardenable.
Good thermal and electrical
conductivity. Corrosion
resistance.
Applications: springs, coins,
plates, wires
Two phase bronze
Phases + , below ~ 22 % Sn
Properties depend on
Low melting Temperature
good for casting: gears, valves.
NO PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Low friction coefficient
bearings
Topic 6. Ceramic materials (I)
Universidad
www.uc3m.es
TOPIC 6. CERAMIC MATERIALS
- Introduction
- Structure of Ceramic Materials
- Glasses
- Mechanical Properties of Ceramic Materials
- Processing of Ceramic Materials
- Examples of applications
1
Sophia A. Tsipas / M Eugenia Rabanal / Alejandro Vrez
2
INTRODUCTION
Inorganic Materials made from Metals and Non Metals united by ionic
and/or covalent bonds
Can be: crystalline, amorphous or mixture of both
3
GENERAL PROPERTIES
-High Young's Modulus and high melting points
Strong bonds (covalent and /or ionic)
-Limited electrical and thermal conductivity
Absence of electronic cloud (directional bond)
-Low thermal shock resistance
Coefficients of thermal expansion and thermal conductivity are low
-Refractory
Stability at high temperature (NO CREEP)
-Resistance to oxidation/corrosion
Chemical stability
4
CLASSIFICATION
Based on SiO
2
+ additives for T
f

Porous ceramics (bricks, pottery, china)
Compact ceramics (porcelain, earthware)
Refractory ceramics
Refractory ceramics (SiC, Al
2
O
3
, ZrO
2
, BeO, MgO).
Piezoelectrics and Ferroelectrics: BaTiO
3
, SrTiO
3

Electro-optics: LiNbO
3

Abrasive ceramics: nitrides and carbides Si
3
N
4
, SiC
Molecular membranes
Superconductive ceramics (YBa
2
Cu
3
O
7
)
Biomaterials : Hydroxyapatite
Clay: Al
2
O
3
SiO
2
H
2
O
Silica: SiO
2
Feldspar: K
2
O Al
2
O
3
6SiO
2
5
STRUCTURE
Percentage of ionic and covalent character of the bond for some ceramic
materials determines the CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
Ceramic
Material
Atoms
in bond
X
A
- X
B
% Ionic
Character
% Covalent
Character
MgO Mg-O 2,3 73 27
Al
2
O
3
Al-O 2,0 63 37
SiO
2
Si-O 1,7 51 49
Si
3
N
4
Si-N 1,2 30 70
SiC Si-C 0,7 11 89
6
STRUCTURE
Ions packing
Electroneutrality of ionic ceramics
Crystalline type structures
7
Ionic structure : packing of anions with cations in interstitials
The ions tend to
pack densely in
order to reduce E
total
Sizes C
+
A
-
(r
cation
< r
anion
)
Electroneutrality
Coordination Index (By increasing C.I
increase stability)
Sharing of polyhedral (sharing vertices
instead of edges or faces (increases the
distance between cations)
ELECTRONEUTRALITY IN IONIC CERAMICS
8
Arrangement of A
-
around C
+

central and C.I.
Cation/anion
Radius ratio
r
C
/r
A
C.I. 8
Corners of a cube
0.732-1.0
C.I 6
Corners of an octahedron
0.414-0.732
C.I 4
Corners of a tetrahedron
0.225-0.414
C.I. 3
Corners of a triangle
0.155-0.225
PACKING OF IONS
9
Cl
-
: cubic
Cs
+
: centre of the cube
C.I.: 8
Ceramics that have this type of structure: CsBr, TlCl, TlBr.
SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE: CsCl
Cl
-

Cs
+

10
Ceramics that have this type of structure: MgO, CaO, FeO, NiO
Cl
-
: FCC packing
Na: all octahedral interstitials.
4 Na
+
and 4 Cl
-
per unit cell C.I.=6
FCC STRUCTURE: NaCl
Cl
-

Na
+

11
S
2-
: FCC packing
Zn
2+
: tetrahedral interstitials
4 Zn
2+
and 4 S
2-
per unit cell
According to Pauling bond Zn-S ~87% covalent
Ceramics that have this type of structure: Typical semiconductors : CdS,
HgTe, NiAs, SiC, GaAs
FCC STRUCTURE: Zn Blende-ZnS
S
2-
Zn
2+

12
O
2-
: HCP packing 6 ions
Al
3+
: 2/3 octahedral interstitials 4 ions
I.C.(Al
3+
): 6 ; I.C.(O
2-
): 6
Ceramics that have this type of structure: Cr
2
O
3
, Fe
2
O
3
, AI
2
O
3
.
HCP STRUCTURE: CORUNDUM (ALUMINA)
Al
3+

O
2-

Closed-packed layer of O
2-
with 2/3
of octahedral sites filled with Al
3+
Unit cell
Top view
13
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF PEROVSKITE ABO
3
A and B cations with different size
(r
A
>>>r
B
)

O
2-
and Ca
2+
: fcc packing
Ti
4+
: 1/4 octahedral sites
C.I.(Ti
2+
): 6 ; C.I.(Ca
2+
): 12
Ceramics that adopt this type
structure:
BaTiO
3
, CaTiO
3
, SrTiO
3
,
PbZrO
3
,
,
KNbO
3
, LiNbO
3
,.
Ferroelectric Materials,
Magnetic Superconductor properties
(YBa
2
Cu
3
O
7
)

