CHAPTER
11
Inventory Management
Types of Inventories
Raw materials & purchased parts Partially completed goods called work in progress
Finished-goods inventories
Functions of Inventory
Lead time: time interval between ordering and receiving the order Holding (carrying) costs: cost to carry an item in inventory for a length of time Ordering costs: costs of ordering and receiving inventory Shortage costs: costs when demand exceeds supply
Periodic System
Physical count of items made at periodic intervals
Two-Bin System - Two containers of inventory; reorder when the first is empty Universal Bar Code - Bar code printed on a label that has information about the item to which it is attached
0
214800 232087768
A B C
Few
Many
Number of Items
Economic order quantity model Economic production quantity model Quantity discount model
Only one product is involved Annual demand requirements known Demand is even throughout the year Lead time does not vary Each order is received in a single delivery There are no quantity discounts
Q
Quantity on hand
Usage rate
Reorder point
Receive order
Time
Lead time
Order frequency
Total Cost
Annual Annual Total cost = carrying + ordering cost cost TC =
Q H 2
DS Q
Q D TC H S 2 Q
Ordering Costs
QO (optimal order quantity) Order Quantity (Q)
Q OPT =
2DS = H
Example
A toy manufacturer uses approximately 32,000 silicon chips annually. The chips are used at a steady rate during the 240 days a year that the plant operates. Annual holding cost is $3 per chip, and ordering cost is $120. Determine
The optimal order quantity. Holding cost, ordering cost, and the total cost. The number of workdays in an order cycle.
Problem
PM assembles security monitors. It purchases 3,600 black-and-white cathode ray tubes a year at $65 each. Ordering costs are $31, and annual carrying costs are 20% of the purchase price. Compute
The optimal quantity the total annual cost of ordering and carrying the inventory.
Problem
A large bakery buys flour in 25-pound bags. The bakery uses an average of 4,860 bags a year. Preparing an order and receiving a shipment of flour involves a cost of $10 per order. Annual carrying costs are $75 per bag
Determine the economic order quantity. What is the average number of bags on hand. How many orders per year will there be? Compute the total cost of ordering and carrying flour. If ordering costs were to increase in $1 per order, how much would that affect the minimum total annual cost?
Production done in batches or lots Capacity to produce a part exceeds the parts usage or demand rate Assumptions of EPQ are similar to EOQ except orders are received incrementally during production
Only one item is involved Annual demand is known Usage rate is constant Usage occurs continually Production rate is constant Lead time does not vary No quantity discounts
EPQ Model
Q0
2DS p H p u
Example
A toy manufacturer uses 48,000 rubber wheels per year for its popular dump truck series. The firm makes its own wheels, which it can produce at a rate of 800 per day. The toy trucks are assembled uniformly over the entire year. Carrying cost is $1 per wheel a year. Setup cost for a production run of wheels is $45. the firm operates 240 day per year. Determine the
Optimal run size Minimum total annual cost for carrying and setup Cycle time for the optimal run Run time.
Problem
The Dine Corporation is both a producer and a user of brass couplings. The firm operates 220 days a year and uses the couplings at a steady rate of 50 per day. Couplings can be produced at a rate of 200 per day. Annual storage cost is $2 per coupling, and machine setup cost is $70 per run.
Determine the economic run quantity Approximately how many runs per year will there be? Compute the maximum inventory level. Determine the length of the pure consumption portion of the cycle.
Problem
The Friendly Sausage Factory (FSF) can produce hot dogs at a rate of 5,000 per day. FSF supplies hot dogs to local restaurants at a steady rate of 250 per day. The cost to prepare the equipment for producing hot dogs is $66. annual holding costs are 45 cents per hot dog. The factory operates 300 days a year. Find
The optimal run size. The number of runs per year. The maximum inventory level. The length of run.
Q D TC H S 2 Q
Holding Costs
Ordering Costs
QO (optimal order quantity) Order Quantity (Q)
Q OPT =
2DS = H
Total Cost
Annual Annual Total cost = carrying + ordering cost cost TC =
Q H 2
DS Q
PD
TC without PD
PD
EOQ
Quantity
Order quantity
1 to 44 45 to 69 70 or more
Unit Price
$2.00 1.70 1.40
A mail-order house uses 18,000 boxes a year. Carrying costs are 60 cents per box a year, and ordering costs are $96. The following price schedule applies:
Number of boxes 1,000 to 1,999 2,000 to 4,999 5,000 to 9,999 10,000 or more Price per box $1.25 1.20 1.15 1.10
Determine the optimal order quantity. Determine the number of orders per year.
TC
Lowest TC
2,400
5,000
10,000
Quantity
Compute the common minimum point. Only one of the unit prices will have the minimum point in its feasible range since the ranges do not overlap. Identify that range.
