F

ABBREVIATIONS

OF
AIAA

ORGANIZATIONS
AISC
API ASCE ASME ASTM AWS SEM

h I

force, frequency, modulus acceleration height,

moment

flexibility,

allowable stress computed stress (AISC of elasticity in shear of gravity depth of beam
of inertia of cross-sectional

(AISC notation)

notation)

area

American American
American

Institute Institute
Petroleum

of of

Aeronautics Steel
Institute

and Construction

Astronautics
K

k
L
M

American American American American Society

Society of Civil Engineers Society of Mechanical Engineers Society for Testing and Materials Welding Society for Experimental Mechanics

ABBREVIATIONS

O!:

UNITS
allow
av

O!:
allowable
average

MEASURE

AND

OTHER

TERMS

cr

critical

F.S.

factor ft foot, hp horsepower Hz hertz in inch, k kip(s) kg kilogram(s) kip kilopound ksi kips lb pound(s) m meter,
N newton neutral

of safety
feet

(cycles inches (1000 square (from

metre,
axis

per

second)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

T

bending moment, mass moment m moment caused by virtual unit force N of revolutions per minute P force, concentrated load P pressure intensity, axial force due to unit or statical moment of area Afhj around Q first load intensity, shear flow q distributed R reaction, radius S elastic section-modulus (S = l/c) S S-shape (standard) steel beam s second(s) radius, radius of gyration
torque, temperature
t

polar stress spring length moment, plastic mass, number

moment concentration constant,

of inertia
factor,
constant

of circular effective

cross-sectional length

factor

area for columns

force

neutral

axis

per

lb) inch Latin

1000 mm

libra,

meaning (mil imeters)

weight)

w w
w

NA

thicknesss, width, tangential deviation strain energy internal force caused by virtual unit shear force (often vertical), volume deflection of beam, velocity total weight, work W-shape (wide flange) steel beam weight or load per unit of length plastic section modulus

load,

axial

or

radial

displacement

Pa psi
rad

pascal pounds
radian

per

square
per minute

inch

GREEK

LETTER

SYMBOLS

rpm
ult

revolutions
ultimate

yp
ROMAN LETTER SYMBOLS

yield

point,

yield

stress


Afghj

A
c

area,

area

bounded
area

of cross
width
from

by center

section
axis

line

of the

perimeter
area

of a thin

tube

b breadth,
distance

partial

area

of beam
neutral

cross-sectional
or from

center

of

twist

to

extreme

fiber

d diameter, E modulus

distance, of elasticity

depth in tension

or compression

e -/ A e 0 K k r p cr 'r qb to

(alpha) (gamma) (delta) (epsilon) (theta) (kappa) (lambda)

(nu)

coefficient of thermal expansion, shear strain, weight per unit total deformation or deflection,
normal strain

general volume change

angle of any designated function

slope
curvature

angle
ratio

for

elastic

curve,
buckling

angle
problems

of inclination

of line

on body

eigenvalue
Poisson's

in column
radius
stress

(rho) (sigma) (tau) (phi) (omega)

radius,

of

curvature

tensile
shear

or compressive
angle velocity of twist, general

stress

(i.e.,
angle

normal

stress)

total angular

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

PRENTICE-HALL

IN CIVIL
Wil iam

ENGINEERING
J, Hall,

INTERNATIONAL
Editor

AND

ENGINEERING

SERIES

MECHANICS

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Popov, p.

E.

P. (Egor cm. --

Paul)

Engineering
engineering Bibliography:
Includes ISBN

mechanics

(Prentice-Hall

of solids
mechanics)

international

/ Egor

P. Popov.

series

in civil

and
index. 0-13-279258-3

engineering p.
of materials.
1990

I. Strength
TA405.P677
620. I' 12--dc20

I. Title.

I.

Series.
89-8860 CIP

Cover

Interior

Editorial/production

design:

design:

Bruce

Jules

supervision:
Kenselaar

Perlmutter;
Mary

Sophie
Noonan

Off-Broadway

Papanikolaou

Graphics

Abbreviations
Preface

and

Symbols:

See

Inside

Front

Cover
XV

Cover Il ustration:

Manufacturing

buyer:

Artist's

Conception

of stress transformation.

See figure 8-16

1990
A Division

by

Prentice-Hall,
of Simon

Inc.
& Shuster

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Part A
1-2
1-3

1-1

Introduction

Method

of

Sections

3 4 7
11

Englewood

Clifs,

New

Jersey

07632 Part

Defif ition Stress

of

Stress

Tensor

*'1-5

Derential
B

Equations
ANALY$1$

of Equilibrium
P ALLY

$T$$

reproduced,

All rights

reserved. permission

without

in any

form

No part

in writing

or by any

of this book from

means,

may

be
1-6 1-7 Stresses
Loaded

'12

the publisher.

on
Bars

Inclined Nomal

Sections Stress

in ial y
12

Mimum
Shear Stresses

in iy

Loaded

Bars

16 19
22

Printed
10987654321

in the

United

States

of America

1-8

1-9
Part

Analysis
DTNISTIC DSiN

for
BASS

Normal
AND

and

Shear
POBABIHSTC

Stresses

ISBN
Prentice-Hall
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0-13-279258-3
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Simon

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ons

47 5O
52

vi

Contents
Contents

vii

Part
2-1 Introduction
**3-4 **3-5
3-6

AND
Mathematical
Strain

HOOKE'$
Definition
Tensor

LAW
of Strain
143 145

Part
2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5

A
6O
Normal Hooke's Strain Law
**3-8

3-7

Generalized E, G and
Dilatation

Hooke's v R61ationshipss
and Bulk

Law
Modulus

for

Isotropic

Materials

146 150

Stress-strain

Relationships

60 62 64

Part
3-9 '3-10

THiN-WALLED
Remarks

PRESSURE
on

VSSELS
Pressure

2-6 2-7 2-8

2-9

Further
Deformation
Poisson's

Other

Idealizations
Strain

Remarks
Ratio

on Stress-strain
of Axial y
and

of Constitutive
Loaded
Deformation

Relationships
Bars

Relations

67 68
71 82

Cylindrical

and

Thin-walled

Spherical

Pressure

Vessels

Vessels

157

Thermal

Part
*'3-11

D
Introduction
159

2-10 '2-11 '2-12 *'2-13

Dynamic
B

Elastic Deflections

Saint-Venant's

Strain
and

Energy for by the Energy

Impact

Principle

and Stress
Uniaxial Method

Stress

Concentrations

84 86 91 94 96

*'3-12
*'3-13 *'3-14

Solution

of

the

General

Problem

160
165

Loads

Special Behavior
Problems

Cases of Ideally

Plastic

Thick-walled

Cylinders

167
171

Part
2-14 2-15 2-16 *'2-17 2-18

General

Considerations

Displacement
Freedom Problems

Force Method Introduction

of Analysis to the Displacement

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

99
99

Method

with

Several
Indeterminate

Method

100

Degrees
Nonlinear

of

106

4-1

Introduction

175

4-2

Application

of the

Method

of Sections

175

Introduction
Deflections

to Statically Dif erential

108 112

Part
4-3 4-4
4-5

'2-19

for

Alternative

Equation

Approach

Basic
The Remarks

Assumptions
Torsion on Formula the Torsion

for

Circular
Formula

Members

177 178 18

Problems

125

127

4-6 4-7
4-8 *4-9

Design
Stress

of Circular
Concentrations

Members
of Circular

in Torsion
Members Problems Equation

185 187 189 194

*'4-10

Oyfincer
3-1 Introduction

Angle-of-twist Statically Alternative

for Torsion

Indeterminate Dif erential

Problems

Approach
197 199 201

*'4-11 *'4-12

Energy Shaft
B
4-13

and Couplings

Impact

Loads

Part

A 0ONSTTUTIVE
3-2
3-3 Elastic

RELATIONSHIPS
Relationships
Energy for Shear

FOR
for Shear
Stresses
139 141

Part

TORSIION
Shear Stresses

OF
Inelastic

INELASTIC
and Deformations

011ROULAR
in Circular

BARS
Shafts

202
202

Stress-strain

Strain

in the

Range

vii

Contents

Contents

JX

Part
*'4-15
'4-14

C TORSION
Warping
Solid Bars

OF $OHD
of Thin-Walled
of any Cross

NONCIRCULAR
207

Section

with
Part

Pure
6-1

ial
A

Iending

Ii=orce$
O;
SECTIONS

and

Iending

280
280

Open

Sections

21!

Introduction

Part
'4-16

D TORSION
Thin-walled
Problems

O: THIN-WALLED
Hollow Members

TUBULAR
213 217

BENDING
CROSS The
The

BEAMS

WITH
Assumption
Formula

SY'dMETffiC
281 283

6-2 6-3

Basic
Elastic

Kinematic
Flexure

*6-4
6-5

Computation Applications
Stress Concentrations

of the Moment of the Flexure

Strain Composite
Bars

of Inertia Formula

289 293 297 299 301 306 311

5
5-1 Introduction
224

*6-6 *6-7

**6-8 **6-9 6-10

Elastic Beams
Curved

Energy

in Pure Bending Cross Section

of Beams

Inelastic
B

Bending

Part
'5-2

A
*5-3 *5-4
*5-5

CALCULATION
Classification

OF
of Beams

REACTIONS

Part
225 226
6-11

Diagrammatic Diagrammatic

Conventions Conventions

Calculation

of Beam

Part

SH=AR,
5-6 5-7 5-8 5-9 5-10

AND
Force
in Beams

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com B:NDING MOdENT

Reactions
228 6-12 230
'6-13

for Supports for Loading

WITH

AXIAL

LOADS

*'6-14

Bending Elastic Inelastic Bending

Cross

about both Principal Axes Bending with Axial Loads Bending with Axial Loads of Beams with Unsymmetric
MOMENTS OF
and Products

319

324 333

(Arbitrary)

234

Section

336

Axial

Application

of the
Moment

in Beams

Method
in Beams

of Sections

Part
'6-15 '6-16

AREA
Area

INERTIA
of Inertia

340
340 34l 343

Shear

Moments

Bending Diagrams

Principal
Problems

Axes

of Inertia

Axial-Force,

Shear,

and

Bending-Moment
240

Part
5-11

SHEAR
BY
Element

INTEGRATION

AND

BENDING
Equations

MOMENTS
248

Shear and
7-1

Stresses Ielated
Introduction

in
357

Dif erential
Shear Moment Effect

of Equilibrium

for a Beam
of the Load of the Shear on Moment
Curve
248

Part

A
7-2 7-3 7-4 '7-5

SHEAR
elimina
She Flow

STRESSES
Remks
Shear-stress Fomula

IN

57
357 361

5-12 5-13

5-14
5-15

Diagrams
*'5-16

Diagrams by Integration Diagrams by Integration of Concentrated Moment

Diagram
Functions

250
252 258 261 263

The

for

Betas

367

Moment
Problems

Singularity

and

the

Elastic

Waage
7-7

*7-6
7-8

269

Some She
Shear

Limitations Stresses
Center

of Plane

of the in Beam

Sections

She-stress Flanges

Due

to She

373

Formula

378 380 382

Contents

Contents

xi

386

7-9

Combined

Direct

and

Torsional

Shear

Stresses

*'7-10 *'7-11

Stresses Deflection
Problems

in Closely of Closely

Coiled Coiled

Helical Helical

Springs Springs

-9-1
391

Introduction

459

Part
9-2 9-3

ELASTII
State of

ST:SS
Stress for

ANALYSS
Some Basic Cases
46!

*'9-4

Comparative Experimental


Accuracy Methods

of Beam of Stress

Solutions Analysis

466

8-1

Introduction

Part
403

470

Part
8-2 8-3

A
The Problems 8-4 8-5 Basic Problem

4O3
403

Transformation

of

Stresses

in Two-dimensional
40?

Principal
Maximum
Problems

Stresses
Shear

in Two-dimensional
Stresses in Two-dimensional

Problems

409 410

9-5 9-6 9-7 9-8 9-9 9-10

Design Design Design Design Design Design

Problems

of Axial y Loaded Members of Torsion Members Criteria for Prismatic Beams of Prismatic Beams of Nonprismatic Beams of Complex Members

470 471

472
475

480 482 485

Mohr's
Problems
*8-7

Circle
of

of St3ess
Mohr's

Construction
Transformation

**8-8
8-9

Principal
Mohr's

Stresses
Circle for

for

a General

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

414 417

for

Two-dimensional
for

Circles

Stress

10-1

Introduction

498

a General

State

of Stress

424 426

State

of

Stress

Part

499
499 501

Part
8-10 8-11

B
Strains in Two Dimensions

43O
430

10-2
10-3

Moment-Curvature

Relation

*'10-4
10-5 10-6 10-7

*'8-12 '8-13 '8-14

Transformation Alternative
in Two Mohr's Dimensions Circle

of

Strain

Derivation
for

in Two for Strain

Dimensions Transformation
Strain

430

Two-dimensional

433 43.5

/'10-8
10-9

Part
8-15


8-16 '8-17
8-18 8-19 8-20

'10-10

44'

'10-11 '10-12

Governing Dif erential Equation Alternative Drivation of the Governing Alternative Forms of the Governing Boundary Conditions Direct-Integration Solutions Singularity Functions for Beams Deflection by Superposition Deflection in Unsymmetrical Bending Energy Method for Deflections and
Inelastic Deflection of Beams

Equation
Equation

504
505 505 507 523 525 529

Impact

531 535

Introductory Maximum

Remarks Shear-Stress

44!

Theory

Maximum Comparison
Energy Maximum Comparison
Problems

Distortion-Energy of Maximum-Shear
Theories for Plane Normal Stress of Yield and Stress Theory Fracture

Theory
and Distortion-

444

**Part
*'10-13

B
;THOD Introduction
Moment-Area

537
to the
Theorems

448 449

Moment-Area

Method

Criteria

450
453

*'10-14 *'10-15

Statically
Problems

Indeterminate

Beams

xii

Contents

Contents

Xll

574
11-1 Introduction
574

Part
'12-10

C
General

'11-2 11-3
Part
11-4
11-5

Examples Criteria
A

of Instability for Stability

'1-11
'12-12 '12-13 *'12-14

Strain

Energy

Remarks

661

and

Complementary
Systems

Strain-Energy

of Equilibrium FO
with with
Formulas

Theorems

661 665 670

Castigliano's Statically

BUCKLING
Euler Euler
Restraints

THEORY
Load Loads for Columns for Columns
the Euler

COLU/INS
Pinned Dif erent Ends End

583
83 585

Elastic

Energy'for

Theorems Indeterminate

Buckling

Loads

674 676

Problems

$TA'I OALL
'13-1

INDE'ERIINA'E
686

11-6 11-7 '11-8

Limitations

of

588

Generalized
Eccentric
Beam-Columns

Euler
Loads and

Buckling-Load
the Secant

Formulas
Formula

590 592

Introduction

'11-9 *'11-10

596

Alternative
Columns

Dif erential

Equations

for

Beam600

Part
'13-2 '13-3

ELASTIC
Two
Force

/IETHODS
Basic
Method

OF
for Elastic

ANALYSIS
Analysis

687
687 687 690 697

Methods

Part
'11-11 '11-12
'11-13

'13-4

General
Concentrically Eccentrically Lateral
Problems

Considerations
Stability

'13-5 605 608 '13-6 '13-7

'11-14

Loaded Columns Loaded Columns of Beams

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Stif ness Coefficients Reciprocity
616 623

Flexibility Introduction Further

Coefficients Reciprocity to the Displacement Remarks on the Displacement

L/HT ANALYS$
and

Method

Method

700 703

Part

B PLASTIC

708
70
73

623

'13-8

Plastic

Limit

Analysis

of Beams
Frames

'13-9

Continuous

Beams

Problems

12-1

Introduction

634

APPENDICES:

TABLES

ANSWERS
INDEX

TO
Factors
See Inside

ODD-NU/IBERED
between
Back Cover

PROBLEMS
U.S. Customary and

Part
12-2 12-3

A
635

Conversion
SI Units:

Elastic

Strain

Energy

535

Displacements
B

by Conservation
WORK ETHODS

of Energy

537

Part
'12-4
12-5

VIIRTUAL

Virtual
Virtual

Work
Forces

Principle
for Deflections

638

642

12-6 12-7

Virtual
Virtual

Force

Forces

Equations
for

Indeterminate

for

Elastic
Equilibrium Systems

Problems

Systems

644

650
651

*'12-8 *'12-9

Virtual Virtual

Displacements Work for

Discrete

for

657

This book
Materials chanics

plement

(Prentice-Hall, Inc., of Solids (Prentice-Hall,

is an update

of two of the author's

disciplines.

the traditional
Among

rigorous treatment is selectively provided. A few more advanced topics have also VERSION been introduced. As a result, the book is larger than its predNON-ACTIVATED ecessors. This has an advantage in that the user of this text has a larger choice for study, according to needs. Moreover, experience shows that www.avs4you.com the serious student retains the text for use as a reference in professional
life.

structural analysis, modest exposure to the matrix methods, and il ustrations using the method of finite elements are discussed. Further, to conform with the more mathematical trend in teaching this subject, more

these,

topics

some treatment

with some exposure

2nd Ed., 1976) and Introduction Inc., 1968). It was felt important

earlier

texts,

Mechanics

of the probabilistic

to newly

emerging

to Meto sup-

of

basis for

This book or one-semester

up course
text

logical development problems marked applies to material tion are provided

an alternative
is careful y

material

on the subject

is larger than what course. Therefore,

can

for a basic

It is the belief of the author that the serious wealth of available material in the text, even should become more knowledgeable. Several

integrated

sequence

of the subject, numerous sections, examples, and with a ** can be omit ed, To a lesser extent, this also marked with a *. These guides to possibilities for delethroughout the text. In a few instances, suggestions for
by means

course

ht an intermediate
that

easily be covered in a one quarter it should prove useful for a fol ow-

is consecutive,

level.

As an aid in selecting
with no gaps

in the

in studying

of cross-referencing.

the subject

are also given.

The

text

tioned

lowable

in this regard. at Fig.

why
stress

glance

thin-walled
suggests

the limitations

1-26,

design

For example,
of axial y a design.

pressure

of such

showing

histograms

loaded

while

limitations

vessels;

are place

even

The

by the ASME

a superficial

same

for two

members

the student

student, because in an abbreviated il ustrations can

is true

materials,

in Chapter

is studying

of the course, be men-

examination

for the student

should

1, a mere studying

the alreveal

on the use of elementary

of Fig.

3-24

xvi

Preface

Preface

xvii

variation
structor.

can text

diately minate

depending

of the text.

of the subject and issues of possible Chapter 2 forms the cornerstone careful y. The introduced concepts

and brought

formulas for thin-walled pressure vessels. Modest exposure to some matrix solutions and il ustrations obtained using finite-element methods should arouse interest. Some exposure to the plastic-limit-state methods given in the last section of the last chapter warrants attention. In the hands of an instructor, these side issues can be discussed in a minimum of time

der Kiureghian

probabilistic

in wherever

desired.

Next,

be useful as writ en,

fol owing Section and indeterminate

in the sequence

on preference.

Further,

the sequence
For

in introducing however,

2-7, the distinction between systems becomes less important.

fol ows
would

example,

of study

controversy of the subject are repeatedly

some

remarks

by studying

for this chapter

are raised. and has to be studied used in the remainder Section 2-19

on the philosophy

Herrmann (UCD), and J. M. Ricles (UCSD) gave useful Chapter 2; E. L. Wilson (UCB) offered useful comments S. B. Dong (UCLA) encouraged more rigorous development of composite beams resulting in significant improvements;

methods

(UCB)

in Chapter

provided

valuable

1; M. D. Engelhardt

assistance

for the section

(UCD)
tions.

can be varied,

couraged Roeder

suggested

presentation (UW) careful y

useful refinements

of the matrix method in Chapter reviewed Chapter 13 and provided

the fol owing also greatly

for Chapter

8; J. L. Meek (UQ) en12; and C. W. useful suggescontributed to the de-

suggestions for on Chapter 4; for treatment Y. F. Dafalias

(UTA),

L. R.

on

the displacement the traditional

probably

require

method approach.

assistance

of analysis. The The suggested

from

statically deterThis approach

imme-

an in-

velopment of the text: M. S. Agbabian (USC), H. Astaneh (UCB), D.O. Brush (UCD), A. K. Chopra (UCB), F. Hauser (UCB), J. M. Kelly (UCB), P. Monteiro (UCB), F. Moffit (UCB), J. L. Sackman (UCB), R. Stephen (UCB), R. L. Taylor (UCB), and G. Voyiadjis (LSU). Dr. K. C. Tsai (NTU) provided valuable assistance in supervising the assembly of

In addition

to these,

right-hand sign convention for use with a. computer.

in consecutive
are made

with oughly

The

more controversial the adopted shear

entrenched

in U.S.

issue encountered sign convention

practice;

in addition

to its virtually

for aXes. If needed, it can easily be modified The engineering sign convention for shear used,

however,

in developing for beams. The

it is in conflict

this text deals one used is thorwith

problem
results

the

by J-H. Shen (UCB). Taylor, J. M. Ricles

many
rectly

solutions

for the first nine chapters,

2-31,

in using

integrations.

universal

it in hand

the alternative In the preparation universities contributed

with

lem. Whereas struction of the use, and there approaches are

The introduction

the basic algebra and comprehensive meaning of the concircles is the same, two alternative methods are in general are strong advocates for each method. Therefore, both developed; the choice of procedure is left to the reader,
one remaining as a reference. of this book, over 30 people to its development. Among

of Mohr's

NON-ACTIVATED on one VERSION of the earlier books, Drs. S. Nagarajan use in design, requires no sign changes Experience has shown that fewer mistakes In producing this book, Douglas Humphrey of Prentice-Hall spared no effort in preparing circles of stress www.avs4you.com and strain presented a probsuggested
contributed

The

author

for

figures

Among the proceeding, M. D. Engelhardt, also assisted with the preparation of finite
thanks
7-13,

the remainder
9-8.

was compiled
to each

sincerely

improvements.
to this

all and feels

7-14,

9-7

and

R. L. element
for

The author

a debt

also thanks

of gratitude

and Z. A. Lu,

his collaborators
who

indi-

calculations.

text

also.

an excellent Lastly, as in all previous books, the author again is deeply his wife, Irene, for unstinting support and continual help'with
uscript.
EaoR

and Sophie

Papanikolaou

publication. indebted to the manPoPov

P.

and

(ASU)?,

encouragement
t Letters

(UCB),

entire

UCSB),

M. E. Criswell

manuscript

J. J. Tuma and

J. L. Lubliner

and offered
made

(ASU),

(CSU),

(UCB),

numerous
useful

and

J. Dempsey

G. A. Wempner

(CU),

H. D. Eberhart

at more these, (GIT),

than a dozen W. Bickford reviewed the

Berkeley,

California

(UCB

and A. C. Scordelis
suggestions
the fol owing

valuable

suggestions;
Clarifying

for

(UCB)

provided
ASU,

F. Filippou
text;

the A.

much

tional versity UCSB,

Uni versity; InstituteCSU, of ColTechnol orado ogy; State LSU, UniversitLoui y; siana CU, StatCl emson University; NTU, GINaT, Georgia e University;
Taiwan University; UCB, University of California, Berkeley; UCD, Uniof California at Davis; UCLA, University of California at Los Angeles; University of California at Santa Barbara; USC, University of Southern

in parentheses

identify

universities:

Arizona

State

and UW, University

California;

UTA, Universi ty of Texas, Austin; UQ, University of Washington.

of Queensland;

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

ter

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION properly proportioned to resist the actual or probable forces that may be imposed upon them. Thus, the walls of a pressure vessel must be of adwww.avs4you.com equate strength to withstand the internal pressure; the floors of a building
In all engineering machine must construction, be assigned definite the component physical sizes. parts

1-1.

Introduction

of a structure or a Such parts must be

must be sufficiently strong for their intended purpose; the shaft of a machine must be of adequate size to carry the required torque; a wing of an airplane must safely withs.tand the aerodynamic loads that may come upon it in takeoff, flight, and landing. Likewise, the parts of a composite structure must be rigid enough so as not to deflect or "sag" excessively when in operation under the imposed loads. A floor of a building may be strong enough but yet may deflect excessively, which in some instances may cause misalignment of manufacturing equipment, or in other cases result in the cracking of a plaster ceiling attached underneath. Also a member may be so thin or slender that, upon being subjected to compressive loading, it wil collapse through buckling, i.e., the initial configuration of a member may become unstable. The ability to determine the maximum load that a slender column can carry before buckling occurs or the safe
level of vacuum that can be maintained by a vessel is of great practical
importance.

In engineering practice, such requirements must be met with the minimum expenditure of a given material. Aside from cost, at times--as in the design of satel ites--the feasibility and success of the whole mission may depend on the weight of a package. The subject of mechanics of

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.'l-2.

Method

of

Sections

naterials,

work of Galileo in the early part of the seventeenth investigations into the behavior of solid bodies fol owed precedents and empirical rules. Galileo
to explain the behavior of some of the members

stif ness (deformation characteristics), and stability of the various loadcarrying members. Alternately, the subject may be called the nechanics of solid defornable bodies, or simply nechanics of solids. Mechanics of solids is a fairly old subject, generally dated from the

in the

past,

or the

involves

strength

analytical

ofnaterials,

methods

as it has

for

determining

been

traditionally

the

strength,

called

part of the subject, but this branch is left to other books. I Here the end

results of such investigations are of interest, and this book is concerned with the analytical or mathematical part of the subject in contradistinction to experimentation. For these reasons, it is seen that mechanics of solids is a blended science of experiment and Newtonian postulates of analytical mechanics. It is presumed that the reader has some familiarity in both of
these areas. In the development
dominant role.

century. Prior to his under loads, constructors was the first to attempt
under load on a rational

of this subject,

statics

plays a particularly

basis. beams
course,

He studied used in the

much progress

members construction
has

in tension of hulls
been made

and compression, of ships for the

since that time,

Italian
but

and

notably navy. Of
it must be

This text wil be limited to the simpler topics of the subject. In spite of the relative simplicity of the methods employed here, the resulting techniques are unusually useful as they apply to a vast number of technically

noted in passing that much is owed in the development of this subject to the French investigators, among whom a group of outstanding men such as Coulomb, Poisson, Navier, St. Venant, and Cauchy, who worked at the break of the nineteenth century, has left an indelible impression on
this

of mechanics of solids cuts broadly across all branches the engineering profession with remarkably many applications. Its ods are needed by designers of offshore structures; by civil engineers the design of bridges and buildings; by mining engineers and architectural

The

subject. subject

The subject matter The number of basic structural and machine of solids is relatively must develop an ability tities being computed.

important

problems.

of

of problems
complete

chinery

engineers, in the neers, concepts

materials

design
who and

each

of whom is interested of reactor components; rely upon the methods

pressure vessels;

by metal urgists,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION stress are discussed in the last part of the www.avs4you.com
in

meth-

in structures; by mechanical of this subject

engineers,

who

by nuclear engineers and chemical engifor the design of maneed the fundamental the

There are three major parts in this chapter. The general concepts of stress are treated first. This is fol owed with a particular case of stress distribution in axial y loaded members. Strength design criteria based on
chapter.

masterly

to be solved

can be mastered best by solving formulas necessary for the members by the methods of small; however, throughout to visualize a problem and Complete, carefidly drawn
subject.

of this

wil pay large dividends

numerous problems. analysis and design of engineering mechanics this study, the reader the nature of the quandiagrammatic sketches

in a quicker

and more

of this
further;

subject

finally,

in order
by

electrical

to understand

how

who

to improve
need

methods

existing

of this

phases .of many portions of solids, contrasted chanics, has characteristic

proaches overlap.

subject

because

It is a definite

of electrical equipment. with the mathematical methods all its

discipline

of the

importance

of the

and

Engineering theory of own, although

one

mechanical

engineering
continuum

mechanics

me-

of the

the
alongside

most

two

funda-

ap-

1=2.

Method

of

Sections

mental
other trical

basic theory.

subjects

subjects

of an engineering
as fluid

mechanics,

curriculum?

thermodynamics,

standing
depends govern

as well

as elec-

such

The behavior fundamental

of the forces,

laws

but

of a member of Newtonian
also on

subjected
the

mechanical

mechanics

to forces

characteristics

that

of the

not the

only on the equilibrium

materials

One of the main problems of engineering mechanics of vestigation of the internal resistance of a body, that is, the set up within a body to balance the effect of the externally For this purpose, a uniform method of approach is employed. diagrammatic sketch of the member to be investigated
which

is observed of breaks,

of which the lat er the action

the member comes from of accurately

with particular deformations,

is fabricated. The necessary information regarding the laboratory, where materials are subjected known forces and the behavior of test specimens
etc.
regard to such Determination phenomena of such as the phenomena

spective points of application. All forces acting on a body,

Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,

all of the external

forces

Such a sketch is called afi'ee-body diagram. including the reactive forces caused by the
1985).

acting

6n a body

are shown

solids is the innature of forces applied forces. A complete is prepared, on

at their re-

to

occurrence is a vital

 W. D. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering (New York: Wiley, 1985). J. F. Shackelford, Introduction to Materials Science for Eng#eers (New York: Macmil an, 1985). L. H. Van Vlack, Materials Science for Engineers, 5th ed.,

Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts

supports and the weight 2 of the body itself, are considered Moreover, since a stable body at rest is in equilibrium, on it satisfy the equations of static equilibrium. Thus, on a body such as shown in Fig. 1-1(a) satisfy the equilibrium and are all shown acting on it, the sketch
body diagram. Next, since a determination of the

Sec. t-3. Definition

external forces. the forces acting if the forces acting equations of static represents a freeforces caused
P1

of Stress

internal

by the external arbitrary section

two
P
(a)

p,,

Fig.

(c),

where

parts.

1-1(a)

into

an arbitrary
two

The

result

ones is one of the principal is passed through the body,

of such distinct

plane

parts.

ABCD

a process

This

separates

can

concerns completely
the

be seen wil

process

original

in Figs.

of this subject, an separating it into

solid
1-1(b) to as the

be referred

body

and

of
(a) (b)

method of sections. Then, if the body as part of it must also be in equilibrium. For some of the forces necessary to maintain section. These considerations lead to the sion: the externally applied forces to one be balanced by the #zternal forces developed
external forces are balanced by the internal

a whole is in equilibrium, any such parts of a body, however, equilibriummust act at the cut fol owing fundamental concluside of an arbitrmy cut must at the cut, or, briefly, the
forces. Later it wil be seen

Fig. t-2 Sectioned body: (a) free body with some internal forces, (b) enlarged view with components of Ap.

in nature In mechanics to deformation

and

they maintain the externally of solids it is particularly and

applied significant on these

these are

forces in equilibrium. to determine the intensities.

inthey

tensity

of these

forces

to forces

on the

depends

various

portions

of a section

In general,

as resistance

that the cutting planes wil be oriented in particular requirements. However, the method of sections first step in solving all problems where internal
$1

tigated.

(b)

In discussing

the

method

of sections,

moving librium. First,

posite

multiplied

bodies, although These problems the acceleration

by the mass
to the

m of the

not in static equilibrium, can be reduced to problems a of the part in question

body, giving

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

force vector Ap acting on an area AA

directions to fit special wil be relied upon as a forces are being investo note that some

vary

section.

from

It is advantageous

point

to point

and

to resolve

are inclined

with

intensities shown

respect

to the plane
perpendicular in Fig.

of the
and this In

parallel

to the

section

investigated.
section

As an example,
the body

the components

1-2(b).

of a
to the
The

it is significant

a force

are in dynamic equiof static equilibrium. is computed; then it is

F = ma. If the
to

force

x axis, and component along the y Since the

particular

diagram,

so computed

is applied
acceleration,

to the

the

body

dynamic

at its mass
instantaneously

problem

center
With

is reduced

in a direction

one

op-

stress--hold
is

the directions .of AP. and of the normal to AA'coincide. parallel to the section is further resolved into components and z axes. components of the intensity of force per unit area--i.e.,

the

through

is perpendicular

true

only

at a point,

the

mathematical

definition

3 of stress

of

of

statics. This is the so-called all bodies can be thought

P3
(c)

d'Alembertprinciple. of as being

this point in a state

of view, of static
From

body.

Fig.

t-t

Sectioning

of a

to maintain the on, the problem 1-3. In general,

and

equilibrium. Hence, for rium, a free-body diagram

any

body as a whole in equilibrium is the same as discussed of Stress forces acting

in Fig.

body, whether can be prepared

in static on vhich
can
before.

be shown.

or dynamic the necessary

equilibforces

r=' = aa-, limo AP. AA,

AA 'r.y = aa--,li0m APy

and

AA 'r= = a,4-o lim AP

then

Definition the internal

on infinitesimal

areas
These

of a cut

are

of

where, in all three cases, the first subscript of r (tau) indicates that the plane perpendicular to the x axis is considered, and the second designates the direction of the stress component. In the next section, all possible combinations of subscripts for stress wil be considered. The intensity of the force perpendicular to or normal to the section is called the nortnal stress at a point. It is customary to refer to normal
stresses that cause traction or tension on the surface of a section as tensile

varying

(c),

magnitudes
and

as is again

and

shown

directions,

as was

1-2(a).

shown

earlier

forces

in Figs.
are

vectorial

1-1(b)

2 Strictly speaking, due to acceleration,

body's

stances,

manner

associated

center

these

of mass.

body

with

the weight of the body etc., are "body forces,"

the

forces

can be considered

units

of volume

or, more generally, and act throughout

as external
of the body.

loads

However,

the inertial forces the body in a

acting through
in most

stresses. pressire by the

stress geneous

On the other hand, stresses. In this book, let er cr (sigma) instead

in this matter manner. appears However, to have

those that are pushing against it are cotnnormal stresses wil usually be designated of by a double subscript on -r. A single

the

in-

3 As AA - 0, some

question

from

a homogeneous worked well.

the atomic

point

(uniform)

of view

model

exists

for

in defining
nonhomo-

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

t-4.

Stress

Tensor

subscript then suffices to designate the direction of the axis. The other components of the intensity of force act parallel to the plane of the elementary area. These components are called shear' or shear#zg stresses. Shear stresses wil be always designated by The reader should form a clear mental picture of the stresses called normal and those called shearing. To repeat, normal stresses result from force components perpendicular to the plane of the cut, and shear stresses result from components tangential to the plane of the cut. It is seen from the definitions that since they represent the intensity of force on an area, stresses are measured in units of force divided by units of area. In the U.S. customary system, units for stress are pounds per square inch, abbreviated psi. In many cases, it wil be found convenient to use as a unit of force the coined word kip, meaning kilopound, or 1000 lb. The stress in kips per square inch is abbreviated kM. It should be noted

Some conversion factors from U.S. customary the inside of the back cover. It may be useful 1 in = 25 mm, 1 pound-force - 4.4 newtons, It should be emphasized that stresses multiplied on which they act give forces. At an imaginao, these forces, called stress resultants, keeps

to SI units are given on to note that approximately and 1 psi -- 7000 Pa. by the respective areas section, a vector sum of a body in equilibrium. In

engineering
are
stresses

generally

mechanics
are determined.

determined

of.solid,

first,

the stress
and

then,

resultants

using

established

at a selected

formulas,

section

1-4.

Stress

Tensor

plane

If, in addition through additional

an infinitesimal
the

to the

section

that

the

unit

pound

referred

to here

implies

a pound-force,

not

a pound-

mass. Such ambiguities are avoided in the modernized version of the metric system referred to as the International System of Units or SI units. 4 SI units are being increasingly adopted and wil be used in this text along with the U.S. customary system of units in order to facilitate a smooth

body, two pairs

an elementary of planes were

distance

implied

away

in the slice passed

and parallel

free

body be

would normal

to the first

of Fig.

isolated. to the first

were

I-2,

another

Then, pair,

passed

if an a cube

of infinitesimal is shown

transition. The base units in SI.are meter 5 (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, and second (s) for time. The derived unit for area is a square neter (m2), and for acceleration, a tneter pet' second squared (m/s2). The
unit of force is defined as a unit mass subjected to a unit acceleration,

i.e., kilogram-meter pet' second squared (kg-m/s2), and is designated a newton (N). The unit of stress is the newton pet' square meter (N/m2), also designated a pascal (Pa). Multiple and submultiple prefixes representing steps of 1000 are recommended. For example, force can be shown in mil inewtons (1 mN = 0.001 N), newtons, or kilonewtons (1 kN = 1000 N), length in mil #neters (1 mm = 0.001 m), meters, or kiloneters (1 km = 1000 m), and stress in kilopascals (1 kPa = 103 Pa), megspascals (1 MPa = 106 Pa), or gigspascals (1 GPa = 109 Pa), etc. 6

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

they
cube

dimensions would be isolated from the body. Such a cube in Fig. 1-3(a). All stresses acting on this cube are identified on the diagram. As noted earlier, the first subscripts on the -r's associate the stress with a plane perpendicular to a given axis; the second subscripts designate the direction of the stress. On the near faces of the cube, i.e., on the faces away from the origin, the directions of stress are positive if

coincide

toward

the

with

origin,

the

positive

from

directions
the

action-reaction

of the

axes.

equilibrium

On the faces

concept,

of the

of the stress without widely

positive

If at a point

axes. (Note that for normal from -r to , a single subscript ambiguity.) The designations used in the mathematical

stresses

act

in the

direction

in question

a dif erent

stresses, by changing the symbol for on cr suffices to define this quantity for stresses shown in Fig. 1-3(a) are theories of elasticity and plasticity.

opposite

to the

positive

directions

set of axes

are

chosen,

the

corre-

The

stress

expressed

numerically

in units

of N/m

2 may

appear

to be

unusually small to This is because the and 1 square meter inch. Therefore, it in terms of a force

those familiar with the U.S. customary system of units. force of 1 newton is small in relation to a pound-force, is associated with a much larger area than 1 square is often more convenient in most applications to think of 1 newton acting on 1 square mil imeter. The units

for
(MPa).

such
4 From s Also

a quantity
the French, spelled metre.
usage can

are
Syst6me
be found

N/mm

2, or,
International

in preferred
d'Unit6s.

notation,

megapascals

Fig. t-3 of stress

infinitesimal

(a)

General acting on
element

state an
in the

initial General

coordinate state
an infinitesimal

system. of stress
element

acting
system

(b)

style,
86.

a A detailed
and

discussion

of SI units,

back cover.