TYPE B
TYPE A
Summary of Some Common Ceramic Crystal Structures
Structure name Structu
re type
Anion
packing
Coordination numbers ExampIes
cation anion
Rock salt (sodium
chloride)
AX FCC 6 6 NCl, MgO, FeO
Cesium chloride AX Simple cubic 8 8 CsCl
Zinc Blende
(sphalerite)
AX FCC 4 4 ZnS, SiC
Fluorite AX
2
Simple cubic 8 4 CaF
2
, UO
2
ThO
2

Perovskite A X
3
FCC 12 (A)
6(B)
6 BaTiO
3
, SrZrO
3
,
SrSnO
3

Spinel A
2
X
4
FCC 4(A)
6(B)
4 MgAl
2
O
4
,
FeAl
2
O
4

15
COVALENT CERAMICS
C sp
3
c.i. 4 Tetrahedral CC
4
. Bond 100% covalent.
wear resistance hardness
tensile strength Insulator
Applications: Good abrasive properties. 89% covalent bond
High hardness, chemically inert.
16
COVALENT CERAMICS
It is a solid solution between nitrides and oxides. Derived from Si
3
N
4
, by substituting z
atoms of Si for Al atoms. In order to compensate the valence difference, the same
number of N atoms are substituted by O. Cutting tools, antifriction rollers, motors
components.
Si sp
3
c.i. 4 SiN
4
Tetrahedra
N sp
2
c.i. 3 N coordinated to 3 Si
Open structure.
70% covalent bond
-SiN
4

17
STRUCTURE OF SILICATES
Composition (wt%)
Ceramic SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
K
2
O

Mg
O
CaO Othe
r
Silica refractory 96 4
Fireclay refractory 50-70 45-25 5
Mullite refractory 28 72 -
Electrical porcelain 61 32 6 1
Steatite porcelain 64 5 30 1
Portland cement 25 9 64 2
Composition of some silicate ceramics
18
19
Type
OrthosIiIicates or oIivines
(island tetrahedra SiO
4
4-
)
Example: Forsterite (Mg
2
SiO
4
)
pyrosIiIicate
(island tetrahedra Si
2
O
7
6-
)
Example: (Ca
2
MgSi
2
O
7
)
metasiIicates (SiO
3
)
n
2n-
(ring and chain structures)

Ring structures
Examples: Wollastonite (CaSiO
3
), beryl Be
3
Al
2
(SiO
3
)
6

chain structures
Example: Enstatite (MgSiO
3
)
sheet or Iayered siIicates
(Si
2
O
5
)
2-
Example: Kaolinite clay Al
2
(Si
2
O
5
)(OH)
4

are talc [Mg
3
(Si
2
O
5
)
2
(OH)
2
]
micas [e.g., muscovite, KAl
3
Si
3
O
10
(OH)
2

3D (SiO
2
)
Quartz , tridymite,
cristobalite (SiO
2
)
pyrosIiIicates
Mg
2
SiO
4
(olivine)
20
Metasilicates (Ring and Chain Structure)
2 of the 4 O
-
atoms in the tetrahedral SiO
4
4-
are united to
another tetrahedral in order to form chains of silicate
Formula: (SiO
3
)
n
2n-
Chain Structure
Wollastonite (CaSiO
3
)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wollastonite_a_%2B_c.png
Ring Structure
File:Cyclosilicates_3.svg
22
Silica Feldspars
They share all the corners in the
tetrahedra
Unit formula : SiO
2

Presents Allotropy
Important component in many
traditional ceramics and many types of
glasses
Similar structure to Silica (Al
3+

replaces Si
4+
) lattice with (-)
charge compensates the charge
with voluminous cations (Na
+
, K
+
,
Ca
2+
, Ba
2+
) in interstitial positions .
Principal component of traditional
ceramics
-quartz
-cristobalite
-quartz
23
NON CRYSTALLINE CERAMICS : GLASSES
Contraction
due to
freezing
Behaviour of glass during solidification
Crystalline Solid
As T crystallizes
in T
m

GLASS
As T: viscosity
Plastic stage Rigid
stage
24
CONSTITUENTS OF GLASSES
25
CONSTITUENTS OF GLASSES
COLOURS THAT METALLIC IONS GIVE TO
GLASSES
M
+
as a MODIFIER
ION C. I. COLOUR
Cr
3+
6 Blue
Cr
6+
6 Green
Cu
2+
8 Blue -green
Cu
+
6-8 Transparent
Co
2+
6-8 Rose
Ni
2+
8 Yellow -green
Mn
2+
6 Light orange
Mn
3+
6-8
Fe
2+
6 Blue-green
Fe
3+
6-10 Light yellow
U
6+
6 Light yellow
V
3+
6 Green
V
4+
Blue
26
PROPERTIES OF GLASSES
Brittle Materials ( elastic modulus ) = f (composition, macroscopic
(surface) imperfections, volume of material and T)
Low modulus of Weibull
Mechanical strength (presence of water/air + humidity )
Mechanical Properties
Generally insulators ( 10
-10
-10
-20
cm
-1
)
with Temperature
with modifier (=f(size and amount of modifier))
Electrical Properties
= R
thermal shock