If the feasible minimum point is on the lowest price range, that is the optimal order quantity. Otherwise, compute the total cost for the minimum point and for the price breaks of all lower unit costs. Compare the total costs; the quantity (minimum point or price break) that yields the lowest total cost is the optimal order quantity.
The maintenance department of a large hospital uses about 816 cases of liquid cleanser annually. Ordering costs are $12, carrying costs are $4 per case a year, and the new price schedule indicates that orders of less than 50 cases will cost $20 per case, 50 to 79 cases will cost $18 per case, 80 to 99 cases will cost $17 per case, and larger orders will cost $16 per case.
A jewelry firm buys semiprecious stone to make bracelets and rings. The supplier quotes a price of $8 per stone for quantities of 600 stones or more, $9 per stone for orders of 400 to 599 stones, and $10 per stone for lesser quantities. The jewelry firm operates 200 days per year. Usage rate is 25 stones per day, and ordering costs are $48.
If carrying costs are $2 per day for each stone, find the order quantity that will minimize total annual cost.
Carrying costs are constant (for example, $2 per unit) Carrying costs are stated as a percentage of purchase price (for example, 20% of purchase price)
A jewelry firm buys semiprecious stone to make bracelets and rings. The supplier quotes a price of $8 per stone for quantities of 600 stones or more, $9 per stone for orders of 400 to 599 stones, and $10 per stone for lesser quantities. The jewelry firm operates 200 days per year. Usage rate is 25 stones per day, and ordering costs are $48.
If annual carrying costs are 30% of unit cost, what is the optimal order size?
Beginning with the lowest unit price, compute the minimum points for each price range until you find a feasible minimum point (i.e., until a minimum point falls in the quantity range for its price). If the minimum point for the lowest unit price is feasible, it is the optimal order quantity. If the minimum point is not feasible in the lowest price range, compare the total cost at the price break for all lower prices with the total cost of the feasible minimum point. The quantity which yields the lowest total cost is the optimum.
A manufacturer of exercise equipments purchases the pulley section of the equipment from a supplier who lists these prices: less than 1,000, $5 each; 1,000 to 3,999, $4.95 each; 4,000 to 5,999, $4.90 each; and 6,000 or more, $4.85 each. Ordering costs are $50, annual carrying costs per unit are 40% of purchase cost, and annual usage is 4,900 pulleys.
TC
495
497
500
503
1,000
4,000 Quantity
6,000
A simple case:
Example: Demand is 20 items per day and lead time is one week. What is the reorder point (ROP)?
Reorder Point - When the quantity on hand of an item drops to this amount, the item is reordered Safety Stock - Stock that is held in excess of expected demand due to variable demand rate and/or lead time. Service Level - Probability that demand will not exceed supply during lead time.
The rate of demand (based on a forecast) The lead time Demand and/or lead time variability Stockout risk (safety stock) ROP = Expected demand during lead time + safety stocks
Safety Stock
Quantity
Maximum probable demand during lead time Expected demand during lead time
ROP
Safety stock
LT Time
Reorder Point
The ROP based on a normal Distribution of lead time demand
Service level Risk of a stockout Probability of no stockout Expected demand 0
ROP
Safety stock z
Quantity
z-scale
Reorder Point
ROP = Expected demand during lead time + safety stocks
An estimate of expected demand during lead time and its standard deviation are available. Data on lead time demand is not available: we consider three cases:
Demand is variable, lead time is constant Lead time is variable, demand is constant Both demand and lead time are variable
An estimate of expected demand during lead time and its standard deviation are available
z dLT
Example
Expected demand during lead time = 300 units Standard deviation of demand during lead time = 30 units
Determine each of the following, assuming that lead time demand is distributed normally:
The ROP that will provide a 5% risk of stockout during lead time. The ROP that will provide a 1% risk of stockout during lead time. The safety stock needed to attain a 1% risk of stockout during lead time.