SocieFor ty conveni for ence,Testing anda short Materialtsable as ASTM Standard for is Met ric Practonice the E-380of conversion factors included inside

in a comprehensive

including

guide

conversion

published

factors,

by the

rules

American

for SI
(a) (b)

(7/

on

defined
of
sense.

in a rotated
coordinate axes.

All

stresses

have

positive

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

t-4.

Stress

Tensor

sponding

stresses

are

as shown

in Fig.

1-3(b).

These

stresses

are

related,

but

are

not

generally
from

equal,
one

to those
set

shown

in Fig.

1-3(a).
to another which can

The

process
is termed be defined
'iry x
B

of changing stresses stress transformation.

by three thogonal) mathematical stresses, formation discussion

The state components on each of the three mutually perpendicular (oraxes in mathematical terminology is called a tensor. Precise processes apply for transforming tensors, including from one set of axes to another. A simple case of stress trans-

of coordinate axes of stress at a point

wil
examination

be encountered

in the
8.
symbols

next

section,
in Fig.

and
1-3(a)

a more
shows

complete

is given

are three
stresses: three
manner

An

normai
a column

stresses:
-ry., -ryz, P.,

in Chapter of the stress

-r.. = ., -ryy -= %, 'rzz =- z; and

-r.z. By contrast, and P. These can

six shearing

that

there

,.y, components:
as

-ry, Py,
vector:

, . ,

a force vector P has only be writ en in an orderly

Fig. (1-1a) t-4 Elements in pure shear.

Mc where area,

= 0

+
arm.

+ (.ry.)(dx in parentheses Simplifying,

dz)(dy) correspond

(Txy)(dy

dz)(dx) respectively

= 0 to stress,

Analogously,

the

stress

components

This tensor vector

is a matrix requiring is a first-rank

representation two indices tensor,

of the to identify and a scalar

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

(l-lb)

can

be assembled

as fol ows:

the expressions and moment

(1-2)

stress tensor. its elements is a zero-rank

It is a second-rank or components. tensor. Sometimes,

for brevity, is understood

Eq. (l-lb).

a stress tensor is writ en that i andj can assume

in indicial designations

notation as 'ri, where x, y, and z as noted

it in

'ri. This fol ows For this purpose, dy, and dz, and axis in Fig. 1-4.

Next,

it wil

be shown
directly sum Only let the the the

from

the dimensions moments stresses

that

the

equilibrium

requirements of the infinitesimal of forces about an entering the problem

stress

tensor

is symmetric,

for an element. element be dx, axis such as the z are shown in the

i.e.,

*i =

planes

Similarly, it can be shown that -r. = -r and scripts for the shear stresses are commutative, interchanged, and the stre. ss tensor is symmetric. The implication of Eq. 1-2 is very important. are commutative signifies that shear stresses

-ry = 'l'zy. Hence, i.e., their order

on

the submay be

of an infinitesimal

element

are numerically

The fact mutually

equal,

and

that subscripts perpendicular

 M = 0

is not satisfied by a single pair 1-4(b), the arrowheads of the opposite corners of an element In most subsequent situations
pairs of shear stresses wil

of shear stresses. On diagrams, as in Fig. shear stresses must meet at diametrically to satisfy equilibrium conditions. considered in this text, more than two
seldom act on an element simultaneously.

figure.
equivalent point

By

neglecting

the

infinitesimals
moment about representation

of higher
the

order,

7 this

process
about

is

to taking the C in its two-dimensional

z axis in Fig. 1-4(a) or, in Fig. 1-4(b). Thus, face forces

7 The possibility to another and first considering rigorously that

of an infinitesimal the possibility of the an element Ax A3' z these quantities are of

change in stress from one presence of body (inertial) and proceeding to the limit, .higher order and therefore

it can be shown negligible.

of the cube exist. By

Hence, of the wil be member This stress

be

the subscripts used before to identify the planes and the directions shear stresses become superfluous. In such cases, shear stresses designated by -r without any subscripts. However, one must rethat shear stresses always occur in two pairs. notation simplification can be used to advantage for the state of shown in Fig. 1-5. The two-dimensional stress shown in the figure
as

is referred
writ en

to as plane

stress.

In matrix

representation

such

a stress

can

t0

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

t.5.

Dif erential

Equations

of

Equilibrium

*'91-5.
An in.nitesimal dimensional

Dif erential is shown

case,

Equations in Fig.

of Equilibrium
For

thickness in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Note that the possibility of an increment in stresses from one face of the element to another is accounted for. For example, since the rate of change of x in the x direction is Ox/Ox and a step of dx is made, the increment is (0/
between The
volume

(dx)(dy)(1)

element of a body must be in equilibrium. the system of stresses acting on an infinitesimal

1-6. In this derivation,

the element

is of unit

the twoelement

Ox) dx.

the inertial
of the

The

directions. or body
material.

partial

derivative

notation

has

to be used
by

to dif erentiate
weight

forces,
With

such
these

as those
notations,

caused

the

or the

magnetic
{a)

effect,

are designated

X and

Y and

are

associated

with

the

unit

(b)

Fig.

t-5

Elements

in plane

stress.

F
(1-3)

= 0---> +,

Ox dx)(dy x 1)-(dyx (  + O'

1)
x 1) = 0
obtains together the

+ 'ry + Oy dy (dx x 1) - xy(dx x 1) +X(dxdy

Simplifying equilibrium
analogous

yield fore,

selected system of axes may not NON-ACTIVATED VERSION examined on other planes. Using such procedures,www.avs4you.com it wil be shovn later that a particular set of coordinates exists which diagonalize the stress It. should
the by

b noted

that

the initial y
of

and recalling equation for

for the

that , = -ry holds the x direction. This

reads
0o 0'ryx

true, one equation,

with

basic

an

most using
read

significant the procedures

information

about

stress

the transformation,

stress

at a point. Therethe stresses are

one

y direction,
--+

Ox

Oy

+x=o

(1-5)

tensor

to

O +__
Ox

Oy

+ Y=0
without loss of continuity in the

9 Sections

identified
Y

with'**

cal

be

omit ed

(1-4)

text.

Note the absence of shear stresses. For the three-dimensional case, the stresses are said to be triaxial, since three stresses are necessary to describe the state of stress completely. For plane stress 3 = 0 and the state of stress is biaxial. Such stresses occur, for example, in thin sheets stressed in two mutually perpendicular directions. For axial y loaded members, discussed in the next section, only one element of the stress tensor survives; such a state of stress is

l 7y-F-ydy

ary

dy

x + 

dx

referred
cussed:
of a stress

to as uniaxial.
how this
tensor.

In Chapter
term can be resolved

8, an inverse
to yield

problem
four

8 wil
or more

be diselements
Fig. t-6 Infinitesimal element

one

Chapter

8 Some

8.

readers

may

prefer

at this

time

to study

the

first

several

sections

in

with
x forces.

stresses

and

body

t2

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

t-6.

Stresses

on

Inclined

Sections

in Axial y

Loaded

Bars

t3

The
by
from

moment
having It can
a set of

equilibrium
-r. = -ry.. be shown that
three is

of the
for the

element
three-dimensional

requiring

 Mz
case,

= 0 is assured
equation

a typical

Oo

Ox

OTyx

Oy

z

OTz. r

+ X = 0
(a)

Note that in deriving the previous equations, mechanical properties of the material have not been used. This means that these equations are applicable whether a material is elastic, plastic, or viscoelastic. Also it is very important to note that there are not enough equations of equilibrium to solve for the unknown stresses. In the two-dimensional case, given by Eq. 1-5, there are three unknown stresses, ., %, and %,., and only two equations. For the three-dimensional case, there are six stresses, but only three equations. Thus, all problems in stress analysis are internally statically intractable or indetermbate. A simple example as to how a static equilibrium equation is supplemented by kinematic requirements and mechanical properties of a material for the solution of a problem is given in Section 3-14. In engineering mechanics of solids, such as that presented in this text, this indeterminacy is eliminated by introducing appropriate assumptions, which is equivalent to having additional equations. A numerical procedure that involves discretizing a body into a large number of small finite elements, instead of the infinitesimal ones as above, is now 6ften used in complex problems. Such finite element analyses rely on high-speed electronic computers for solving large systems of simultaneous equations. In the finite element method, just as in the mathematical approach, the equations of statics are supplemented by the kinematic relations and mechanical properties of a material. A few examples given later in this book show comparisons among the "exact" solutions of the mathematical theory of elasticity, and those found using the finite element technique and/or conventional solutions based on the methods
of engineering mechanics of solids.

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Fig. 1-7 Sectioning of a prismatic

(c)

bar

on arbitrary

planes.

bar, end.

is drawn

for To

equilibrium, distinguish.
across

the

an equal between
reaction

but

the

force

opposite applied
vector

force

force

P.

This

and

P must act the reaction,

form of

on
identification

the left a slash is

of reactions

wil

be used

frequently

in this

text.

Finding

the

reactions

usually the Errst In the problem

essential 'step in S9!ving. a problem. at hand, after the roactive force

P is determined,

free-

body diagrams for the bar segments, isolated by sections such as a-a or b-b, are prepared. In both cases, the force P required for equilibrium is shown at the sections. However, in order to obtain the conventional stresses, which are the most convenient ones in stress analysis, the force P is replaced by its components along the selected axes. A wavy line through the vectors P indicates their replacement by components. For

il ustrative 1-7Co)

purposes,
three

1-.

Stresses

on Inclined

Sections

in Axial y

Loaded

Bars

requiring more cumbersome. two components is considered

lit le is gained by considering force components. The

The traditional approach of engineering mechanics for determining the internal stresses on arbitrarily axial y loaded bars. The first steps in this procedure 1-7. Here, since. an axial force P is applied on the

of solids wil be used inclined sections in are il ustrated in Fig. right end of a prismatic

the other

is in the

Instead, the case shown of P in the plane of symmetry in detail. One of these components

plane

of the

section.

the case shown in Fig. analysis simply becomes in Fig. 1-7(c), having only of the bar cross section, is normal to the section;
on inclined to the bar 0 with the

As planes, sides,

an

example consider as shown

of a detailed two sections in Fig. l~8(a).

analysis of stresses in a bar 90 degrees apart perpendicular The section a-a is at an angie

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

P

Sec. t-6. Stresses

Centraid

on Inclined

Sections

in Axial y

Loaded

Bars

t5

bJ

Cross

section

ofarea A

The negative sign in Eq. 1-7 is used to conform to the sign convention for shear stresses introduced earlier. See, for example, Fig. 1-5. The need for a negative sign is evident by noting that the shear force P sin 0 acts
in the dii:ection

(a)

Y',
P

p cosy

x'
P
x

It is important to note that the basic procedure of engineering mechanics of solids used here gives the average or mean stress at a section. These stresses are determined from the axial forces necessary for equilibrium at a section. Therefore they hlways satisfy statics. However based on the additional requirements of kinematics (geometric deformations) and mechan'ical properties of a material, large local stresses are known to arise in the proximity of concentrated forces. This also occurs at abrupt changes in cross-sectional areas. The average stresses at a section are accurate at a distance about equal to the depth of the member from the concentrated forces or abrupt changes in cross-sectional area. The use of this simplified

opposite

to that of the y axis.

procedure wil be rationalized

Equations 1-6 and 1-7 show that the normal and shear stresses vary with the angle 0. The sense of these stresses is shown in Figs. 1-8(c) and

in Section 2-10 as Saint Venant's principle.

(e)

(d). The normal stress (To reaches its maximum

P cos 2 e
A

0
(c) (d)

termined from the fol owing equation: NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com where P is the applied force, and A is the
P sin e cos 0
A 1'0_90'

when the section is perpendicular to the axis of the rod. The shear stress then correspondingly would be zero. This leads to the conclusion that the maximu m normal stress (Truax in an axial y loaded bar can be simply de(Truax = O'r ' = -A

value for 0 = 0, i.e.,

(1-8)

-90

--P sin 2 e
A

(f)

(g)

Fig. t-8 Sectioning

of a prismatic
0 with

bar on mutually

perpendicular

planes.
the reaction,

and the shear in

Equations

1-6 and 1-7 also show that for 0 = +-90 , both the normal
stresses vanish. This is as it should be, since no stresses

cross-sectional

area of the bar.

vertical.

Fig. 1-8(b). Note that the normal

also forms an angle

An isolated

part of the bar to the left of this section

the x axis.

to the section

well as the equilibrating force P at the section of the bar section. As shown in Fig. 1-8(b),
resolved
A/cos

The applied

coinciding
force,

with the x axis

is shown

act along the top and bott6m free boundaries (surfaces) of the bar. To find the maximum shear stress acting in a bar, one must dif erentiate

Eq. 1-7 with respect to 0, and set the derivative

out this operation and simplifying

the shear

into .two components:

by the fol owing

0. Therefore,

component,

two

the normal
equations:
-(T o

P sin 0. The area of the inclined

stress (T0 and the shear
0 P = -- cos 0 A
P

the normal

force

all act through the equilibrating

component,

stress

cross

P cos 0, and
'to are given
(1-6)

the centroid force P is

section is

as

the results,

one obtains

equal to zero. On carrying

(1-9)

tan 0 = + 1

leading

acts is usually
of 0 into Eq.

-45 with

to the conclusion
1-7, one

the axis of the bar.

that 'truax OCCurS on planes

on substituting
'tmax -- 2A

immaterial,

Since

the sense

force area
P sin

P cos A/cos
0
0

finds

either one of the above values

(T-
2

in which

of either

a shear

+ 45 or
stress

2 0

(1-10)

and
tO --

A/cos

= -

sn 0 cos

(1-7)

Therefore,

the maximum

shear stress in an axial y

loaded

bar is only half

Stress, Axial

Loads,

and Safety
normal

Concepts
stress.
the

Sec. t-7. Maximum

The
normal that

Normal

Stress In Axial y

Loaded

Bars

17

procedure, b-b. On from the vertical is best measured as in the former case, this angle in Eq. 1-7. Hence, the subscript designating the stresses. From
P

as large as the maximum studied using Eq. 1-7. Following the same found on the section

variation

of-to

with

0 can

be
P P

and shear stresses can be noting the angle locating this plane clockwise, instead of counterclockwise should be treated as a negative quantity -(90 - 0)= 0 - 90 wil be used in Fig. 1-8(e), one obtains
sin 0

Bar

Axis

Centtold

(b)

(a)

cr0-9oo

A/sin
P cos

0
0

A sin - 0

(1-11)

and
Note axis 1-12 sense

'ro-9oo

A/sin 0

A sin 0 cos 0

P
(1-12)
(c)

f.qodA=P
a -dx(d)

dy

= PA
normal stress

dx
(e)

dz

(f)

that in this case, since the direction of the shear force and the y have the same sense, the expression in Eq. 1-12 is positive. Equation can be obtained from Eq. 1-7 by substituting the angle 0 - 90 . The of o_9o o and ,0_9o o is shown in Fig. 1-8(f). The combined results of the analysis for sections a-a and b-b are shown on an infinitesimal element in Fig. 1-8(g). Note that the normal stresses on the adjoining element faces are not equal, whereas the shear stresses are. The lat er finding is in complete agreement with the earlier general

Fig. t-9 Successive

steps

in determining

the largest

in an axial y

loaded

bar.

1-9(e).
commonly For maximum

However,
future
used.

a simplified
reference, stress
the

diagram

such
Eq. 1-8 for loaded bar
bar axis.

as shown
determining is restated

in Fig.

1-9(f)
the
the

is

coficlusion

reached

in Section
must

1-4, showing
equal.

perpendicular

planes

be

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normal

the relevant in an axial y

directly in customary
equation

form

added

without

to indicate

any

subscript

direction

on

of

. Subscripts,
the

however,
This

are

frequently
gives

that

shear

stresses

on mutually

largest

normal

stress

at a section

taken

perpendicular

to the

axis

of a

member.

Thus,

1-7.

Maximum

Normal
situations the maximum section, these

Stress
with

in Axial y

Loaded

Bars
to
is a

In most practical directly determine in the previous

to the minimum bar

axial y loaded normal stress. stresses develop

the cross-sectional is a maximum,

bars, it is expedient As has been demonstrated on sections pe7endicular

area

where, as before, P is the

area
applied

--

or

i-
A is the cross-sectional

(1-13)

axis. For such sections, and the force component

resulting

of a bar in a maximum

area of the member.

In calculations,

axial

it is often

force,

and

convenient

to use N/mm

normal
in Fig. free-body bar, as centroid. brated of these resultant bar with the two stress

stress.
1-9.

The

procedure

for determining

this

stress

directly

is shown
case, a of the the bar's is equiliThe sum a stress of the sense on state of in Fig.

Similar to the steps discussed earlier for the general diagram is prepared either for the left or the fight part il ustrated in Fig. 1-9(b). All force vectors P pass through As shown in Fig. 1-9(c), the reaction on the left end at section a-a by a uniformly distributed normal stress . stresses multiplied by their respective areas generate that is statically equivalent to the force P. A thin slice equal uniformly distributed normal stresses of opposite parallel sections is shown in Fig. 1-9(d). This uniaxial may be represented on an infinitesimal cube, as shown

= MPa in the SI system of units and ksi in the U.S. customary system. It is instructive to note that the normal stress  given by Eq. 1-13, and schematically represented in Fig. 1-9(e), is a complete description of the state of stress in an axial y loaded bar. Therefore, only one diagonal term remains in the matrix representation of the stress tensor given by Eq. llb. This remaining term is associated with the direction of the bar axis. If dif erent axes are chosen for isolating an element, as in Fig. 1-8(g), the stress tensor would resemble Eq. 1-3. A detailed study of this topic wil be pursued in Chapter 8. Equation 1-13 strictly applies only to prismatic bars, i.e., to bars having a constant cross-sectional area. However, the equation is reasonably ac-

t8

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

t-8.

Shear

Stresses

t9

curate
an abrupt
turbation

for

slightly
change
in stress,

tapered
in the
see

members.
cross-sectional
Section 2-10.

o For

a discussion
area occurs,

of situations
causing severe

where
per. Tension

(a)
Section

= Pe

noted before, the stress resultant for a uniformly distributed stress acts through the centroid of a cross-sectional area and assures the equilibrium of an axial y loaded member. If the loading is more complex, such as that, for example, for the machine part shown in Fig. 1-10, the stress distribution is nonuniform. Here, at section a-a, in addition to the axial force P, a bending couple, or moment, M must also be developed. Such problems wil be treated in Chapter 6. Similar reasoning applies to axial y loaded compression members and Eq. 1-13 can be used. However, one must exercise additional care when compression members are investigated. These may be so slender that they may not behave in the fashion considered. For example, an ordinary fishing rod under a rather small axial compression force has a tendency to buckle sideways and could collapse. The consideration of such instability of compression members is deferred until Chapter 11. Equation 1-13 is applicable only for axial y loaded conpression tnenbers that are rather chunky, i.e., to short blocks. As wil be shown in Chapter 11, a block whose least dimension is approximately one-tenth of its length may usu-

As

Compression

(a)

(c)

(b)

tensile

Fig. t-t2 (a) Schematic

stress across

a plate

il ustration

during

of stress
a rolling

irregularity
operation,

and (c) residual

in material

due to lack of homogeneity,

stress in a rolled

plate.

(b) variation

of

erage, statistically speaking, and, hence, the computed

quantity.

computations average stress

based on Eq. 1-13 are correct, represents a highly significant

(b)

ally
with

be considered

a short

block.

Fig.

1-10

A member
at stress Section

a nonuniform distribution

a-a.

be 20 in long and stil be considered a short block. Sometimes compressive stresses arise where one body is supported another. If the resultant of the applied forces coincides with the centroid of the contact area between the two bodies, the intensity of force,

may

stress, between the two bodies It is customary to refer to this 1-11, where a short block bears
on the soil, il ustrates such

can normal on

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

by
or

For

example,

a 2 by 4 in wooden

piece

again

stress a concrete
used

be determined as a bearing pier and

similar

from Eq. 1-13. stress. Figure the lat er bears

arise

It is also important to note that the basic equations for determining stresses, such as given by Eq. 1-13, assume initial y stress-fi'ee material. However, in reality, as materials are being manufactured, they are often rolled, extruded, forged, welded, peened, and hammered. In castings, materials cool unevenly. These processes can set up high internal stresses called residual stresses. For example, hot steel plates during a rolling

a stress.

Numerous

situations

in

operation .are pulled between rollers, 12(b). This process causes the development

forces
plied bearing In havior

mechanical
force

These

problems
P by

bearing
Eq.

under

the

corresponding

stresses

washers

can be approximated
contact

for

distributing
giving

area

by dividing
a useful

concentrated

nominal

the ap-

tribute
the

stress. accepting is ideal&ed.

equally

to the
is implied

1-13, Each

resistance
by

it must be kept and every particle

of the

force.

in mind that of a body

A perfect
wood
Real

the material's is assumed

homogeneity

beto consuch

the outer surfaces than in the middle of a plate. These stresses are equivalent to an average normal stress flay that may be considered to generate a force that propels a plate through the rolls. On leaving the rolls, the plate shown in Fig. 1-12(c) is relieved of this force, and as per Eq. 1-13, the flay is subtracted from the stresses that existed during rolling. The

as shown schematically of larger normal

in Fig. 1stresses near

of

metals,

material

consist

of a great

many

such

grains,

an

assumption.

whereas

materials,

is fibrous.

In real

as

These without stresses

1-8.

stress

to the

residual any may

Shear

pattern

calculated

stresses externally be large

Stresses

of the residual

stresses

are self-equilibrating, .i.e., they applied forces. In real problems, and should be careful y investigated
for the initial y stress-free

normal

stresses

is shown

material.

are in equilibrium such residual and then added

in Fig.

1-12(c).

Fig.
occur

141

Bearing
between the

stresses
block and

materials, some particles than others. Ideal stress (e) actually do not exist stress distribution varies jagged affair somewhat,
the Goodier,

wil contribute more distributions such if the scale chosen in each particular as shown in Fig.
for
3rd

to the resistance as shown in Figs. is sufficiently small. cas.e and is a highly 1-12(a). However,
S. P. Timoshenko,
McGraw-Hil , 1970)

of a force 1-9(d) and The true irregular, on the avand

109.

Some engineering materials, in shear than in tension, and,

of maximum
where

pier pier

as well as between and soil.

For

accurate
Theory

solutions
of Elasticity,

tapered
ed. (New

bars,

see
York:

J. N.

slip

planes

the

for example, low-carbon steel, are weaker at large loads, slip develops along the planes shear stress. According to Eqs. 1-9 and 1-10, these glide or in a tensile specimen form 45 angles with the axis of a bar, maximum shear stress Xm = P/2A occurs. On the polished

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety
P/2

Concepts
__

Sec. t-8. Shear

Stresses

,v, shown

P/2

, for the problem

(d)

the area A of the section

in Fig. 1-13(c),
shown

a-a.

can be found
A similar

(a)

proach,
proach,
strength Section
then

surfaces

Examples of two These connections

employing
force, surfaces

are available

imaginary

for transferring

in Fig. 1-13(d).

procedure

using

Eq. 1-14 by dividing

is used
force P. The

clamping tacting)

it is assumed

bolted connections can be analyzed

sections,

the applied

However

in this case, two glued

for determining

P by
ap-

(b)

(e)

page occurs,
from

bolts are commonly 1-13. An alternative

the bolt to the

so that prevents

that a tightened

are shown in Figs. 1-14(a) and (e). in two dif erent ways. In one ap-

is applicable

to solid members.
a sufficiently

same

the friction developed a joint from slipping.

employed. widely used

bolt develops

such that the applied

connecting

force

a,b

a
(c)

Tav

a, b
(f)

Tar

and (f). To determine before is applicable. instead of the area

shear stress. The

bolt

'r in these bolts, a similar procedure as discussed One simply uses the cross-sectional area A of a bolt of the joint contact surface to compute the average
shown in Fig. 1-14(a) is said to be in single
requires as the

plate,

is transferred

This approach is discussed approach assumes enough

as il ustrated

between the laying For such designs,

(conhigh-

large

first

in Figs.

to a bolt and
1-14(b)

slip-

in

shear,

Fig. 1-t3

Loading

conditions

causing

shear

stresses

between

surface of a specimen, these lines can Laders lines.   This kind of matehal In many routine engineering applications, velop at critical locations. To determine dif icult. However, by assuming that distributed shear stress develops, a using this approach, the average shear the shear force V in the plane of the
A.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

observed and are called exhibits a ductile failure. large shear stresses may desuch stresses precisely is often in the plane of a section, a uniformly solution can readily be found. By stress *av is determined by dividing section by the corresponding area be readily behavior

interfaces

of glued

blocks.

whereas the one in Fig. 1-14(e) In bolted connections, another eration. In cases such as those

is in double shear. aspect of the problem in Figs. 1-14(a) and (e),

consid-

force

P is

The average nominal intensity of this pressure is obtained by dividing the force transmit ed by the projected area of the bolt onto the plate. This is referred to as the bearing stress. The beating stress in Fig. 1-14(a) is 0.b = P/td, where t is the thickness of the plate, and d is the diameter of the bolt. For the case in Fig. 1-14(e), the beating stresses for the middle plate and the outer plates are 0. = P/hd and 0'2 = P/2t2d, respectively. The same procedure is. also applicable for fiveted assemblies.
of a connection

applied,

a highly

irregular

pressure

develops

between

a bolt

and the plates.

Another

manner
occurs

with

of joining
fil et

welds

members
a-a

is shown

together
b-b,

in Fig.

is welding.
1-15.

The

An exampie
maximum

shear

stress

in the

planes

and

as shown

in Fig.

1-15(b).

area

or

i-

(1-14)
(a) (b) (c)
(d)

Some examples as to where Eq. 1-14 can be used to advantage shown in Figs. 1-13 to 1-15. In Fig. 1-13(a), a small block is shown to a larger one. By separating the upper block from the lower one imaginary section, the equilibrium diagram shown in Fig. 1-13(b)

are glued by an is obbasis

and

 
-----T!

P/2

tained.

perpendicular
 Also

The small
known

to the

applied

section

couple

a-a,

Pe, causing

is commonly
in honor,

snall

neglected.

normal

stresses
On

this

acting


(e)

'

t2

 

PI2
(f)

P/2
(h)

as Piobert

lines.
investigators.

Named

respectively,

of German

French

nineteenth-century

Fig. l-t4

Loading

conditions

causing

shear

and bearing

stress

in bolts.

22

Stress,

Axial
Weld

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

t-9.

Analysis

for

Normal

and

Shear

Stresses

23

Fig. t45 Loading causing critical planes of fil et

condition shear in two welds.

-----I]
(a)

Section

a/b 45
c-c

negligible in comparison fore, for the purposes deformned dbnensions

These bodies.

equations of statics are directly applicable The deformations tolerated in engineering

(b)

The capacity of such of weld. Additional

1-14.

welds discussion

is usually given on welded

in units connections

of force per is given

unit length in Section

If the equations of statics suffice for determining the external reactions as well as the internal stress resultants, a structural system is staticall), deterninate. An example is shown in Fig. 1-16(a). However, if for the same beam and loading conditions, additional supports are provided, as in Figs. 1-16(b) and (c), the number of independent equations of statics is insufficient to solve for the reactions. In Fig. 1-16(b), any one of the
vertical reactions can be removed and the structural system and tractable. Similarly, any two reactions can be dispensed beam in Fig. 1-16(c). Both of these beams are statically The reactions that can be removed leaving a stable system remains stable with for the indeterminate. statically de-

with the overall dimensions of structures. Thereof obtaining the forces in members, the initial unof nenbers are used in computations.

to deformable solid structures are usually

]-9.

Analysis

for

Normal

and

Shear

Stresses

termi.nate
within redundant minate

Once the axial force P or the shear force V, as well as the area A, are determined in a given problem, Eqs. 1-13 and 1-14 for normal and shear stresses can be readily applied. These equations giving, respectively, the maximum magnitudes of normal and shear stress are particularly important as they appraise the greatest imposition on the strength of a material. These greatest tresses occur at a section of n#dnt,n cross-sectional area and/or the greatest axial force. Such sections are called critical sections. The critical section for the particular arrangement being analyzed can usually be found by inspection. However, to determine the force P or V that acts through a member is usually a more dif icult task. In the majority of problems treated in this text, the lat er information is obtained from
statics.

the

provide an introduction to the methods NON-ACTIVATED VERSION ginning with the next chapter. Problems www.avs4you.com
Procedures for solving such problems
the equations of statics require

arise

Fig.

1-16(c),

internal internal to the first

are superfluous

in practice,

etc.

and

Multiple

system forces degree,

or redundant.

of forces. or reactions, as in Fig.

one

of the important

degrees

of statical
wil

Depending on the number of the the system is said to be indeter1-16(b), to the second degree, as in

Such

redundancies

can also

arise

of solution
with

objectives

indeterminacy

be introduced

for

of this

such

subject
gradually

frequently

problems.

is to
be-

For
the

the
fulfil ment

equilibrium
of the

of a body
fol owing

in space,
conditions:

termin. acy are considered in Chapters 10, 12, and 13. Equations 1-15 should already be familiar to the reader. However, sew eral examples where they are applied wil now be given, emphasizing solution techniques generally used in engineering mechanics of solids. These statically determinate examples wil serve as an informal review of some of the principles of statics and wil show applications of Eqs. 113 and 1-14.

multiple

degrees

of inde-

Ee. = 0 EF,, = 0 E/=o

The body that any
are

Additional
are given
(1-15)

examples
in Sections

for
1-13

determining
and 1-14.

shear

stresses

in bolts

and

welds

= o,j
lie in a single plane, such

first

y plane,

problem,

column of Eq. 1-15 in any (x, y, z) direction the summation of moments (x, y, z) direction must

states

trivial.

relations

i.e.,

all members

 F = 0,  M. = 0, and  M., = 0, while

and forces

that the sum of all forces acting on a must be zero. The second column notes of all forces around any axis parallel to also be zero for' equilibrium. In a planar

(a)

(b)

(c)

stil

as the xvalid,

deee.

Fig. M6 determinate,

[dentic

be (b) statically

with

identical indeterminate

loadin[ bavi[ to the first

dif erent de[tee,

suppo (c) statically

conditions: ideteinate

(a) statically to the second

Stress,

Axial
Weld

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

1-9.

Analysis

for

Normal

and

Shear

Stresses

These bodies.

Fig. 1-15 Loading causing critical planes of fil et

condition shear in two welds.

-'-'1
 c

a b
Section c-c

fore, for the purposes deformed dimensions

negligible

equations of statics are directly applicable The deformations tolerated in engineering

in comparison

(a)

(b)

The capacity of such of weld. Additional

1-14.

welds discussion

is usually given on welded

in units connections

of force per is given

unit length in Section

If the equations of statics suffice for determining the external reactions as well as the internal stress resultants, a structural system is staticall), determinate. An example is shown in Fig. 1-16(a). However, if for the same beam and loading conditions, additional supports are provided, as in Figs. 1-16(b) and (c), the number of independent equations of statics is insufficient to solve for the reactions. In Fig. 1-16(b), any one of the

of obtaining of members

with the overall

the forces in members, are used in computations.

dimensions

to deformable solid structures are usually

of structures.

the initial

There-

1-9.

Analysis

for

Normal

and

Shear

Stresses

Once the axial force P or the shear force V, as well as the area A, are determined in a given problem, Eqs. 1-13 and 1-14 for normal and shear stresses can be readily applied. These equations giving, respectively, the maximum magnitudes of normal. and shear stress are particularly important as they appraise the greatest imposition on the strength of a material. These greatest'stresses occur at a section of ninint,n cross-sectional area and/or the greatest axial force. Such sections are called critical sections. The critical section for the particular arrangement being analyzed can usually be found by inspection. However, to determine the force P or V

vertical reactions can be removed and the structural system remains stable and tractable. Similarly, any two reactions can be dispensed with for the beam in Fig. 1-16(c). Both of these beams are statically indeterminate. The reactions that can be removed leaving a stable system statically determi.nate are superfluous or redundant. Such redundancies can also arise within the internal system of forces. Depending on the number of the redundant internal forces or reactions, the system is said to be indeterminate to the first degree, as in Fig. 1-16(b), to the second degree, as in

that
statics.

acts For the

through
treated

a member
in this

is usually
text,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION ginning with the next chapter. Problems www.avs4you.com Equ. ations 1-15 should already be familiar
Procedures for solving such problems

Fig. arise

1-16(c), etc. Multiple degrees of statical indeterminacy frequently in practice, and one of the important objectives of this subject is to provide an introduction to the methods of solution for such problems.
wil

a more
lat er

dif icult

task.

In the

majority

of problems

the

information

is obtained

from

the

fulfil ment

equilibrium

of the

fol owing

of a body

conditions:

in space,

the

equations

of statics

require

to the eral examples where they are applied wil now solution techniques generally used in engineering These statically determinate examples wil serve of some of the principles of statics and wil show
13 and 1-14.

termin.

acy

are

considered

in Chapters

10, 12, and

with

be introduced

multiple

reader. However, sevbe given, emphasizing mechanics of solids. as an informal review applications of Eqs. 1in bolts and welds

13.

degrees

gradually

of inde-

be-

IEe.,=0Eu.=01
Ee:=0 Euz=0

Additional
are
(1-15)

examples
in Sections

for
1-13

determining
and 1-14.

shear

stresses

given

7F

problem, y plane,
are

The body that any

first

column in any (x,

of Eq. 1-15 y, z) direction

states

the (x,

summation y, z) direction

trivial.

i.e., all members and forces lie in a single plane, such as the xrelations  F = 0,  M = 0, and  My = 0, while stil valid,

of moments must

the sum of all forces acting on a zero. The second column notes of all forces around any axis parallel to also be zero for' equilibrium. In a planar
must be

that

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. t-t6 determinate,

degree.

Identical

beam (b) statically

with

identical indeterminate

loading having to the first

dif erent degree,

support (c) statically

conditions: indeterminate

(a) statically to the second

Stress,
EXAMPLE

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

t-9.

Analysis

for

Normal

and

Shear

Stresses

F,

The beam BE in Fig. 1-17(a) is used for hoisting machinery. It is anchored by two bolts at B, and at C, it rests on a parapet wall. The essential details are given in the figure. Note that the bolts are threaded, as shown in Fig. 1-17(d), with d
= 16 mm at the root of the threads. If this hoist can be subjected to a force of

 MB = 0 +  Md = 0 +
Check: Fy

=0

= 0'+ that

10(2.5 + 1) - Rcy X 1 = 0 10 x 2.5 - RBy X 1 = 0

-25 + 3510 = 0
and check the work of determining resist these forces are determined
threads reduce

Rcy

= 35 kN

RBy

= 25 kN

10 kN, determine the weight of the

Solution

the stress in bolts beam is negligible

BD and the in comparison

bearing

with

stress at C. Assume the loads handled.

that

These steps complete areas of the material

is applied.

the forces. next,

The various and Eq. 1-13

To solve
is made

on

this

which

proble

all

m, the actual
known and

unknown

situation
of B and the first
unknown

forces

is idealized

are

indicated.

and

a free-body
This

is shown

diagram

minimum
in

Cross-sectional

The

cross-sectional

area

of a bolt;

area of one 20-mm

area

bolt:

of one 20-mm

it.

A = 'n'102 = 314 mm 2. This

bolt at the root mm 2
two
N/mm

is not the
is

of the threads

Fig. 1-17(b). respectively,

the second

the

The vertical reactions as R m. and Rcy, where

line of action

of the

C are unknown. subscript identifies

force. As the

They
long

are indicated, the location, and

bolts BD are not

Anet
Maximum normal tensile stress?

= 11' 82 = 201
in each of the
= BD: 39.8 N/mm 62

at C is assumed

effective proper
are

in resisting
and

and

marked for

the

horizontal
the

as Rc.. unknown

force,

The

applied forces.

only

an unknown
known

force

horizontal equations

P is shown

reaction

bolts
2 =

BD:
62 MPa

in its

location.
applied

After
solved

a free-body

diagram

is prepared,

the

of statics
Tensile stress

O'm
in the

RBy = '2.4
shank 25
2

25 x 103 2 x 201
of the x 103 = bolts

2.5

 E

200

mm

/
D

Building

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION  www.avs4you.com 200 X300 mm

finished timber

rl I

314

2 =

39.8

MPa

Contact

area

at

C:

2: Two 20-mm bolts

a-a

A = 200
Bearing stress at C:

x 200

= 40

x 10 gmm

P=10kN
(a)
x

View

(c)

O- b

Rcy
A

_.

35 X 103 = 0.875
40 x 103

N/mm

2 = 0.875

MPa

The
Eq. l-lb

calculated
as

stress

for

the

bolt

shank

can

be represented

in the

manner

of

+39.8
0

MPa

(b)

(d)

where the y axis is taken in the direction of the applied the complete result is implied but is seldom writ en
See also discussion on stress concentrations,

load. down
Section

In ordinary problems, in such detail.

2-10.