Thermal Shock
MateriaI ThermaI Expansion
coeff. (
o
C
-1
)
ThermaI Shock
faiIure (
o
C)
Soda-lime glass 10
-5
80
Sodium borosilicate
( Pyrex
TM
type)
10
-4
270
Fused silica 10
-6
1600
Lithia-alumina-silicate
glass ceramic
(Pyroceram
TM
type)
10
-6
670
Transparent lithia-
alumina-silicate glass
ceramic (Visions
TM

type)
10
-6
1330
Thermal shock resistance of common glasses and glass ceramics
Topic 7. Polymeric materials (I)
TOPIC 7. Polymeric materials
1. Introduction
- Definition
- General characteristics
- Historic introduction
- Polymers: Examples
2. Classification
3. Properties: Structural aspects
4. Solid state
- Crystallinity
- Thermal transitions
- Mechanical behaviour
1
Universidad
www.uc3m.es
Sophia A. Tsipas / Berna Serrano
1. INTRODUCTION: DEFINITION
POLYMER
"Organic compound, natural or synthetic, with
high molecular weight made of repetitive
structural units "
Large size chains formed from the covalent
union of various monomer units
(macromolecule)
PLASTIC
1. Polymer whose fundamental property is
plasticity (thermoplastic). It is deformed
plastically under the action of pressure andor
heat .
2. Mixture (of a polymer with additives) that
can be transformed by flowing or moulding in
liquid or molten state.
1. INTRODUCTION: GENERAL CARACTERISTICS
HISTORIC BACKGROUND
Origins of Humanity naturaI products: Ieather , wooI, ceIIuIose..
1838: VuIcanizing of naturaI rubber
1846 CeIIuIose nitrate
1870 CeIIuIoid
1907 BakeIite
1920 MacromoIecuIar Hypothesis (Staudinger)
1926 PoIyvinyI chIoride (PVC)
1933 PoIy ethyIene (PE)
1938-39 NyIon (fibers) y PoIystyrene (PS)
1954 PoIypropyIene (PP)
1960 AppIications of Epoxy Resins
198- PoIymers of high specifications
1. INTRODUCTION: HISTORIC INTRODUCTION
PoIymers: synthetic and naturaI materiaIs:
CeIIuIose, starch, proteins, Ieather , wooI , cotton , synthetic fibres of
poIyesters and poIyamides, pIastics, rubbers, adhesives etc
Production 1995: 110 miIIions of tons (Spain: 2,6)
2000: 180 miIIions of tons (Spain : 2,7)
PoIyvinyIidene fIuoride PVDF: high eIectric and fire resistance
1. INTRODUCTION: EXAMPLES
PoIy ethyIene PE: Most popuIar pIastic
PoIypropyIene PP: used as pIastic and as fibre
PoIystyrene PS: economic and resistant. Styrofoam
TM
: foam of PS
PoIymethyI methacryIate PMMA: transparent pIastic.
Substitute of crystaI
NyIon (poIyamides): most common poIymers used as fibers
2. CLASSIFICATION
According to origin
Natural, synthetic .
CLASSIFICATION
According to
polymerization
mechanism
Addition, condensation
According to chemical
composition
Acrylics , vinyls...
According to their behaviour with temperature
Thermoplastic
Thermosetting
According to applications
Elastomers, plastics, fibres, adhesives..
According to structure
Semicrystalline
and amorphous
2. CLASSIFICATION
Elastomers. Are materials with very low modulus of elasticity and
high extensibility
Plastics. Are the polymers in which, when a sufficiently intense force
is applied, they irreversibly deform
Fibres Present a high modulus of elasticity and low extensibility
Coatings. Are substances, normally liquid, that adhere to the
surface of other materials
Adhesives. Are substances that combine a high adhesion and a high
cohesion,
According to applications
According to their behaviour with temperature
Thermoplastic. Flow on heating and they become hard on cooling.
Their molecular structure presents few (or none) crosslinks.
Thermosetting. They chemically decompose when heated, instead of
flowing. This behaviour is due to a crosslinked structure
2. CLASSIFICATION
POLYMERS OF GENERAL USE (Commodity)
PoIymers of high consumption: poIyoIefins, poIyacryIates and methacryIates,
poIystyrene, PVC, resins ,phenoIs, urea and meIamines, poIyesters, poIyurethanes,
epoxy resins and diverse eIastomers
TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING POLYMERS
Good properties between 0-100 C: poIyamides, poIycarbonates, poIyphenyIene
oxide (PPO), poIysuIfones, poIyphenyIene suIpphide (PPS), aIiphatic-aromatic
poIyesters, PoIyether ether ketone (PEEK)
SPECIAL POLYMERS
High price poIymers with outstanding characteristics, Iiquid crystaIs of high
moduIus and advanced composite materiaIs
Factors that determine their use : plastic, fibres or as rubber :
Flexibility in the chain , intermolecular interactions and grade of regularity in the
polymer
The properties of polymers depend on multiple factors:
Monomeric nature (famiIies of poIymers)
Number of monomeric units ( moIecuIar weight) and its distribution
Monomeric functionaIity (branches and crossIinking)
ReIative positions of the groups (tacticity and changes in shape)
Ordering of the units (sequences)
Ordering the positions of the chain branches (crystaIIinity )
3. PROPERTIES
- Molecular Weight & its distribution
- Structural aspects
- Crystallinity
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
Macromolecular molecular weight : M
n
= M
0
X
n
For a polymer distribution of chain longitude or molecular weights :
MEAN MOLECULAR WEIGHT Definition of the various moIecuIar weights:
M
n
= M
i
x
i
M
w
= M
i
w
i
M
n
= number-average molecular weight
M
w
= weight-average molecular weight
M
i
= mean molecular weight in size range i

x
i
= fraction in number of molecules in range i
w
i
= fraction in weight of molecules in range i
Index of polydispersion :
3. PROPERTIES: MOLECULAR WEIGHT
where:
M
n
= number-average molecular weight