z 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0
0.00 0.5000 0.5398 0.5793 0.6179 0.6554 0.6915 0.7257 0.7580 0.7881 0.8159 0.8413 0.8643 0.8849 0.9032 0.9192 0.9332 0.9452 0.9554 0.9641 0.9713 0.9772 0.9821 0.9861 0.9893 0.9918 0.9938 0.9953 0.9965 0.9974 0.9981 0.9987
0.01 0.5040 0.5438 0.5832 0.6217 0.6591 0.6950 0.7291 0.7611 0.7910 0.8186 0.8438 0.8665 0.8869 0.9049 0.9207 0.9345 0.9463 0.9564 0.9649 0.9719 0.9778 0.9826 0.9864 0.9896 0.9920 0.9940 0.9955 0.9966 0.9975 0.9982 0.9987
0.02 0.5080 0.5478 0.5871 0.6255 0.6628 0.6985 0.7324 0.7642 0.7939 0.8212 0.8461 0.8686 0.8888 0.9066 0.9222 0.9357 0.9474 0.9573 0.9656 0.9726 0.9783 0.9830 0.9868 0.9898 0.9922 0.9941 0.9956 0.9967 0.9976 0.9982 0.9987
0.03 0.5120 0.5517 0.5910 0.6293 0.6664 0.7019 0.7357 0.7673 0.7967 0.8238 0.8485 0.8708 0.8907 0.9082 0.9236 0.9370 0.9484 0.9582 0.9664 0.9732 0.9788 0.9834 0.9871 0.9901 0.9925 0.9943 0.9957 0.9968 0.9977 0.9983 0.9988
0.04 0.5160 0.5557 0.5948 0.6331 0.6700 0.7054 0.7389 0.7704 0.7995 0.8264 0.8508 0.8729 0.8925 0.9099 0.9251 0.9382 0.9495 0.9591 0.9671 0.9738 0.9793 0.9838 0.9875 0.9904 0.9927 0.9945 0.9959 0.9969 0.9977 0.9984 0.9988
0.05 0.5199 0.5596 0.5987 0.6368 0.6736 0.7088 0.7422 0.7734 0.8023 0.8289 0.8531 0.8749 0.8944 0.9115 0.9265 0.9394 0.9505 0.9599 0.9678 0.9744 0.9798 0.9842 0.9878 0.9906 0.9929 0.9946 0.9960 0.9970 0.9978 0.9984 0.9989
0.06 0.5239 0.5636 0.6026 0.6406 0.6772 0.7123 0.7454 0.7764 0.8051 0.8315 0.8554 0.8770 0.8962 0.9131 0.9279 0.9406 0.9515 0.9608 0.9686 0.9750 0.9803 0.9846 0.9881 0.9909 0.9931 0.9948 0.9961 0.9971 0.9979 0.9985 0.9989
0.07 0.5279 0.5675 0.6064 0.6443 0.6808 0.7157 0.7486 0.7794 0.8078 0.8340 0.8577 0.8790 0.8980 0.9147 0.9292 0.9418 0.9525 0.9616 0.9693 0.9756 0.9808 0.9850 0.9884 0.9911 0.9932 0.9949 0.9962 0.9972 0.9979 0.9985 0.9989
0.08 0.5319 0.5714 0.6103 0.6480 0.6844 0.7190 0.7517 0.7823 0.8106 0.8365 0.8599 0.8810 0.8997 0.9162 0.9306 0.9429 0.9535 0.9625 0.9699 0.9761 0.9812 0.9854 0.9887 0.9913 0.9934 0.9951 0.9963 0.9973 0.9980 0.9986 0.9990
0.09 0.5359 0.5753 0.6141 0.6517 0.6879 0.7224 0.7549 0.7852 0.8133 0.8389 0.8621 0.8830 0.9015 0.9177 0.9319 0.9441 0.9545 0.9633 0.9706 0.9767 0.9817 0.9857 0.9890 0.9916 0.9936 0.9952 0.9964 0.9974 0.9981 0.9986 0.9990
Problem
Suppose that the manager of a construction supply house determine from historical records that demand for sand during lead time obeys a normal distribution with mean 35 tons and standard deviation of 2.5 tons.
What value of z is appropriate if the manager is willing to accept a stockout risk of no more than 4%. How much safety stock should be held? What reorder point should be used?
where d Average daily or weekly demand d Standard deviation of demand per day or week LT Lead time in days or weeks
Example
A restaurant uses an average of 50 jar of a special sauce each week. Weekly usage of sauce has a standard deviation of 3 jars. The manager is willing to accept no more than a 10% risk of stockout during lead time, which is two weeks. Assume the distribution of usage is normal.
Problem
The housekeeping department of a motel uses approximately 600 bars of soap per day, and this tends to be fairly constant. Lead time for soap delivery is normally distributed with a mean of six days and standard deviation of two days. A service lead of 98% is desired. Find the ROP.
2 2 ROP d LT z LT d d 2 LT
Problem
The motel replaces broken glasses at a rate of 25 per day. In the past, this quantity has tend to vary normally and have a standard deviation of 3 glasses per day. Glasses are ordered from a Cleveland supplier. Lead time is normally distributed with an average of 10 days and a standard deviation of 2 days. What ROP should be used to achieve a service level of 95%?
Problem
The manager of FSF has determined that demand for hot dogs obeys a normal distribution with an average of 5000 per week and standard deviation of 150 per week.
The manager is willing to accept 3% stockout risk during lead time which is one week.
Determine the reorder point
Problem
The manager of FSF has determined that demand for hot dogs is approximately 5000 per week and it is fairly constant. The lead time obeys a normal distribution with an average of one week and standard deviation of 0.5 weeks.