Fig.

t-t7

Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety

EXAMPLE t-2

Concepts
either part is sufficient
is loaded the state 25 kN/m at the of stress 3. top with a uniformly at a level 1 m above
solved

Sec. t-9. Analysis

Using
both

for Normal
For comparison,
Fig. 1-18(b),
= 9.4kN

and Shear Stresses

the problem
the weight

The concrete pier shown distributed load of 20 kN/m the base. Concrete weighs
Solution
included

in Fig. 1-18(a) 2. Investigate approximately

pier above

the upper

ways.

to solve the problem.

part of the pier as a free body,
+ 1) x 0.5
at the section:
Fa = P + W

is
of the

the section:

W = (0.5
problem,
in the calculations.

x 1 x 25/2

In this

the

weight
pier:

of the

structure

itself

is appreciable

and

must

be

From

 F). = 0, the force

Weight

of the

whole W ='

= 14.4kN

[(0.5

1.5)/2]

x 0.5

2 x

25

25

kN

Hence,

using

Eq.

1-13,

the normal

stress

at the level
1

a-a

is

Total

applied

force:
P = 20 x 0.5 x 0.5 = 5kN

cr = --A
This

Fa

14.4
0.5x

= 28.8

kN/m

From

 F. = 0, reaction

at the base:
R = W + P = 30kN

pier
diagrams as concentrated to determine the forces at the

Using

stress

below

the lower

is compresslye

the section:

part of the pier as a free body,

x 0.5

as F, acts

on the section.

Fig.

1-18(c),
= 15.6

the weight
kN

of the

These acting

forces through

are their

shown schematically respective centroids.

desired

level,

the

body

is cut

into

two

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

in the Then, stress

W2 = (1 + 1.5)

x 1 x 25/2

separate

parts.

A free-body

diagram

for

From

 Fy = 0, the force

at the section:
= R -

F

W2

14.4

kN

P=SkN

The remainder

has a vertical
EXAMPLE t-3

axis of symmetry,

of the problem

is the same

making

the application

as before.

The

of Eq. 1-13 possible.

pier

considered

here

2

, ,  . .__w.= 20kN/m2 0.,.

ISection

L
a-a( .5 m

A bracket
Pertinent
diameter.

P of 3 kips.

of negligible
dimensions

For interconnection

weight

shown

AB and BC and the bearing

Solution

are shown

and shear

in the figure.

purposes,

in Fig.
stresses

1-19(a)

the bar ends are clevised

Find the axial stresses

is loaded

with

a vertical

for pin C. All pins are 0.375

in members

(forked).

force
in in

1.5
Fig. 1-t8

Sidvieew
(c)

First, an idealized free-body diagram consisting of the two bars pinned at the ends is prepared, see Fig. 1-19(b). As there are no intermediate forces acting on the bars and the applied force acts through the joint at B, the forces in the bars are directed along the lines AB and BC, and the bars AB and BC are loaded axial y.

2 Strictly speaking, the solution obtained is not exact, as the sides of the pier are sloping. If the included angle between these sides is large, this solution is altogether inadequate. For further details, see S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier,
Themy of Elasticity, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hil , 1970) 139.

28

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

t-9.

Analysis

for

Normal

and

Shear

Stresses

29

P=3k

'  025 plate* 

m/:A__ 2

An FA 1z78

(c)
0.25"

3k

The magnitudes of the forces are unknown and are labeled FA and diagram.3 These forces can be determined graphically by completing of forces FA, Fc, and P. These forces may also be found analytically simultaneous equations  F:. = 0 and  F.,. = 0, writ en in terms of the FA and Fc, a known force P, and two known angles ct and fl. Both
cedures

to proceed components

are possible.

into F,t and FAy, as in Fig. 1-19(c). Conversely, if any one of the components of a directed force is known, the force itself can be determined. This fol ows from similarity of dimensions and force triangles. In Fig. 1~19(c), the triangles Akin and BAD are similar triangles (both are shaded in the diagram). Hence, if F, is known,
FA = (AB/DB)FA.

Any force

in a dif erent way. Instead of treating forces FA and Fc directly, their are used; and instead of  F = 0,  M = 0 becomes the main tool.
can 15e resolved into components. For example, FA can be resolved

However,

in this book,

it wil usually

be found

advantageous

F in the a triangle from two unknowns these pro-

Fc
(a)

{b}

Similarly, Fay = (AD/DB)FAx. Note further that AB/DB or AD/DB are ratios; hence, relative dimensions of members can be used. Such relative dimensions are shown by a lit le triangle on member AB and again on BC. In the problem at hand,

FA = (X//2)FA.

and

FAy

= FA.d2

0.20"

/
B

o.8,5,

0.20"

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com 0.25"

0.20"

Fc

After thinking

Adopting the procedure 1-19(d), is prepared. Two

the forces in terms

are determined of a free body

of resolving components

by statics, of an individual

forces, a revised free-body diagram, Fig. of force are necessary at the pin joints.
Eq. 1-13 member: is applied several times,

Mc=00+

+ FA.(3

+ 6) -- 3(6)

Fay

= 0

FA = 2(X//2)

= Fa.d2

FA. = 2/2

= +2.23

= =

+2 +1

k k

k
k k

MA

=00

+ 3(6)

+ Fc(9)

= 0,

Fc>,

Fc. = Fc.

= -2 = -2

Fc
(d)

= X/(-2)

= -2.83

(e)

(f)

Check:
Tensile stress

Fig.

1-t9

 F;, = 0 EFy=O
in main bar AB:

FA.

+ Fc

= 2 -

2 = 0

FAy

-- Fcy

- P = 1 - (-2)

- 3 = 0

FA
A 0.25

2.23
x 0.50

17.8

ksi

3 In frameworks

it is convenient

to assume

all

unknown

forces

are

tensile.

negative

answer

in the

solution

then

indicates

that

the

bar

is in compression.

3O

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

MO.

Member

Strength

as

a Design

Criterion

3t

Tensile

stress

in clevis

of bar FA

AB,

Fig.

1-19(e): 2.23

(ffAB)clev|s
Compressive stress

Anet
in main
(YBC --

=
bar
Fc
A

2 x 0.20
BC:
2.83
0.875

x (0.875

0.375)

1 1.2

ksi

DESIGN

DETERMINISTIC

BASES

AND

PROBABILISTIC

0.25

12.9

ksi

1-10. Member Strength The purpose for calculating

not be investigated; at the pin is more

critical.

In the compression see Fig. 1-19(f)

Bearing

member, the net section for- the transfer of forces.

between
--

pin

C and
--

the

clevis:
2.83

at the clevis The bearing

need stress

orb

Abearing
pin C and
Fc

--

Fc

0.375
the main

x 0.20
plate:
2.83

x 2

18.8

ksi

is [o compare them with the experimental y determined material strengths in order to assure desired performance. Physical testing of materials in a laboratory provides information regarding a material's resistance to stress. In a laboratory, specimens of known material, manufacturing process, and heat treatment are careful y prepared to desired dimensions. Then these specimens are subjected to successively increasing known forces. In the most widely used test, a round rod is subjected to tension
and the specimen to cause rupture used for this

as a Design Criterion stresses in members of a structural

system

Bearing

between

the

orb -- A
Double shear in pin C:
-r -

0.375

X 0.25 - 30.2 ksi

by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen, the uhitnate (stress) of a material is obtained. Figure 1-21 shows a testing
purpose. Figure 1-22 shows a tension-test

is loaded until it finally ruptures. The force necessary is called the ultbnate load. By dividing this ultimate load specimen.

strength machine

Fc

2'rr(0.375/2)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

2.83

The

12.9

ksi

ever, either

For

a complete analysis of this bracket, other pins should be investigated. it can be seen by inspection that the other pins in this case are the same amount as computed or less.

Howstressed

F

Fc
Fig.

[

t Fcy

[--------a
1-20

its free-body forces are

ponents.

tively, the force F, can be resolved at A, and since F4y = (y/X)FA, the applicatio n of  Mc = 0 yields FAx. In frames, where the applied forces do not act through a joint, proceed as before as far as possible. Then isolate an individual member, and using
diagram,
acting on the

by the applied same procedure that these forces

The advantages in members should in a problem such

of the method used in the last example for finding forces now be apparent. It can also be applied with success as the one shown in Fig. 1-20. The force F, transmit ed curved member AB acts through points A and B, since the forces at A and B must be collinear..By resolving this force at A', the
can be fol owed. Wavy lines through F, and Fc indicate

are

replaced

by

the

two

components

shown.

Alterna-

complete structure,

the

determination resolve

them

of forces. into convenient

If inclined

com-

Fig.

machine Systems

t-2t

Universal

(Courtesy Corporation).

testing

of MTS

Fig. test

before

t-22 A typical tension specimen of mild steel

and after fracture.

Stress, Axial Loads, and Safety Concepts

300

Sec. t.t0. Member

deform

Strength
a phenomenon
some

as a Design Criterion
called
of the examples the rate of load ap-

250 200

Experience
wooden where

plastica!ly

150
100 50 0

plication

or reinforced concrete creep may be a problem.

with

turbines,

under

a sustained

tightened

load,

Fig.

18-8

t-23

stainless

Fa[igue

steel

strength
at

various

of

stronger at very rapidly applied loads. Likewise, the effect of temperature usually has a very important effect on the endurance limit. Some of these issues are discussed further in Sections 2-3 and 2-5. At the design level, most of these problems can be controlled by reducing design stresses.

has a major

effect,

as some

beams indicates In some instances,

bolts

in mechanical

equipment,

creep.

materials

become

considerably

beam

temperatures

test).

(reciprocating

103

104-

10 s
Cycles

10 s

107

The aforementioned facts, coupled with the impossibility of determining stresses accurately in complicated structures and machines, necessitate a substantial reduction of stress compared to the ultimate strength of a material in a static test. For example, ordinary steel wil withstand an
ultimate stress in tension of 60 ksi and more. However, it deforms rather suddenly and severely at the stress level of about 36 ksi, and it is customary in the United States to use an allowable stress of around 22 ksi for structural work. This allowable stress is even further reduced to about 12 ksi for parts that are subjected to alternating loads because of the fatigue
characteristics of the material. Fatigue properties of materials are of t t-

gives

tensile test and shearing

For applications of times, the test. In such Figure specimens

ultimate

is used tests

strengths

most widely. However, compression, are also employed. 4 Tables 1A and

where a force cannot the "ultimate results stresses.

and

other

times

the force
1-23

materials cases,

of cycles
can

required
be seen

shows at dif erent

is applied
the

as the material
the

comes on and off the withstand the ultimate strength" depends

physical

properties

for

bending, torsion, B of the Appendix

a few
a number of a static number of kind number

to break
Fig.

of tests 5 on Experimental

works

specimen

As

application of a fluctuating and the corresponding curves

from

1-23, the

load. Such are termed

at smaller curve S-N

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

at a particular stress under
can

a number points

at a particular

structure stress on the

materials.

of the indicate

same the

stress

level.

of

parts

tnost

the

Section cluded

can be traced

inportance

in nechanical

tests are called S-N (stress-number)

stresses, the for

"fatigue

material

tests," diagrams.
For

As pointed

2-10.) Low-cycle fatigue from design considerations

to disregard

of this important
(104 cycles in seismically

equipnent.

Many

out in Section
stresses.

1-7, in some

situations,

or less) also resistant

consideration.

failures

in machine
cannot structures.

(See

be ex-

also

it is also

appropriate

to consider

residual

with-

stand

materials,

an ever-increasing
notably

steels,

number

of cycles

of load
low

stresses

application.

becomes

essen-

some

of reversals of stress can take place limiting stress at which this occurs material. This limit, being dependent

tial y

horizontal.

This

means

that

at a low

before is called on stress,

stress,

the material the endurance is measured

an infinitely

fractures. The linit of the in ksi or MPa.

large

number

The decision process in choosing an appropriate allowable stress is further complicated since there is great uncertainty in the nagnitudes of the applied loads. During the life of a machine or a structure, occasional overloads are almost a ce.rtainty, but their magnitudes can only be estimated at best.

Some care must be exercised in interpreting S-N diagrams, particularly with regard to the range of the applied stress. In some tests, complete reversal (tension to compression) of stress is made; in others, the applied
load is varied in a dif erent manner, such as tension to no load and

These proaches. unique

allowable

dif icult problems In the traditional magnitudes are

stresses. In

this

are now resolved using two alternative apapproach, in the spirit of classical mechanics, assigned to the applied forces as well as to the
manner, these two' principal parameters are

back

precisely known, istic approach

adhered ware

the permissible terials deform

to tension. The Stress-dependent

major

or allowable an unpermissible

part of fatigue deformations

stress

testing done on specimens may also play a key role

for

amount for Testing

a given material, prior to fracture.

since Some

is bending. in selecting

some mamaterials

classification ods. ASTM

of ASTM

4 ASTM

Standards

(American

tigue,

t- J. L. Zambrow,
of Aircraft

of materials, ASTM material designation

now consisting
at Very

Society

Alloys

and M. G. Fontana,
Low

standard specifications, and such as A36 steel is frequently

of 66 volumes,
Temperatures,"

and Materials)

divided

issues

into

"Mechanical

Trans.

Properties,

detailed Used

16 sections,

an Amzual

ASM

41 (1949):

Including

test methin this book.

giving

Book

and main ability tural

498.

Fa-

aircraft, ings tural

to in this text. However, as the complexity systems increases, less reliance can be placed a limited number of experiments. Instead, after parameters in a given stress-analysis problem, is assessed, leading to the probabilistic method safety. This approach has found favor in the offshore structures, and is emerging in structural and bridges. A brief discussion of the probabilistic design is given in Section 1-12. The traditional
is discussed next.

i.e., determinate, is commonly used

in the design process. in current practice and

of engineering hardon past experience

This wil

deterninbe largely

identification of the their statistical variof estimating strucdesign of advanced design of buildapproach to strucdeterministic ap-

proach

Stress, Axial Loads,

1-11.
In the

and Safety
Design
design

Concepts
of Members:
a stress

Sec. 14t. Deterministic

Axial y
resultant

Design

of Members

Deterministic
Bars

Loaded
is determined

recast
of members,

and is known

to read

as the margin

ofsafeO'.
ultimate stress

In the past, this ratio was usually

-1

deterministic

loaded minimum
stress

at the highest
bars,
O'a,o,v

it means cross section.

must be

stressed

determining Then,
chosen.

section

using
for

the

largest the selected

conventional

internal

mechanics.
material,

axial

force P at a an allowable

For

axial y

maximum

stress

caused

by

the

design

load

and federal authorities, dif erent materials, called the allowhble allowable ultimate a significant

Professional

engineering

prescribe or recommend depending on the application. fiber 7 stresses.

groups,

large

companies,

16 allowable Often such into a member

as well

as city,

stresses stresses

state,

for are

Since

according
and forces

ultimate stresses may or "loads," respectively, ratio may be formed:

ultimate
allowable

to Eq.

1-13,

stress

be converted that

times

area

is equal

the

allowable can resist.

to a force,

and Also

the

the' text as they occur, can provide reasonable estimates loads for complex systems and should be used in the F.S. as well as of margin of safety. For example, instead of designing members at working loads using alternative approach consisting of selecting member mate or limit load is becoming widely adopted. In such
load chosen to the other ever,
largely

The

newer

analytical

methods,

some

of which

wil

load
load

for
for

a member
a member

is usually obtained by multiplying the working loads by a suitably load factors. For bars in simple tension or compression, this leads same results. Significantly dif erent results may be obtained in many cases where inelastic behavior is more complex. In this text, howthe customary allowable stress design (ASD) approach wil be
application simple and
fol owed.

of the ultimate basic definition of for static loadings, allowable stress, an sizes for their ulticases, the ultimate

be pointed

out

in

This
of

always
stresses

is the basic
be greater
as

definition
than

unity.

of the factor
Traditionally

maximum

useful

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

this factor is recast in terms

of safety,

F.S.

This

ratio

must

both
area

The

of the ASD direct. From

is

approach Eq. 1-13,

for axial y it fol ows

that

loaded

members the required

net

is

A of

a member

material

strength

(stress)

allowable

stress

-O'al ow

(1-16)

and

type

is widely

subsequent stresses

of member aircraft

used

reading, is satisfactory

and

not

whereas for

loading

only

for

conditions.
this

axial y

loaded

defined

In the

as

industry,

some the term

ultimate

definition cases, it can

As

wil

members,

of F.S. in terms of elastic be misleading in others.

become

but

apparent

also

for any
from

factor
load

of safety

is replaced

by another,

design

load

where P is the applied axial force, and trno,, is the allowable stress. tion 1-16 is generally applicable to tension members and short sion blocks. For slender compression members, the question of bility arises and the methods discussed in Chapter 11 must be The simplicity of Eq. 1-16 is unrelated to its importance. A large of problems requiring its use occurs in practice. The fol owing il ustrate some application of Eq. 1-16 as well as provide additional
in statics.

Equacomprestheir staused.

number problems review

6 For example, see the American Institute Building Construction Code of any large city, ments issued by the Army-Navy Civil Commit ee
etc.

of Steel Construction Manual, ANC-5 Strength of Ah'craft Eleon Aircraft Design Criteria,

periments derivations is a convenient

7 The

adjective
were that

made fol ow, device

fiber

on wood, the concept for visualizing

in this sense

which

is fibrous of a continuous its action.

is used

for two

in character. filament

masons.

Also, in several or fiber in a member

Many

original

ex-

EXAMPLE

t-4

Reduce

the

size

chrome-vanadium ksi. Use a factor

of bar AB in Example steel. The ultimate of safety of 2.5.

1-3 by
strength

using
of this

a better
steel

material
is approximately

such

as
120

$6

Stress,
Solution

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts
650

Sec.
kN

1-1t.

Deterministic

Design

of

Members

$7

below

orano, +2.23 in bar. of the With

120/2.5 = 48 ksi. From Example 1-3, the force in the bar AB: FA = kips. Required area: Anet = 2.23/48 = 0.0464 in 2. Adopt: 0.20-in by 0.25This provides an area of (0.20)(0.25) = 0.050 in 2, which is slightly in excess required area. Many other proportions of the bar are possible. the cross-sectional area selected, the actual or working stress is somewhat
the allowable
in

stress:

O'actual

i 2.23/(0.050)

= 44.6

ksi.

The

actual

factor

of

safety is 120/(44.6) In a complete

decreased

dimensions.

= 2.69, and the redesign, clevis and

actual margin of safety is 1.69. pins should also be reviewed and,

0.75

if possible,

(c)

EXAMPLE
P of

'i-5
650

Select

members
kN.

Set

FC

the

and

allowable

CB in the truss
tensile

stress

of Fig.

at

1-24(a)
140

MPa.

to carry

an inclined

force

390

kN

650

kN

Solution

r/520
in all members

kN

Fc

If all members

veloped

to be found.

truss by the method of joints. However, if only a few members are to be designed or checked, the method of sections il ustrated here is quicker. It is generally understood that a planar truss, such as shown in the figure, is stable in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Practically, this is accomplished by introducing braces at right angles to the plane of the truss. In this example, the design of compression members is avoided, as this wil be
treated in the determine chapter the forces on columns. in the To members to be designed, the reactions for the

on the basis

of the truss In practice,

of matrix

were to be designed, forces this is now done by employing

structural

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

analysis 8 or by directly analyzing the
Rox

computer

would programs

have

de-

,r

2.5 m

520kN f325 kN
(d)

Fc

(b)

whole'

interior framing. points of application see Fig. 1-24(b). of the structure

Figs. 1-24(c)

structure

are computed
Only

are

reaction indicated

first.

and

After the reactions are used to determine

diagram

force components definitely located at their on a free-body diagram of the whole structure; are determined, free-body diagrams of a part the forces in the members considered; see
1-24(b):

This

is done

by completely

disregarding

the
Using the free-body diagram in Fig. 1-24(c):

Fig.

t-24

MA
Ac

= OG
= Fc/crnow

Frc
= 86.7 x

X 0.75
103/140

+ 325
= 620

x 1 - 520
mm 2
(use

X 0.75
F-c =

= 0
+ 86.7 kN

Using

the

and (d). free-body

in Fig.

F. ME Mz=0 Check:

(London:

= 0 = 0

Rm

520

= 0

Rzx

520

kN

12.5

50-mm

bar)

+ +

RDy
RE
325

X 3 X
-

390
520
+ 65

x 0.5
x
=

--

520
390 X

x
2.5

1.5 RDy
=

3 +
390

1.5
0

= 0 =
0 RE =

325
65kN

kN

Using

the free-body

diagram

in Fig.

1-24(d):

 Fy = 0
for example,
McGraw-Hil ,

 Fy = 0
ed. Ac = Fc/crnow

--(FcB)y
= 391

q- 325 = 0 (FcB)y Fc = (FcB)y/3

x 103/140 = 2790

8 See,

O. C. Zienkiewicz,
1977).

The

Fitrite

Element

Method,

3rd

mm 2
(use

= + 325 kN = q- 391 kN
two bars 30 x 50 mm)

38

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

142.

Probabilistic

Basis

for

Structural

Design

39

EXAMPLE

-6

AC
-0.5

'on
for
m

Consider

a frictionless
the

the

idealized

plane

system

at 10 Hz.

shown

9 If a light
is the the rod

in Fig.

1-25,

rod

where

CD
size

is attached

a 5-kg

mass

at C, and

is to be spun

the
the

allowable weight

stress is 200 MPa, of the rod and assume

threads.

what that

required is enlarged

of the rod? Neglect at the ends to compensate

Solution

.
0 10
Maximum

r I11

JM25. ean MPa 4

538 Tests s = 4'62

Mean

238

MPa

51

Tests

20

S = 26.2 V= 0.11

v=o.8

'vI

O'R

The
Fig. t-25

rod

angular the

velocity acceleration,

to is 20r

rad/s. force

The

acceleration

a of the

mass

toward

the
mass

center
m by

of rotation
figure,
direction

is to2R,
the

where
d'Alembert's
acceleration.

R is the
F acting
Therefore,

distance
on the rod

CD.
this

By
is obtained.

multiplying
As shown

the
in the op-

in the
posite F =

according
to that = mto2R

to the
of the

principle,

force

acts

ma

= 5 x (20r)
Anet an area
by
9870

2 x 0.500
-200

= 9870
mm 2

kg.m/s

2 = 9870

49.3

l, o[ , , , ,_o,rm,
20  Compression 30 40 X [MPa]
Strength

I/I I I I't

fR{r)

t
10

f(r)

100
Compression

200

300
Yield Strength

[MPa]

An
The
ered,

8-mm
is

round
additional

rod
pull

having

A = 50.3
the mass

mm 2 would
of the rod,

be satisfactory.
which was not consid-

I
(a)

.

I
(b)

at C caused

fir -- 40 R

fIR

fIR + 40 R

fIR -- 40 R

fIR

S1R + 40 a

where m is the mass of the rod per unit length, and (m mass at a variable distance r from the vertical rod AB. The by the rod and the mass of 5-kg at the end is F + F.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION F = J-/ (/n dr)to2r www.avs4you.com

Fig. t-26 diagram (a) Histogram of compression of maximum yield strength
dr) is its total pull infinitesimal at C caused

compression of ASTM

strength grades

Western A7 and A36

for

Hemlock steels.**

(wood)*;

(b) frequency

structural systems

assemblies. are based

Important on the same

risk premises.

analyses

of complete

engineering

Experimental As an example the behavior of set, experimental wooden blocks steel stub columns correspond to

Evidence of the probabilistic specimens for two results of several are plot ed in Fig. in Fig. 1-26(b). a narrow range of approach based on statistics, consider sets of similar experiments. For one compression tests for identical short 1-26(a)? Similar results are shown for 22 The bar widths in these histograms compression stress for which a given

*'21-12.

Probabilistic

Basis

for Structural

Design

In the conventional (deterministic) design of members, the possibility failure is reduced to acceptably small levels by factors of safety based on judgment derived from past successful and unsuccessful performances. By contrast, in the probabilistic approach, variability in material properties, fabrication-size tolerances, as well as uncertainties in loading and even design approximations, can be appraised on a statistical basis. As far as possible, the proposed criteria are calibrated against well-established cases, as disregard of past successful applications is out of the question. The probabilistic approach has the/tdvantage of consistency in

number

In these diagrams, the inner scales apply to direct The meaning of the outer scales wil be discussed
Metals

of specimens

were

either

crushed

(wood)

or have

experimental later. Concrete,

14.3,

yielded

23 (steel).
results.

2 j. M.

Copyright,

(New

Il ston,

the factors
2o The

of safety,
remainder

not
of this

only
chapter

for

individual
can be omit ed.

members,

but

also

for

complex

2 T. V. Galambos, and M. K. Ravindra, Tentative Criteria for Steel Buildings, Research Report No. ington University, September 1973. dition

Building

York:

J. M.
Research
Van

Nostrand

Dinwoodie,

Establishment,

Reinhold,

and

A. A. Smith,
U.K.
1979),

Fig.

p. 439,

Timber,

Crown

and

Load and 18, Structural For further

Resistance Division, discussion,

Design Wash-

23 Since

9 Hz (abbreviation

for hertz),

or cycles

per second,

is the SI unit

for frequency.

Section

can in many
2-3.

yielding

applications

is accompanied

be considered

by a large

failure.

amount

of deformation,

this

con-

see

4O

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

1-t2.
fz(z)

Probabilistic

Basis

for

Structural

Design

4t

In statistical

terminology,

the

test

results

are

termed

"population"

sam-

ples.
are

other
defined

generally

In the analysis is sa/nple

as

computed.

of such

variance,

One

data,

S 2. For

of these

several

n samples

is sa/nple/nean

quantities

of major these

(tests),

(average),

importance

quantities

X;

are

an-

= I1 i=X; x, l

(1-17)

Area

Fz (zO

and
Dividing S by X, one obtains

S2 = I 1 i=1 (Xi
the coefficient
V =

)2
of vartaaon,-

(1-18)
z

where Xi is an ith sample. TM A square root of the variance,

density

Fig.

t-27
Z.

function

Normal

(PDF)

probability

i.e.,

S, is called

the

standard

,5 V, i.e.,

deviation.

of

The
(1-19)

constant
diagram

1/X/
encloses

in Eq.

1-20
a unit

is selected
area, i.e.,

so that

the

normalized

fre-

S/X

quency

X, S (or S2), and The expected sanple (scatter) of the data,

Theoretical Basis

V play dominant roles value is X, the mean; and V is its 'dimensionless

In Fig.
cases are

1-26,
also

in addition
shown.

to the
These

histograms,
bell-shaped

fimctions
continuous the most form, the

(PDFs)

are based

on normal

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

theoretical
curves

in the theory S is a measure measure.

of probability. of dispersion

+fz(z) dz = 1
which means that the occurrence ofz within its entire range is a certainty.

(1-23)
is the standard is shown in R relating them a__pplications, the X, and rz = S.
by

curves

for

the

two

of probability

density

or Gaussian

26 distribution.

These

In the previous equations [ z is the mean and Crz deviation. A typical PDF of Z with normal distribution Fig. 1-27. Il ustrations of normal PDFs of resistances to experimental results are shown in Fig. 1-26. In theoretical model is usually selected by setting [z =
For the theoretical gz and is equal

PDFs for approximating the dispersion widely used model in applied probability PDF of Z, i.e., z(Z), is given as

of observed theory. In

data analytical

are

Some
fz(z)

interesting

model, the to the previously properties

coefficient

defined of z(Z)

of variation experimental

wil

are

il ustrated
fz(z)

be designated V. in Fig. 1-28.

Thus,

fz(z):

V'2r1

exp[ - 1 (z-z' crz / 2] ]

p.z)-fz(z)

(1-20)
(1-21) (1-22)

where and
24 In order to remove

pz = f_+ Zz(Z) dz tr}

bias

J_+ (z
in X, instead

"
'used

dz
by n, one uses n -

Area

0.00135

of dividing

1. For

large
text.

values 25 In this

of n, the dif erence section, the notation in honor who first of the introduced great

in results dif ers

is small. from that

in the on

remainder considera-

of the Gauss
(a) (b)

26. So named (1777-1855),

tions.

German mathematician this function based

Karl Friedrich theoretical

Fig. 1-28
mean.

Examples

of probabilities

of outcomes

at dif erent

amounts

of standard

deviation

from

the

42

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

%t2.

Probabilistic

Basis

for

Structural
Load

Design

43

from
an

Fig.
outcome

1-28(a),
between

it can
one

be seen
standard

that
in Fig.
this
are

the
deviation

probability
on either

of the
side

occurrence
of the mean

of
deareas
the from

is 68.27%.
viations
enclosed

Whereas,
on
under

as shown
side
the curve

1-28(b),
value
three

between
becomes
standard

two
95.45%.
deviations

standard
The

either

of the
tails

mean,
that

fo(q)
Load

mean are only 0.135% later, the small number eral standard deviations in appraising structural
Practical F ortnulations

of the total of outcomes away from safety.

outcomes. As wil become likely to take place under the mean is of the utmost

apparent z(Z) sevimportance

Resistance

fR (r)

0 n

city)
q orr
or resistance

x/

Qs Unsafe
R>Q Safe

Q>R

.- fR(r)

For a probabilistic structure, one.must such as discussed

appraisal of the structural have a statistically determined before, and a corresponding

safety

of a member resistance PDF load effect PDF.

or fRO'), Again

a
Fig.
functions

Load

R

R2
and

R3
unsafe

Resistance

1-29

Probability
for the two

density
main

Fig.
definition

-30

Probabilistic
of se

statistical studies show that since the loads are susceptible to variations, their effect on a member or a structure can be expressed in probabilistic form. Such load effects, resembling fRO'), wil be designated as fo(q). For a given member or a structure, these functions define the behavior of the same critical parameter such as a force, stress, or deflection. Two such functions probabilistically .defining the load effect fQ(q) and the resistance f(r) for a force acting on a member are shown in Fig. 1-29. For purposes Of il ustration, it is assumed that the load effect fQ(q) has a larger standard deviation, i.e., larger dispersion of the load, than that
for the member resistance.

random resistance).

variables

(load

and

structural

regions.

can be compressed into a single normal PDF such as that shown in Fig. 1-3 l(a). In this diagram the probability of failure, p f, is given by the area under the tail of the curve to the left of the origin. A possible magnitude

In conventional (deterministic) design, set above the observed mean. This condition 1-29. On the other hand, in order to avoid wil typically provide a material with an than specified. For this reason, calculated would be below the mean. On this basis, is simply defined as Rn/Qn. In reality, both Q and R are uncertain answer to the safety problem. To il ustrate two main variables in Fig. 1-31, ,(r) is

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

load magnitudes is represented possible rejections, average strength nominal member the conventional the usually Q,, in Fig. a supplier slightly greater resistance Rn factor of safety are

of apf

by

all instances to the right of As can be seen from Fig. and crR-o is standard deviation. into a more convenient form of two independent normal

may

be surmised

from

the origin. 1-31 (a), [3 cry_ o = Ix- o, where [3 is a constant For applications, this relation can be put by noting that the variance of a linear function variables, cry_ o, is the sum of the variances

Fig.

1-28(b).

A member

would

survive

in

quantities
the shown

and there is no unique interaction between the along the horizontal axis

fR-o(X) [
Failure Survival

flnJRJo)(X)
Failure
Survival

and

(q)

is plot ed

along

the vertical

axis.

For

the ensemble

of an infinite

number of possible the graph into two for the range of outcomes, respectively, member. However, and fal ing in the While enlightening, Fortunately, however,

outcomes, a line at 45 corresponding to R = Q divides regions. For R > Q, no failure can occur. For example, small and large outcomes Q, Q2, Q3, the resistance R, R2, R3 suffice to preserve the integrity of a for outcomes Q3 and R with a common point at D region where R < Q, a failure would take place. the above process is dif icult to apply in practice. it can be mathematically demonstrated that for

$ZR-O

Htn (RIO)

(RIO) ''
(a) {b)

normal
normal

distribution
distribution.

of R and
In this

Q their
manner, the

dif erence,
information

i.e.,

R implied

Q, is also
in Fig. 1-30

Fig.

1-3t

(a) Normal

and

(b)

lognormal

probability

density

functions.

Stress,
one has

Axial
the

Loads,
27 Moreover,
fol owing

and Safety
since
expression

Concepts
variance
for the

Sec. t-t2.
is a square
safety index

Probabilistic

Basis for Structural

Design

of its parts.

of standard
[3.

deviation.

variation

in design

[3 _ [.I,R-- Q _
where tance
thus,

[.L R -for the resisfailures, and

o'R and r o are, respectively, the standard deviations R and the load effect O. A larger [3 results in fewer
a more conservative design.

of structures and machines. In ddition to the failure limit states emphasized before, the probabilistic approach is suitable for other situations. Important among these are the serviceability limit states. Among these, control of maximum deflections or limitations on undesirable vibrations can also be treated in probabilistic terms.

in the design

variables

can be explicitly
parameters,

resulting

included

in more

by using

consistent

the coefficients

reliability

of

safety defined the distributions

An alternative appoach for establishing index [3 can be based on the more widely
than the normal
Fig.

rather

as the ratio R/Q. This approach of R and Q are skewed and

the

mathematical
of first
ratio index,

order,

R/Q,

convenience,
mean-value
1-31

is appropriate.
By

(b).

it is preferable
carrying

is particularly the lognormal In this formulation,

out this

the formulation used concept

for the safety of the factor of

EXAMPLE

t-7

to work with the logarithm

the expression
approach and making

useful when distribution 2s for reasons of:;

Consider two kinds of loading to be suspended by steel cases, a nominal permanent, or dead load, D,, is 5 kips. a nominal intermit ent, or live load, L,, is 1 kip, whereas

kips.
steel

approximations,

for the safety'

use

struction

Assume

(AISC)

that for the design

provisions

for

the

of these

design

rods,

of buildings

American

tension rods. In both In one case, however, in the other, L;, is 15

using

Institute

ASTM

of Steel
Grade

Con-

A36

apply.

[3, reads

(a)

tions,
and

where,
O.

and

as before,

. [3V'/,a----3--. 7e V,a--e--- (1-26)

go_) are, a solution

g and for

x and

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION xc2 are the mean values for the respective funcwww.avs4you.com
requires the use of the fol owing

Determine the cross-sectional allowable stress design (ASD) (b) Find the cross-sectional areas from the basics of probabilistic

areas for the rods using the conventional approach, for which cr,o, = 22 ksi. 29 for the same rods using an approach deduced concepts. According to AISC/LRFD, - this
relation:
k

qbR,,

> 
i=1

iQi
structure, and qb < 1 is the
Eq. 1-27

(1-27)
resistance
reduces to

respectively,

the

coefficients

of variation

for

It c'n be noted

that Eqs.

1-24 and 1-26 resemble

based on the use
the

each other.
of In(R/Q)

A graphical:
in

where

R is the
case

nominal
two

strength

of the

interpretation

is shown

factor such that qbR,, is the design resistance  > 1 account for possible overloads over
in this only fypes of loading

l-3!(b). Analogous to the first approach, given by the area under the tail of the routine applications, a [3 on the order it must be recognized that the safety

of reliability

and

cannot

be considered

probability curve to the left of 3 is considered index, [3, is only

exact.

Nevertheless,

of failure Ps of the origin. appropriate. a relative measure

are

considered,

of the member; the nominal load

1.6L,

the load factors effect Q. Since

(1-28)

qbR,

> 1.2D,

uncertainties

and

27 A. H-S. Design, 28 Lognormal

Ang, Vol.

and W. 1 (New distribution

H. Tang, Probability Concepts in Engineering York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975). for a random variable R is defined as

Planning

where, according to the code for this case, qb is 0.90, 's are and the yield strength of the steel, cry, is 36 ksi. (c) For the four solutions found before, calculate the corresponding indices, [3, using Eq. 1-26. This equation is based on lognormal
for the variables associated with the load and resistance per
Solution

1.2 and
safety
AISC/LRFD.

1.6,

distribution

fe(r) = X/9-- er exp

where
standard deviation lognormal R and See A. H-S. Ang and Design. Vol.

-  , e
+ g,) are, respectively,
However. Wiley,

(1-)

(a)

XR = In R//I

of In R. Similar expressions apply for o(q). Q, it can be shown that Z = In(Q/R) has the normal and W. H. Tang, Probabilio, Concepts #7 Eng#eering 2--Decision, Risk, and Reliabilio, (New York:

+ g, and 

= In(1

the mean

Since the total axial force P is caused + L,, and, on applying Eq. 1-16, the

by the required

dead

and

live

loads,

P = D,,

areas

are

1983).

(LRFD),

29 AISC, 3o AISC,

1st ed.

Manual Matt eal

(Chicago:

of Steel of Steel

1986).

Construction, Construction,

9th ed. (Chicago, 1989). Load and Resistance Factor

Design

46

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

1-13.

Bolted

and

Riveted

Connections

A - D, ra,,ow+ Ln
A2
(b) Since R,,

5 22+ 1 = 0.273 in 2
= 0.909 in 2
Eq.
1.2D,,

for L, = 1 kip
= 15 kips

= 0.093.
indices,

Alternatively,
respectively, are

R2

= 1.05

x 0.909

x 36 = 34.4

kips;

Be = 0.11-

a2 = 20 kips;

and Be_, = 0.189.

On substituting

into

Eq.

1-26,

the safety

- --

5+15
22

for

Ln

= A%.,

again

from

1-16:
+ 1.6L,
and

ln(10.3/6) [31 = X,/0.112 + 0.0932 ln(34.4/20) [32 = %/0.112 + 0.1892

Similarly, 2

- 3.75 - 2.48
* = 1.05 x 0.926
x 36 = 8.88 kips;

and

A = 1.2 x0.90 5 + x 1.366 x 1 = 0.235in 2

Similarly,
The

forLn

= 1 kip
been statisvarious probthan live lead, the most to 1.00, deof member. If such as those additional into is needed. the mean

kips;

[

6 kips; Bo = 0.093;

= 20 kips;

for

part

(b),

p

and BQ2 = 0.189.

and, alternatively,

= 1.05

x 0.235 Hence,

x 36 = 35.0

Be = 0.11;

A

= 0.926

in 2 for

L,

= 15 kips.