M
o
= monomer molecular weight
X
n
= degree of polymerization (average number of monomer units in a chain)
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
Linear
Branched
Crosslinked
3. PROPERTIES: STRUCTURAL ASPECTS
TACTICITY
The best example is polypropylene
PP isostatic
PP atactic
PP syndiotactic
atactic polypropylene is a wax type material, with very bad mechanical properties
isotactic polypropylene, has excellent mechanical properties
ATACTIC
ISOTACTIC
SYNDIOTACTIC
COPOLYMERS IN SEQUENCE
CopoIymer with random units
CopoIymer with aIternating units
CopoIymer with bIock units
Graft copoIymers
Ethylene vinyl acetate
(EVA) coplymer
+
polyethylene
Poly vinyl acetate
MorphoIogy of the poIymeric crystaIs
PoIymeric monocrystaIs
Different type of bundIes :
4. SOLID STATE: CRYSTALLINITY
Chain-foIded modeI
Structure of a chain-foIded Iamina
Fringed-miceIIe modeI:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lamellenbildung_bei_der_Kristallisation_von_PolymerenEN.svg
Crystalline zones
(lamellas)
Crystallite
Amorphous
zones
Transmitted poIarized Iight
photomicrograph of PE
CrystaIIine Iamina
Interlaminar connections
condition the properties of
the polymer
The majority of poIymers that crystaIIize from Iiquids form:
SPHERULITES
CrystaIIine Iamina
s
= actual density of the polymer
c
= density of totally crystalline polymer
a
= density of totally amorphous polymer
WiIIiam D. CaIIister, Jr., MateriaIs Science and Engineering
An Introduction: John WiIey & Sons, Inc.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT CRYSTALLINITY
1. KINETIC FACTORS
Conditions for Crystallinity:
The number and size of crystals formed = depend on
T = T
melting
-T
crystallization

Increasing T the size of the crystal decreases and the
number of crystals increases
Linear polymers have a greater amount of crystallinity
compared to branched polymers
Complex monomeric structures decreases the amount of
crystallinity
The FLEXIBILITY of the chains depends on the structure:
In order for a polymer to crystallize, its molecules must have
sufficient elasticity in order to be able to move and be
accurately placed.
2. STRUCTURAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT CRYSTALLINITY
Greater crystallinity greater T
m

- Symmetry
- Tacticity:
Atactic amorphous
Isotactic, syndiotactic crystalline
- Branched
- Configuration CIS against TRANS
- N of C pairs in between heteroatoms
- Molecular weight
- Copolymerization
- Plasticisers
- Polarity: favours ordering
Temperature
Gradient
change
Non crystaIIine
thermopIastic
PartiaIIy
crystaIIine
thermopIastic
A= liquid, B=liquid of high viscosity C= undercooled liquid (rubbery)
D= glassy solid
E= solid crystalline regions in matrix of supercooled liquid
F= solid crystalline regions in glassy matrix
T
g
=Glass transition
temperature
T
m
=Melting
temperature
Non crystalline thermoplastics cool throughout the line ABCD
Partially crystalline thermoplastics cool throughout the line ABEF
Cooling curves for thermoplastic polymers
4. SOLID STATE: THERMAL TRANSITIONS
Cooling curves for thermoplastic polymers
Specific volume versus temperature upon cooling from the liquid
melt for polymers with different structure
Thermal transitions : T
m
and T
g
T
m
: Melting temperature crystalline regions
T
g
: Glass transition temperature amorphous regions
Movement of
Segments of
the amorphous regions
Only movement of
lateral groups
Movement of
Segments of
amorphous and
crystalline regions
T
g

T
m

GIass transition changes in the specific heat and the diIatation coefficient
T
Factors that influence in the T
g