Determine the reorder point if the manager is willing to accept 8% stockout risk.
Problem
The manager of FSF has determined that demand for hot dogs obeys a normal distribution with an average of 5000 per week and standard deviation of 150 per week. In the past the lead time had a normal distribution with mean of one week and standard deviation of 0.5 weeks The manager is willing to accept 3% stockout risk during lead time. Determine the reorder point
The expected number of units short can be very useful to management. This quantity can easily be determined using the information for ROP and Table 11.3 in your textbook. E(n), expected number of units short per order cycle:
E (n) E ( z ) dLT
E ( z ) Standardized number of units short from Table 11.3 dLT standard deviation of demand during lead time
Example
Suppose the standard deviation of demand during lead time is known to be 50 units. Lead time demand is approximately normal.
For the lead time service level of 95%, determine the expected number of units short for any order cycle. What lead time service level would an expected shortage of 3 units imply?
D E ( N ) E ( n) Q
Example
Given the following information, determine the expected number of units short per year.
Demand = 48,000 units per year Order quantity (Q) = 1,200 units Service level for the lead time = 90% Std. of demand during lead time = 150 units
How the expected number of units short would change, if the service level is increases from 90% to 99%?
Annual service level (fill rate) is the percentage of demand filled directly from inventory. Example Demand = 100 units/year, Annual shortage = 10 units Annual service level = 90/100 = 90% General formula:
SLannual
E( N ) 1 D
Example
Given
A lead time service level of 85% D = 48,000 Q = 1,200 Std. of demand during lead time = 150
Problem
The manager of a store that sells office supplies has decided to set an annual service level of 96% for a certain model of answering machine. The store sells approximately 300 of this model a year. Holding cost is $5 per unit annually. Ordering cost is $25, and the standard deviation of demand during lead time is 7.
What average number of units short per year will be consistent with the specified annual service level? What average number of units short per cycle will provide the desired annual service level?
What lead time service level is necessary for the 96% annual service level?
In EOQ/ROP, order size is fixed and time to reorder varies. In FOI model, orders are placed at fixed time intervals (weekly, monthly, etc.) Order quantity for next interval? If demand is variable, order size may vary from cycle to cycle
Suppliers might encourage fixed intervals May require only periodic checks of inventory levels Risk of stockout FOI must have stockout protection for lead time plus the next order cycle
Fixed-Order-Interval Model
Expected demand Amount Safety Amount on hand = during protection + to order stock at reorder time interval
= d (OI LT ) + z d OI LT
Where
Example
A lab orders a number of chemicals from the same supplier every 30 days. Lead time is 5 days. The assistant manager of the lab must determine how much of one of these chemicals to order. A check of stock revealed that eleven 25-ml jars are on hand. Daily usage of the chemicals is approximately normal with a mean of 15.2 ml per day and a standard deviation of 1.6 ml per day. The desired service level for this chemical is 95%.
Single period model: model for ordering of perishables (vegetables, milk, ) and other items with limited useful lives Shortage cost: generally the unrealized profits per unit Excess cost: difference between purchase cost and salvage value of items left over at the end of a period
Sweet potatoes are delivered weekly to Caspian restaurant. Demand varies uniformly between 30 to 50 pounds per week. Caspian pay 25 cents per pound for potatoes and charges 75 cent per pound for it as a side dish. Unsold potatoes have no salvage value can cannot be carried over into the next week. Find
Caspian restaurant also serves apple juice. Demand for the juice is approximately normal with a mean of 35 liters per week and std of 6 liters per week. If shortage cost is 50 cents and excess cost is 25 cents per liter, find
If he buys more paper he can sell, he disposes of the excess at no additional cost.
If he does not buy enough paper, he loses potential sales
For simplicity, we assume that the demand distribution is P{demand = 0} = 0.1 P{demand = 2} = 0.4 P{demand = 1} = 0.3 P{demand = 3} = 0.2
Problem
Skinners Fish Market buys fresh Boston blue fish daily for $4.20 per pound and sells it for $5.70 per pound. At the end of each business day, any remaining blue fish is sold to a producer of cat food for $2.40 per pound. Daily demand can be approximated by a normal distribution with a mean of 80 pounds and a standard deviation of 10 pounds. What is the optimal stocking level?
Problem
Burger Prince buys top-grade ground beef for $1.00 per pound. A large sign over the entrance guarantees that the meat is fresh daily. Any leftover meat is sold to the local high school cafeteria for 80 cents per pound. Four hamburgers can be prepared from each pound of meat. Burgers sell for 60 cents each. Labor, overhead, meat, buns, and condiments cost 50 cents per burger. Demand is normally distributed with a mean of 400 pounds per day and a standard deviation of 50 pounds per day.
Identifies optimal stocking levels Optimal stocking level balances unit shortage and excess cost