(c)

coefficients 1.2 for D,, 1.6 for L, and 0.90 for qb have tically determined to approximate probabilistic solutions to lems. Such studies show that dead lead is more predictable and, for that reason, has a smaller multiplier, 1.2, for obtaining probable maximum lead. The coefficient qb varies from 0.60 pending on the statistically determined strength of the type in addition to dead and live loads, other loading conditions caused by wind, snow, or earthquakes should be considered, 'Qi terms appear in Eq. 1-27. In order to solve this part of the problem, additional information The nominal values of R, and Q,, should be transformed

ln(8.88/6) [3 = %/0.112 + 0.0932 = 2.72

and

%/0.112ln(35/20)+ 0.1892 - 2.56

for the two solutions, it can be seen that they approach. On the other hand, the [3"s are that many approximations are made to deuse, it is encouraging that a solution based on

0.1 I, whereas
for
both loads

values R and on statistical R, and c is for  due to

D,, is 0.10.

c) for the information, set arbitrarily the variation

To combine
the

the coefficient
use

probabilistic formulation. For 3 R, is multiplied by a factor equal to Q,,. The coefficient in %., and the cross-sectional
BL and
of the
2 --

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

the probabilistic approach lead to such

By comparing the safety indices are far apart using the conventional very near one another. Considering duce ,/s and qb factors for code

a good

result?

of variation

Be into

BL for ,, is taken

a coefficient
relation
1/'> --

this reason, based of 1.05 to obtain of variation, B, area is taken as

B o for
the notation

*'1-13.

Bolted

and

Riveted

Connections

of variation

as 0.25, and Be

requires

fol owing
'> --'>

employing

of this

problem32:

aQ = (aDD7
On kip m substitution, live lead, for Be2 the light = 0.189.

+ gEL7,)
1-kip live

-fiD,

+
= 0.093, and, for

(1-29)

In Section 1-8, some basic aspects in analyzing the behavior of bolted connections were given. Further details of such analyses are discussed here. The same procedures are applicable in the design of riveted connections. The usually assumed behavior of a bolted or riveted joint is summarized in Fig. 1-32. TM A connection design approach based on preventing slippage between the faying surfaces is discussed later in this
section.

lead,

Bo

the

15-

The distributed

total

force between

Based on the information for the part = 1.05 x 0.273 x 36 = 10.3 kips;
National
June

(a) and recalling that %., B = 0.11; pa = 6 kips;

Bureau

is 36 ksi, and Ba! Criterion

Pub-

for

3 B. R. Ellingwood
American
No. 577,

et al.,
1980.

Standard

Development.ofa
A58,

National

Probability

of Standards,

Based and

Load

cases, formations distribution

McGraw-Hil ,
1938)

this

on a joint is assumed to be equally or rivets) of equal size. In many cannot be justified by elastic analysis, however, ductile deand/or slip between the faying surfaces permits an equal reof the applied force before the ultimate capacity of a con(bolts
1986).

acting

concentrically connectors

Special

lication

 H. Madsen,
34.

S. Krenk,

and N. Lind,

Methods

of Stractural

Safety

(New

York:

Civil

32 j. R. Benjamin, Engineers (New

and C. A. Cornell, York: McGraw-Hil ,

Probabilistic 1970).

Statistics

Decisions

for

34 From

G. Dreyer,

Festigkeitslehre

und

Elastiziti tslehre

(Leipzig:

J/necke,

48

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

t-t3.

Bolted

and

Riveted

Connections

49

Shearing plane

Ii
(a)

Fig.
for
connection.-

t-32
a bolted

Assumed
or

action
a riveted
Bearin planes (b)

nection
tests?

is reached.

This

assumption

has

been

justified

on

the

basis

of
d

In contrast to the the connectors are to bend to maintain connected plates is connections of this are used for joining When connectors the net section in
Fig. 1-33 commonly joints. Bending neglected of plates in lap

bolt

holes

are closely

il ustration shown in Fig. 1-32, in simple lap joints, in single shear, and the plates near' the connector tend the axial force concentric. However, bending in the commonly neglected (see Fig. 1-33). Numerous bolted type are used in steel construction, and riveted ones aluminum alloy sheets in aircraft. are arranged as shown in Fig. 1-34(a), determining tension poses no dif iculty. However, if the rows for

Fig. t-35 (a),(b) Il ustration of a bearing failure, and

(c)
(c)

assumed

stress

distribution.

on area td. the allowable

It is dif icult bearing

to justify this procedure stress is determined

from

theoretically. experiments

However, and is in-

spaced

and

zig-zag section necessary across An actual practice, acting

may be more likely to occur than a tear across the Methods for treating such cases are available? It to have a sufficient edge distance e to prevent a shear the c-c planes shown in Fig. 1-34(c). il ustration of a failure in bearing is given in Fig. 1-35. Although stress distribution is very complex, as noted in Section it is approximated on the basis of an average bear#zg over the projected area of the connector's shank onto a plate,
R. E. Davis, G. Joints," Trans.

tear b-b.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

normal is also failure

staggered,

as shown

in Fig.

1-34(b),

of a rivet. In the

terpreted

Therefore, previous

on the

basis

the

of this

design

inverse approach,

average

process the

stress

used frictional

acting

in design resistance

on the projected

is satisfactory. between

area
the

the 1-8, in stress i.e.,

faying clamping reliable,

the paper by Large Riveted

(Chicago,

35 A conclusive
3a For details,
1989).

experimental
example,

for

B. Woodruff, ASCE 105

verification
AISC,

see

Manual

and (1940):

of this assumption
H.
1193.

E.

Davis,

"Tension

may

be found
Tests

of

in

of Steel

Construction,

9th

ed.

friction force between the faying Fig. 1-36. With the use of high-strength order of 100 ksi (700 MPa), this is design. The required tightening about 70 percent of their tensile analysis, an allowable shear stress specified. These stresses are based sign of connections using high-strength
manner as that for ordinary bolts

surfaces at the connectors has been neglected. However, if the force developed by a connector is both sufficiently large and the capacity of a joint can be determined on the basis of the
surfaces. This

condition is il ustrated in with yield strength on the an acceptable method_ in structural steel of such bolts is usually specified to be strength. For the purposes of simplified based on the nominal area of a bolt is on experiments. This enables the debolts to be carried out in the same

bolts

or rivets.

procedure the AISC/LRFD

The

for analyzing probabilistically

bearing-type based

bolted

approach

and remains

riveted joints essential y

by the

I
(e) (b) (c)

Washer Bolt grip

' . T-pressure on

--

Fig. 1-34 (b) zig-zag

Possible tear,

and

modes

(c)

of failure tear out

in bolted joints due to insufficient

(connections): edge (end)

(a) distance

net

section, along lines

_/Bol /t Washer

(a)

xxxxx.xxxxxxxxxxxx,',F---length
Fig. t-36

the plate

Initial tension
bolt

resistance
force

to the
P

(b)

5O

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Sec.

t-14.

Welded

Joints

5t

Back-u
(a) (b)

same. However, the applied forces are increased using Section 1-12 and Eq. 1-27), and stresses are multiplied resistance factors. For slip-critical investigation of bolted loads, neither the net section nor bearing are checked. beyond the scope of this text?

load factors (see by appropriate joints at working These details are

EXAMPLE

 in steel angle to a steel plate, as shown in Fig. 1-39. The connection

the ful strength whose allowable
Solution

Determine

the required

lergths

of welds

for the connection

of a 3 in by 2 in by

in the angle uniformly stressed strength per AWS specification

of welds are possible. strength must be such

to 20 ksi. Use i-in fil et welds, is 5.56 kips per linear inch.
of length L and L2 are the applied force P in

is to develop

*'1-14. Steel
welds. weld, weld. (a) (b)

Welded and aluminum

Joints alloy connections by means of welding are very

Many arrangements to be used, their

Fig. t-37 Complete penetration butt Single V-groove double V-groove

widely used. Butt welds, such as shown in Fig. il ustrated in Fig. 1-38, are particularly common. welds is simply found by multiplying the cross-sectional

1-37, The

plate

stresses are usually expressed as a certain percentage of the strength of the original solid plate of the parent material. This percentage factor varies greatly, depending on the workmanship. For ordinary work, a 20-percent
reduction in the allowable stress for the weld compared to the solid plate

being

connected

by the allowable

stress

for welds.

and fil et welds, strength of butt area of the thinner

equilibrium

The

allowable

sultant of the forces R and R2 developed by the welds to be equal and opposite to P. For the optimum performance of the angle, force P must act through the centroid of the cross-sectional area (see Table 7 of the Appendix). For the pur-

without

any tendency

to twist

If two welds as to maintain

the connection.

This requires

the re-

poses of computation,

the welds

are assumed
in 2

to have only linear

= 40k

dimensions.

Aangle

P = Acra.ow

= 2.00

= 2 x 20

O'al o w = 20 ksi

may be used. For this percent. On high-grade efficiency for the welded using such welds. Similar such work, the AISC the American Welding
the weld as in the base
loads.

factor, the efficiency of the work, some of the specifications joint. Most pressure vessels joints are used in some specifications, based on the Society (AWS), allow the
metal in the case of butt

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

L = 14.1/5.56
Hence, by using
welds subjected to static

is said to be 80 allow 100-percent are manufactured structural frames. In recommendations of same tensile stress in
These welds are

joint

Ma=07 +  M = 0 +
Check: R

+ R2

= 14.1

Rl x 3-40 x 1.06=0 R2 x 3 - 40 x (3 - 1.06) = 0

+ 25.9 = 40k = P

R = 14.1k R2 = 25.9 k
of the i-in weld,

Fil et

welds

are

designed

on

a semiempirical

basis.

designated by the size of the of equal width co. The smallest For example, a standard i-in equal to 0.5 sin 0 = 0.5 sin 45
(a)

cross-sectional for the weld

weld,

regardless

area
metal.

of the direction

legs, Fig. dimension weld has = 0.707

at the throat multiplied The AWS allowable

trode tensile strength. of 70 ksi) used as weld = 21 ksi'. The allowable

by the allowable shear stress stress is 0.3 times the elecFor example, E70 electrodes (i.e., tensile strength metal has an allowable shear stress of 0.3 x 70 force q per inch of the weld is then given as
shear

of the applied

1-38(b), which are usually made across a weld is called its throat. both legs in wide and a throat x 0.5 in. The strength of a fil et

is usually increased a craters at the beginning respect to the plane of To reduce the length Thus, in this example,
the resistance for this

= 2.54 in and L2 = 25.9/5.56

the specified

value

for the strength

small amount over the lengths computed to account for and end of the welds. The eccentricity of the force P with the welds is neglected. of the connection, end fil et welds are sometimes used. a weld along the line ad could be added. The centroid of
weld is midway between a and d. For this arrangement,

= 4.66 in. The actual

length

note

of welds

that

lengths
incides

L and L2 are so reluced purpose,

with the

force,

38 is based

on the

same

slots

resultant

and

notches

of R and

that

in the attached

R2 of the

the resultant

former

force

member

case.

for all three are also

To

accomplish

welds

occasionally

the

co-

used.

q = 21 x 0.707co
where co is the width of the legs. For

= 14.85co
a i-in fil et

[k/in]
weld, this reduces

(1-30)
to

d 1.06'

r(b)

3.71
(b)

kips

per

in; for

a i-in

fil et
of Steel simplification

weld,
Construction,

5.56
of the

kips
real

per

in,

etc.
1986).

Fig.

t-39

fil et

Fig. ;I-38

weld.

An example

of a

37 AISC/LRFD Manual 38 This is a considerable

1st ed. (Chicago, problem.

52

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Problems
1-6 and
Problem
0 = 20 .

53
load P if load P2 = 15 kips? for cross-sectional areas

Problems
Section
1-1. the
stress
shown.

using
t-5
1-8(g).

Eqs.
Repeat
and

1-7.

(c) Show
1-6 for a -in

the

results
square bar

as in Fig.
if P =

t-7.
Eq. similar
for

Verify equilibrium aid of a sketch,

increments

l:5a

for the x direction to Fig. l-3(a), where

stresses

with the
are

5 kips

t42. A bar of variable cross is subjected to two concentrated shown. in the figure. (a) Find

three-dimensional

1-2. rium

polar

Show for

coordihates

that the a two-dimensional

dif erential

are

equations plane stress

of equilibproblem

in

t-8. A glued lap splice rectangular member at Assuming that the shear trols the design, what the member? Assume
joint to be 10 MPa.

is to be made in a 10 x 20 mm a = 20 , as shown in the figure.

ifp

in 2. (b) On two separate diagrams, plot the axial and the axial stress along the length of the bar.
Pl P2

= 10 kips,

P2 = 8 kips,

forces, the maximum

section,

held

A = 2 in 2, and A_ = 1
force

on the left, P and P2, as axial stress

(b) what is the allowable See Table 8 in the Appendix

of U.S. standard pipes.

P2
5" pipe

Pl
3" pipe

strength axial force

the shear

of the glued joint P can be applied

strength of the

conto
glued

Fig.

P1-t6

A
Fig. P1-12

A2

0[o,J.'._._r 2r' ;W I 0Tr0 +-- O'r -I'

-o
r

I Ocro
r O0

2 *re
c  20

t-13. A bar of variable cross section, held on the left, is subjected to three forces, P = 4 kN, P2 = --2 kN, and P3 = 3 kN, as shown in the figure. On two separate

t-t7. plied shown inal.

sizes

Determine the bearing stresses caused force at A, B, and C for the wooden in the figure. All member sizes shown See Table 10 in the Appendix for U.S.
of lumber.
6k

by the apstructure are nomstandard

The
neglected

symbols

are
in this

defined
formulation.

in the

figure.
go 0

Body

forces

are

Fig.

PI-8

Section

t-7

diagrams, plot the axial force and the axial stress along the length of the bar. Let A = 200 mm 2, A2 = 100 mm 2, andA3 = 150mm 2.
P3

6" X

1
c

% + -- ao

\dr(/7r+-
/ /   x

TOr

t-9.

dO_

a member'

If an axial
stress

tensile

is a C 12 x 20.7
sectional in the
t-10 and

art dr

areas Appendix.

0
Fig.

o
-2

%

sectional subjected
find the no bending,
mensions

dimensions to axial
points
are

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

be? What wil the stress be if the member

made

tensile

of a W 8 x 31 section,
section? For designation
members,

force

of 110

kips

what

is applied
and

wil

the

to
A 1 A2 A3

6" X 12"

cross-

of these
Short

see

Tables

4 and

1-11.

steel

members

have

the

cross-

Fig.

PI-t3

shown compresslye

in the figures. If they are forces of 100 kN each,

for these normal forces stresses.

144.

Rework
P2.

Problem
thick hollow

1~13

by
circular

reversing
tube

the
of 40

direction
mm out-

--1 4'"
to a is the
Section
1-18. A 40

6'-------.
Fig.

-"--- 4'
PM7

of application and determine

in mm.

the

to cause All di-

of the force 1-15. A 2-mm

Section

side
constant

diameter
shear

is subjected
of 10 Pa in the Plot

on the
axial

outside
direction,

surface
as shown

t-8
x 80 mm wooden plank is glued to two 20

t-3. On the same graph, plot the normal stress froand the shear stress , as functions of the angle 0 defined in Fig. 1-8. Angle 0 should range from 0 to 360 on
the
functions.

in the
maximum

figure.
axial

If the
stress?

tube

is 400
the

mm
variation

long,

what
of the

axial

stress

along

the

tube.

x 80 mm planks, as shown in Fig. 1-13(d). the two glued surfaces is 40 x 80 mm and

force P = 20 kN, the joints? t-19. Two 10-mm what is the average shear

If each the applied

stress

of
in

abscissa.

Identify

the

maxima

and

minima

for

these

1-4. In Fig. magnitudes

l-8(a), determine of {r, and ,o are

the equal.

angles

0 where

the

Fig.

DI-10
140
400

t-5. plot
1-8.
tions.

Using
{r0 and
Identify

polar coordinate 'o as functions

the maxima and

axes,
of angle
minima

on the same 0 defined

for these

graph,
in Fig.
func-

thick gether, as shown in the mm bolts that fit tightly

transmits a tensile force

steel plates are fastened tofigure, by means of two 20into the holes. If the joint of 45 kN, determine (a) the

Fig.

PI-t5

t-6. A 10-mm square bar is subjected to a tensile force P = -20 kN, as shown in Fig. 1-8(a). (a) Using statics, determine the normal and shear stress acting on sections a-a and b-b for 0 = 30 . (b) Verify the results

Fig.

Pt-t

1-t6. A short standard steel lowable stress

allowable

axial

compression member is made up of two pipes, as shown in the figure. If the alin compression is 15 ksi, (a) what is the
load P if the axial load P2 = 50 kips;
Fig.

l 0

mm

Pt-19

54
average no holes critical normal occur; section;

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Problems

stress in the plates at a section (b) the average normal stress (c) the average shearing stress

where at the in the

t-26. ure,

bolts;
the bolts

and
and

(d)
the

the
plates.

average.

beai'ing

stress

between
!
4k

For the planar frame loaded as shown in the figdetermine the axial stress in member BC. The cross s.ection of member BC is 400 mm 2. The dimensions are given in mm.
20 kN

an 8-in standard Table 8 in the

members.

plane

and

are joined

steel Appendix.)

by pins.
pipe

weighing Neglect

The

mast
the

28.55

is made
weight

lb/ft.

(See of the

from

1-20. A gear transmit ing a torque 2-in shaft is keyed to it, as shown -in square key is 2 in long. Determine
in the key.

of 4000 in-lb to a in the figure. The the shear stress

1-24.
nism

/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /,

HingLC.15 kN

t-29.
two

A signboard
wooden frames,

15 by
as

20 ft in area
shown in

is supported
the figure.

by
All

wooden

members
member

are
due

3 by

8 in.

(See

Table
wind
force

10 in the
load

Fig.

Pt-23

Appendix
actuating
Calculate

in each

for actual
sign.

lumber
Assume
of

to a horizontal

sizes.)
truss
wind

Calculate
joints

the stress
pinned
acts at

of 20
B

Key
Fig. Pt-20

A control
is shown

pedal
in the figure.

for

a spring
the shear

mechastress

Ib/ft
and

2 on the
that two-sixths

all
the total

are

in pins
of 10,000

A and
psi

B due
in rod

to force
AB. Both

P when
pins are

it causes
in double

a stress
shear.

.-3000- --3000  < 4000

Fig. Pt-26

and one-sixth at C. Neglect of the compression members.

the structure.

the

possibility Neglect

of buckling the weight

of

1-2t. A x 6 in steel plate is to be attached main body of a machine, as shown in Fig. applied'force P = 72 kips and the welds are good for 5.56 kips/in, see Eq. 1-30, how the welds be? Due to symmetry, each weld
the same force.

1-15. to long line

to the If the be used should resists

' p -"diam.

t-27.

Two

steel

wires

with

well-designed

attachments

rod

and a joint N, as shown

are

'Section
1-22.
applied
diameter,
are in min.

t-9
What
load
and

is the
shown
it acts

shear
in the

stress
figure?
in double

in bolt
The
shear.

A caused
bolt
All dimensions

by
is 6 mm

the
in

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION ' Cable www.avs4you.com

Pin B

2.68 mm and that of wire BC is 2.52 mm. (a) Determine the stresses in the wires caused by the applied vertical force. (b) Are the wire sizes well-chosen?

subjected in the figure.

to an external The diameter

force of 700 of wire AB is

71. di am.

Fig.

Pt-24
T 700 N

1-25. A 6-ft-diameter ported at each end the figure. The total

cylindrical tank is to be supof a hanger arranged as shown in weight supported by the two hangthe shear stresses in the

Fig. '1-30. A braced the lateral forces

10kN

DI-29 frame in the

-' 400200

800

ers

is

15

k.

Determine

,t 600 -< 800----*'Fig. t-28. Find the stress in the Pt-27 mast of the derrick shown

structural shown

figure.

is designed Neglecting

to

resist

the

1-in-diameter of the tank. sume that

is frictionless.

pins Neglect contact

at points A and B due to the weight the weight of the hangers and asbetween the tank and the hangers

in the

figure.

All

members

are

in the

same

vertical

20

kN

20

kN

Fig. Pt-22
t-23. dozer
shown

20

kN

Calculate if the
in the

the
total
figure.

shear
forces
Note

stress
acting
that there

in pin A of the bullon the blade are as

is a l-in-diameter

8 t

pin
shear.

on each

side

of the

bulldozer.

Each

pin

is in single

Fig.

Pt-30

Fig.

Pt-25

Fig.

Pt-28

56
frame BD, bers weight,

Stress,

Axial

Loads,

and

Safety

Concepts

Problems
the bearing stress of the wood on the concrete.

7
of safety

FG, are

and 160,

determine the axial stresses DE; the respective areas for 400, and 130 mm 2.

in members these mem-

(a) Find

(b) If the

allowable

pressure

on the

soil

is 100 kN/m

2,

60kN

t,.2 A

'1-31.

A planar

system

consists
members figure. flat the shear

of a rectangular

beam

AC suported by steel at C, as shown in the of two r by I in parallel

double shear,

AE and BE and a pin Member AE is made up bars, and pin C, acting in

Determine the axial

is  in in diameter.

determine in plan view the required dimensions of a square footing. Neglect the weight of the footing. t-34. For the structure shown in the figure, calculate the size of the bolt and area of the bearing plates required if the allowable stresses are 18,000 psi in tension and 500 psi in bearing. Neglect the weight of the
beams.

A = 200 mm2;

MPa,

supported?
of the
tachments.)

and

the

The

factor

ultimate

strength

rod

BC

has A = 400

is to be 2. Rod require The

is shown

of the

rods
special

mm 2. (The
areas allowable

AB

is 800 ends
has at-

-.,
t.38. made diameter be the shear. A joint by means of the diameter stress in for

wires Find members

MPa.

in such the

applications

1-40. tension

required cross-sectional in Example 1-5.

used for a highline

for all stress

stress

in bars

AE

and

in pin

C.

Fig. Pt[37

is

140

One bolt ., /

Bearing plates

6"

(actual)

X 10"

stress in the rods. (In Section that this ratio for the allowable assumption for many materials.)

transmit ing a tensile force is to be of a pin, as shown in the figure. If the rods being connected is D, what should d of the pin? Assume that the allowable the pin is one-half the maximum tensile
8-16, stresses it wil be shown is an excellent

1-4t.

A tower

in the figure.

If it is subjected

the allowable stresses 140 MPa in tension, tional area of each

nected.

to a horizontal
are what member?

100 MPa in compression and is the required cross-secAll members are pin-conkN

force

of 540

kN

and

540

Fig.

Pt-34

' 3'  - 3' 

Fig. Pt-31

't-32.

By
shown

means
in the distributed
load of

of
figure

numerous
load.

vertical
is designed This load,
Determine

hangers,
to support tosether
the

the
with a conthe
sec-

able

cable finuously

and haners,

can be approximated
2 kN/m.

as a uniformly
cross

t-35. beyond truss cross actual shear of safety

What
the shown? section. size.) parallel

minimum distances a and b are required notches in the horizontal member of All members are nominally 8 by 8 in (See Table 10 in the Appendix for Assume the ultimate strength of wood to the grain to be 500 psi. Use a factor of 5. (This detail is not recommended.)

distributed

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in the in
Fig. Pt.38

the

3.0 rn v
Fig. Pt-41

tion required [or the material is 1000 MPa is 2. (Hfi: The cable
and develops only

cable if the yield strength o[ the and the required [actor of safety assumes the shape of a parabola
a horizontal [orce  at Rs lowest

t-39.

eters

are

Two

attached

high-strength

at A and

steel

C and

rods

support

of dif erent

a mass

diam-

t-42.

For

the

frame

shown

for

Problem

1-30,

find

the

at B, as shown

in the

figure.

What

mass

M can

be

and

required
and

BF.

The

cross-sectional

allowable

stress

areas

for

in tension

members

is 120

AB,

MPa

AD,

poinL
larsest

The
[orce

larser
in the

resultant
cable.)

at a support

is equal

to the

that

in compression

is 75 MPa.

Fig.
rn

Pt-35
1500

10 m
Fig. F1-32

"l

1-36. shear 100,000

A steel bar until failure; lb. If the

of

1 in diameter the ultimate allowable stress

is loaded in load is found is to be based

double to

be on a

A
3600

/.
Fig. Pt-39

't-43. shown
2400

A planar in the figure.

truss system Member AE

has the is continuous

dimensions and

can

safety designed
shear?

factor
for

of 3, what an allowable required

must

be the load of diameter in the

by

diameter 6000 lb

of a pin in single

Section

1-11

1-33. A 150 mm square of 50 kN to a concrete

wooden footing,

post delivers a force as shown in Fig. 1-11.

1-31. bell
force
allowable

What is the crank mechanism

of 60 kN
shear stress

shown
is 100

figure
a force

of pin B for the if an applied

P at C? The

at A is resisted
MPa.

Fig.

Pt-43

58
resist diameter
'1-44.
the figure.

' Stress, Axial

bending. required
force

Loads,

and Safety
the the
in
and

Concepts

Problems

59
each 8 in long;

All
at A.

joints

are

applied

for
frame

The

tension
AC

allowable

pinned. member
.the
DF

stress are

Determine AB to carry
continuous

is 20 ksi.

A planar
Members

has
and

dimensions

shown

can resist bending. the diameter required member CD. Assume

All

rod
tachments

is 1250

MPa
is-80%.

and
The

joints are pinned. Determine of a high-strength steel rod for that the ultimate strength for the that the efficiency of the end atsafety factor for
D

< L ct) P
Fig. Pt-46

sions can be drawn

sign approaches?

regarding

the ASD

and LRFD

de-

consists

of two

4 x 3 x  in angles,

 in high-strength -in holes. Use

lem 1-50.

the

bolts

spaced allowable

3 in apart are used in stresses given in Prob-

Section 1-13 1-50. Find the capacity of tension member Fink truss shown in the figure if it is made

3 by 2 by  in angles
attached to a -in-thick

(see Table
gusset

the
20

rod
kN

is 2.

holes. The allowable strength bolts in 4n "' diameter stresses are 22 ksi in tension, 15 ksi in shear, and ksi in bearing on the angles as well as the gusset.

plate

7 in the Appendix)
by four

AB of the from two

-in high87
W12X36

2m

2m

t-47. Three mm-diameter tated around a frictionless

equal 0.5-kg masses hre attached to a 10wire, as shown in the figure, and are roa vertical axis, as shown in Fig. 1-25, on plane at 4 Hz. Determine the axial

Fig.

P1-5t

'2m

stresses
results

on

in the

a diagram

three

segments

as a function

of the

of

wire

r. Consider

and

plot

the

the

D C
(a)

masses

to be concentrated

as points.

t-52. A structural is shown in the

Fig.

Pt-44

'%45.

To support

a load

P = 180 kN,

determine

the

lowance tensile

necessary diameter for rods shown in the figure. Neglect and assume that the joints
has stress to be made is 125 MPa. All

for

AB and AC for the tripod the weight of the structure are pin-connected. No althreads. dimensions The are allowable in meters.
't-48.

NON-ACTIVATEDp;VERSION OO 1,02'. Z 2 angles www.avs4you.com "<-'0.6 m--0.6 m-i< 0.6 m-- 1
P2 P
 7//-7' I I 3" x 2" Section
Fig.
A bar of constant

The plates {-in holes

middle upper

are { in thick by are { in. (a) What rivet? (b) What are plate in rows 1-1 and

figure,

multiple-riveted is designed

10 in wide. The rivets in is the shear stress in the the tensile stresses in the 2-29.

lap for

joint, such as a 42-kip load.

1-1 1 75"

o 9 o I

P1-47
cross-sectional area A is ro-

ooooo
Detail at A

'

' (b)

I P4

Gusset

thick

3/8"
Fig.

2o,

Rds,l

tated around a constant

material along
function of

one angular
r.

of its ends velocity

the the

in a horizontal o. The unit

variation result on

plane
weight of the a diagram

with of the
stress cr as a Fig.

11-52

is "1. Determine the bar and plot

11'50

Section figure.

144

%5L

W 12 x 36 beam

Find

the capacity

shown

of a standard
in the

connection
The

connection

for a

t-53.
using

Rework
- n fdlet

Example
welds.

1-8 for an 8 x 6 x  in angle

Fig.

Pt-45

r L
Fig. Pt.48

P is shown

*%46.

A pin-connected
in the

figure.

frame
Stress

for

cr in both

supporting
the

members

a force

AB

and
essary
Members

BC

is to be the
to achieve
AB and

same.
the
BC

Determine
weight
a constant

angle
section.

a nec-

Section

1-12

minimum
have

of construction.
cross

t-49. With

Rework the help

Example 1-7 for D. = L. = of this additional solution, what

10 kips. conclu-

Sec.

2-2.

Normal

Strain

6t

pter

of the applied force. With the same load and a longer gage length, a larger deformation is observed, than when the gage length is small. Therefore, it is more fundamental to refer to the observed deformation per unit of length of the gage, i.e., to the intensity of deformation.
load,
initial

During

an experiment,

the change

in gage

length

is noted

as a function

IfLo

is the initial gage the gage elongation

gage length

is then

length 'AL

given

and L is the observed length = L - Lo. The elongation

as

under a given e per unit of

P
Fig. 2-'1 Diagram of a tension specimen in a testing
machine.

(2-1)

This expression ciated with the a dimensionless

2-1. Introduction

dimensions

of in/in,

defines normal quantity,

m/m,

the extensional strain. Since stress, it is usually called the but it is customary to refer
or txm/m (microstrain).

Sometimes

this strain is assonor/nal strain.' It is to it as having the

it is given

This

chapter

is subdivided

into

two

for axial y stress-strain idealizations calculating

cases are in axial y

considered loaded

loaded members is defined relationships are il ustrated for stress-strain behavior deflections in axial y loaded
first.
members

Statically indeterminate are discussed in Part

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and some typical for selected materials. fol ow. These provide members. Statically
situations
B.

parts.

In Part

A,

extensional

strain

experimental Analytical the basis determinate

encountered

as a percentage. neering applications

of magnitude
It is of interest

The

quantity  generally of the type considered

that in some . The

is very small. In most engiin this text, it is of the order

applications, as, for this strain example,

of 0. I percent.
to note

for

in metal
so-called
incremental

forming,
natural

as dL/L,

where

change

L is the

or true

the

strains

strabz

may

be large.
strain

engineering

in length
 =

instantaneous
L.
dL/L
o

Analytically,
=

length

increment

For

such

of the
In(1

de for

purposes, specimen,
e)

one

defines dL

and

is defined

the

is the
(2-2)

In L/Lo

For small e. If under

by

strains, this the integral,

2-1

definition essential y coincides with the conventional the length L is set equal to Lo, the strain definition
useful

strain given

2-2.

Normal

Strain

pressing
elsewhere

Eq. Natural

an instantaneous
in this

is obtained. strains are

text?

rate

in theories

of deformation.

 of viscosity

Natural

and

strains

viscoplasticity

are not

discussed

for

ex-

be selected

ing force between

A solid deforms.

body For

1-, 2-, 4-, or 8-in

P as shown any two points, an arbitrary

lengths

subjected example,

to a change of temperature while a specimen is being in Fig. 2-1, a change in length

distance
are

such

as A and B. Initial y,
apart. Thus,
used.. This

or to an external load subjected to an increasof the specimen occurs

commonly

depending

two

initial

on the test,
distance

such

points

between

either

can
in as

shown
60

the two points is called the length of this distance

in Fig. 2-1, have
someter is shown

been

a gage length. is measured.

largely
2-2.

replaced

In an experiment, Mechanical dial

by electronic

the change gages, such

extensometers

Since the strains generally encountered are very small, it is possible to employ a highly versatile means for measuring them, using expendable electric strain gages. These are made of very fine wire or foil that is glued to the member being investigated. As the forces are applied to the member, elongation or contraction of the wires or foil takes place concurrently with similar changes in the material. These changes in length alter the electrical resistance of the gage, which can be measured and calibrated
t Natural strains of Flow and Fracture and L. E. Malven,
glewood Clif s,

were

for measuring

these

in Fig.

deformations.

An example

of a small

clip-on

exten-

N J: Prentice-Hall,

introduced of Solids, Introduction

by P. Ludwik in 1909. See A. Nadai, Vol. 1, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hil , to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium
1969).

Theory 1950), (En-

Fig. 2-2 extensometer

Small

MTS

Systems

clip-on (courtesy

Corporation).

of

Axial
Connecting wires

Strains
indicate

and
the

Deformations
strain taking

in Bars
place. Such gages, suitable for dif erent

Veryfinewire .'

to

environmental from 4 to 150 shown in Fig. in Fig. 2-4. 2

conditions, are available in a range mm (0.15 to 6 in). A schematic diagram 2-3, and a photograph of a typical small

of lengths, varying of a wire gage foil gage is shown

is
100

Tool steel
Low-alloy

2.3.
In
Bonding
cement

Stress-Strain
solid mechanics, the

Relationships
mechanical behavior of real materials under load

/
Wife

-Y
strain top cover

paper
base
gage

is of primary
macroscopic served Researchers
served

tests,

provide

importance.
(overall)

Fig. 2-3 (protective

shown).

not

response in order to determine in material science

basic

information

Experiments,

of specimens to the empirical force-deformation 3 attempt to provide

on this

behavior.

mainly

tension

In these
applied

or compression
loads is obrelationships. for the ob-

t;elnt"
Lowcar
steel

experiments,

reasons

behavior.

It should be apparent from the purposes, it is more fundamental tension or compression than to report stress is a more significant parameter material of an applied force P depends area of the member. As a consequence, mechanical properties of matedhals, the relationship between stress and grams, for most practical purposes, size of the specimen and of its gage
tomary to use the ordinate scale for

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

stress and the abscissa for strain.

previous discussion that for general to report the strain of a member in the elongation of its gage. Similarly, than force since the effect on a primarily on the cross-sectional in the experimental study of the it is customary to plot diagrams of strain in a particular test. Such diaare assumed to be independent of the length. In these diagrams, it is cus-

I
0.20

t
0.40

Strain,

 (in/in)

Fig. 2-5 diagrams

Typical for

dif erent

stress-strain

steels.

Experimental y determined stress-strain ferent materials. Even for the same material temperature at which the test was conducted, a number of other variables. Conventional few representative materials are il ustrated shown to larger scale in Fig. 2-6, particularly
Handbook
1987).

diagrams they

widely for difdif er depending on the the speed of the test, and stress-strain diagrams for a in Figs. 2-5 and 2-6. These are for strain. Since for most
0.01

dif er

20 ,Cast iron(C.I./R)ubber  /Wood

0 0.01

2 See

Society
for

on

Experimental

for

Experimental
references

Mechanics

Mechanics

(Englewood

(SEM),
3.

Clif s,

A.

S. Kobayashi
NJ:

Prentice-Hall,

(ed.),

3 See,

example,

given

on page

Concret /e
-20

Strai(i n, n/in)
Fig. 2-6 diagrams
materials.

Fig.

element

2-4

Typical

metal-foil

singlegage
Division,

electrical-

resistance (courtesy
Meas. urements

strain
of MicroNorth

Measurements Raleigh,
USA).

Group, Carolina,

Inc.,

C.I./ --40

Typical for

dif erent

stress-strain

65

64

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Sec.

2-4.

Hooke's

Law

65

engineering applications, deformations must be limited, the lower range of strains is particularly important. The large deformations of materials in the analysis of such operations as forging, forming, and drawing are not pursued. An il ustration of fractured tension specimens after static tension tests, i.e., where the loads were gradually applied, is shown in Fig. 2-7. Steel and aluminum alloy specimens exhibit ductile behavior, and a fracture occurs only after a considerable amount of deformation. This behavior is clearly exemplified in their respective stress-strain diagrams; see Fig. 26. These failures occur primarily due to slip in shear along the planes forming approximately 45 angles with the axis of the rod (see Fig. 1-8). A typical "cup and cone" fracture may be detected in the photographs of steel and aluminum alloy specimens. By contrast, the failure of a castiron specimen typically occurs very suddenly, exhibiting a square fracture across the cross section. Such cleavage or separation fractures are typical
of brit le materials.

oksi1
/

True stress-strain

diagram

Convptio0al

A/


Brila I

material x"

Ductile

 dim

Approximately

0.0012
0.20
(a)

A
 in/in

materials
(b)

0.020

types of stress-strain diagrams may be identified from static tests at constant temperature. The curve shown in Fig. 2-8(a) is characteristic of mild steel, whereas the curves shown in Fig. 2-8(b) cover a wide range of diverse materials. The upper curve is representative of some brit le tool steels or concrete in tension, the middle one of aluminum alloys or plastics, and: the lower curve of Fig. 2-8(b) is representative of rubber.

Several

dif er

Numerically,

drastically.

However,

the

extreme

values

of strain

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION specimen4; such stresses are often referred www.avs4you.com

that these materials can withstand
converse

point

of a specimen. Materials capable of withstanding large significant increase in stress are referred to as ductile
Stresses
applies

on a stress-strain

each

The

material

"steepness"

diagram

has its own

of these

represents

characteristic

curves

the complete

curve.

also

varies

are

usually

to brit le

computed

materials.

strains without a /naterials. The

original area

failure

The

(rupture)

terminal

greatly.

Fig. 2-8 diagrams. Typical

Stress-strain (a) Mild materials.

steel.