MOLECULAR WEIGHT
Increasing the molecular weight we decrease the mobility of
the chains Tg
INTERMOLECULAR INTERACTIONS
Increasing the interactions Kinetic Energy Tg
CHAIN FLEXIBILITY
Greater mobility Decreases the rotational energy and
increases the entropy and decreases Tg
SYMMETRY
Symmetric Molecules present
a low dipolar moment and therefore
low Tg
[-CH
2
-CHX-]
n
with X T
g
(C)
-H (PE) -110
-CH
3
(PP) -20
-CI (PVC) 81
-C N (AN) 97
-C
6
H
5
(PS) 100
MeIting and GIass Transition Temperatures for Some of the More
Common PoIymeric MateriaIs
MateriaI
GIass transition
temperature (
o
C)
MeIting
temperature (
o
C)
Polyethelene (low density) -110 115
polytetrafluoroethylene -97 327
Polyethelene (high density) -90 137
Polypropylene -18 175
Nylon 6,6 57 265
Polyester (PET) 69 265
Poly(vinyl chlloride) 87 212
Polystyrene 100 240
Polycarbonate 150 265
Influence of Molecular Weight
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR : Thermoplastic polymers
Behaviour of thermopIastics totaIIy
amorphous, crystaIIine and 50%50
amorphous/crystaIIine
4. SOLID STATE: MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR: Thermoplastic polymers
Effect of the crystallinity in the modulus of elasticity:
4. SOLID STATE: MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
Topic 8. Composite materials (I)
1
TOPIC 8. COMPOSITE MATERIALS
1
1. Classification according to type of reinforcement and matrix
2. Type of constituents
3. Particle reinforced composite materials
4. Rule of mixtures
5. Fiber reinforced composite materials
5.1 Types of fibers (glass, carbon, aramid, boron and
ceramics)
6. Structural composite materials (laminates and sandwich
structures)
Universidad
www.uc3m.es
2
Mix of two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or
chemical properties which remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level
within the finished structure
Reinforcement:
Particles (dispersion strengthened
or large particles)
Fibers (discontinuous - short or
continuous - aligned )
Structural (laminates and sandwich
structures)
Matrix:
Metal matrix composites (MMC)
Ceramic matrix composites (CMC)
Polymer matrix composites (PMC)
When is a material considered to be a composite?
Microstructural level (< 0,01 cm) to macrostructural (> 0,01 cm)
Wood Concrete
Hypoeutectoid steel Reinforce concrete
Austenitic stainless steel Cement
Cellophane Reinforced plastic
Paper
1. CLASSIFICATION
DEFINITION AND TYPES
?
3
Wood (lignin + celullose)
Concrete (gravel + cement)
Hypoeutectoid steel (ferrite + pearlite)
Reinforced concrete (gravel + cement + steel)
Austenitic stainless steel (grains =)
Cement
Cellophane (Multiple polymeric layers)
Reinforced plastic (it doesn't improve its properties)
Paper (only cellulose fibers)
- Composite materiaI
- Limit of composite materiaI
- Not a composite materiaI
DEFINITION AND TYPES
Wood
cellulose-flaments in a matrix of lignin and hemicellulose
growth rings form a layered composite
perpendicular to the growth rings are radially oriented
ribbon-like structures : rays which provide a redial stiffening
and reinforcement
COMPOSITES IN NATURE
Abalone shell:
CaCO
3
+ 3% organic material
>3000* stronger than calcite
Oak wood
pine wood
Sea shells
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wood_structure_numbers.svg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hard_Soft_Wood.jpg
Properties to take into account for material design
For ceramic and metallic component: Physical (thermal, electrical,
optical.) and mechanical (stiffness, toughness, stress-strain
behaviour.)
For plastic components: Physical and mechanical. Also the water
absorption and transmission
Different matrix, reinforcement and properties of CM
Matrix Reinforcement material Properties
Metal Metal fibers, ceramic, carbon, glass
Electric resistance to temp.
thermal stability
Ceramic
Particles and metallic fibers and
ceramics
Chemical and thermal
resistance to temp.
Glass Glass and ceramic particles
Mechanical strength and
chemical resistance to temp.
thermal stability
Organic Carbon, glass and organic fibers
Mechanical strength to high
temp. chemical and electrical,
and erosion resistance,
flexibility and thermal stability
CLASSES ACCORDING TO REINFORCEMENT AND MATRIX
Structures, reinforcements, types and properties of composite
materials
6
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
Large-
particle
Dispersion
strengthen
Continuous
(aligned)
Discontinuous
(short)
Laminates Sandwich
panels
TYPE OF CONSTITUENTS
aligned Randomly oriented
Structure
Reinforcement Composite materiaI Properties
Particles Particle-reinforced sotropic
Short fibres Random
Aligned
sotripic
Anisotropic
Continious fibers Aligned continous fibres Anisotropic
Laminates or
layers
laminates Anistotropic
7
Schematic representation of several geometric and spatial characteristics of
particles of the dispersed phase
The composite material properties depend upon the properties of each of
its phases, their relative proportions and their geometry
TYPE OF CONSTITUENTS
8
3. PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Particles: geometrical variety
Factors that have an influence in physical an mechanical properties:
size, distribution and particle content
Advantages of particle reinforced composite materials
Low cost
High stiffness and strength (inorganic particles)
Wear resistance
Simpler manufacturing process
Mechanical properties depend on the reinforcement, manufacturing
and subsequent treatments
Most used metallic matrixes are Al, Mg, Ti y Ni
Polymeric matrixes are reinforced to improve their mechanical
strength and abrasion resistance
General aspects of particle reinforce composites:
9
TYPES OF PARTICLES
Great variety of ceramic particles
To select the appropriate reinforcement it should be taken into account:
Structural
High modulus
Low density
Particle shape (avoid corners)
Thermal:
Expansion coefficient and conductivity
Properties of SiC and Al
2
O
3
particles:
Particle
10
Dispersed phase: Particles with d=10-250 nm Dislocation movement is
blocked causing hardening ( hardness, E, ).
Continuous phase: Matrix is bearing the load
System Application
Ag-CdO Electrical connectors
Al-Al
2
O
3
Nuclear reactors
Be-BeO Nuclear reactor and aerospace
Co-ThO
2,
Y
2
O
3
Magnetic materials resistant to yield
Ni-20% Cr-ThO
2
Turbojet components
Pb-PbO Battery grid
Pt-ThO
2
Wires, electrical components
Examples and applications of dispersion strengthened compounds
11
3.2 Composite materials reinforced with large particles
12
CERMETS (cemented carbides) Hard ceramic particles scattered in a metallic
matrix
Tungsten carbide particles, WC (hard, stiff, and T
m
) scattered in metallic
matrixes are used as cutting tools
These composites are brittle toughness improvement: it is combined with Co
powder that when sintered acts as an adhesive for WC particles.
ABRASVE cutting and forming discs from alumina Al
2
O
3
, silicon carbide, SiC cubic boron
nitride, BN. This particles are cemented in vitreous or polymeric matrixes
CAST PARTCLE RENFORCED COMPOSTES Al casting with SiC particles for
applications in the car industry (pistons and connecting rods)
13
CONCRETE
t is a matrix of cement together with gravel or sand particles
t is a composite of particles held together by cement
There are two kinds of cement: Asphalt cement (for paving) and Portland cement (for
building construction)
PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE
ngredients: Fine aggregate Portland cement (sand), coarse aggregate (gravel) and water
fine sand particles occupy the empty spaces between gravel particles. These
aggregates are 60-80% of the total volume.
The cement-water mixture must cover the sand and gravel particles. The final
bonding cement-particles depends upon the quantity of water (insufficient water:
incomplete bonding; excess water: porosity)
PROBLEMS: low strength and extremely brittle; it dilates and contracts
with temperature; cracks appear when it undergoes freezing-defreezing
cycles.
SOLUTION: Reinforcements REINFORCED CONCRETE (STEEL tubes,
bars, wires or meshes in cement before curing)
14
Maximum:
Minimum:
Relationship between volume fraction and E Value of E constrained
Rule of mixtures: The properties of a composite material depend upon the relative quantities
and properties of its constituents
P
CM
= Properties of the composite material;
f= volumetric fraction of each i ( f
i
=1)
i= i-th component
Particle-reinforced composite Isotropic properties
E: elastic modulus
V: fraction of volume
m: matrix
p: reinforcement
c: composite material
3. RULE OF MIXTURES
William D. Callister, Jr. ,Materials Science and
Engineering: An ntroduction, John Wiley & Sons, nc.
Examples: Particle Reinforced composite