(b)

on the

basis

neering stresses. On the other hand, it is known that some transverse contraction or expansion of a material always takes place. For mild steel or aluminum, especial y near the breaking point, this effect, referred to as necking, is particularly-pronounced; see Fig. 2-9. Brit le materials do
not

to as conventional

of the

or engi-

of a
I I

versely a lit le in a tension test and expand in a compression test. Dividing the applied force, at a given point in the test, by the corresponding actual area of a specimen at the same instant gives the so-called trt e stress. A plot of true stress vs. strain is called a true stress-strain diagram; see Fig.
2-8(a).

exhibit

it at usual

temperatures,

although

they

too

contract

trans-

I
I

Shape specimen
nearthe

of

breaking

point

2.4.
(a) A572 steel and (b) 6061T6 aluminum alloy. Brit le fracture for (c) cast iron. (Numbers refer to ASTM

Hooke's

Law

Fig.

2-7

Ductile

fractures

for

For a limited range from the origin, the experimental values of stress vs. strain lie essential y on a straight line. This holds true almost without reservations for the entire range for glass at room temperature. It is true 4 These are referred to as Cauchy stresses, named in honor of the great French mathematician (1789-1857). Definition of stress recognizing the change in crosssectional area during straining is associated with the names of Piola (1833), the
(a) (b) (c)

diameter

Original

of

specimen

designations
alloy).

that of Association

Aluminum

for
for

steel
aluminum

and

Italian

elasticJan,

and

Kirchhoff

(1852),

the renowned

German

physicist.

Fig. 2-9 Typical contraction of a specimen of mild steel in tension near the breaking
point.

66

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Sec.

2-5.

Further

Remarks

on

Stress-Strain

Relationships

67

for mild

up to very

steel up to some
close

to the failure

point,

point

as A in Fig. 2-8(a).
for many

high-grade

It holds

alloy

nearly

steels.

true

On

materials
expressed

tical purposes, up to some such point as A, also tionship between stress and strain may be said terials. This sweeping idealization and generalization

tsoi hel, otanneal her ed hand,copper, the strai alug miht num, part of or tcast he curve iron. Nevert hardlhelyess, exists ifnor concret all prace,
is known
by the

come

crystals.
generally

as Hooke's

law/

is Symbolically,

in Fig. 2-8(b), the relato be l#ear for all maapplicable to all

tropic.-With mogeneity

essential y

Because
assumed.

some exceptions, (sameness from

Remarks

alike

of this random

in any direction.

orientation,

such as wood, in this text, complete point to point) and isotropy of materials
Relationships

7 Such

properties

materials

of materials

are called

iso-

beis

ho-

strength
v/

Yield

this

law

can

be

2.5.

Further

'on Stress-Strain

equation

(2-3)

which simply means that stress the constant of proportionality modulus, modulus of elasticity,

is directly is E. This or Young's

proportional to strain, where constant E is called the elastic modulus. 6 As e is dimen-

In addition interesting stance, strength 2-8(a) is later, this materials,

to the proportional limit defined in Section 2-4, several other points can be observed on the stress-strain diagrams. For inthe highest points (B in Fig. 2-8) correspond to the ldtimate of a material. Stress associated with the long plateau ab in Fig. called the yield strength of a material. As wil be brought out remarkable property of mild steel, in common with other ductile
is significant constant

-- - 0.2% offset

Fio.

an essential y

sionless, E has the units of stress in this relation. In the U.S. customary system of units, it is usually measured in pounds per square inch, and in the SI units, it is measured in newtons per square meter (or pascals). Graphically, E is interpreted as the slope of a straight line from the origin to the rather vague point A on a uniaxial stress-strain diagram. The stress corresponding to the lat er point is termed the proportional or elastic litnit of the material. Physically, the elastic modulus represents the stif ness of the material to an imposed load. The value of the elastic modalles is a definite property of a material. From experiments, it is known that e is always a very small qaantity; hence, E must be large. Its approximate the Appendix. values are

up to the proportional
large amount phenomenon
A study is so near

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com percent of strain is drawn parallel to the straight-line

materials temperature in Tables 1A is between and B of 29 and

taken to be the same. However, it is much easier to locate the For materials that do not possess a well-defined yield strength, sometimes "invented" by the use of the so-called "offset method." is il ustrated in Fig. 2-10, where a line offset an arbitrmy amount

of stress-strain the proportional

of deformation takes place is absent in most materials.

limit

in stress analysis. For the stress, strains 15 to 20 times

occur

during

at a constant

yielding.

At the yield
stress.

present, those

that

note that at take pl.ace

The yielding
(stress) may be
This of 0.2

stress,

determining strength

240

the yield of a material.

Offset

method

of

diagrams shows limit that, for

that the yield most purposes,

strength the two

former. one

is

For

tabulated all steels,

a few E at room

for

stress-strain
material

diagram.

Point

C is then

taken

as the

yield

portion

strength

of the initial

of the

30

up to the proportional litnit of the material. This is highly significant as in most of the subsequent treatment, the derived formulas are based on this law. Clearly, then, such formulas are limited to the material's behavior in the lower range of stresses. Some materials, notably single crystals and wood, possess dif erent elastic moduli in dif erent directions. Such materials, having dif erent physical properties in dif erent directions, are called anisotropic. A consideration of such materials is excluded from this text. The vast majority of engineering materials consist of a large number of randomly oriented
with rods. In 1676, in Latin is Ut Tensio
His the

It fl ows

106 psi,

from

or 200

the foregoing

and

207

GPa.

discussion

that Hooke's

law applies

only

That a material is elastic usually implies that stress is directly tional to strain, as in Hooke's law. Such materials are linearly Hookean. A material responding in a nonlinear manner and unloaded, returning back along the loading path to its initial
state of deformation is also an elastic material. Such materials

at 0.2-percent

offset.

proporelastic or yet, when stress-free

are called

elastic limit is exceeded, on unloading it usually responds in a linearly elastic manner, as shown in Fig. 2-11(c), deformation, or set, develops at no external load. As wil after the study of Section 2-11, the area enclosed by the

nonlinearly elastic. terials is highlighted

The dif erence between the two types in Figs. 2-1 l(a) and (b). If in stressing

' Actually,

Robert

 Young's

Lectures modulus

modulus
on

he announced sic Vis (the

Hooke,

an English

Natural of elasticity.

is so called

Philosophy,

in honor

an anagram force varies

scientist,.

published

of Thomas

"c e i i i n o s s s t t u v," as the stretch).

in 1807,

worked

with

springs

and

which

not

to dissipated considered
For pressions
some

ductile

not
blocks

energy released to dissipate any

materials, are

stress-strain reasonably

through energy

heat. Ideal under monotonic

diagrams to those

elastic

close

obtained found

for short in tension.

materials are or cyclic loading.

comBrit le

approximately and a permanent become apparent loop corresponds

of elastic a material

maits

Young,

contain

the English

a definition

scientist.

of

* Rolling

materials.

operations

produce

preferential

orientation

of crystal ine

grains

in

Dissipated
E

Sec.

2-6.

Other

Idealizations

of

Constitutive

Relations

69

(a)

(b)

Permanent

Elastic

elergy
I I

Gyp

iI
/ /

set

recovery

(c)

plastic

Fig.

2-1t

material.

Stress-strain
P

diagrams:

(a) linear
materials,

elastic
such as

material,
cast iron

(b) nonlinear
and concrete

elastic
are

material,
very

and
weak

(c) inelastic
in tension

or
(a)

I
(b) (c)

but

not in compression. depending on

the

For sense

these materials, of the applied

the

the force.
and

diagrams

dif er

considerably,
it wil Sketches interpreting be

material;

Fig.

2-t3

Idealized
and

(c)

elastic-linearly

stress-strain

diagrams:

hardening

(a) rigid-perfectly
material.

plastic

material;

(b)

elastic-perfectly

plastic

It is well to note that in some of advantageous to refer to elastic bodies such as shown in Fig. 2-12 are frequently

subsequent analyses, systems as springs. used in practice for

a case,

a stress.can

range

and
shown

terminate
in Fig. 2-13(c)

anywhere

between

+%,,

and

the
2.6.

physical
Other

behavior
Idealizations

of mechanical
of

In an based
P

(a)
P

increasingly larger number of technical problems, stress analyses on the assumption of linearly elastic behavior are insufficient. For this reason, several additional stress-strain relations are now in general use. Such relations are frequently referred to as constitutive relations or laws. The three idealized stress-strain relations shown in Fig. 2-13 are encountered particularly often. The two shown in Figs. 2-13(a) and (b) wil be used in this text; the one in Fig. 2-13(c) is often more realistic, however, its use is considerably more complicated and generally wil be avoided because of the introductory nature of this book. The idealized -e relationship shown in Fig. 2-13(a) is applicable to problems in which the elastic strains can be neglected in relation to the plastic ones. This occurs if plastic (inelastic) strains are dominant. Perfectly (ideally) plastic behavior means that a large amount of unbounded deformation can take place at a constant stress. The idealization shown in Fig. 2-13(b) is particularly useful if both the elastic and plastic strains have to be included. This situation frequently arises in analysis. Both of the previous idealizations are patterned after the behavior of low-carbon steel (see Figs. 2-6 and 2-8), where at he yield stress %,, a substantial

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

proximation for many materials and
Constitutive Relations

systems.

-%,. good

The

For moderate agreement with

-e idealization

amounts experimental

of plastic straining, observations. is more

this
provides

assumption
a reasonable

is in
ap-

models over a wider range of strain. Beyond increase in strain, many materials resist additional referred to as strain hardening. In some refined analyses, the stress-strain 2-13 may not be sufficiently accurate. Fortunately,

accurate

the

elastic stress,

than

range, a phenomenon

the

previous

on

an

shown in Fig. the use of computers, much better modeling of constitutive relations for real material is possible. For completeness, one such well-known algebraic formulation fol ows. In as much as implementation of such formulations requires a considerable amount of computer programming, this approach is not intended for general use in this text. An equation capable of representing a wide range of stress-strain curves with

idealization

has been

developed

by Ramberg

and

Osgood.

s This

equation

9 is

o
where eo, o, and n are characteristic

Cro
to the
Commit ee

 +3  \(__' " fro/

constants for a material. The

(2-4)
con-

stants
Parameters, used
arises

eo and

o correspond
National
n =

yield

point,
on Aeronautics,

which,

for
TN

all cases

other

(b)

plateau
stances,

in the
that

and

Fig.

2-t2

nonlinear

Linear

spring

(Hookean)

it is assumed

stress-strain

that

the

diagram

mechanical

is generally
and

properties

observed.

of the

material

In both

are

in-

8 W. Ramberg
in some
when

and

W. R. Osgood,
3/7 is chosen
Advisory

Description
formulation,

of Stress-Strain
a discontinuity

Curves
values
902, in the

9 The

coefficient

the
assumed

same

in tension
during

and
unloading,

in compression,
the material

%,,
behaves

= [ -%,
elastically.

I. It is also
In such

investigations.
m.

In this

somewhat

arbitrarily;

dif erent

1943.

by Three
function

have

been

response.

68

7O

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

2-7.

Deformation

of

Axial y

Loaded

Bars
6061-T6 aluminum

7t

n=2 2

60

75F
... .700F 500F
65 28 130

100

, 40
Fig. 244 Ramberg-Osgood

stress-strain.

diagrams.

/%

than that of ideal plasticity, is found by the offset method (see Fig. 2-10). The exponent n determines the shape of the curve, Fig. 2-14. Note that Eq. 2-4 is writ en in dimensionless form, a convenient scheme in analysis. One of the important advantages of Eq. 2-4 is that it is a continuous mathematical
Et

trai (mm/,
-lOO

50
30
10

4.8
18 -54 23

X 10 -a

10 -s

function.

For

example,

an instantaneous

or tangent

--.-! !

-1
I 4

X10
I 5

-s
,

moduhts

defined

as

I 3

Strain

(%)

(2-5)

Fig. 245 computer

of cyclic diagrams

Menegotto-Pinto model simulation

stress-strain for steel.

and

Fig.
strain

2-t6

temperature
curves

Effect
for

of strain
on
6061-T6

stress-

rate

can

2-4,

equation,

In most applications, i.e., to express

be uniquely

determined.

simulations of cyclic stress-strain diagrams can be obtained. An is shown in Fig. 2-15. I In this diagram, a series of characteristic referred to as hysteretic loops since they represent the dissipation ergy (see Section 2-11), are clearly evident. Regardless of the idealization used for a stress-strain diagram,

developed

stress

by

it is advantageous as a function

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com Menegotto and Pinto, m remarkably accurate

behavior and a member subjected

aluminum

alloy.

to a constant
time; see

stress,
Fig.

the
2-17.

elongations
This phenom-

or

to work of strain.

with With

the inverse of Eq. the aid of such an

example loops, of en-

deflections

continue

to increase

with

enon is referred to as creep. Creep is observed in reinforced concrete floors and in turbine discs, for example. Likewise, the prestress in bolts of mechanical assemblies operating at high temperatures, as well as prestress in steel tendons in reinforced concrete, tend to decrease gradually

with

time.

This

phenomenon

is referred

to as relaxation;

see

Fig.

2-18.

be recognized
example
to be aware of materials
Loaded Nonelastic

of such

that it is strongly
an effect
that
and

of the fact is considered

Manegotto,

no time-dependent in this text.

P. E. Pinto,

is il ustrated

dependent

in Fig.
For

on ambient
phenomena

2-16.

2 It is also
with

temperature.

it must

example, "Method
Changes

in the behavior time-dependent

for Cyclically
and

iml

An

2-7.

Deformation

of Axial y

Loaded
member

Bars
Axial
is a design deformations parameter, are

When the deflection of an axial y loaded it is necessary to determine the deformations.

required

in the

analysis

of statically

indeterminate

bars.

The
strain,

deflection

also

o See

in IABSE
Defined

Reinforced Behavior

M.

posium

on Resistance
Repeated

(International

Concrete Plane Frames Including of Elements under Combined

of Analysis
Normal

oration

 F. C. Filippou, .2 K. G. Hoge,

Loads,

and Ultimate
Lisbon,

Association

EERC-83/19, Aluminum chanics,

on Hysteric

August,

Behavior
"Influence

E. P. Popov,
1983,

p. 119. and

of Reinforced
Biaxial p. 204.

and

1973.

Deformability

for Bridge

and

of Structures

Structural

in Geometry Force and Bending"

Constant

stress,

o o

Constant

Engineering)

Acted

on by Well-

V. V. Bert,ero,

Concrete

Joint."
Stress,

"Effects

Report
Properties
"Experimental

of Bond

No.

Deteri-

UCB!
0 Time
Time

Under Uniaxial 6, no. 10 (April

of Strain

Rate

States

on Mechanical
of

of 6061-T6

Me-

Fig.
constant

2-17

Creep
stress.

in bar

under

Fig.
curve.

2-18

Stress-relaxation

1966),

72

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

2-7.

Deformation

of

Axial y

Loaded

Bars

73

du

u(L)

u(O)

e. dx

P

JOB
(a)

:u! 
(b)

where

P.

a rigid body displacements

of points

u(L)

D and B, respectively.
axial translation is the change

= ur and

u(O)

= UB are the

of the in length

As can

absolute

bar. The A between

be seen

or global

dif erence points

from

the figure,

displacements

between these D and B. Hence

u(0)

is

(2-7)

Any
bar

Fig.

2-t9

An

axial y

loaded

For

appropriate
linearly

elastic

constitutive

materials,

relations

according

can

be used

to Hooke's

to define

law,

e..

e. =

.dE,

Eq.
Eq.

2-3,
2-7

where
and

. = P. dA.,
simplifying,

Eq.

1-13.

By

substituting

these

relations

Jr/to

characteristics of bars also provide the stif ness of systems in mechanical Consider the axial y loaded bar relation for axial bar deformation. held in equilibrium by the force P4.

is permit ed
in the
determined.

bar

between

to gradually

points
the

change.

B and

for
is

In order to formulate a dif erential element

dx.

relation, Thus

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION The change in length that takes place www.avs4you.com

D due to the applied forces is to be
Eq. 2-1 for the normal strain is recast the normal strain e. in the x direction
where A is the change in length ?. = P(x), the cross-sectional E. = E(x)can vary along the
Procedure Summary
(2-6)

necessary information for determining vibration analysis. shown in Fig. 2-19(a) for deriving a The applied forces Pi, P2, and P3 are The cross-sectional area A of the bar

(2-8)

of an elastic bar area A. = A(x), length of a bar.

of length and the

L, and elastic

the force modulus

It should be emphasized chanics of solids consists developing the theory for

summarized as fol ows:

that the of repeatedly axial y loaded are used

first introduced

central applying bars for solution determining

theme
three

these

in engineering basic concepts. basic concepts the

1. As

mecan
In be

1. Equilibrium
on a bar from an initial fixed location formation of the infinitesimal element. equation for axial y loaded bars. It is to be noted that the deformations

conditions
at a section,

internal
shown

resisting
later in

where,

due

to the applied

forces,

u is the absolute

in space, and du This is the governing

considered

displacement

is the
text

axial dif erential

of a point

forces

in Chapter

de-

this
problem.

chapter,

this

may

require is used
remain

of a statically

indeterminate change
after

2. Geo/net/7
in this are gen-

a bar

due 2-19(b).

to axial
to the

ofdefor/nation
axis

forces
of a bar

by assuming

in deriving

that

sections

the

initial y

in length

perpen-

of
see

erally

merical

veo'

mations.

(undeformed)

examples

small

length L, between points such as B and D in Fig. 2-19, rather than its deformed length. Rearranging Eq. 2-6 as du = e. dx, assuming the origin of x at B, and
integrating,

In the fol owing

dimensions

throughout

(infinitesimal).

of members
derivation

this text.

This

Therefore

should

become

this

can be used for calculating

permits

in calculations

apparent

the bitial

from

nu-

dicular

perpendicular

straining,

the use of the initial

defor-

3. Material
normal

Fig.

deformations

stresses

properties

between
on this

to axial

(constitutive
theory

sections.
give

normal

strain

relations)

and

permit

are used in relating

calculation

of axial

axial

Solutions

based

correct

average

stresses

at a section,

see Section 1-6. However,

at concentrated

forces and abrupt changes in

74

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

2-7.

Deformation

of Axial y

Loaded

Bars

75

cross section irregular local stresses (and strains) arise. Only at distances about equal to the depth of the member from such disturbances are the stresses and strains in agreement with the developed theory. solutions based on the concepts of engineering mechanics of solids are best suited for relatively slender members. The use of this simplified procedure is rationalized in Section 2-10 as Saint-Venant's principle. Several examples showing application of Eq. 2-8 fol ow.
EXAMPLE 2-t

A.E

- AE

-

= A-

Hence,

I pL]
It is seen from Eq. 2-9 that the deflection of the rod is directly proportional

(2-9)

Consider

bar

BC

of constant

cross-sectional

area

A and

of length

L shown

in Fig.

2-20(a). concentrated
Solution

Determine

force

the deflection P. The elastic

of the free end, modulus of the

caused material

by the is E.

application

of a

A graphic interpretation of the solution stant axial bar strain fol ows by dividing the axial strain is constant, the displacements directly with the distance from the origin is possible at the left end.
the applied force and the length Since Eq. 2-9 frequently occurs
fol owing form:

is shown in Figs. 2-20(f)-(h). The conthe constant axial force P by AE. Since of the points on the bar increase ofx at a constant rate. No displacement
to

The deformed bar is shown in Fig. 2-20(b). to think of such elastic systems as springs;

Conceptually, see Fig.

it is often 2-20(e).

convenient

and is inversely in practice,

P = (AE/L)

proportional it is meaningful
A definition or [N/m] for the

to A and E. to recast it into-the

(2-10) spring constant (2-11) or

A free-body arbitrary section

cluded that the

diagram a-a
axial

for an isolated is shown in Fig.

force P. is the same

part 2-20(c).
everywhere

of the From
2-8,

loaded this
and

bar diagram,
is equal

to the left of it can be conto P. It is given

that

A. = A,

a constant.

By

applying

(a)

(b)

' - C
C'

(f)
(g)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Force I www.avs4you.com

Eq.

This stiess

equation k reading

is related

to the

familiar

k = p/A

[lb/in]

o
0

Axial

force

L
L

This constant = 1. Therefore,

constant

represents for
section,

the force required an axial y loaded ith

to produce bar or bar

a unit segment

deflection, of length

i.e., A Li and

cross

(c)
AE

I ki=AiE1---]
Li

(2-12)

Axial

strain

{d)

and the analogy The reciprocal

between of k defines =

such

a bar and the flexibility = A/p

a spring , i.e., [in/lb]

shown or [N/m]

in Fig.

2-20(e)

is evident.
(2-13)

1/k

(e) (hi

Displacement

A-

PL

AE

The
force,

constant For
i.e.,

represents
P = 1.

the deflection case of an axial y

f, -

resulting loaded
Zi

from ith bar

the application of constant cross

of a unit section,
(2-14)

the particular

Axial

displacement

Fig.

2-20

AiE

76

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Sec.

2.7.

Deformation

of

Axial y

Loaded

Bars

77

The analysis,
systems,

concepts including
the

of structural stif ness mechanical-vibration

expressions for k and

and
f become

flexibility problems.
more

are For
involved.

widely more

used complex

in structural structural

Soldion

By inspection,

EXAMPLE

2-2

ahvays be made before starting a problem. The variation of the bar is determined by taking three sections, a-a, 21(a) and determining the necessary forces for equilibrium

it can be seen that the bar is in equilibrium.

grams

Determine of variable centrated kN and OB, BC,

the relative displacement of point D from cross section shown in Fig. 2-21(a) caused forces P = 100 kN and P3 = 200 kN acting P4 = 50 kN acting to the right. The respective and CD are 1000, 2000, and 1000 mm 2. Let

O for the elastic by the application to the left, and areas for bar E = 200 GPa.

steel bar of conP2 = 250 segments

algebraically applicable
be writ en

ment, the forces 2-21(e). Therefore,

as

in Figs. 2-21(b)-(d).

the individual for each segment.

are constant, the solution

This leads to the conclusion

deformations Hence,
resulting in the axial of the deformation

for the three segments. the total axial deformation

force diagram shown in Fig. problem consists of adding

that withh

in P,. along the length b-b, and c-c in Fig. 2in the free-body dia-

Such

a check

must

each bar seg-

Equation 2-9 is for the bar can

2000

mm

A = . PL AlE = PoLo AoBE + PcLc ABcE

where

+ .AcZ>EK __
O and D is
50 x 103 x 1500

PcoLco

(a)
O

(b)

A a100 kN' :
250 kN -150 kN 250 kN 200 kN
,o kN kN

Using

the

this

subscripts

relation,
x 103
-

identify

the relative
x 2000
+

the

segments.

displacement
150 x 103

between
x 1000
mm

A = + 1000 x 200 x 103 - 2000 x 200 x 103 + 1000 x 200 x 103

= +1.000 0.375 0.375 = + 1.000

100

(c)

(d)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Note that in spite of large A graphic interpretation dividing the axial forces strains along the bar are segment. The area of the change in length for that
numerically
+100

stresses in the bar, the elongation of the solution is shown in Figs. in the bar segments by the corresponding obtained. These strains are constant

strain segment.

diagram These

for each segment values correspond

small. and (g). By AE, the axial within each bar of the bar gives the to those displayed

is very 2-21(0

before.

(e)

+50

kN

o
Axial force

EXAMPLE

2-3

Determine
w lb/in;
Soldion
Axial strain

see Fig.

Lhe deflection

2-22.

The

of free end B of elastic

constant cross-sectional

bar OB caused
area

is A. Assume

by its own

that

weight

E is

given.
0.5
(f)

X 10 -3

0.25

X 10 -3

I mm

0.625

mm

1 mm

The free-body diagrams of the bar and its truncated segment are shown, respectively, in Figs. 2-22(a) and (b). These two steps are essential in the solution of such problems. The graph for the axial force P. = w(L - x) is in Fig. 2-22(c). By applying Eq. 2-8, the change in bar length A(x) at a generic point x,

(g)

Relative

axial

displacement

=
A plot of this

_o

A.,E

AE

1
in Fig. 2-22(d),

- x) dx =
with its maximum

as B.

Fig.

2-2t

function

is shown

78

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Sec.

2-7.

Deformation

of Axial y

Loaded

Bars

79

wL

}wL

FwL4

.__.. ,, , . P=3k

2.23k

x
Fig. 2.22
The

0
(c)

0(d)

(a)
deflection of B is

(b)

2.83k -----6"
(a)

"

C ef ormed shape

(b)

B
(c)
Fig. 2-24

L
where
bar
I i

wL
2AE

WL
2AE

Solution

W = wL If a concentrated
OB at end B,

is the

total

force
the total

weight of the bar. P, in addition to the

deflection due to

by

superposition

as

L I -- _ -I
I I

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

bar's own weight, were acting on
the two causes would be obtained
are

As found in Example 1-3, the axial forces in the bars of the bracket are CrA = 17.8 ksi and Crac = 12.9 ksi. The length of member AB is 6.71 in and that of BC is 8.49 in. Per Table 1A in the Appendix, for the specified material, E = 10.6 x 103 ksi. Therefore, according to Eq. 2-9, the individual member length changes
17.8 x 6.71

A =

PL

+ 2AE =

WL

[P

AE

(W/2)]L

10.6

10 3

--

11.3

10 -3

in

(elongation)

In problems where the area of a rod is variable, be substituted into Eq. 2-8 to determine deflections. sufficiently accurate to analyze such problems rod by a finite number of elements, as shown
each one of these elements are added to obtain

a proper fitnction for it must In practice, it is sometimes by approximating the shape of a in Fig. 2-23. The deflections for
the total deflection. Because of

ABcand B2 are incompatible

bar

12.9

10.6 X 103 -as BB

lengths shortened

8.29

10.3 X 10 -3 in
BB2, are 2-24(b).
CB2

(contraction)

These in relation

length changes, to the bar

AB
deals

Fig.

2-23

the

rapid

variation

in the

cross

section

shown,

the

solution

would

be approximate.

elongated

and

with

the physical
bar

and in Fig.

support points This is shown

EXAMPLE 2-4

A and C such schematically

with In such

respective that points B and B2 meet at common point B3. in Fig. 2-24(b). However, since in classical solid
(infinitesimal) it is customary deformations, to assume an approximation that short arcs of

requirements
must

shown to a greatly exaggerated scale The indicated locations of points B

be rotated

of the problem.
around

their

Therefore,

mechanics, one can be introduced.

analyzed by the
of the bracket

small analyses,

For the of point

vertical

bracket B caused
stif ness

for stresses applied vertical

at B.

in Example force
Assume that

1-3,

P =
the

determine 3 kips. Also

members are

the deflection determine

made of 2024-

the

bar ends move dicated in Fig.

lengths and

large

circles

to achieve compatibility 2-24(b), locating point this approach for locating

by M. Wil iot

can

be approximated

by

normals

B4.

at the joints. This An enlarged detail point B4 is shown

to the

members

construction 3 is inof the changes in bar in Fig. 2-24(c). The

along

which

the

T4 aluminum the enlargements

alloy

and that they at the connections.

have

constant cross-sectional See idealization in Fig.

areas, 2-24(a).

i.e.,

neglect

First

introduced

in 1877.

8O

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Sec.

2-7.

Deformation

of

Axial y

Loaded

Bars

8t

required numerical nometry. Here the If A is the deflection and changes in bar

results lat er

can be procedure or displacement lengths ABc= cos 02

obtained either is fol owed. of point BB2 and AAB and lAB

graphically
B to position = BB,

or
B4,

by

using
Fig.

trigo2-24(c),

A
nu-

O C
' ' L -

COS

01
substituting one the

On forming equal merical values for

ratios Ac
..

for

and

both sides AA found

of these equations, earlier, and simplifying,

obtains

cos cos

02 0

IBc lAB

10.3 11.3

X 10 -3 X 10 -3

0.912
(c)

However,

since

02
it fol ows that

180 -

45 -

26.6

0

108.4

lb)

Fig.

2-25

cos

02

cos

108.4

cos

0 +

sin

108.4

sin

0,

and

cos
cos 01

cos

108.4

Therefore,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

sin 108.4 tan 0, = 0.912
Solution

**EXAMPLE

2-5

Two hinge-ended elastic bars of equal lengths and cross-sectional areas attached to immovable supports are joined in the middle by a pin, as shown in Fig. 2-25(a). Initial y, points A, B, and C are on a straight line. Determine the vertical deflection A of point C as a function of applied force P. Consider small deflections only.

tan
Based on this result,

0 =

1.29

and

O =

52.2

I
forming an angle the of 11.2

= IAa/cos
with constant
P

0 =
the vertical.

18.4

10 -3

in

The given structural system is incapable of supporting any vertical force in its initial configuration. Therefore, equilibrium of the system in a slightly deflected condition must be examined, Fig. 2-25(b), where initial bar lengths L become L*. For this position of the bars, one can write an equation of equilibrium for joint C' and express elongations of the bars via two dif erent paths. One such relation for elongation of each bar fol ows from Eq. 2-9 and the other from purely geometric considerations. On these bases,
P TL*
AE

from
= 2T sin

equilibrium,
0

Since
is given

Arm
by

= A cos
spring

11.2 = 18.0

x 10 -3 in, the

vertical

stif ness

of the

bracket

lvert
This problem neglected; mon practice contains therefore, for geometric fghe solution many engineering

18.0

X 10 -3

167

kips/in
which deformations, has been a com-

and

L*

L*

L'cos0

nonlinearity is accurate problems.

in displacement, only for. small

Hence,

T =

AE(1

cos

0)

On substituting

this

expression
P =

for
2AE(1

T into
-

the
cos

first

equation,
0

....... -

0) sin

82

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Final

shape

Further,

by expanding

cos

0 and

sin 0 into

Taylor's

series,

e = 2AE
On retaining only one term

7., in each series,

+ ..
p  AEO

)(
3

0-7.,+. .

)
deflections, angle

the elastic by v (nu)

modulus E, and is called and is defined as fol ows:

Poisson's

ratio.

4 It wil

be denoted

P
(a)

I Ilateral strain lateral strai1n

v = 'aal st axial strain
stress where tension because the
stress.

(2-16)

Final

shape

However,
A/L. Therefore,

since

the

analysis

is being

made

for

small

axial strains are caused by uniaxial or compression. The second, alternative the lateral and axial strains are always
of v fluctuates as 0.1 (some for dif erent materials

only, i.e., by simple form of Eq. 2-16 is true of opposite sign for uniover a relatively as 0.5 narrow occur.

P  
This result, relationship
encountered

AE A3
lead

or
to linear

A = L
relationships

 AE '
exhibits of the
between loads and

(2-15)
dis-

axial

The

value as low

range.
values

Generally,
value

it is on the

shown qualitatively between P and

in this text

wil

in Fig. 2-25(c), A. By contrast,

clearly most

the highly nonlinear problems that wil

concretes)

order

of 0.25
and

as high

to 0.35.

In extreme
(rubber)

cases,

be

The

during

lat er

placements. The more accurate solutions of this problem show that imate solution just obtained gives good results for A/L, on the order In this problem, the effect of geometry change on equilibrium was whereas in Example 2-4, it was neglected because the displacement
small.

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verse deformation is inhibited or prevented.
EXAMPLE 2-6

the approx0.3. considered, was very

son's ratio wil be used only when materials In conclusion, note that the Poisson effect
no additional stresses other than those

plastic

flow

is the

and

largest

signifies

possible.

constancy

It is normally

of volume.

attained

considered

behave exhibited

earlier

elastically. by materials
anless

15 In this

by materials

text,

Pois-

(b}

the trans-

causes

Fi g. 2-26 (a) andLateral(b) lateral contraction expansion of solid bodies

subjected
(Poisson's

to axial
effect).

forces

2-8.
In addition

Poisson's
to the

Ratio
deformation of materials in the contraction where direction takes deformations of the place. applied

force,

of lateral nomenon

namely,

another

that

(transverse) is il ustrated

at right

remarkable

angles

property
expansion in Fig.

to the applied
or 2-26,

can be observed
uniaxial
the

force,

in all solid

a certain

materials,

This pheare greatly

amount

Consider a careful y conducted experiment where an aluminum bar of 50-mm diameter is stressed in a testing machine, as shown in Fig. 2-27. At a certain instant the applied force P is 100 kN, while the measured elongation of the rod is 0.219 mm in a 300-mm gage length, and the diameter's dimension is decreased by 0.01215 mm. Calculate the two physical constants v and E of the material.
Solution
Transverse or lateral strain:

exaggerated. For clarity, this physical body is subjected to an axial tension, hand, if it is compressed, the material

this in mind, directions of lateral deformations are easily determined, depending on the sense of the applied force. For a general theory, it is preferable to refer to these lateral deformations on the basis of deformations per unit of length of the transverse
dimension. Thus, the lateral deformations on a relative basis can be

fact may it contracts "squashes

be restated laterally; out"

thus: if a solid on the other sideways. With

... exIn this

creases

0.01215
50

/. = 300

mm

0.000243
since the

mm/mm
diameter of the bar de-

case,
by/X,.

the

lateral

strain

et is negative,

lateral bear

pressed

strains. a constant

in in/in

Moreover, relationship

or m/m.

These

it is known to the

relative

from longitudinal

unit

lateral

experiments

deformations
or axial

that lateral strains strains caused by

are termed

an axial force, and isotropic.

provided a material remains elastic This constant is a definite property

and is homogeneous of a material, just

in 1828.

4 Named

after

S. D. Poisson,
1950).

the French

scientist

who

formulated

this

concept

like

McGraw-Hil ,

s A.

Nadai,

Theory

of Flow

and

Fracture

of Solids,

Vol.

1 (New

York:

= 50

mm

Fig.

2-27

83

Axial Strains
Axial strain:

and Deformations
A

in Bars
For
0.219 300

Sec. 2.9. Thermal

An increase

Strain and Deformation

values.
of bars due to an
 1

85

a decrease

e,,
Poisson's ratio:

= -

0.00073

mm/mm

il ustration of the in temperature

in temperature,

thermal is shown

bT assumes

effect on deformation in Fig. 2-28.

negative

EXAMPLE
v ..

2-7

e, e,,

( - 0.000243) 0.00073

0.333

Determine
temperature
Eq.
70 GPa

the displacement
of 100F.

See

Fig.

Of point

2-29(a).

B in Example

2-4 caused

by an increase

in

Next,

since
E-

the
PL
AA

area
-

of the
100
1960

rod
103
X

A = x
X
0.219

x 502
=70x

= 1960
103

mm 2, from
N/mm 2 =

2-9,

Soldion Determining to the solution the deflection of Example at point 2-4 for B due finding to an increase the deflection in temperature of the same point is similar caused

300

by stress. 2024-T4

Per Table aluminum

1A in the Appendix, the coefficient alloy is 12.9 x 10 -6 per F. Hence,

of thermal from Eq.

expansion 2-18,

for

(b)

In practice, when a study it is best to work with the the quantities determined
behavior. Also note that

of physical corresponding are associated

it makes no

quantities, such as E and v, is being made, stress-strain diagram to be assured that with the elastic range of the material
dif erence whether the initial or the final

AAB ABc=
Here change

= 12.9 12.9

x 10 -6 x 10 -6

X 100 X 100

X 6.71 X 8.49

= 8.656 = 10.95
B4,

x 10 -3 in X 10 -3 in
(c)

lengths

are

used

in computing

strains,

since

the

deformations

are

very

small.

2-9.
With perature change renheit,

Thermal
changes

Strain

and

Deformation

of temperature, solid bodies and contract on its decrease. The in temperature from To to T measured can be expressed as

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Ar cos 02 = A,_a and

the displacement in temperature,

At of point B to position is related to the bar elongations Ar

Fig. 2-29(b), in the fol owing 0 = ABc

caused

by

manner:

of bars
surface.

Fig.

2-28

resting

Thermal
final

on
lines

frictionless

expansions
for an

Dashed

cos

represent increase

shape in temperature.

expand on thermal strain in degrees

increase of temer caused by a Celsius or Fah-

Forming values

for

equal AAa

ratios for both sides and Aac, and simplifying

of these leads

equations, to the

substituting
fol owing
= 0.7905

numerical
result:

COS cos

02 0

AAB Ac

8.656 10.95

X 10 -3 X 10 -3

Fig.

2-29

(2-17)

8 2

where expansion. sonably Equal mogeneous uniform temperature

o is an For
constant. thermal

experimental y moderately

narrow

determined ranges

coefficient in temperature,
for length

of

linear thermal c remains reahoto in a

strains develop in every direction isotropic materials. For a body of temperature, the extensional deformation of  T = T - To is

unconstrained L subjected A r due to a change

B 26.6o
(b) (a)

B

At = a(gT)L.)

(2-18)

86

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Sec.
0 = 71.6 0; therefore,
P

2.10.

Saint-Venant's

Principle

and

Stress

Concentrations
P

87

Here,

however,

02

45 +

26.6

cos and
Hence,
Based on this result, COS

02
02 0 

= 02

cos cos
=

71.6 71.6
0.500

cos + sin

02 71.6
and

sin tan
02

71.6

sin 0.7905

0z

--

COS

0 =
= 26.6

tan

2.575
(b)

1.38703,,

Oma x = 1.027oav
{d)

A T -- ABc/COS
forming

01 =
18.4 with

12.2
the

X 10 -3
horizontal.

in

(a)

It is interesting

an

angle

of 45 -

to note

that

0 =

Fig.

2-30

Stress

distribution

near

a concentrated

force

in a rectangular

elastic

plate.

the small
to the

displacement

Ar is )f comparable
force P in Example

order
2-4.

of magnitude

to that

found

due

applied

vertical

2-10.

Saint-Venant's

Principle

and

Stress

Concentrations
of
and often can

The analysis of axial y loaded bars based on engineering mechanics solids is very accurate for bars of constant cross section when transmit ing uniformly distributed end forces. For such ideal conditions stresses strains are uniform everywhere. In reality, however, applied forces approximate concentrated forces, and the cross sections of members

is also shown on these diagrams. From these it can be noted that at a section a distance b/4 from an end, Fig. 2-30(b), the maximum normal stress greatly exceeds the average. For a purely elastic material the maximum stress theoretically becomes infinite right under the concentrated force, since a finite force acts on a zero area. In real situations, however,

using Figs.

the methods 2-30(b), (c),

of the theory and (d). 17 The

of elasticity gives the results shown in average stress av as given by Eq. 1-13

change

abruptly.

This

causes

stress

deformation

imity of such forces and changes situations were studied analytically ticity. In such an approach, the infinit.esimal elements is formulated

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impossible.

a truly some

concentrated plastic behavior;

for

force

is not possible therefore the

and virtually all materials attainment of an infinite

exhibit stress

is

and

strain

disturbances

in the

prox-

and

mechanical

properties

in cross sections. using the mathematical behavior of two or and the conditions

of material

6 are

the past these theo3, of elasthree dimensional of equilibrium,

In

It is important average stress always correct.

width

The It was

of the second

member observation

to note two basic aspects from this solution. First, the all cases, being based on conditions of equilibrium, is Second, the normal stresses at a distance equal to the
are essential y il ustrates uniform. the famed

satisfied

subject

to the prescribed merical procedure a discrete number analysis is carried method of analysis. two methods can gineering mechanics solutions by these bution at concentrated with those found
solids.

boundary conditions. More recently has been developed, where a body is of finite elements, such as squares or out with a computer. This is called the The end results of analyses by either be very effectively used to supplement of solids. An example showing the two advanced methods for the nature force fol ows. These solutions provide by applying the method of engineering

a powerful nusubdivided into cubes, and the finite element one of these solutions in enmore accurate of stress districomparison mechanics of

engineering on stresses is applied.

enunciated

Using the finite element method,8 the results of a solution for the same problem are shown in Fig. 2-31. The initial undeformed mesh into which the planar block is arbitrarily subdivided, and the greatly exaggerated deformed mesh caused by the applied force are shown in Fig. 2-31(a). By placing the mesh on rollers as shown, only the upper half of the block
27 S. Timoshenko, and J. N. Goodier, McGraw-Hil , 1970, p. 60. Fig. 2-30 8 For this subject see for example, Method, 3rd ed. (London: McGraw-Hil Numerical Methods in Finite Element Hall, 1976). R. H. Gallagher, Finite
N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975).

in cross section. Consciously ways applied in idealizing

terms it simply means that the manner of force application is important only in the vicinity of the region where the force This also holds true for the disturbances caused by changes
load or unconciously carrying this principle is nearly systems.

by

the

great

French

elastician

Sa#zt-Venant's in 1855.

In

principle. common

al-

A short at its ends.

block is shown in Fig. Analyzing this block

2-30(a) acted for stresses

upon by concentrated as a two dimensional

forces problem

6 These

are the same basic concepts

as use ineering

mechanics

of solids.

Treaty of Elasticity, 3rd. ed., New York: is adapted from this source. O. C. Zienkiewicz, The Finite Element Ltd., 1977). K. J. Bathe and E. L. Wilson, Analysis (Englewood Clif s, N.J.: PrenticeElement Fundamentals (Englewood Clif s,

88
Deformed mesh 100

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Sec.

240.

Saint-Venant's

Principle

and

Stress

Concentrations

89

3.0 ndeformed mesh

2.8
30 25

2.6
2.4 K

2.2
2.0 1.8 1.6
1.4

2.7

o.v

1.2

. .f2. 

. . .O. . c.L. .;. . ?. . t.?. . .?. .

2..

10

1.0

1.5

%v

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
rid

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Fig. 242 concentration

bars in

Stresstension.

factors

for

flat

(a)

distributions

Fig.

2-3t

.(a) Undeformed
at b/4

and

b/2

and

below

deformed

top.

mesh

of an elastic

plate.

(b) cry contours,

(c) Normal

stress

this

members. to one-quarter

For
the

scheme,

the example given width, K = 2.575.

maximum

normal

before, Hence

stress

at a depth below mx = 2.575 .

at a section is

the top equal Generalizing

calculated stress contours in Fig. 2-31(b) clearly show of large stresses in the vicinity of the concentrated solution based on mathematical elasticity, in the finite stresses at the applied force are very large, but finite, mesh size. As to be expected, the corners carry no distribution at b/4 and b/2 below the top, shown in reasonable agreement with the more accurate results 2-30(b) and (c). Better agreement can be achieved by This versatile method can be applied to bodies of any load distribution. Its use in accurate stress analysis an ever wider use. However, because of the simplicity discussed in this text, at least for preliminary design, pensable.

needed

to be analyzed

because

of symmetry

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the development force. Unlike the element model the because of finite stress. The stress Fig. 2-31(c), are in given in Figs. using a finer mesh. shape and for any problems is gaining of the procedures they remain indis-

around

the

mid-section.

The

'mx=Kg a =KP-P1
A

(2-19)

where Two loaded graphs

average

K 'is an appropriate
stress per Eq. 1-13.

stress-concentration

factor,

and

P/A

is the

on the net section tration also occurs upon the sharpness

particularly signScant stress-concentration bars are shown in Fig. 2-32? The Ks that give the ratio of the maximum normal stress
as shown in Fig. 2-33. at the root of threads. of the cut. For ordinary

A considerable This depends

factors for flat axial y may be read from the to the average stress
stress to a large concendegree

threads,
"Factors
1935, vol. 57,

the
of Stress

stress-concenConcentration

The appear

uations, however, the maximum

example cited to be possible

normal

such

above is extreme, at the concentrated

as at bolt stresses

since

holes or changes are finite. These

force.

theoretically There

relation materials,
ratio of

to the depend
the

average only

stress on the
to the

as given geometrical
average stress

by

Eq. proportions
the

in cross maximum 1-13 for

are

infinite stresses numerous sitsection, where

stresses, in

Photoelastically

0 This

figure

is adapted
Determined."

from

Trans.,

M. M.

ASME,

Frocht,

p. A-67.
\

linearly of a member.
stress-concen-

elastic The
of
(New

maximum

is called

the

,)
Oav K = max
gav
K =

tration

in technical

factor,

literature
and

designated
W.
1975).

19 as functions
C. Young,

in this text
Formulas

as K. Many
of
for

geometrical
Stress

such

factors
andStrain,

parameters
5th

are available
ed.

Fig.
(b) K.

9 R. J. Roark
York: McGraw-Hil ,

stress-concentration

243

Measing

of the

factor

(a)

9O

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Sec.

24t.

Elastic

Strain

Energy

for

Uniaxial

Stress

tration factor is on the order of 2 to 3. The no dif iculties, provided proper graphs or past many such factors have been determined toelasticity (see Sec. 9-4). An example of low-cycle fatigue fracture bolt with a minimum specified strength of Fig. 2-34. Note that the fracture occurred
EXAMPLE 2-8

application tables

of Eq. 2-19 of K are available. using the methods

presents In the of phoin

centration

in tension of a high-strength 120 ksi (830 MPa) is shown at the root of the threads.

stress across the net section occurs prior The previous argument is not quite than mild steel. Nevertheless, the tendency material is unusually brit le, like glass. to situations where the force is gradually It is not applicable for fiuctuating loads, For fatigue loadings, the working stress locally determines the fatigue behavior

is practically

eliminated,

and a nearly

permissible
at points
most

Find
Soldion

the

maximumstress

in member

AB

in the

forked

end

A in Example

1-3.

machine

stress

Geometrical

proportions:
radius of the hole
-

are of paramount importance, although some machine designers feel that the theoretical stress concentration factors are somewhat high. Apparently, some tendency is present to smooth out the stress peaks, even in
members

of high

parts

is set from

stress.

can be traced

an S-N diagram
to progressive

to necking. as true for materials less ductile is in that direction unless the The argument presented applies applied or is static in character. as found in some machine parts. level that is actually reached of the member. The maximum

uniform

distribution

of

(Section

In machine

design,

then,

cracking

1-9). Failure
concentrations
that

stress

originates

of

3/16

Fig. 2-3
fatigue
A325 steel

fracture

Low-cycle
bolt.

of 7/8

tensile
in

net

width

1/2

0.375

From

Fig.

2-32?

K - 2.15

for

r/d

= 0.375.
= 11.2 ksi. x 11.2 = 24.1 ksi. increase in stress occurs
at this

apparent junctures

From

the previous

subjected

to cyclic

why a competent and transitions

discussion

loads.

machine of elements

and

accompanying

designer tries to "streamline" that make up a structure.

charts,

it should

the

be

at a hole

Fig.

2.35

Stress

in an

elastic-ideally

distribution

plastic flat progressively

applied

bar

force

with increasing P.

Average stress fi'om Example 1-3: Crav = P/A,et Maxhnum stressr Eq. 2-19: Crmax = Kcrav = 2.15 This answer indicates that actually a large local hole, a fact that may be highly significant.

222-11. Elastic Strain Energy for NON-ACTIVATED VERSION the product of a force times the distance www.avs4you.com
In mechanics,
moves. areas

Uniaxial
in the direction

Stress
to do work,
by their The product

energy

is defined
deformations

as the capacity

In considering stress-concentration factors in design, it must be remembered that their theoretical or photoelastic determination is based on the use of Hooke's law. If members are gradually stressed beyond the proportional limit of a ductile material, these factors lose their significance. For example, consider a flat bar of mild steel, of the proportions shown in Fig. 2-35, that is subjected to a gradually increasing force P. The stress distribution wil be geometrically similar to that shown in Fig. 2-33 until O'ma x reaches the yield point of the material. This is il ustrated in the top diagram in Fig. 2-35: However, with a further increase in the applied force, f max remains the same, as a great deal of deformation can take place while the material yields. Therefore, the stress at A remains virtually frozen at the same value. Nevertheless, for equilibrium, stresses acting over the net area must be high enough to resist the increased P. This condition is shown in the middle diagram of Fig. 2-35. Finally, for ideally plastic material, stress becomes uniform across the entire net section. Hence, for ductile materials prior to rupture, the local stress con2 Actually, the whether it is empty stress concentration or fil ed with
a bolt

forces.

two

quantities

In solid are forces, This

internal

is the internal
work

deformable and

bodies,

is stored

work

stresses multiplied are distances.

that

and

in an elastic

done

in a body

body

by externally
as the

respective of these

the force
applied

work

is

internal
2-36(a),

elastic
sub-

energy puting

Consider

of deformation, the internal

an infinitesimal

or the elastic energy in axial y

element,

strain loaded
such

as shown

energy. A procedure bars is discussed

in Fig.

next.

for com-

jected to a normal stress .. The force acting on the right of this element is  dy dz, where dy dz is an infinitesimal
element. where

Because of this force, the element elongates an amount e. dx, e. is normal strain in the x direction. If the element is made of a linearly elastic material, stress is proportional to strain; Fig. 2-36(b). Therefore, if the element is initial y free of stress, the force that finally acts on the element increases linearly from zero until it attains its ful

or the left face area of the

value.
place

which

is -  . dy

The

average

it acts

is the

force dz. This

work

acting average
strain

done

on the element force multiplied

on the

while done

element.

deformation by the distance

For

a perfectly

is taking through
elastic

body,

as recoverable ergy U for

no energy

internal an infinitesimal

is dissipated

energy. element

and

the work

Thus, subjected

the

internal to uniaxial

on the element

elastic stress

strain is

is stored

en-

depends or pin.

on

the

condition

of

the

hole,

22 This

section

can be postponed

until

study

of Chapter

12.

Axial

Strains

and Deformations

in Bars
0r

Sec. 2-tt.

Elastic

Strain

Energy

for Uniaxial

Stress
(2-23)

U = f

ol

dV

These forms in applications,

x
z

on force and distance. For a particular material, substitution into Eq. 2-22 of the value of the stress at the proportional limit gives an index of the material's ability to store or absorb energy without permanent deformation. The quantity so found is called the modtthts of resilience and is used to dif erentiate materials for 3, whereas applications where energy of Douglas must be absorbed by members. For

sion

of the equation for the elastic strain although they mask the dependence

energy are convenient of the energy expres-

example,
lb/in
Fig. 246 (a) An element in

106 psi has a modulus

a steel

with

a proportional
grade

uniaxial

Hookean

tension

stress-strain

and

(b)

a
(a) (b)

diagram.
dU =

2 :,dydz
average
force work

x e:,dx
distance

where

dV

is the

volume

of

the

element.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

represented
line
of stress.

= xexdxdydz

(2-20)

strain energy under range, able. terial imen

of 6450 psi and an E of 1,920,000 psi has a modulus (1,920,000) = 10.8 in-lb/inL By reasoning analogous to that before, the area

a good

of resilience

of 2/2E

limit

of 30,000
fir,

= (30,000)2/2(30)106
having

psi and
a proportional

an E of 30 x

= 15 inlimit

of resilience
under

of (6,450)2/

diagram, Fig. 2-37, gives a measure of a material's ability to absorb up to fracture and is called its toughness. The larger the total area the stress-strain diagram, the tougher the material. In the inelastic only a small part of the energy absorbed by a material is recoverMost of the energy is dissipated in permanently deforming the maand is lost in heat. The energy that may be recovered when a spechas been stressed to some such point as A in Fig. 2-37(b) is
since

a complete

stress-

OD,

by

all materials

the

triangle

essential y

ABC.

Line

behave

AB

of this

elastically

triangle

upon

is parallel
the

release

to

By
Thus,

recasting

Eq.

2-20,

one

obtains

the

strain

energy

stored

in an elastic

body

per

unit

volume

of the

material,

or its strain-energy

density

Uo.
Dissipated

Stronger
material

UoThis
area

d U

d-

o'xex

Tougher
material

2
2-36(b).
as an area
axis

(2-21)
The corresponding
under the
com-

clined

expression
enclosed

line

on the
by

may

the

stress-strain

be graphically
line

inclined

diagram;

interpreted
the

and

Fig.

in-

vertical

is called

the

plementre3, energy, materials, the two apply to the normal

strains ey and
writ en

e:.

a concept to be used in Chapter 12. For linearly elastic areas are equal. Expressions analogous to Eq. 2-21 stresses %. and  and to the corresponding normal

may

Since

be

in the

elastic
as

range,

Hooke's
dU Ee}

law

applies,
ty}

. = Ee.,

Eq.

2-21

Permanent set JT
(a)

_,le resilience
(b)

Hyperelastic
resilience

Uo-

dV-

2 - 2E

(2-22)

Fig.

247

Some

typical

properties

of materials.

94

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Sec.

2-t2.

Deflections

by

the

Energy

Method

95

EXAMPLE

2-9

Two same
2A

elastic amount

bars, whose of energy

proportions delivered

by

are shown axial forces.

in Fig. 2-38, Neglecting

are to absorb stress concentra-

the

(2-24)

tions,
bar
Soldion

compare
is A, and that

the

stresses
of the right

in the
bar

two

bars.
2A

The

cross-sectional
as shown.

area

of the

left

is A and

The bar shown in Fig. 2-38(a) is of uniform normal stress ch is constant throughout. Using volume V of the bar, one can write the total
(a)

cross-sectional Eq. 2-23 energy for

and
the

area, therefore, integrating over bar as

the the

is reached in a manner similar Therefore, the external work multiplied by the deflection in next section, this approach wil
EXAMPLE 2-t0

applied.

In this

This means

treatment,

that,

it is assumed

as it is being
to We the be

that

that shown in Fig. 2-36(b) for stress. is equal to one-half of the total force direction of the force action. In the generalized for dynamic loads.

applied,

the

external

its ful effect

force

on a member

is gradually

(b)

Fig.

2-38

fv0.I
where The stress Again, that the A is the cross-sectional bar shown in Fig. or2 acts in the lower by using Eq. 2-23 total energy that area

' fv

0.7
.

of the bar, and L is its length. 2-38(b) is of variable cross section. Therefore, if the part of the bar, the stress in the upper part is EO' t 2 and integrating over the volume of the bar, it is found this bar wil absorb in terms of the stress or2 is

Find area
Soldion

the deflection A and length

of the free end of an elastic L due to axial force P applied

rod of constant at the free end.

cross-sectional

If force P is gradually applied to the rod, external the deflection of the end of the rod. The expression
U of the rod was found in Example 2-9, and since

work, W,. = pA, where A is for the internal strain energy

cr = P/A, it is

0.2 dV = 0. owerpart dV +  2E U2 = - 0. (0'2/2)2 2A - 2E + 2E

If both bars are to absorb the same amount of energy,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION U = 0.7 AL AL www.avs4you.com

pperpart dV
2E

p2L 2AE
PL
AE
--

U

U2

and

Then,

from

We

U,

p A

AL) =
Hence, for the same energy load,

AL
the stress

or
in

0.2 = 1.2650.
the "reinforced" bar is 26.5 which is the same as Eq.

p2L
. 2AE

and

2-9.

percent over
design

higher than in the plain a part of the bar is actually

of members for static loads.

bar.

The detrimental.

enlargement This

of the situation

cross-sectional is not found

area in the

members.

The

use of Eq.
Since

2-24

internal

can

strain

be extended

energy

to bar

is a positive

systems

consisting
scalar

quantity,

of several

the

2-12.

Deflections

by

the

Energy

Method

energies for the several members can be simply added arithmetically. This total strain energy U can then be equated to the external work W, caused by one force for finding the deflection in the direction of that force. To
il ustrate, for the bracket
U-

The principle of conservation of energy may be very effectively used for finding deflections of elastic members due to applied forces. General methods for accomplishing this wil be discussed in Chapter 12. Here a more limited objective, determining the deflection caused by the application of a single axial force, is considered. For such a purpose, the internal strain energy U for a member is simply equated to the external work W,, due to the applied force, i.e.,

shown

in Fig.
+

2-24

for

Example 1
2

2-4,

1 P,BLAB
2 AABE

..

1 PcLBc
AacE

pA

where

deflection

the

subscripts

A of force

P.

refer

to members.

A solution

of this

equation

gives

96

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Sec.

2-t3.

Dynamic

and

Impact

Loads

97

This

method

any any

number direction.

is extended of applied forces

in

Chapter for finding

12 to solution the deflections

of

problems at any

with

point

in

spring

evenly

elastic

*'232-13.

Dynamic

and

Impact

Loads
delivers such ideal-

pay,/k, spring.

W is As,

constant
=

system
W/k.

k, the static
Similarly,

may

be treated
the

deflection

as an equivalent
maximum

A.t of the spring

dynamic

sprhg.
deflection

due to the weight

Amax

Using

the
=

deflections

where Pdyn iS the maximum Therefore, the dynamic force

of the spring is

dynamic in terms

force experienced of the weight

by the W and the

A freely fal ing weight, what is called a dynamic forces may be analyzed izing assumptions:

or a moving body, that strikes a structure or impact load or force. Problems involving rather simply on the basis of the fol owing

Pdyn = As---- W
This relationship is shown the instant the spring the fal ing weight is transformed fore, an equation representing strain energy may be writ en At in Fig. deflects
as

Amax

(2-25)
of

1. Materials at the
deformation

behave
point of
of

elastically, impact
materials.

or

and no dissipation at the supports

of energy takes place owing to local inelastic be neglected. to the magnitude or statically

2. The inertia 3. The deflection of the applied plied.

of a system resisting an impact may of a system is directly proportional force whether a force is dynamically

2-39(b). its maximum amount, all energy into the strain energy of the spring. Therethe equality of external work to ,.'nternal
1

ap-

W(h + Amax)
A graphical interpretation that a factor of one-half since the spring takes

= Pdyn

Amax

(2-26)

Then, using the principle of conservation of energy, it may be further assumed that at the instant a moving body is stopped, its kinetic energy is completely transformed into the internal strain energy of the resisting system. At thi instant, the maximum deflection of a resisting system occurs and vibrations begin. However, since only maximum stresses and deflections are of primary interest, this subject wil not be pursued. As an example of a dynamic force applied to an elastic system, consider a fal ing weight striking a spring. This situation is il ustrated in Fig. 239(a), where a weight W fal s from a height h above the free length of a spring. This system represents a vety general case, since conceptually, 23 This is an optional section.

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W(h + Amax) --

of this equation appears in front on the load gradually.

is shown in Fig. 2-39(c). Note of the strain-energy expression, Then, from Eq. 2-25,
1 (A max)
2

--

Ast

or
hence

(Amax)

2 -- 2Ast

Ama x -- 2h Ast

= 0

Ama x - Ast

q- '/(hst)

2 q- 2h As,

or
and
Ast
Deflection

Amax = Ast 1 +
again using Eq. 2-25,

+ AstJ

(2-27)

Amax

External

work

of

Strain

energy

fal ing

weight
(a)

of spring
(b) (c)

Pdyn = W (1 +
system under an impact force.

+ j
Eq. occurring 2-28 giveg

(2-28)
in a spring struck the maximum

Fig.

2-39

Behavior

of an

elastic

Equation 2-27 gives by a weight W fal ing

the

from

maximum

a height

deflection h, and

98

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Sec.

2-t4.

General

Considerations
Long bolts

99

weight After putations

force experienced equations, the

W is computed the effective as a static

by the spring for the static deflection A st caused

by the formulas derived earlier. dynamic force Pdyn is found, it may be used in comforce. The magnification effect of a static force when

same condition. by the gradually

To apply applied

these known

O'max--dyn
The large dif erence

-- 177
in the

1+
stresses

1 + 1.66 x
for the two solutions

-6

= 243 MPa
suggests the need for

dynamically applied is termed the impact sion in parentheses appearing in Eqs. surprisingly large in most cases. For elastic system suddenly, i.e., h = 0, force gradually applied. If h is large

is approximately.
For

equal

to st.

factor and is given by the expres2-27 and 2-28. The impact factor is example, if a force is applied to an it is equivalent to twice the same compared to A st, the impact factor
where stopped
the external Therefore,

flexible systems for resisting dynamic taking into account the results obtained that for obtaining the smallest dynamic
1-. select a material with a small elastic

loads.

A further study of this problem, and in Example 2-9, leads to the conclusion stresses for the same system, one should:
(a)

modulus;
Short bolts

Similar moving
body.

equations horizontal y
this body, purpose,

may with
using
be

be derived a velocity
it is necessary a consistent

for the case v and is suddenly

to replace system

a weight W by an elastic
work

2. 3.

make stress

the the

total volume of the material uniformly,

member large; and avoid stress

concentrations.

by the kinetic

a moving

fal ing

weight

in the
shown

preceding
that

derivation

of units.

by the

kinetic

energy
since

the

Several

cases

can

be cited

as il ustrations

of practical

situations

where
(b)

of gravity,

energy

it can

of a moving

body

is Wv2/2g,

where

g is the

acceleration

these principles and the cost

Pdyn = W
where direction.
EXAMPLE

l)2 -st

A.t

is the In Eq.
2-tt

static 2-29,

deflection caused by W is in U.S. customary

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ures occurred.

. and

Amax = Ast
W acting units.

/ gAst 112
in the

(2-29)

in operation,

inders and jackhammers, ends to the tube. Long

are used. Wood is used in railroad ties per unit volume of the material is small.

development

of this equipment,

is uniformly

Fig. 2-41, bolts provide

very

stressed

short bolts were used, and frequent

in tension.

10ng bolts a large volume

In the early

are used to attach the of material, which,

since its E is low, In pneumatic cyl-

stages

of the (b) bad design of a

Fig. 2-4t (a) Good

design

and

fail- pneumatic

cylinder.

-- _F __4 kg
15 1.5 m
m

mass shown
steel

Determine

of 4 kg fal ing in the figure,

rod, assume

the

maximum

freely and
200

stress

through another
GPa,

in the
and

a distance when the

for the

steel

rod

of 1 m. Consider rubber washer

washer, take

shown

in Fig.

two cases: is removed.

4.5 N/mm.

2-40

caused

one For

by a
as

244.

General

Considerations

E =

k =

mm

Solufion

round rod

The
Sohttion

4-kg

mass
for
PL

applies
rod with
P

a static
washer:

force

P = ma

= 4 x 9.81

= 39.2

N.

The

rod

area

A = 'rr x 152/4

= 177 mm 2. Note
39.2 x 1500

that

the rod
39.2

length

is 1500

mm.

I
Rubber

6mm
washer

Ast --AE

+ k

177 x 200 x 103 + 4.5

= 1.66 x 10 -3 + 8.71 = 8.71 mm

As pointed out in Section 1-9, for some structural systems, the equations for static equilibrium are insuff icient for determining reactions. In such cases, some of the reactions are superfluous or redundant for maintaining equilibrium. In some other situations, redundancy may also result if some of the internal forces cannot be determined using the equations of statics alone. Both cases of such statical indeterminacy can arise in axial y loaded systems. Two simple idealized examples are shown in Fig. 2-42. For the system shown in Fig. 2-42(a), reactions R and R2 cannot be

compression

f max--dynFig. 2-40

A
without washer:

17 ( 39.

1+

1 + 8.71 x

= 3.58

MPa

determined shown distribution sideration.

equations of statics alone. 2-42(b), whereas the reaction of forces between the two springs In both instances, the deformation tem components must be considered. There are various procedures for resolving
in Fig.

using

However, for the system can be readily found, the requires additional concharacteristics of the sysstructural

Solution

for

rod

in order

to reduce

a problem

to statical

determinacy

such

that

indeterminacy

the internal

tO0

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

245.

Force

Method

of

Analysis

forces three
fied:

can basic

readily concepts

be found. Common encountered

before

'to all of these are applied,

procedures, and

must

the same be satis-

1. Equilibrium
local and global

conditions
sense.
must boundaries

for
be

the
among
satisfied.

system
the

must
deformed
relations)

be assured
parts
for the

both
of a body
materials

in the
and
of the

2. Geonetric
at the

conpatibi[ity
relations

3.

Constitutive

(stress-strain

system

must

be complied

with.

The approach in one restoring a redundant

boundaries is satisfied.

Two

general

methods

of these reaction
This

for solving

is the force

methods such

consists of first that the compatibility

method

simpler

problems

of analysis,

removing condition

wil be presented.
since

and then at the

solution

is obtained directly for the unknown reaction forces. compatibility of displacements of adjoining members aries is maintained throughout the loading process, placements are obtained from equilibrium equations.
merit method of analysis.

Alternatively, and at the and solution for disThis is the displace-

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 2-43 Force (flexibility) method of elastic analysis a statically indeterminate axial y loaded bar. Deformations are greatly exaggerated.

for

It is important damental problem librium, compatibility, sequence in which

Fig. 2-42 Examples
and
statical

to reiterate consists they

Method

that'in of fulfil ing and conformity are applied

of

external internal

statical

of (a)
(b)

2-15.

Force

Analysis

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Note same Then that only the axial deformation/Xo, if the flexibility bottom
Ao =

any one of these methods, the three basic requirements: with constitutive relations. is immaterial.

the

funequiThe

is temporarily removed, making the system statically an arbitrary choice is made to remove the upper the system of two bar segments to deform, as shown a simplified structural system is referred to as the from the point of view of statics, it can, by itself, (However, from the point of view of strength, the be necessary and, thus, in the actual field situation,

determinate. Here R, permit ing in Fig. 2-43(c). Such prbnao, systen, since, carry the applied load. redundant reaction may cannot be removed.)
reaction
here. Therefore, of bar, as at point the deflection
(2-30)

indeterminancy, indeterminancy.

As an example of the force method of analysis, consider the linearly elastic axial y loaded bar system shown in Fig. 2-43. The initial y undeformed bars are shown in Fig. 2-43(a) with zig-zag lines as a reminder that they can be treated as springs. On applying force P at B, reactions R and R2 develop at the ends and the system deforms, as shown in Fig. 2-43(b). Since only one nontrivial equation of statics is available for determining the two reactions, this system is statically indeterminate to the first degree. Here the upward direction of the applied force P, as well as that assumed for R  and R2, coincides with the positive direction of the x axis. For this reason, these quantities wil be treated as positive. With this sign convention, if an applied force acts downward, it would be taken as ative. A calculated reaction with a negative sign signifies that it acts in the opposite direction from the assumed. Adherence to this sign tion is desirable, although in axial y loaded bar problems, it is not
since the directions of deflections and reactions can be usually seen

bar segment is stressed occurs at A, at the top of the lower elastic bar is f2,
f2P

the B.

This result, dition at A. In the unloaded caused by the these bars are

shown in Fig. 2-43(c), violates the geometric boundary order to comply, the deflection a i caused by R  acting bar ABC is found next; see Fig. 2-43(d). This deflection stretching of both bars. Therefore, if the flexibilities f and f2, Fig. 2-43(a), the deflection
A = (f + f2)R

conon is of
(2-31)

The

compatibility

of deformations

at A is then

achieved

by requiring

that
(2-32)

inspection. complex
sign convention

However, problems

discussed
becomes

for
method

computer in Chapter
necessary.

solutions', as well as for the more 13, a strict adherence to a selected

loaded bars, one of the

In applying

the force

to axial y

Ao+ A= 0

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

2-15.
R 2

Force

Method

of

Analysis

i03

By substituting
has

Eqs.

2-30

and
R

2-31
= ---P

into
f,_

Eq.
+ f2

2-32

and

solving

for R, one

(2-33)

R1N

x3P

1.75P

f,

The
also

rection

negative
holds

from
true

the

sign
for

assumed.

of the
A .

result

As

to be expected,

indicates

that

R t acts
according

in the

to Eq.

opposite

2-31,

this

di-

{P

-F
R 2

I
P

-1.75Pf

The algebraic

reactions becom6 known, the previously discussed procedures mining the internal forces and deflections apply. Inasmuch as member flexibilities are particularly useful solutions by the force method, this approach is also known bility tnethod of analysis.

complete sum

solution of this statically indeterminate of the solutions shown in Figs. 2-43(c)

problem is the and (d). After the

for deterin formulating

0.75P I
0 - 1,25P
Axial force

t---2.50Pf

Displacement
{e)

as the flexi-

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

text. This principle is based upon the premise that the resultant stress strain in a system due to several forces is the algebraic sum of their effects when separately applied. This assumption is true only if each effect linearly related to the force causing it. It is only approximately true whe the deflections 0r deformations due to one force cause an abnormal chan in the effect of another force. Fortunately, the magnitudes of deflections are relatively small in most engineering structures. In that regard, it important to note that the deformation shown in Figs. 2-43(b) to (d) greatly exaggerated. Moreover, since the deformations are very the undeformed, i.e., the initial, bat' lengths are ased in calculat#g
throaghout.

the principle

The algebraic

ofsuperposition,

sum of the two solutions,

and wil

be frequently

as before,

encountered

is an application

in this

of
doubling a displacement, say from A  to A2, also doubles the load. This is not so for a nonlinear system. Therefore, for linear systems experiencing small deformations, the sequence or number of loads is immaterial. The procedure just described is very general for linear systems and any number of axial loads, bar cross sections, dif erent material properties, as well as thermal effects on the length of a bar system can be included in the analysis. However, the force method is not favored in practice because a systemic selection of the redundants for large problems is difficult.

Fig.

2-45

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Three axial y
EXAMPLE

examples loaded
2-12

fol ow

elastic

bar

il ustrating systems.

applications

of the

force

method

to

ear systems
F

An

il ustration

is shown

of force-deformation

in Fig. 2-44.

For the linear

relationships

systems

for

linear

considered,

and

nonlin-

here

An elastic coefficients

bar

at both f and 2f

ends is loaded for each of the

as shown three bar

in Fig. segments

2-45. are

The shown

known

flexibility in the figure.

Determine
2F

the
for the

reactions
bar.

and

plot

the

axial

force

and

the

axial

displacement

dia-

grams

Solution
"Nonlineal
system

F 1

Fig. 2-44 Comparison force-displacement relationships between and nonlinear systems.

of linear

Remove the lower support to obtain the free-body and calculate A 0. Since the applied forces act convention adopted in Fig. 2-43(b), they carry caused by R2 on an unloaded system is calculated 32, the reaction R2 is determined. The remainder procedure as that described in Example 2-2.

diagram shown in Fig. 2-45(b) downward, because of the sign negative signs. The deflection next. Then, on solving Eq. 2of the solution fol ows the same

Ao =  f,P,
i

= -2fP

- f(2P

+ P)

= -5fP

104

Axial
and

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

2-15.

Force

Method

of

Analysis

105

A,
A a tensile

= (2f
-F A2

+ f + f)R2
= 0, In problems
Eq.

= 4fR2
= 1.25P

and
Since

A
A0 + A = 0,

= Rf

R

RL
AE

Since

R2 where

-ot(T)AE

Note
and
the

that the applied

areas,
reaction
are

forces
determined

sectional
The

flexibilities

together

at the top.

are supported
using

by a compressive
2-14.

with

the elastic

moduli

E for the materials,

The

the bar lengths

reaction

and

at the bottom

are given,
force

the cross-

_bottom
The
are

axial
tensile

third

force

displacement

forces

of the bar causes

stretch
ends of

diagram

is plot ed
the
the

satisfied

at both

at the top is zero.

remainder
bar.

a downward

in Fig.

2-45(d).
of the

deflection

In this manner,

the kinematic

bar

0.75P

of 1.25P

compr.essive

boundary

+ 1.75P

x 2f = 2.5Pf.

in the
that

EXAMPLE

2-14
of the three elastic bars caused by applied force and their elastic modulus shown P. The is E. in Fig. 2-47(a), cross-sectional determine area A of

conditions

such

each

For the planar system the forces in the bars

bar is the same,
Solution A free-body middle bar

EXAMPLE

2-13

An

elastic

bar

is held

at both

ends,

as shown

in Fig.

2-46.

If the

bar

temperature

increases
Solution

by T, what

axial

force

develops

in the bar? AE for the bar is constant.

diagram of the assumed primary system with the support from the removed by cutting it at point B is shown in Fig. 2-47(b). Then, by using statics, the forces in the bars are determined, and the deflection of pcfint D is calculated using the procedure il ustrated in Example 2-4. Since bar BD carries no force, deflection 0 at point B is the same as it is at point D. Recognizing
symmetry,

First, the upper support is removed and A0 is determined using Eq. 2-18. The raising of the temperature causes no axial force in the bar. Thus, by using Eq. 2-13, A  is calculated. By applying Eq. 2-32, the axial force in the bar, R, caused
by the rise in temperature is found.
Ao
Ro=O

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Therefore, F20 2 cos

F0

and

2F20
P et

cos

et = P

et(gT)L

Since

L4z

cos

et = L,

L4t

= L/cos

et

Fig.
F

2-47

F2

F F2 Fm Fm=0 F20

F21 L

{a)

(b)
D

Fig. 2.46

=0

rR 1

(e)

t06

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

2-16.

Introduction

to

the

Displacement

Method

t07

Hence,

per Eq.

2-9,

the stretch

of bar AD

in the primary
PL

system

is

// / / ,

(A,D)O
However, since Ao equals DD4 in Fig.

-- 2AE cos 2 a
2-47(c),

__

__

R R/?/A/ /
kaA

Ao cos

a = (AAO)O

and

Ao

PL

2AE

cos

3 c

where The
2-9

by the force F; see Figs. 2-47(d) and (e). However, the deflection increased by the stretch of the bar BD. The lat er quantity is calculated
again. On this basis,
FL FL

the negative same kind

sign signifies of relationship

that applies

the deflection to the upward

is downward. deflection

of point

of point using

D caused

B is Eq.

A  -- AE
By
2F2

+ 2AE cos 3ix

R2

applying
cos

a = P, on

Eq.

2-32,

simplification,

i.e.,

A0

+ A1 = 0, and

noting

from

statics

that

F +

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 2-48 Displacement (stif ness) method of analysis for a statically indeterminate axial y loaded bar.

P F = 2cos 3a + 1
2-16. Introduction to the

and

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION F, = P - 2cos 3a + lCS'-a (2-34) www.avs4you.com

Displacement Method analyzing statically indeterminate displacements at selected points the reactions and internal forces. method of analysis, consider in Fig. 2-48. The stif nesses, are indicated in the figure as causes reactions R and R2. considered positive when they act
In this il ustrative problem, it can be B causes compression in the upper bar BC. Therefore, if k and k2 are the respective respective internal forces are k A and reactions are shown on isolated free-bodies 2-48(c). These points are referred to as internal forces is known since the upper lower one is in tension. By writing an
body at node B, one has -k
and

seen that the displacement AB and tension in the lower stif nesses for the bars, k2 A. These internal forces at points A, B, and C in the node points. The sense of bar is in compression and equilibrium equation for the

A at bar the and Fig. the the free

Another well-organized procedure for problems is based on determining the and providing information for finding As an example of this displacement elastic axial y loaded bar system shown = AiEi/Li, Eq. 2-12, for the bar segments k and k2. An applied force P at point B forces and the displacement A at B are

A A -

k2 A -3- P
P

(2-35)
(2-36)

k

k2

The

equilibrium

equations
R = -k

for
A

the

flee-bodies
and R2

at i nodes
= -k2 A

A and

C are
(2-37)

in the positive
minate

there is only one such quantity and therefore the problem is said to one degree of kinematic indeterminacy, or one degree of fi'eedom. Thi s:
plex cases with the bars, giving
next section.

placement
is the

The main

to the

A, the principal
class of problems

objective

first

direction

degree.

of the x axis.

This

problem

is statically

indeter-

in this method

parameter
that

of analysis

of the problem.
in this

is to determine

In this em
More

the

Hence,

with
R

the
=

aid

of Eq.