particle reinforcement in
Styrene-Butadiene synthetic rubber for
car tire application.
WCCo cemented carbide. Light
areas are the cobalt matrix; dark
regions, the particles
of tungsten carbide x100.
William D. Callister, Jr. ,Materials Science and Engineering: An ntroduction, John Wiley & Sons, nc.
16
5. FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS
17
Continuous fibers
(aIigned)
Short or discontinuous fibers (aIigned
or randomIy scattered)
CIassification according to shape
a)Continuous and aligned fibers
b)Discontinuous and aligned
fibers
c)Discontinuous and randomly
places fibers
Longitudinal direction
Transverse
direction
18
GIass Fibers
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glass_reinforced_plastic_SEM_Stereo_200x.JPG
Composite materiaI fibergIass
reinforced poIymeric matrix
(stereoscopic SEM image of the
fracture surface)
19
5.1 TYPES OF FIBERS: Glass Fibers
Used to reinforce plastic matrixes
Composition: Base of SiO
2
(50-70%)

+ Oxides Ca, Al, B, Na, Mg and K
Properties: non combustible, good chemical, biological and thermal
resistance (T
m
, ), thermal insulator (K ), electric insulator ( ),
low expansion coefficient and low cost
Types and composition of different fiberglass:
MateriaI, % in weight
Type of
gIass
SiIica AIumina Ca Oxide Magnesium B Oxide Na
2
CO
3
Ca FIuoride
Secondary
Oxides
E (1) 54 14 20,5 0,5 8 1 1 1
A (2) 72 1 8 4 - 14 - 1
ECR 61 11 22 3 - 0,6 - 2,4
S (3) 64 25 - 10 - 0,3 - 0,7
(1) Ca Aluminoborosilicate
(2) Rich in alkali
(3) Mg Aluminosilicate without B
20
FibergIass properties
Type
of
gIass
reIative
tensiIe
(MPa) E (GPa)
10
-6

(K)

(a 20 C y 1
MHz)
T
m
(C) For appIications that require
E 2,58 3450 72,5 5,0 6,3 1065
Good electrical properties and dimensional
stability (circuit boards)
A 2,50 3040 69,0 8,6 6,9 996 Chemical resistance
ECR 2,62 3625 72,5 5,0 6,5 1204
Good electrical properties and chemical
resistance
S 2,48 4590 86,0 5,6 5,1 1454
Tensile strength and thermal stability
(aerospace and aeronautic industries)
The strength of these fibers is high but not extreme: there are Iimits in their appIication
E gIass is the cheapest and has the highest moisture resistance (poIymeric matrixes)
AII the fibers are good insuIators
Common poIymeric matrixes:
ThermopIastics: NyIon 66, PoIycarbonate y PoIystyrene
ThermopIastics: Epoxy, poIyesters, phenoIic, siIicon
21
a) Continuous fibers
b) Discontinuous
c) Woven fiber (for Iaminated structures)
There are three possibIe configurations for fibergIass reinforced
composite materiaIs:
a.
b.
c.
23
Kevlar polyamide (poly(paraphenylene terephthalamide ))
The aromatic ring provides thermal stability
E due to its configuration: rigid molecules are arrayed in ordered domains (liquid
crystal polymer) during extrusion they are oriented in the direction of the flow
Thermal and electrical insulator, , high impact strength and E (compared to
carbon)
Properties of the three types of KevIar
MateriaI