2-36,
and R2 -k

only

several axial rise to several

loads and changes degrees of freedom,

is discussed

in the cross sections are considered in

section.

k P k + k2

k2 P + k2

(2-38)

negative
direction

signs
from

in Eq.
the

2-38
assumed.

indicate

that

the

reactions

act

in the

op-

t08

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Sec.

2-t7.

Displacement

Method

with

Several

Degrees

of Freedom

t09

Since

in

often

called

this the

solution stif ness/nethod.

bar

stif nesses

are

employed,

this

procedure

is

EXAMPLE

2-15

,k (A- A2)

bar is loaded as shown
segment

An
k 1

elastic

stepped

in Fig.
stif nesses

2-49.

Using
k and k2,

the

displacement
as well as their

method areas
Soldion

find the reactions. The bar A and A2, and E are given.

P2[ [
k 2 (A 2 --

According
respectively,

to Eql
are

2-12

the

stif nesses

k's

for

the

upper

and

lower

bar

segments

k = AE/a Therefore,
Fig, 2-49

and deflection
P]

k2 A at B due

= A2E/b
P3

per

Eq.

2-36,

the

to downward

force

P is
k3(A 3 -- A4)

k + k2
According previous to Eqs. expressions R 2-37, for Rt = -kA A, k and k2, P aA2/bA

AE/a

+ A2E/b

,/
By substituting the

1 +

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com either direction. Therefor e, this bar system

one obtains
y

andR2

--

k2 A.

LJ
P.
(b) (c)

and

R2

1 +

P bA/aA2

P4

Fig. with
freedom.

2-50 four

Axial y degrees

loaded of

bar

(2-3[

(a)

i.e.,

*'242.17

' Displacement

In this section the displacement method is extended bars to include several degrees of freedom (d.o.f.). most widely used approach for solving both linear and However, the discussion wil be limited to linearly already noted in the previous section, solution of nonlinear this method is beyond the scope of this text. The displacement method is perfectly general and analysis of statically determinate as well as indeterminate this in mind, consider a bar system consisting of three stif ness defined by their respective spring constants

of Freedom

Method

with

Several.
for This nonlinear elastic

Degrees
axial y method
is

in a geometrically compatible manner, as shown both the applied forces and the node displacements positive sense coinciding with the positive direction

An application

one

d.o.f.

per

of forces

node.:-'

at the nodes

causes

' '

has four degrees

the bar system

of freedom,
to displace

in Fig. 2-50(b). Here are shown with the of the x axis. Possible

displacernents
deflEtion

t problems. problems be used problems.

as shown

at the

at the nodes
ends,

one

give
has

a statically

rise to several

indeterminate

special

cases.

problem.

With

no
If,

can
segments ki's,

for

Fig. 2-50(a). Each one of these segments terminates at a node point,

24 This section is more advanced and can be omit ed.

however, only one node point is held and forces or displacements are applied at the other nodes, the problem is statically determinate. However, if a displacement is specified at a node, it is not possible to also specify an applied force and vice versa. With imposition of the applied forces and/or displacements, internal forces develop in the bar system. The magnitude and sense of these forces can be arrived at in the fol owing manner. With the adopted sign convention, the bar segment extension 25 between the ith and the (i + l)th

ofwhiare chcommon tothtewaodjobar inisegment ng Each nodri s. fortihsegment ebarthiente,trnal ensi folrce e(az--A/ )k/ +det isermined.
marked inthefigurefrom1to4,ispermit etoddisplace verticalily 2 Thicsanbeclarifiebynot d inthge f ect onabarsegment ofnode displacements taken one at a time.

nodes is Ai - A,+,. By multiplying

this stretch by the spring constant

11o

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

2-17.

Displacement

Method

with

Several

Degrees

of Freedom

1'il

Free-body applied
each
is

The problem
node.
obtained:

node

diagrams forces
Thus,

is resolved

for isolated are shown

beginning
- A2) - A2)

by writing
with

nodes in Fig.
node

equilibrium

showing 2-50(c).

these
fol owing

internal

as well

as

1, the

equation

set of equations
= = : :

 F. = 0 for

analysis
exarnp.

The

displacement

les fol ow. 2-16

of large

complex

method

problems

is very

with

extensively

the aid of computers.

used

in practice

Two

simple

in the

P, - k(A P2 + k(A P3 P4

- k2(A2 + k2(A2

A3) A3)

-- k3(A3 + k3(A3

-- A4) -- A4)

0 0 (2-40) 0 0

EXAMPLE
For the
cross
Solution

the elastic weightless node displacements

section of the bar

bar' held at both and the reactions

is constant throughout.

ends, using

as shown in Fig. the displacement

2-5 l, determine method. The

It is to customary

recast

these
-kl A2 + k2) A2

equations
-k2

into
A3

the fol owing

form
= P = P2

kl A - k A +(k,

-k2 A2

+ (k2 + k3) A3 -- k3 A4 = P3
-- k3 A 3 + k3 A 4 = P4

(2-41)

Here only A2 and A3 have to be found has two degrees of kinematic freedom. each segment of the bar. Applying Eqs.
-k

as A = A4 The stif ness 2-41 and setting

-k +2k -k A3 A3 A3
= = = = R -P -P R2

= 0. Therefore, the system coefficient k is the same for A  = A4 = 0, one obtains

a k

2k -k

In most problems, the applied forces Pi's Pi's occurring at nodes of zero displacement these equations can be applied tO a broader

ifying displacements instead of applied forces. node must have a known (often zero) displacement develop. As noted earlier, at any one node,

applied force or a displacement, simultaneously for the unknown quantities. In typical applications of the displacement
tions tomary A/s or reactions to recast Eq.
k -kl 0
0

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION but not both. These equations are solved www.avs4you.com In this problem, the force method would be simpler
In such cases, at least one where a reaction would one can specify either an
be anticipated, bottom one
distort
ment

are known, and the remaining are reactions. However, range of problems by spec-

A2 A2 A2

By solving

then from

the first
deflects

the

second

and

means is supported
since

and the last equations,

that,
as a rigid body

and

third

equations

in effect, the upper load is hung at the base. The middle segment
through a distance
one degree of static

R = R2 = P. This
of A2

simultaneously,

A2 = A3 = -P/k,
from the top and of the bar does
= A3.

result,

which

could

the not

Fig.

2-51

P/s are the unknowns, 2-41 in the fol owing

0
k2

method,
and

matrix

for form:

either the deflecclarity,

method

there

is only

indeterminacy.

to apply than the displace-

it is cusEXAMPLE 2-17
a k

-k k + k2 -k2
0

-k2 + k3
-k3

-k3

L4l

A3

L:l

(2-42)

(a) Consider the same and free at the bottom; reaction. For this case, 3P/k upwards.
Solution

loaded bar as in Example 2-16 supported only at the see Fig. 2-52. Determine the node displacements and R = 0. (b) Rework part (a) if the free end is displaced

top the

This equation shows how the system symmetric stif izess matrix is up from the member stif nesses. The pattern of this matrix repeats any number of node points. This formulation more clearly than the earlier case of single d.o.f. system shows why this approach is often referred as the stif lyess method. Excellent computer programs are available for solving these equations simultaneously?
26 E. L. Wilson, and the CAL/SAP CAL-86, Development Computer

(a) Here termined.

A = 0, and three nodal Therefore, this statically

displacements, determinate

A2, problem

A3, has

and three

A4, must degrees

be deof freea k

dom.

Applying

Eqs.

2-41,
-k

one
2k -k
A2 A2 A2

has
-k +2k -k A3 A3 A3
= = = = R -P -P 0

ment
1986.

of Civil

Engineering,

University

System,

of California,

Assisted Report

Learning of Structural No. UCB/SESM-86/05,

-k +k

A4 A4

Berkeley,

California,

=o

By

solving

the

last

three

equations

simultaneously,

A2

= 2P/k,

A3

= A4

Fig.

2-52

11:1

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

248.

Statically

Indeterminate

Nonlinear

Problems

113

-3P/k, checked
whereas
must

and then from the first equation, R = 2P. These results by the procedures discussed in Part A of this chapter.
the first
revised

can be easily

In calculating bars cut and

(b) In this case, a force R2 of unknown to cause the specified displacement

three equations
be to read

established

magnitude A4 = 3P/k.

for part

must be applied at the free end As before, A = 0. Therefore,

(a) apply, the fourth equation

system

-kA3

kA4

= R2

appropriate constitutive laws, including ment of supports, can be included in formulating bar behavior is linearly elastic, with the aid equation becomes
RL -AE

Any

maintained

these separated

in equilibrium

quantities, it is usually at B, and to determine

by the forces

convenient A's

thermal the of Eq.

at the cut.
last 2-9,

for

to visualize each part

the of the

effects and moveequation. If the the specialized

After substituting simultaneously,

the given value for 4 and solving 2 _= 0, 3 = P/k, and R = 0.

the four

applicable

equations
Since culating
able.

R2L2 -A2E2

(2-45)

no restfictions deflections
with

are

in Eq.

placed 2-44,

on numerous

the

constitutive nonlinear

relations problems

for

are

caltract-

2-18.
tive

Introduction
Problems

to Statically

Indeterminate
statically

Nonlinear

Problems similar manner. tinuous members with the described

internal statical indeterminacy can be solved in a It must be emphasized, however, that, except for conof linearly elastic material, superposition cannot be used procedure. Several examples using the just-descfibed

The procedures bar problems. determinacy,

material

for solution behavior.

discussed

By limiting the procedure

of linearly In this

in the preceding
elastic

three

symmetric bars in Fig. 2-47 can be analyzed regardless of the mechanical properties in each part of a two-part system. On the other hand, the bar in Fig. 2-45(a), having two degrees of kinematic indeterminacy and three distinctly dif erently stressed segments, is not susceptible to this kind of
analysis.

approach,

the problems to one degree can be extended to include

the stepped bar

indeterminate

sections

are very
axial y

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

in Fig. 2-53 or
A stepped bar is held upper part of the bar A2. (a) If the material

of kinematic incases of inelastic

loaded

effec-

procedure,
EXAMPLE

as well
248

as some

other

variations,

fol ow.

at both ends at immovable has a cross-sectional area of the bar is elastic with
by the

supports; see Fig. A; the area of the an elastic modulus

2-54(a). The lower part is E, what are

P at the point

of discontinuity

the reactions

R and

In this extended approach, the forces remain the unknowns and related at the juncture of the two systems by a compatibility condition. In su6h problems, a global eqtdlibrit m equation can always be writ en for a system. For example, for the bar in Fig. 2-53, such an equation is

= 1200 m m2, a = 750 mm, b = 500 mm, and the material is linearly elasticperfectly plastic, as shown in Fig. 2-54(d), determine the displacement A  of the step as a function of the applied force P. Let E = 200 GPa. (c) Assuming that at the instant of impending yield in the whole bar, the applied force P is removed,
determine the residual force in the bar and the residual deflection at the bar step.

of the section?

R2 caused

Use

Eqs.

application

2-43

and 2-45.

of an axial

(b) If A = 600 mm 2, A2

force

(d) Using a stress-strain of the two bar parts

Solution

diagram

for

the

during

application

material, show the strain history and removal of force P.

for

each

R+ R2+ P = 0)
Then, ends
bar

(2-43)

deflections
BC

to assure A and

at B are determined

cotnpatibility
and

at the juncture the deflection

that

C are held,

using

two

of bar AB

dif erent

of the two
paths.

bar segments,
Therefore

the that for

(a) In this approach, shown in Figs. 2-54(b)

to a tensile force R

it is convenient and (c). The

and elongates

to visualize upper part

an amount

the bar is subjected

A. The

to be divided throughout
lower part

in two, as its length

contracts an

at B is A4B

and

is ABc;

it fol ows

amount A2 under be equal. Therefore, the fol owing:

From statics:

the

action using

of a compressive Eqs. 2-43 and

2-44

force R2. These or its equivalent,

deflections Eq. 2-45,

must one has

Fig.'2-53
material.

A bar

of nonlinear

R

R2

P

114

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

2-t8.

Statically

Indeterminate

Nonlinear

Problems

115

R

. R

R = 1 + 750 x 1200/(500
Hence, the normal stresses are

P

x 600)
and

P

and
and

R2
-P/1600

3P

cr = R/A

= P/2400 lower part

or2 -- R2/A2

As [ cr2 I > crY, the load

A 2 R2

At this
tionship

400

MPa

the magnitude

load,

the

at impending
P,

between

of yp = cryp/E
cr2 and

of the

= 2 x 10 -3. Therefore,
= 640

bar just

yield

is found
reaches

by setting
yield,

cr2 = -400

from

the previous

the

strain

attains

MPa.

rela-

gX

10 a

Pyp
and

= 1600

tryp

x 103 N = 640 kN = 1 mm

x// / 4

'/ /x

A 2 = A = ypb
quantities locate point

= 2 x 10 -3 x 500
2-54(e).

(a)

(b)

(d)

Material

properties

P1
Oyp
720

On increasing P above 640 kN, the lower part of the bar continues to yield, carrying a compressive force R2 = CrypA2 = 480 kN. At the point of impending yield for the whole bar, the upper part just reaches yield. This occurs when R = CrypAl = 240 kN and the strain in the upper part just reaches gyp = CrypiE.
Therefore,

These

A in Fig.

640

A ,

:"'"" Contained
--lastic range

plast floicw
64 mm
(f) Strain
upper

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION A, , 1 . 3 3 00.75 DLI 

P = R + R2
0.50

720

kN

X 103

www.avs4you.com
and
2 ' X 10 a

/x = eypa
P = 720

= 2 x 10 -3 X 750
is the

= 1.5 Inm
or limit

These

is uncontained

quantities
the

and

locate

point

B in Fig.
kN

2-54(e).

ultimate

Beyond
load,
of

this
system.

load

point,

of the
In

the plastic
rod.

flow
no
plastic

Note
information

simplicity
on the

of calculating
deflection characteristics

the

limit

which,
the

however,
general,

provides

0.375

1.5
(e)

limit
path
bar

analysis
elastic-plastic

is simpler
load-deflection

than

'elastic

analysis,
relationship.

which
when 2-54(e),
kN.

in turn
the the
On

is simpler

than

tracing
reaches plastic.
the bar

in

(g)

Strain
lower

path
bar

in

the

Fig.

2-54

**(c) According to the solution 720 kN and deflects 1.5 mm,

At this instant, R = 240 kN

point
and

in part (b), B in Fig.

R2 = 480

applied whole
removing

force P just bar becomes

this force,

From

compatibility: A = A 2 or
gl a

R2b A2E

AlE

By solving

these

two

equations
P

simultaneously,

rebounds be treated per the actions The the bar force.

elastically (see Section 2-6). In the with an opposite sign from that of solution found for part (b) based on caused by the removal of the force P residual force Rr in the bar is equal parts less the reduction in these forces Hence, for the upper part of the bar,

elastic equations, such a force must the initial y applied force. Therefore, Eqs. 2-39, the upper and lower reare, respectively, - P/4 and - 3P/4. to the initial force in either one of caused by the removal of the applied

R = 1 + aA2/bA
yielding the same result as found
of data (b) By direct substitution into

and - R2 - 1 + bA1/aA2
in Example
Eqs. 2-39,

P

(2-39)

Re

= R

P/4

= 240

720/4

= 60 kN

2-15.

Lik.ewise,

for the lower

Re = R2

part
-

of the bar,
3P/4 = 480 3 x 720/4 = 60 kN

116

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

2.18.

Statically

Indeterminate

Nonlinear

Problems

117

Both
bar

results
The residual
discontinuity.

are the same,

deflection

as they

should

be, as no applied

force

remains
using

at the
either

Solution

part of the bar. For example,

tensile residual
rebound shown in this figure

at the bar discontinuity

force, based on Eq. 2-9, it contracts aPt/(4AE) deflection is 1.5 - 1.125 = 0.375 mm, as shown
by the dashed

since the upper

part loses P/4 = 180 kN of the

= 1.125 mm. in Fig. 2-49(e).
to OA.

can be determined

line BD is parallel

Hence, the The elastic

This problem resistahce to However, the see Fig. 2-55(c). of equilibrium

*(d) The strain histories for the two parts of the bar are given in Figs. 2-54(f) and (g). As shown in part (b), the lower segment begins to yield first. At that instant, /x = 1 mm and the strain in the lower bar is A/b = 2 x 10 -3, whereas in the
the figures.

problem.

upper bar it is /x /a = 1.33 x 10 -3. These results

The ins{ant when the upper

mm. Therefore, the strains in both parts of the bar have increased by a factor of 1.5 and are so shown in the figures by their respective point.s B. No increase in the stress can occur in the lower bar during this time, as it is in a state of pure

bar begins

are identified
to yield

occurs

by points

at /x = 1.5

A in

of deformations. However, since the requirements deformations involve displacements, a connecting erty of materials must be added. Let subscripts a and s on P, e, and cr identify aluminum and steel, respectively. Then, noting that

This

is internally statically indeterminate since the manner the force P is distributed between the two materials total axial force at an arbitrary section can easily be For an internal statically indeterminate problem, the remain valid, but an additional condition is necessary

auxiliary

condition

comes

from

the requirements

of statics condition

involve based

of compatibility
forces on the

in which is unknown. determined; requirements to solve

the

the
and propfor

by a force placement
elastic
From

plastic

deflection /x = 0.375 mm. Hence, the corresponding residual strains A/a and /x /b are, respectively, 0.50 x 10 -3 and 0.75 x 10 -3 m/m. The corresponding points are identified by points D in Figs. 2-54(f) and (g).
EXAMPLE 2-19

deformation.

When the applied

load is completely

removed,

the residual

response

developed in steel and aluminum or the strain of the two materials

of both materials, one

has

and that at every section, is the same, and tentatively

the fol owing:

these quantities the applied force

as being is supported

the disassuming

equilibrium: Pa + Ps = PorP2

From

compatibility: Aa = As or a ' Es

A 30-in long atuninum rod is enclosed and (b). The two materials are bonded

the two materials can be idealized as shown, end deflection wil occur for P = 80 kips

sectional

areas of steel

within a steel-alloy tube; see Figs. 2-55(a) NON-ACTIVATED VERSION together. If the stress-strain diagrams for www.avs4you.com As and of aluminum A are the same and equal to 0.5 in 2.
respectively, in Fig. 2-55(d), and for P2 = 125 kips? The what crossFrom material properties:

and

es

crdEs

o ksi

By
Steel

A s
20C

From
psi.

noting

the diagram

that

cr = P/A

the elastic

and

moduli

crs=

are Es = 30 x 10 a psi and E = 10 x 10 a

Ors Pa Ps

PdAs,

one

can

solve

the

three

equations.

Thus,

(b)

150

i
/
1.67 4 5 6.67
(d)

era

Hence,
=20k,

Ps = [AEd(AE)]P
andP = 60k.

= 3P,

and

P + 3Pa

= P = 80 k; therefore,

P

dx
Fig. 2-55
(a) (c)

100
10

By

applying
A

Eq.
-

2-9

to either

material,
-

the

tip deflection
=

for
0.120

80 kips
in

wil

be

Aluminum

PsL AsEs to a strain

elastically, of this

PaL AaEa
which solution.

20 0.5

x 103 x 30 x 10 x 106

This

materials respond made at the beginning

corresponds

of 0.120/30

tX10

materials, by direct proportion, At P = 100 kips, the stress stress-strain diagram,

since

for the linearly

elastic

response,

satisfies In fact,

= 4 x 10 -3 in/in.

the applied in aluminum no higher

the strain

the material-property as may be seen

In this
from

force

can reach
P can

stress

reaches can

be as large as 100 kips. 50 ksi. According to the be resisted by this material,

5 x 10 -3 in/in

assumption Fig. 2-55(d),

range,

both

for both

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

248.

Statically

Indeterminate

Nonlinear

Problems

119

the

although
Therefore

aluminum

the

strains
rod

can

may

be counted

continue

upon

to increase.
must

to resist

Therefore,
only

Pa

= Aao'yp

beyond

= 0.5

P = 100 kips,
X 50

Solution

25 kips.

The

crs=
in/in.

100/0.5
Therefore,

for

remainder

= 200 ksi. At this

the tip deflection

P2 = 125 kips,

of the

100 kips

applied

toad

stress

level,
x 10 -3

be carried

must

be carried

e = 200/(30

by the

x 103) = 6.67
in
in aluminum,

steel

by the

tube:

steel

Hence,

tube.

x 10 -3

If the applied be developed loading, the

deformation
From statics:

force in the steel Ac, of

P is sufficiently large to close the small gap, a force P wil steel rod and a force Pc, in the copper tube. Moreover, upon rod wil compress axial y A, which is as much as the axial
the copper tube plus the initial gap. Hence,

A = esL
Note rod flow.

= 6.67 to the stress

to determine/x

x 30 = 0.200
from the

unique
10 -3

that can
in/in;

strain

it is not

carry.

Thus,

However, the strains

see Fig.

corresponds

possible

in this case, in both materials

2-55(d).

the

of 50 ksi,

elastic are the

which

strain

steel same,

tube i.e.,

is all that

contains the plastic es = a = 6.67 x

the two a permanent

the

aluminum

since

no
From compatibility:

Ps

Pcu

25,000

lb

would terials

If the

minum bonded
axial

set (stretch)

rebound broken,

applied

deformations

rod. This together.

of (6.67

elastically. the steel

force

P2 = 125 kips
Thus, tube would

incompatibility Instead,
in

- 5) x 10 -3 = 1.67
both materials. In

if one imagines the bond between return to its initial shape. But

were

removed,

both

materials

in the

ma-

rod
By applying Eq. 2-9, A = PL/AE,
15.0025

As

Ac.

0.0025

substituting,
+ 15

and
0.0025

simplifying,

of strain cannot develop residual stresses develop,

this case,

x 10 -3 in/in

would

the

which

if the

aluminum

two maintain

occur

materials
rod

in the aluthe
remains

are same

slightly solution

compressed of this

kind

and the steel tube is slightly stretched. of problem is il ustrated in the next

EXAMPLE

2-20

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Ps1.176Pc,
Solving the two equations simultaneously,

The procedure example.

for the

2 x 30 x 106Ps

- 3 x 17 x 106Pc"
= 10,000 lb

= 0.0025

A steel

rod

with

a cross-sectional

area is 15.0000

of 2 in 2 and

a length If an axial

of 15.0025

in is loosely P = 25 kips

Pcu

6900

lb

and

Ps cross-sectional

18,100

lb areas gives

inserted

sectional

into

area

a copper

of 3 in 2 and

tube,

as shown

in Fig.

in long.

2-56.

The

copper

force

tube

has a cross-

is

and

dividing

these

forces

by the

respective

applied through a rigid cap, sume that the elastic moduli

= 17 x 10 6 psi, respectively.
P=25k

what stresses wil develop in the two materials? Asof steel and copper are Es = 30 x 10 6 psi and Ecu

crcu

= 6900/3
stresses were
note

= 2300
too
Ls

psi
were small

and

ors =
the
considered

18,100/2
limit above
are

= 9050
of its solution
small,

psi
or if

If either of these the applied force

be valid. Also

above the proportional to close the gap,

the deformations

material

would
it is suffi-

not

that

since

ciently
0.0025"

accurate Solution

to use

= Lc,.

Alternative

Steel

rod

The force developing

F necessary this force,

A s = 2 in 2
Lcu =

force.
materials.

The

remaining

to close the gap may the rod acts as a "spring" force P' causes equal

found first, using Eq. 2-9. In and resists a part of the applied deflections A and A, in the two

be

Fig. 2-56

Copper tube
= 3 in 2

F ..

AAsEs
Ls

0.0025

x 2 x 30
15.0025

106
F=

10,000 25 -

lb 10

= =

10 kips 15 kips

P'

=P-

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

2-t8.

Statically

Indeterminate

Nonlinear

Problems

Then
From

Pu is the force

statics:

if P's is the force

carried

resisted

by the copper

by the steel
tube,

rod,

in addition

to the force

F, and

tightened. Find the stress in the tube if the temperature of the assembly is raised from60 Fto 160F. LetE = 17 x 106 psi, Es = 30 x 106 psi, a = 9.1 x
10 -6 p.er F, and a = 6.5 x 10 -6 per F.
Solution

p;
From compatibility:
cu

+p'

cu

= P'

15

or

P;Ls AsEs

Ac,E

If the copper tube and the steel bolts were free to expand, the axial thermal elongations shown in Fig. 257(b) would take place. However, since the axial deformation of the tube must be the same as that of the bolts, the copper tube wil be pushed back and the bolts wil be pulled out so that the net deformations wil be the same. Moreover, as can be established by considering a free body of

0025x 106 P' s = 3 x 1715 x 106 p, . . 2 x 15.30

By solving the two appropriate 6.9 kips and P's = 8.1 kips,
determined as fol ows:

P' = 20 17 Ps ,
tha t Pu =

presslye
are
From

th assembly
equal.

force

above

Hence,

P in the copper

some

arbitrary

tube and the tensile

section

such

as A-A

force

in Fig.

P in the steel bolts

2-57(a),

the com-

statics:

If (cryp)s = 40 ksi and (cryp)c = 10 ksi, the limit lead for this assembly
Pull = (Cryp)sAs
both
parts

equations simultaneously, it is found or Ps = P} + F = 18.1 kips.

Pu

Ps

can be

From

compatibility:

+'(f yp)cuAcu
yield,

At the ultimate
initial lengths

lo&d,
of the

materials

is of no consequence.

EXAMPLE

2-21

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com a(gT)Lu AuEu = as(gT)L

therefore, the small discrepancy in the
This kinematic relation, on the basis of Fig. 2-57(b)
and 2-9, becomes

= 110 kips

with
PsLs

the

aid

of Eqs.

2-18

PuLcu

A copper

between two very bolts are symmetrically 27 Invar this reason

tube 12-in long and having

rigid

caps made of Invar27; see Fig. 2-57(a). Four -in steel arranged parallel to the axis of the tube and are lightly has an a  0 and for and watch springs.

a cross-sectional

area of 3 in 2 is placed

or, since
9.1 x

L
10 -6

= L, T = 100 and 0.442

X 100 Pcu

in 2 is the cross
106

section

of one

bolt,

is a steel alloy which at ordinary temperatures is used in the best grades of surveyor's tapes
Elastic deformations

3 x = 6.5

17 X

10 -6

100

Ps

4 x

0.442

30

10 a

Thermal

d

By solving the two equations simultaneously, P = 6750 lb. Therefore, in the copper tube is crc = 6750/3 = 2250 psi. The kinematic expression just used may also be set up on the fol owing statement: the dif erential expansion of the two materials
Final

the

stress

change
that

in temperature
place

is accommodated
materials.

by or is equal

to the elastic

basis of the due to the deformations

position

take

in the

two

EXAMPLE

2-22

A steel

washers

bolt

Fig.

2-57

(a)

see Fig.

2-58(a).

of total

having

If the bolt

thickness,

a cross-sectional

in this

L, each

assembly

having

area

A = 1 in 2 is used

the cross-sectional
is tightened

to grip

initial y

area A2 = 9 in2;
so that its stress

two

steel

1:22

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

2-t8.

Statically

Indeterminate

Nonlinear

Problems

123

By solving
ml

the two equations

X P

simultaneously,
P

1 + A2/A

1 +

= 0.1P

1500

lb.

= 9A 1

Section

a-a

t t--tft
h
h

tt
hh+x (c)

tit
Y

stress in the bolt after the application of the force P becomes 21,500 psi. This remarkable result indicates that most of the applied force is carried by decreasing
the initial compressive force on the assembled washers The solution is not valid if one of the materials ceases if the applied force is such that the initial procompression
is destroyed.

Therefore,

the increase

of the stress

in the bolt

is X/A

= 1500 psi,

and the

since Y = 0.9P. to behave elastically of the assembled

are found in many

parts
prac-

or

(a)

(b)

Fig.

2-58

tical applications. A hot rivet used in the assembly of plates, upon cooling, develops within it enormous tensile stresses. Thoroughly tightened bolts, as in a head of an automobile engine or in a flange of a pressure vessel, have high initial P = 15 kips is
tensile
occurs

Situations

approximating

the above

idealized

problem

is 20 ksi, what
applied
Solution

wil
assembly?

be the final

stress

in this bolt

after

a force

to the

crucial y

stresses;

in the

important

so do the steel
tensile

initial

that

on applying
stresses.

tendons

the working

in a prostressed

loads,

only

concrete

a small

beam.

increae

It is

A free-body 58(b), where

force

force

in the washers.

corresponding It is the initial

the tensile force in the bolt,'and Y is the the washers due to P. As a result of these remain in contact, the bolt elongates the elastically. Hence, the final conditions are
From statics:

P is applied

is shown

From

to the initial conditions of the assembly tensile force in the bolt, and Ic is the initial
statics,

in Fig.

It = Io A free-body

is in Fig. 2NON-ACTIVATED VERSION compressive plastic range of material behavior and plot 2-58(c), where X designates the increase in www.avs4you.com
EXAMPLE 2-23

of the assembly

after

the

Extend
havior

the solution
the

of Example

2-14

for the frame

same.

decrease in the compressive force on forces, X and Y, if the adjacent parts same amount as the washers expand as fol ows:

cross-sectional

area

A of each
yielding

bar

is the

a force-displacement
Assume

shown

in Fig.
ideal

2-59(a)

elastic-plastic

diagram.

into

The

the
be-

with

material

at crvp.

Ovp A
B

P +
or since Ic = I,

(I-

Y)

(I,

+X)

A '

I +

2 cosa

F2

F,

F2
I + 2 cos 3 a

X+Y=P

x,
o

Elastic
range

From

compatibility:
c

Abolt
By applying Eq. 2-9,

 Awasher

s
c'
P P

AlE
COS 20

O,p L

(b)

(c)

XL

YL

A2

(a)

A

- A2E

Fig.

2-59

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Sec.

2-19.

Dif erential

Equation

Approach

for

Deflections

't25

Solution

,.282-19.
equilibrium equation for forces
F

Alternative
Deflections

Dif erential

Equation

Approach

for

The
is

atjoint
+ 2F2cosat

C, Fig.

2-59(c),
= P

recognizing

symmetry,

bars

The

AC'

compatibility
and

DC'

with

equation

that

of bar

at joint

BC'

C, Fig.
is

2-59(a),
at

relating

the elongations

in

to reformulate for linearly in general,

by solving

In Section

2-7, the axial

a first-order
elastic du/dx

this problem as a second-order equation. materials fol ows from two observations. =  = cr?E = P/AE, one has

dif erential

deflection

u of a bar was in essence

ex = du/dx,

Eq. 2-6. It is instructive

Such

determined

an equation First, since,

A 2 =

A

COS

p = AEx x
using Eq. 2-9 and the es-

(2-46)

ever,

In both of these equations, these equations hold

it is assumed true whether

that the deformations are small. the bar material behaves elastically

plastically.

tablished

By noting

compatibility

that
F2[L/cos

the inclined

equation,

bars
FL --cosat
AE

are L/(cos

ct) long,

The second finitesimal

a typical
with
SinceFx

at]
AE

or

F2

= Fcos

2at

a positive

element

relation element
= 0ordP

sense

such as that in Fig. 2-60, where

according
+pdx

is based on the equilibrium of an axial y loaded bar.

For

requirements this purpose,

to the previously
= 0, and

adopted

all forces

sign convention.

are shovn

for an inconsider

By substituting simplifying

leads-to

the last expression the same results

F = 1 + 2c0s 3at.
It is seen from this solution that

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION dx P and F2 1 + 2c0s P 3at www.avs4you.com This equation states that the rate of change
cos 2 at (2-34)
the maximum force occurs in the vertical bar.

into

the equilibrium as found in Example

equation 2-14:

at joint

C, and

n
with

(2-47)

F, = crypA into the left side of Eq. 2-34, the force

the limit of elastic behavior is obtained. E is identified by point A in Fig. 2-59(c). This value

At the impending

yield

Fl = crypA,

and,

per Eq. 2.9, A  = crypL/E.

of P occurring

P = crypA(1

By substituting

force

P is equal
AE

to the

negative

of the

applied

x of the internal axial force p. On this 'basis,

+ 2 cos 3 a) at
at A  = CrypL/

assuming

constant,

By increasing force P above the first yield remains constant, and the equation of statics force F2 until the stress in the inclined bars

CryvA.

yielding, condition cedure

At the impending

when the the concept

the joint C equilibrium equation corresponds to the plastic litnit of finding this load is rather simple,
limit load of the is reached. collapse In Chapter mechanism.

yield

in the inclined

in the vertical bar, force F = crvpA at joint C is sufficient for determining reaches Cryp. This occurs when F2 =

xx
2a This
panying

= AE xx
is optional; can

or
after

AE dx 2 Section
Px
unit

p
the

(2-48)
accom-

gives P = CrypA(1 q- 2 cos ct). This load for the system. Note that the proas the system is statically determinate
13, such a limit load is associated with

bars,

and the vertical

bar already

section
examples.

be studied

2-7 before
lb per
length

At the impending yield in the inclined bars, per Eq. 2-9, A2 = (CrypiE)[L/cos or] and A  = A2/cos ct = CrypL/(E cos 2 cO. This value of A  locates the abscissa for point B in Fig. 2-59(c). Beyond this point, all bars continue to yield without bound
based on ideal plasticity.

P+dP

-dx

element
bar.

Fig.

2-60

of

Infinitesimal
an

axial y

loaded

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in Bars

Problems

Itisimport tonot anttheat thtehree basi concept c ofengi s neeri me-ng

chanics of solids are included in deriving this governing dif erential equa-

The constants of integration C and C2 can be found by noting that the deflection t is zero at both ends, i.e., u(0) = 0 and u(L) = 0. Hence, from the last equation,
AEu(0) = 0 and C2 = 0

tion.
and

is defined
boundary elastic
terminate

that

The

of kinematics

requirements

conditions bar problem.

and

by Eq.

2-3.

through

of statics

statically

constitutes Equation

A solution

the

are satisfied
use

indeterminate

2-48

a solution is equally

of Eq.

of Eq.

2-48

2-6.

by making

problems.

of any given applicable

subject

The

constitutive

use

of Eq.

to the prescribed
for

relation

2-47,

AEu(L)
Since u'(x) = du/dx,

= poL2/2
from
R2

+ CL
Eq.
= P(O)

= 0

and

C = - poL/2

However

axial y loaded to statically deease

2-46,
= AE u'(O) = -poL/2

of

solution

discontinuous, obtaining conditions procedure procedure singularity

However lems

px/AE

several alternatives are possible. solutions for each segment of a bar at the junctures? This is related to discussed in Section 2-7, and to the considered in Sections 2-16 and 2-17. function. s, discussed in Section 5-16,
direct use of Eq. 2-48 for bars where

should

be a continuous

function.

One of them consists of and enforcing continuity the statically determinate statically indeterminate For concentrated forces, can be used to advantage.
several axial loads are

When

the

function

is
The
Similarly,

negative

sign
R

shows
= P(L) that

that

this
= AE

force
u'(L) forces

is generated
= poL/2 are shared

by compressive
= poL/2 equally by the

stresses.

These
ports.

results

indicate

the applied

two

sup-

applied and/or the procedures

into
in practical
tinuous
x

statically

cross sections change becomes cumbersome. Therefore discussed before, including the scheme for dividing probdeterminate and indeterminate ones, are more useful

The example
function.

applications.

dif erent conditions.

Similarly,

(b) The general

constants These

solution

of integration must are P(O) -- 0 and u(L)

for the problem

found

be determined -- O; hence,

in (a) remains
AE

from

applicable.
u'(O) the

two boundary = 0 and C -- O.

However,

that fol ows

il ustrates

EXAMPLE
R3

2-24

= poL2/2 + C2 = 0 NON-ACTIVATED AEu(L) VERSION www.avs4you.com

Therefore,

the procedure

when

px is a con-

and

C2 = -poL2/2

in a centrifuge such that an approximately develops in the bar, as shown in Fig.

(b) If the

(a) Consider

a bar

of uniform

cross

section

placements
Solution

same

u(x)

bar

be along

is supported

the bar?

only

uniformly distributed axial 2-61(a). Determine the reactions

at one end, Fig. 2-61(b),

held

between

two

rigid

supports

what

force po N/m at the ends.

wil the

spun

AEu

PO (L 2_ 2

x 2)

dis-

As

is to be

expected,

R3

=AEu'(L)

= poL

Po\

(a) Using

Eq.

2-48,

and

noting

Eq.
d eu
du

2-46,

on integrating

twice:

AE x2 = -(-Po)
AEu -

= po
+ Cix + C2

Problems
Section 2-4

and

12 mm

in diameter,

what

axial

stress

is caused

by

the
= 75

applied
GPa.

force?

Assume

elastic

behavior

and

let E

AE xx = pox + C = P
pox 2
2

(a)

(b)

Fig.

2-61

element at the B in Fig. 2-48(c)

nuity

29 This

to be equal,

requires

the

discontinuity where

and that the axial

displacements

of the

be in equilibrium. at a discontinuity

forces

abutting
the

acting

(See, force

example, P may also

on an isolated
for

bar

segments

at a

2-t. A standard steel specimen of in diameter is elongated 0.0087 in in an 8-in gage length when it was subjected to a tensile force of 6250 lb. If the specimen was known to be in the elastic range, what is the elastic
modulus of the steel?

Section

2-7

2-3.

the element be zero.)

infinitesimal

must for an aluminum m/m. If the rod rod due to an is 400 mm long

A steel
transmit

rod

a tensile

10 m long

force

used

of 5 kN

in a control

without

mechanism rod?

stretching

2-2. The axial applied force

strain is 10 -3

more than 150 MPa.

3 mm, nor exceeding an allowable (a) What is the diameter of the

stress Give

of

Axial the answer to the nearest mil imeter.