(g/cm
3
) D
wire
( m)
tensiIe
(GPa)

E (GPa) (%)
KevIar 29 1,44 12 3,6 83 4,0
KevIar 49 1,44 12 3,6-4,1 131 2,8
KevIar 149 1,47 12 3,4 186 2,0
5.1 TYPES OF FIBERS: Aramid fiber
File:Kevlar_chemical_structure_H-bonds.png
24
Boron fibers
Ceramic fibers: MainIy quartz (AI
2
O
3
, Si
3
N
4
,.)
Manufactured through a vapor deposition of B over a core of W
5.1 TYPES OF FIBERS: Boron and ceramics
25
5.1 TYPES OF FIBERS
MechanicaI properties of the different fibers
William F. Smith, Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering, 3/e, McGraw-Hill 2004
26
6. STRUCTURAL COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Formed by composite materials and homogeneous materials
Properties depend on the geometry of the structural elements
Types Iaminated composites
sandwich structures
PiIing of Iayers or Iamina of unidirectionaI composite materiaI
Laminar composite example: continuous and aligned fiber reinforced plastics
with matrixes such as epoxy, polyester, PE, PA, PET.
n order to get different mechanical properties layers of materials with
different properties are piled, or a different way of piling layers on top of each
other.
27
Orientation of fibers with respect to the Iamina:
Usual fiber orientations: 0, 90, +/-45. By combining these orientations, the desired strength
and stiffness is achieved. Plane isotropy can be achieved.
Fiber layers arranged in a way so that strength is maximized and weight is minimized.
Laminated composites must always
be symmetric with respect to their
middle plane, and the must also be
balanced to avoid anomalous
distortions in the structure
The strength and stiffness varies
greatly with the orientation.
A piling of woven materials without
any bonding does not have any
structural use. Therefore a matrix is
needed.
Exclusively unidirectional composites
are never used.
PiIed Iamina. The orientation of the direction with
R changes in each of the Iayers
Unidirectional
Crossplied
Quasi-isotropic
28
2 external strong layers (face sheets) attached to a layer of less dense material
(core) with low stiffness and low strength
Role of the face sheets they withstand most of the plane loads and transversal bending
stresses
Face sheet material Al alloys, fiber-reinforced plastics, Ti, steel and plywood.
Core material separates both face sheets and resists deformations perpendicular to the
face plane. Provide resistance to shear stress along the planes perpendicular to the face
sheets
Core materiaIs may have different
and have different structures: polymer
foams, synthetic rubber, inorganic
cement and balsa wood
TypicaI core with honeycomb
structure thin layers arranged in
hexagonal cells.
honeycomb panel used in aircraft
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CompositeSandwich.png
Applications of composites
GLARE
"GLAss-REinforced" Fibre Metal Laminate (FML),
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LCA_Composites.jpg
honeycomb paneI
used in aircraft
30
Applications of composites
Material Selection and Material
Processing in Design
Eng. R. L. Nkumbwa
Copperbelt University
2010
New Product Analysis
Everyday we use thousands of different products, from
telephones to bikes and drinks cans to washing machines
and microwaves.
But have you ever thought about how they work or the way
they are made?
Every product is designed in a particular way - product
analysis enables us to understand the
important materials, processing, economic and aesthetic
decisions which are required before any product can be
manufactured.
An understanding of these decisions can help us in designing
and making for ourselves.
Getting Started
The first task in product analysis is to become familiar
with the product! What does it do? How does it do it?
What does it look like?
All these questions, and more, need to be asked before a
product can be analysed.
As well as considering the obvious mechanical (and
possibly electrical) requirements, it is also important to
consider the ergonomics, how the design has been
made user-friendly and any marketing issues - these all
have an impact on the later design decisions.
Lets take the example of a bike
What is the function of a bicycle?
How does the function depend on the type of bike
(e.g. racing, or about-town, or childs bike)?
How is it made to be easily maintained?
What should it look like (colours etc.)?
How has it been made comfortable to ride?
How do the mechanical bits work and interact?
Systems and Components
There are 2 main types of product - those
that only have one component (e.g. a
spatula) and those that have lots of
components (e.g. a bike).
Products with lots of components we
call systems. For example:
Product Components
Bike Irame, wheels, pedals, forks, etc.
Drill Case, chuck, drill bit, motor, etc.
Multigym
Seat, weights, frame, wire,
handles, etc.
Product Analysis
In product analysis, we start by considering
the whole system.
But, to understand why various materials and
processes are used, we usually need to pull
it apart and think about each component as
well.
We can now analyse the function in more
detail and draft a design specification.
Some important design questions
To build a design specification, consider questions
like the following:
What are the requirements on each part (electrical,
mechanical, aesthetic, ergonomic, etc)?
What is the function of each component, and how do they
work?
What is each part made of and why?
How many of each part are going to be made?
What manufacturing methods were used to make each
part and why ?
Are there alternative materials or designs in use and can
you propose improvements?
Design Questions
These are only general questions, to act as a guide - you will
need to think of the appropriate questions for the products and
components you have to analyse. For a drinks container, a
design specification would look something like:
provide a leak free environment for storing liquid
comply with food standards and protect the liquid from health hazards
for fizzy drinks, withstand internal pressurisation and prevent escape of
bubbles
provide an aesthetically pleasing view or image of the product
if possible create a brand identity
be easy to open
be easy to store and transport
be cheap to produce for volumes of 10,000+
Choosing the Right Materials
Given the specification of the requirements
on each part, we can identify the material
properties which will be important - for
example:
Requirement Material Property
must conduct electricity electrical conductivity
must support loads without breaking strength
cannot be too expensive cost per kg
Material Selection
One way of selecting the best materials would be to look up values
for the important properties in tables. But this is time-consuming, and
a designer may miss materials which they simply forgot to consider.
A better way is to plot 2 material properties on a graph, so that no
materials are overlooked - this kind of graph is called a materials
selection chart (these are covered in another part of the tutorial).
Once the materials have been chosen, the next step is normally to
think about the processing options.
Choosing the Right Process
It is all very well to choose the perfect material, but somehow we
have to make something out of it as well! An important part of
understanding a product is to consider how it was made - in other
words what manufacturing processes were used and why.
There are 2 important stages to selecting a suitable process:
Technical performance: can we make this product with the
material and can we make it well?
Economics: if we can make it, can we make it cheaply enough?
Process selection can be quite an involved problem - we deal with
one way of approaching it in another part of the tutorial.
So, now we know why the product is designed a particular way, why
particular materials are used and why the particular manufacturing
processes have been chosen.
Is there anything else to know?
Wrap Up
Product analysis can seem to follow a fixed
pattern:
Think about the design from an ergonomic and
functional viewpoint.
Decide on the materials to fulfil the performance
requirements.
Choose a suitable process that is also economic.
Whilst this approach will often work, design is
really holistic - everything matters at once - so be
careful to always think of the bigger picture.
Example Analysis
Is the product performance driven or cost driven?
This makes a big difference when we choose materials.
In a performance product, like a tennis racquet, cost is one of the
last factors that needs to be considered.
In a non-performance product, like a drinks bottle, cost is of primary
importance - most materials will provide sufficient performance (e.g.
although polymers arent strong, they are strong enough).
Although we usually choose the material first, sometimes it is the
shape (and hence process) which is more limiting.
With window frames, for example, we need long thin shaped
sections - only extrusion will do and so only soft metals or polymers
can be used (or wood as it grows like that!).
Choosing between Different Materials
There are three main things to think about when choosing materials
(in order of importance):
Will they meet the performance requirements?
Will they be easy to process?
Do they have the right aesthetic properties?
We deal with the processing aspects of materials in a different part
of this course.
For now it is sufficient to note that experienced designers aim to
make the decisions for materials and processes separately together
to get the best out of selection.
The choice of materials for only aesthetic reasons is not that
common, but it can be important: e.g. for artists.
However, the kind of information needed is difficult to obtain and we
wont deal with this issue further here.
Material Selection
Most products need to satisfy some performance targets, which we
determine by considering the design specification e.g. they must be
cheap, or stiff, or strong, or light, or perhaps all of these things...
Each of these performance requirements will influence which
materials we should choose - if our product needs to be light we
wouldnt choose lead and if it was to be stiff we wouldnt choose
rubber!
So what approach do we use to select materials?
Using Material Selection Charts
So what we need is data for lots of material
properties and for lots of materials.
This information normally comes as tables of
data and it can be a time-consuming process
to sort through them.
And what if we have 2 requirements - e.g.
our material must be light and stiff - how can
we trade-off these 2 needs?
The answer to both these problems is to
use material selection charts.
Here is a materials selection chart for 2
common properties: Young's modulus (which
describes how stiff a material is) and density.
On these charts, materials of each class (e.g. metals, polymers) form
clusters or bubbles that are marked by the shaded regions.
We can see immediately that:
metals are the heaviest materials,
foams are the lightest materials,
ceramics are the stiffest materials.
But we could have found that out from tables given a bit of time,
although by covering many materials at a glance, competing
materials can be quickly identified.
Where selection charts are really useful is in showing the trade-
off between 2 properties, because the charts plot combinations of
properties.
For instance if we want a light and stiff material we need to choose
materials near the top left corner of the chart - so composites look
good.
Note that the chart has logarithmic scales - each division is a multiple
of 10; material properties often cover such huge ranges that log
scales are essential.
To find the best materials we need to use the
Youngs modulus - density chart from amongst the
available charts. The charts can be annotated to
help reveal the best materials, by placing a
suitable selection box to show only stiff and light
materials.
What can we conclude?
The values of Youngs modulus for polymers are low,
so most polymers are unlikely to be useful for
stiffness-limited designs.
Cambridge Engineering Selector (CES) is the
Software used for Material Selection developed by
Prof. Ashby.
Other material property selection charts include:
Wrap Up
By considering 2 (or more) charts, the properties needed to
satisfy the main design requirements can be quickly assessed.
The charts can be used to identify the best classes of materials,
and then to look in more detail within these classes.
There are many other factors still to be considered, particularly
manufacturing methods. The selection made from the charts
should be left quite broad to keep enough options open.
A good way to approach the problem is to use the charts to
eliminate materials which will definitely not be good enough,
rather than to try and identify the single best material too soon in
the design process.

Materials and Selection Criteria

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