Strains E =

and 210

Deformations GPa.

in

Bars

Problems

Does strength (b) Find the

or stif ness spring constant

of the rod control for the rod.

the

design?

 1800 
rum

2-4. Revise the data in Example 2-2 to read as fol ows: P = 10 kips, P3 = 100 kips, and P4 = 30 kips, and the bar segments AB, BC, and CD are, respectively, 4-, 2-. and 3-ft long. Then find (a) the force P2 necessary for equilibrium and (b) the total elongation of
rod AD. The cross-sectional area of the rod from A to
60"

2400

100"

Bis
ment

1 in 2, from
diagram

B to C is 4 in 2, and

from

C to D is 2

Fig.
Pinned

P245

in 2. Let
2-$.
able 2-6.
cular

E = 30 x 103 ksi.
along the bar.

(c) Plot
constant
2-2. L, Z2,
cross

the axial
for
and
section

displacebar of varicirFig. P2-9

joint

Find
cross Assume
member

the
section

axial
that
of

spring
in Example segments
variable

the
L3

vertical placements
Fig. P2-'11

2-'16.
the

of the
in Problem

tionless shown,

1-13 are, respectively, the axial force, ment diagrams

600,

500, length

the axial strain, along the bar

and and

400 mm long. Plot the axial displaceE = 200 GPa.

drum what = 200 GN/m 2-t2. Determine

weighing 500 kg is placed in the position wil be the elongation of rod AB? Let 2. the shortening of steel tubular
The cross-sectional area

bars, BD as shown
stress

A planar

displacements are negligibly

are

and EG, and three rods, in the figure. On application

in all rods is 15 ksi.

mechanical

small, small).

the.horizontal

dis-

system

consists
AB,
rod

Each

CF, and EH, of force P at G

is 20 in. long.

of two rigid

2-7.
lem

Find
2-6.

the

axial

spring

constant

for

the

bar

in Prob-

2-8. consists
gether applied

A solid bar 50 mm in diameter of a steel and an aluminum

as

and 2000 mm part fastened

long to-

240. In a California oil field, a very pipe got stuck in hard clay (see figure). essary to determine at what depth this engineer on the job ordered the pipe
large upward tensile force. As a result

long

-aluminum Determine system the bar.

in the figure. When axial force P is system, a strain gage attached to the indicates an axial strain of 873 IJ.m/m. (a) the magnitude of applied force P. (b) If the behaves elastically, find the total elongation of Let Es, = 210 GPa, and E^ = 70 GPa.

to

shown the

tion, the the pipe Approximately

pipe came up elastically 2 ft. At the same time, elongated 0.0014 in in an 8-in gage length. where was the pipe stuck? Assume that

the

cross-sectional

that the media tic deformation

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

to
of this

steel It was occurred. subjected

spreader
nec-

C and

D.

bar AB due to application

E = 200 GPa.

of tensile
of the

tube

forces

is 100

at

mm 2. Let

(a) Determine the vertical deflection E, and G caused by the application lb. (Since vertical displacements zontal displacements are negligibly
the

ating the vertical

deflected

shape

displacements.

for

the

system,

of points B, D, of force P = 300 are small, the horismall.) (b) Show

Let E = 30 x 103 ksi.

greatly

exagger-

area

of the

pipe

was

constant

and

20"
20"
in Problem

C
/

surrounding of the

pipe

the pipe hindered the elasvery lit le in a static test.

Fig.
derrick

P2-'12

'2-13.
1-43 wire.

Determine

the

elongation

in rod

AB

if it is made of 0.125-in-diameter Let E = 10 x 103 ksi.

aluminum-alloy

- 20" I
2-]7. Jr

F P=300Ibr G
Fig. P246

'2-'14. Determine eter high-strength

lem 1-44. Let E =

the elongation steel rod CD

200 GPa.

in the

for

the

20-mm-diamframe in Prob-

Fig.

P2-8
Pipe Clay 

2-'15. hangers
ers
whose Fig. P2-10
constructed as shown in the

A rigid machine AE and BF,

are made
elastic

part AD as shown
cold-worked
E =

is suspended in the figure.

Monel
180 GPa.

by double The hangAlloy

This

of
modulus

(Ni-Cu)
material

2-9. Two wires are connected in the figure. The wire on the wire psi.
how

= 0.10

on the right (a) If a weight

much wil

in - and E = 30 x 106 psi. The

has
it deflect due to the

to a rigid bar, left is of steel,

A = 0.20 in 2 and E = 10 x 106 W = 2000 lb is applied as shown,

stretch in the wires?

aluminum-alloy

as shown having A
2-1t. A wall

yields

bracket

is

(b)

bar

Where

would

remain

should

the

horizontal?

weight

be located

such

that

the

figure.
Steel ber rod

All
AB

joints

may
a cross-sectional beam.

be
If

considered
area a 1000-mm

pin-connected.
of 5 mm diameter 2. Memfric-

BC

has is a rigid

hanger pair BF. Determine the deflection that would occur at D by applying a downward force of 10 kN at C. Check hanger stresses to assure that an elastic solution is applicable. Sketch deflected member AD, greatly exaggerating the vertical displacements (since

area

is 50 mm 2 for

at approximately

hanger

600

pair

MPa.

AE

The

and

cross-sectional

b weighJag ].12 lb/It, the free end to elongate  = ]0 x ]0 gsi.

2-]8. Wat wil be te

in xampie

2-3,

what 0.250

the rod

sou]d in under

is a ] in  umium
its length its ow
free

be weight?
of the

100 mm 2 for

deQecdoa

of the

end

rod in xamgJe 2-3 , instead of ooke's law, stress-straJ relatiosig is  = g", were n is a her dependent on the progenies of the material?
2-]9. A rod of two derent cross-sectional areas

made

of soft

cogget

and

is subjected

to a tensile

load

t30

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars
20 rnm
I1 i1

Problems
change in the length of the rod due to the application of force P. Assume that the support provided for the rod by the surrounding material varies linearly as shown. Express the answer in terms of P, A, a, and E, where E is the elastic modulus of the rod. 2-26. For the same frame as in Example 2-4, Fig. 2-24, find the horizontal and vertical deflections at

A = 1 in 2 /e'

A = in 2 '

25

mm

Fig.

P249

600
150 rn

mm

point
at B.
2-27.

B caused
Assume
Determine

by applying
linearly
horizontal

a horizontal
elastic behavior
and vertical

force
of the
elastic

of 3 kips
material.
dis-

as shown in the figure. (a) Determine of the rod caused by the application kips. Assume that the axial stress-strain
is

the elongation of force P relationship

5
75 rnrn

placements ing the

of load dimensions

point shown

B for the in the

two-bar figure.

system Assume

havthat

 = call6,000
where cr is in ksi. (b) Find upon removal of force P. ing, copper behaves as a an E equal to the tangent origin.' 2-20. A two-bar system in the figure. The cross-sectional
0.200 in 2 and for bar BC

+ (cr/165)

3
Fig. P2-2i ' '2-24. Find bar of constant in the figure, the

for
Fig. P2-23

each

bar,

AE

= 104 kips.

the residual bar elongation Assume that during unloa.dlinearly elastic material with to the virgin cr-e curve at the

weight volume
is E.

when hung from for this material

Two bars are to be

the top. is 'y and

cut from

The mass the elastic

a 1-in-thick

per unit modulu

metal

total elongation cross-sectional if it is rotated

A of a slender elastic area A, such as shown in a horizontal plane with

100"

has

the

configuration area for

in 2. If the

is 0.150

diagram for the rods is bilinear would each wire elongate due tical force P = 4 kips?

as shown, to the application

bar stress-strain how 'much

shown AB

2-22.

an angular velocity weight of the material

effect ample of the 1-6. inertial

of to radians per second. is % Neglect the small

Hint: the First
pin
forces between

The unit amount

is

plate
its

in. Bar A'is to have

and both
weight

so that

both

bars
Bar

entire

of ver-

1 in wide bars
same

to the

of the

-A

4-54-

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

length.

a constant
Determine

have

a constant

width
the

of 2 in throughout
at the
LA/LB

thickness

of

of extra material by the pin. at a section a distance r from

at the bottom. stretch

P.

B is to be

Each

bar is to be subjected
ratio

3 in wide

find the stress by integrating the r and L. See ExFig. P2-27

wil

load

the

same

amount.

Neglect

so that

the

bar.

2-28. linearly

For

the

tical
ksi.

displacements
A jib

elastic

data given behavior,

of load
the

in Problem 2-20, find the horizontal

point

B. Let

E = 10 x 103
shown

assuming and ver-

'P =4k 38'

oksi E2 =5


X 103 ksi

'
Fig. P2-22

Fig.
'2-25. is bonded thickness An elastic rod having to the surrounding a, as shown in

P2-24
a cross-sectional material, which the figure. Determine area has the A
a

figure.

2-29.

and tube BC, 320 mm 2. (a) Find the of the crane at point B. (b) Determine
caused
E = 200 GPa.

Rod

AB

crane

has

has

a cross-sectional
application

dimensions

vertical the

area

flection
Let

by the

of force

stif ness vertical deP = 16 kN.

of 300 mm 2

in the

10 Ei--10X 103 ksi

Fig. P2-20

cone supported at the large end on a rigid shown in the figure. Determine the deflection
piece
plate. caused

2-23. The dimensions of a frustum of a right

material the origin
extended

base

2-2'i.
figure increase

The
is cut in

small
from length

tapered

symmetric.
piece

shown
Determine by
its

in the
the own

top due to the weight of the body. The unit weight

is 'y; the of the
cone.

of the
of

a 4-mm-thick of this

elastic coordinate

modulus

axes

is E. Hnt: at the vertex

io yO unitdistarce p er nce)

Fig. P2-25
Fig.

Rod 

2000
P2-29

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Problems
Sections 24'1
the

t33
and 242
B caused using Eq.

Section
2-30. A steel

2-8
bar 2 in wide and 0.5 in thick is 25 in

long, as shown in the P, the bar width becomes Estimate the magnitude
elongation take E = of the

figure.

On

narrower of applied
Assume and v =

application of force by 0.5 x 10 -3 in. force P and the axial

elastic 0.25. behavior and

2-40. Verify by applied

2-24.
24

force applying
2-16.

vertical deflection of point P = 3 kips in Example 2-4

2-41.
P2-37
G in

By
Problem

Eq.
vertical

2-24,

find
deflection

the

deflection
of point

of point
B caused

30

bar. 10 3 ksi

Fig.
Fig. P2-32

2-42.

Find

the

dency
contraction.

for For and

in

thermal the data horizontal

temperature

expansion

is counteracted 2-20, of point

in the

by find the B caused

rod. As:

Fig.

P2-30

2-33. tical
a rise

given in Problem displacement

of 100 F

stress might 2-38. mit ing sions

concentration factors from Fig. 2-32. Where a potential fracture occur? A machine part of constant thickness for transcyclical axial loading should have the dimenshown in the figure. (a) Select the thickness

by the
2-43. by the

applied
Find applied the

load

in Problem

2-27

using
of point 2-29 using

Eq.

2-24.
B caused Eq. 2-24.

vertical deflection force P in Problem

2-44. spreader

2-3t,
wide

A
and

10-mm-thick
2000 mm
figure.

low-alloy-steel
long is subjected

plate
to a set

150 edges,
transin the

mm
of uni:

formly
as shown

distributed
in the

frictional
If the

forces
total

along
decrease

its two

verse plied
gation
= 200

150-mm forces
of the
GPa

dimension at section a-a due to the apis 15 x 10 -3 mm, what is the total elonbar
and

elastic behavior and use a and E given in Table 1 the Appendix for 6061-T6 aluminum alloy. 2-34. For the data given in Problem 2-29, find the tical and horizontal displacements of point B by a rise in temperature of 80 C only in the rod.
E
a = 11.7 x 10-6/C.

needed in the member for transmit ing an axial force of 12 kN in order to limit the maximum stress to 80 MPa. Approximate the stress concentration factors from Fig. 2-32. (b) Where might a potential fracture
occur?

CB, AD, as shown tance CD

mechanical bar AB and

and DB, is subjected in the figure. Determine that would occur on

bars AC and CB

four

system consisting high-strength

of steel rods,

to forces at C and D, the increase in disapplying the two 8-kN

have a cross-sectional

a steel AC,

forces.

Both

area
The
mm

of 20 mm 2, arid
cross-sectional
2. Let E = 200 GPa.

both
area

bars
of the
A

AD

and
spreader

DB,
bar

40 mm 2.
is 100

in the
v = 0.25.

longitudinal
Assume

direction.
that the steel

Let
be-

haves

as a linearly

elastic

material.

Section

150

_Px N/mm
16oo
Fig. P2-31

2-35.
hole of

A 6 by
25

]4oo
aluminum-alloy
figure. (a) Determine

axial tensile the longitudinal

able stress

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P

2-'10

75 mm
diameter

plate

600

mm

long

has

a circulm
Find

mm

located

in its

center.

the

Fig.

P2-38

kN
the total of stress
cross-sec-

2
1

force

that direction
MPa.

can

be without

applied

to this

plate

exceeding

an

of

220

2-36. tensile
ened by

Determine bar used

having

the extent in a mechanical

an enlarged

by which application
section, as shown

is
in

2-39. A long slot is cut out from a 1 by 6 in steel bar 10 ft long, as shown in the figure. (a) Find the maximum stress if axial force P =' 50 kips is applied to the bar. Assume that the upper curve in Fig. 2-32 is ap-

Fig.

P2-44

figure.
Section 2-9
stress

Since
concentrations.

the

bar

is to be loaded

cyclically,

plicable. elongation
concentrations

(b)

For of the
and

the rod.
assume

same case, determine Neglect local effects

that the reduced

Section

2-`13
of dif erent

2-45.
bars

Compare

the dynamic
diameters

2-32.
uprights,

A rigid
as shown

bar
C.

rests
in the
Assume

on bar
the

and
the

steel
inP

!" radius
P

tional gation

area extends of the same

for rod

(c) Estimate if P = 160 kips.

24

in.

the

Assume

elonthat

shown

stresses

in the

in the three
figure

in their

steel

clination
ature of

of the
100

horizontal

after
coefficients

a raise

in temperof thermal

expansion for aluminum alloy and steel to be, respectively, 23.2 x 10-6/C and 11.7 x 10-6/C. To a greatly exaggerated scale, sketch the position of the bar after the raise in temperature. (b) What stresses would develop in the upright members if their tops
were prevented from expanding? Let the elastic mod-

1
2


P2-36

steel yields On removal deflection?

0.020 in per inch at a stress of the load in part (c), what Let E = 30 x 106 psi.
2" wide slot (1"radii at ends)

of 40 ksi. (d) is the residual

1.5 kg

115 mm
15 mm

Fig.

uli
GPa

for
and

aluminum

alloy

and

steel
the

be,
obtained

respectively,

75

those

given

200

in Table

GPa.

Compare

1 of the Appendix.

Hint:

stresses

The

with

2-37. mensions
cyclic

A machine shown
loading.

10 mm in the figure,
If the maximum

part

thick, having the is to be subjected

stress is limited to

c,_.+
to
Fig.

I
(a)

10

turn

(b)

(c)

0mm1Tn

. 1F

ten-

MPa,

determine

allowable

force

P.

Approximate

P2-39

Axial
response tance

Strains
through no

and
energy

Deformations
a dis-

in Bars
Ab,, force the deflection at a. LetA at b due to the application = 2A2. (In Section 13-4, of a unit it is shown

Problems

of

to 1.5-kg 1 m. Let

masses fal ing E = 200 GPa.

freely Assume

is

dissipated surfaces,
at supports.

through
nor at points

plastic

deformation of high local

of the
stresses

impact occurring

that
tems.

this
reached

relationship
It is widely used

is true
in analysis.

in general
This

for
conclusion

elastic

syscan

downward force of 5 kN, as shown in the figure. Initial y, this force is equally distributed among the three wires. The stresses in the wires are well within the linearly'elastic range of material behavior. (a) Determine

Section
2-56. An axial force of the bar

2-t6
elastic bar held at both ends P, as shown in the figure.
is constant. (a) Determine

be

by

inspection

for

statically

for the system shown in the figure, for stopping of 1 kg moving at a velocity of 3 rn/sec such that, impact, the spring deflection would not exceed
Neglect frictional effects.

2-46.

Determine

the

stif ness

required

in the. spring,

bars.)

a mass during 20 mm.

2-49.
sume

Consider
that ends

the
A and

bar

given
D are

in Example
held and that

2-2
P2

and
=

as-

A---

drop of 50 C in the right

a = 12.5
ature

the forces

in the wires

10mm

Determine strain,

kN

and

P3 = 200
and there

the reactions. axial displacement

kN

act

(b)

in the

Plot

the diagrams.

directions

axial

force,

shown.
applied

(a)

in the

x 10-6/C.
middle

2, L = 2000mm,
wire

wire.
would

caused

(b) At what

E=

Properties

by a temperature

is loaded by an Cross section A the reactions arid

200 x 103N/mm
change
slack?

of the wires:
in temper-

2,

interpret applied
assuming

the force.
that

results in relation (b) Plot the axial

E is known.

to the position displacement

of the diagram

it become

2-50.
forces, reactions
x 10-6/F.

If in Problem
is a drop would develop

2-49,

in addition
of

to the

in temperature at the supports?

100 F, what Let a =

2-51.
Fig. P2-46

For the 2-in 2 constant

in the figure, (a) determine

cross-sectional
the reactions,

elastic
axial-displace-

bar
and

Fig.

P2-56

shown

(b) plot

ment
Section 2-t5

diagrams.

the

axial-force,

Let

E = 10 x 103 ksi.

axial-strain,

and

the
Fig. P2-53

2-57.
(a). (b),

combined

For

symmetrically

spring

constant

arranged

k = n
in series, k fol ows

springs

ki;

in parallel,

see

figure

2-47. An elastic bar of variable cross section, both ends, is loaded as shown in the figure. ibilities.of the bar segments are /2, , and mine the reactions, and plot the axial-force

held
The flex. Deterand axial-

at

Justify that the system

1/ki,

or,

alternatively,
and

for the springs spring constant

= n

fi,

where

as in figure from 1/k =

is sysspring.

. displacement

diagrams.
2-52.
pended
force wil

If a load
by

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2-54. hung Initial y, by three
become

on applying parallel wires

What

a 3-kN force to a rigid bar (see the figure), all three

forces would de-

tem

flexibility,

i the

flexibility

of an ith

Fig.

P2-51

wires

taut.

additional

of 1 kip
wires

is applied

to a rigid
The

bar

sus-

three

as shown
each

in the

figure,

velop in the wires its support. Each has a cross-sectional

modulus of 200

if the of the

left wire slips out 3 mm from steel wires is 2000 mm long, area of 10 mm 2, and an elastic

be resisted

by

wire?

outside

wire

GPa.

are aluminum (E = 10 7 psi). (E = 30 x 106 psi). Initial y,

Fig.
2-48. Consider the same

The inside wire there is no slack

is

in the
(b)

IP

P2-47
elastic bar of variable cross-

wire.

Fig.

P2-57 springs force Hint: is atP, as Use

sectional area shown Determine deflection tion of a unit force

in the two alternative figures. A,b at a caused by the applicaat b, and show that it is equal

---200

200

>

to

Alum.

wires

A = 0.3
L = 25'
Steel wire

in 2

2-58. tached shown

symmetrical to a rigid bar in the figure.

arrangement of and carries an applied (a) Find the reactions.

A2

l./4
L/4

L/4

t I

A = 0.2
/. = 50'

in 2
P=3kN

1
P2-54

: k = 300
k2 = 200

N/mm
N/mm

Fig. Fig. P2-52

AI 1lb L/4

7// / / /. //

clination
spaced a mass steel

2-55.
area

Rework
of bar

angles
BD

Example
as

a to 30 and
2A. The

2-14

taking
cross

by changing
the
sections

cross-sectional
of bars

the

bar

inAD
P = 6.2 kN

k = 250

N/mm

/ /,.

// / ,

7

Fig.

P2-48

2-53. tached

Three identical to a rigid bar

equally support

wires developing

and DC

remain

equal

to A.

Fig.

P2-58

i36
the
total

Axial

Strains

and

Deformations

in

Bars

Problems

i37

relationships
deflection

given
distributed

in Problem
between

2-57.
the

(b) How
upper

is the
two

springs? 2-59.
method.

dom springs. 2-6:3.

are

there?

(c)

Find

the

forces

acting

on

Rework
An elastic

Problem
bar

2-52
of variable

using
cross

the
section

displacement
and held

linearly

The

area

A rigid elastic
mm

of the
applied

bar is supported wires atB and

wire

at B is 60 mm 2 and
the reactions

by a pin C, as shown

for

at A and in the f

the

one i
and Fig. P2-65

2-60.

C is 120

2. Determine

at A,

B,

at both ends is axial y loaded, as shown 'in the figure. The cross-sectional area of the small part is A and of the larger, 2A. (a) Using the displacement method, find the reactionS. (b) Plot a qualitative axial-displacement diagram. Hint: Use the relationship given in Problem 2-57 for determining the combined stif ness of the bar
segments to the left of P.

caused

by

force

P = 6 kN.

2-66. Rework Problem 2-65 Hint: The degree of kinematic reduced by using a relationship
1000

after

removing force P. indeterminacy can be given in Problem 2-57.

Fig. serve neous able as reinforcement. elastic strength stresses. (b)

P2-69 Determine column the the instantaon allow(plastic)

Section

2-t8

(a) of the Estimate

based ultimate

-500o5+500oFig.
'2-6t. A bar of constant

2-67. A material possesses a nonlinear stress-strain relationship given as cr = Ke n, where K and n are material constants. If a rod made of this material and of constant area A is initial y fixed at both ends and is
then loaded as shown in the figure, how much of ap-

strength of the column. elastic-perfeCtly plastic.

Cryp = 60 ksi and E = 30 x 106 psi, and for concrete, Crano, = 2000 psi, Cryp = 3600 psi and E = 2 x 106
psi. (It has been shown experimental y yields, the concrete "yield" strength that when steel is approximately 0.85crut, where Cru, is the ultimate compresslye strength of an unreinforced cylindrical specimen of the same material, age, and curing conditions. In order to
achieve ductile behavior of columns, the use of lateral

Assume For

that

steel,

both materials are let Cra,o, = 24 ksi,

P2-60
thickness and held at both

plied
Fig. P2-63

force

P is carried

by the left

support?

ends
the Hint:
bar.

reactions First

hgs the geometry

find

caused the

by stif ness

shown

the for

axial y the

in the figure.

applied tapered

Determine
force part

2-64.

Five

P. of the

area ner,

of 500 mm 2, are as shown in the

haves as a linearly elastic Determine the deflection force P = 2 MN. Assume

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steel rods, each having a cross-sectional

assembled figure.

in a symmetrical manAssume that the steel bematerial with E = 200 GPa. of joint A due to downward that, initial y, the rods are

Fig.

P2-67

2-68.

A rod

is fixed

at A and

loaded

with

an

axial

force

-7-

taut.

P, as shown fectly plastic,

in the with

figure. The material E = 200 GPa and

is elastic-pera yield stress

of

200

MPa.

Prior

to.loading,

a. gap
fixed for

of 2 mm

exists
C. (a) point value
mm

bePlot asfor
2 and

ties 2-70. = steel 9.995 bar (b) wil

or spiral reinforcement is essential.) A rigid platform rests on two 10 7 psi) each 10.000 in long. A (E = 30 x 106 psi) and standing in long. (a) What wil be the if a force P of 100 kips is applied How much do the aluminum bars be the ultimate (plastic) strength

aluminum bars third bar made in the middle

stress in on the shorten? for the

(E of is

the steel platform? (c) What system if

L/2 < L/2 

Fig. P2-61

/ Z// // /Z/ /,/ / / / / / /,

tween the end of the rod and the load-displacement diagram suming P increases from zero
the rod. The cross section from

support the load to its ultimate

A to B is 200

(ffyp)Al

= 40 ksi and

(Cryv)St

= 60 ksi?
P

that
in addition, each having
indeterof freeFig. P2-64

from
force?

B to C is 100
displacement

mm 2. (b) What
B upon release

wil

be the
of the

reap-

2-62. A rigid is supported

stif ness minacy

bar is hinged at end A and, on three identical springs,

is the degree of (b) How many statical degrees

sidual
plied

of point

k. (a) What of this system?

-l- 2 mm
cross section and held
section for the A. (a) Compare

A = 2 in 2

Section

2-t7

AI

St

!AI
L

2-65. An elastic bar of variable

at both
shown in the figure. area is 2A, and for

A=4in

ends

is axial y

Determine
Fig. P2-62

degrees

of kinematic

The cross the smaller,

loaded

at several

points,

larger

as
the::

I---250mm---250 mm 
Fig. P2-68

A = 2 in 2

= P. (c) Plot axial-force

the reactions

and static

if P = 3P, P2 = 2P, and P3

indeterminacies.

(b)

2-69.

The

cross

section

of a short

reinforced

concrete

diagram.

column

is as shown

in the

figure.

Four

1-in

round

bars

Fig.

P2-70

t38
2-7t. A force P = 1 kN is applied

Axial
by three of equal wires, as shown size and the same
no slack between
2'/ / / / / /,

Strains
to a rigid

and
bar

Deformations
sus-

in Bars
2-73. An aluminum tube is axial y compressed between the two heavy nuts of a steel bolt, as shown the figure. If it is known that the axial stress in the sleeve at 80 C is 20 MPa, at what temperature does this prestress become zero? For the aluminum tube:

wir,

pended wires
initial y, applied

are A = 80 mm 2, E =. 200
there load were distribute
// / / / / ,

GPa,

in the material.

and

L = 4 m. If,
how wil the

figure. For

All each

pter

in the wires, the wires?

A = 1000mm 2, E= 70 x 103MPa, andct = 23.2 x 10 -6 per C. For the steel bolt: A = 500 mm 2, E 200 x 103 MPa, and ct = 11.7 x 10 -6 per C.
Aluminum tube

200
mm

100
mm

100
mm

4000
mm

 _
 100 _ '
Fig. P2-73

Steelbolt
Section
assuming
bar is three

P
Fig. P2.71

2-72. An aluminum rod 7 in long, having two cross-sectional areas, is inserted into a steel shown in the figure. If at 60 F no axial force the aluminum rod, what wil be the magnitude

dif erent link, as exists in of this

2-74.
elastic

Rework
modulus

Example
E1 for the

2-23
middle

after
bars,

that
E2 = E3

the
=

3-1.

Introduction

smaller
3E.

than

that

for

the

outside

i.e.,

force
Ctst

psi hnd ct^ = 12.0

= 6.5 x

when

the

temperature

10-6/F.

x 10-6/F;
Steel link:

rises

Est = 30 x 106 psi and

to 160 F? E^,

= 107

2-75.
Problem

that
area of each bar parallel to rod is 0.35 in 2

the

0.30

in 2

Section
*2-76. 2-77. *2-78.
tinuity

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION A of this chapter. In Part B, general mathematical www.avs4you.com and shear strains are given. Then, by employing
Plot the load-deflection diagram for joint A in
2-64 caused by the applied force P,

yield

stress

for

the

material

cryp

= 250

MPa.

In addition to the normal strain discussed in the previous chapter in connection with axial y loaded bars, in general, a body may also be subjected to shear strains. For the purposes of deformation analysis, such strains must be related to the applied shear stress. This topic is discussed in Part

2-t9

Rework Rework Rework

conditions

Problem Problem Problem

or

2-25 using 2-24 using 2-56 using

singularity

Eq. 2-48. Eq. 2-48. Eq. 2-48

functions.

and

con-

position, the generalized Hooke's and strains for a three-dimensional walled pressure vessels and shells eralized Hooke's law is 'employed important elements of construction.
solution for thick-walled cylinders

the method law is synthesized, relating state of stress. Next, in Part of revolution are considered.
for the deformation

definitions

for normal

Aluminum

rod,

0.40

in 2

of a typical boundary-value problem ticity, and, at the same time, provides equat ions mechanics. established for thin-walled solid

is developed.

In the concluding
This

analysis

of superstresses C, thinThe genof these

in the mathematical theory of elasbounds on the applicability of the pressure vessels using engineering

il ustrates

part,

Part D, a
a solution

Fig.

P2-72

SHEAR

CONSTITUTIVE
Relationships
An example

RELATIONSHIPS
for Shear
of such deformations

FOR

3.2.
cause

Stress-Strain
shear deformations.

In addition discussed

to the normal strains related to the axial strains in bars in Chapter 2, a body may be subjected to shear stresses that
is shown

in
t39

140

Hooke' Law, sPressure Vessel and sT,hiWal ck. lCyl ed inders '
planes in a body defines shear strain t (gamma). For infinitesimal elements these small angles are measured in radians. The / subscripts shown Fig. 3-1 associate a particular shear strain with a pair of coordinate Transformation of shear strain to any other mutually perpendicular of planes wil be discussed in Section 8-13. For the purposes of deformation analysis, it is essential to establish relationship between shear strain and shear stress based on experiments As wil become apparent in the next chapter, such experiments are mo conveniently performed on thin-walled circular tubes in torsion. The ments of such tubes are essential y in a state of pure shear stress. An il ustration of the conditions prevailing in a tube wall are shown in 3-2. The corresponding shear strains can be determined from the priate geometric measurements. Note that per Section 1-4, the shear stresses on mutually perpendicula planes are equal; see Fig. 3-2(a). Moreover, since in this discussion, stresses and strains are limited to a planar case, the subscripts for can be omit ed; see Fig. 3-2(b). By using experiments with thin-walled tubes, the generated shear stress-strain diagrams, except for their scale greatly resemble those usually found for tension specimens (See Figs. 2-

Sec.

3-3.

Elastic

Strain

Energy

for

Shear

Stresses

t41

Fig.

3-1.

The

change

in the initial

right

angle

between

any

two

imaginary

I tJ
(a)

(b)

material.

Fig.

3-3

Shear

stress-strain

diagrams;

(a)

typical

and

(b)

idealized

for

a ductile

where ticity,
3-4.

material.
EXAMPLE

G is a constant or the modulus

For

emphasis,

of proportionality of rigidity.

the relationship

Like

called the shear modulus E, G is a constant for

given

by Eq. 3-1 is shown

of elasa given

Fig.

3-4
and

Linear

or
strain.

Hookean

relation
stress

between

pure

shear

in Pig.

3-t

5, 2-6, and 2-13).

Fig.
deformations

3-1

Possible
of

shear
an element.

el astic-perfectly spectively,
just stress

Two

,-/di_agrams

yield

In numerous
as for and

the

strength

axial y loaded bars, the angle / it causes

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Fig. 3-3(b), ,yp and /yp designate, retechnical problems, the shear stresses do not exceed the of the material. For most materials www.avs4you.com in this range of stress,
plastic yield behavi or, shear stress
are shown in Fig.
and

3-3.

In the

idealized

diagram

of

One of the shear has the dimensions

the

shear

yield

strain.

has G = 0.64
Neglect'the
Solution

stif ness

N/mm

mountings shown

2. Determine
of the

for a small in Fig. 3-5.

outer

metal

the shear

piece of vibrating The 8-mm thick

plates

spring

to which

constant

pad

mechanical of Grade

the

ks for this
rubber

equipment 50 rubber

is bonded.

mounting.

a linear can

relationship be 'postulated.

between Therefore,

pure

shear mathe-

Here 3' ';

hence from Eq. 3-1, x = Cry -

GA

t
(a)

maticext alleynsi of , Hooke' onlaw fosrhear stress and strai reads n

y

Further,
Therefore,
This
at the

'ks
solution
two

F = ,ab - G Aab t
F
A

small

Gab
t

local

0.64

20
8

40

,x

=
since

64 N/mm
no shear stresses act
Fig. 3-5
(b)

neglects
boundaries.

effects

at the

ends

3-3.
o
Fig.
shear.

Elastic

Strain

Energy
strain

for Shear
energy in a manner an element for

Stresses
an infinitesimal analogous to that in a state of shear, element in for one in as shown


(b)

An expression for the elastic pure shear may be established uniaxial stress. Thus, consider
Malaysian

3-2

Element

in pure
(a)

 P. B. Lindley,

Rubber

Engineering
Producers'

Research

Design

with

Association,

Natural

Rubber

1978).

(Hertford,

England:

Hooke's

Law,

Pressure

Vessels,

and

Thick.

Walled

Oylinders

Sec.

3.4.

Mathematical

Definition

of Strain

43

GENERALIZED NOOKE'S

CONCEPTS
LAW

OF

STRAIN

AND

**33-4.
Since strains must relate extensional Some points
x

Mathematical

Definition

of Strain

(a)

generally vary from point to point, the definitions of strain to an infmitesimal element. With this in mind, consider an strain taking place in one direction, as shown in Fig. 3-7(a). like A and B move to A' and B', respectively. During strain-

Fig.

3-6

An

element

for

deriving pure

strain shear stresses.

energy

due

to

(b)

in Fig.

where it is assumed that the bottom plane of the element is fixed in position. 2 As this element is deformed, the force on the top plane reaches a final value of dx dz. The total displacement of this force for a small deformation of the element is ' dy; see Fig. 3-6(b). Therefore, since the external work done on the element is equal to the internal recoverable elastic strain energy,

3-6(a).

The

deformed

shape

of this

element

is shown

in Fig.

3-6(b),

is t q- A u, since in addition to the whole element Ax, On this basis, the definition

ing,

point

A experiences

a displacement

to the rigid-body a stretch Au takes of the extensional

,.-.,o

u. The

displacement place within or normal

displacement

u, common the element. strain is 4

(3-6)

of point

 =

lim

A u

A x

du

dx

3 This
text.

and

the
fundamental concepts

next

section
definition of stretching

can

be omit ed
of extensional or extending,
D' C' -

without
strain, can
DC

loss
be

of continuity
more amenable expressed, using

in the
to the Fig.
(3-6a)

dUshear
where dV is the

= 'r dx dz
average force

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION x ' dy =   dx dy dz = www.avs4you.com

more
1 1
3-7(c), as

4 A more general

(3 -2)

ex =

axo

lim

DE

distance

volume

of

the

infinitesimal

element.

where DD'.
Also

By

recasting

Eq.

3-2,

the

strain-energy

density

for

shear

becomes

see

the vectorial For the small

Sections

8-11

displacements deformations
and

12.

of points considered

C and here,

D are Uc = CC' Eq. 3-6a reduces

and un = to Eq. 3-6.

shear
By using
as

2
Eq. 3-3 may

(3-3)
be recast

A,

,A'
Ax

B

., B'

'

X, U

y,

+ Au

.+dy

U

Hooke's

law

for

shear

stresses,

= G',/,

(a)

(U)sher=
or

- sher--2G
ol

(3-4)

+ dy

v

1
dy

Ushe = fv
Note
a state of

dV
'to Eqs. 2-20-2-23
in Chapters
less general.

(3-5)
for elements
4, 10, and 12.

the similarity
uniaxial stress.

of Eqs.
equations
not make

3-2-3-5
are
the

in
8x dx
X U

Applications
2 This assumption

of these
does

given
expression

x, u dimensional
(c)

Fig.

3-7

One
in

strained
initial

and

twoand final

elements

(b)

positions.

t44

mensional

entiate between the directions of the strains. For the same reason, it is also necessary to change the ordinary derivatives to partial ones. Therefore, if at a point of a body, u, v, and w are the three displacement components occurring, respectively, in the x, y, .and z directions of the coordinate axes, the basic definitions of normal strain become

Hooke' Law, Pressure s Vessel and Tshi,Wal ck.Cyl ledinders

If a body

Sec.

3.5.

Strain

Tensor

case in Fig.

is strained

3-7(b),

in orthogonal

subscripts

directions,

must

be attached

as shown

to e to dif er-

for

a two-di-

'Yxz = 'Y=
In Eqs. missible sequences
In

Ox + Oz
subscripts
distinction
3-9,

'Yyz

'Y

Oy + Oz
This
the
six strain-dis-

(3-10)
is pertwo

Ou

Ov

examining

3-9 and 3-10, the since no meaningful of each alternative

Eqs.

on ' can be permuted. can be made between

3-10, note that these

3-7,

subscript.
and

ax
Note
for these

Ox
analogously

Oy
to those of stress, can

(3-7)

that

double
strains.

subscripts,
Thus,

be used

v, and dependent among reduces

placement

w. Therefore, equations e,.x, eyy, ezz , to one for a

equations

depend

these equations cannot be independent. Three can be developed showing the interrelationships 'xy, 'yz, and -=. The number of such equations two-dimensional case. The derivation and the

only

on three

displacement

components

in-

u,
(a)

ap-

given
(3-8)

plication

in texts

of these

on the

equations,

theory

known

of elasticity.

as the equations

of compatibility,

are

**3-5.

Strain

Tensor

where one of the subscripts designates and the other, 'the direction of the elongations. In addition to normal strains, an strain as shown for example in the the sides of the deformed element Since v is the displacement in the direction, Ov/Ox is the slope of the tesimal element. Similarly, the vertical On this basis, the initial y right angle + Ou/Oy. Therefore, for small angle strain associated with the xy coordinates

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

the displacement.
element

direction
can

of the

Positive

line signs

element, apply

to

The normal and the shear strains defined in the preceding section together express the strain tensor, which is highly analogous to the stress tensor already discussed. It is necessary, however, to modify the relations for the shear strains in order to have a tensor, an entity which must obey

(b}

also

experience

a shear

certain

laws

of transformation.

5 Thus,

the physically

attractive

definition

x-y plane in Fig. 3-7(c). This inclines in relation to the x and the y axes. y direction, as one moves in the x initial y horizontal side of the infiniside tilts through an angle Ou/Oy. CDE is reduced by the amount Ov/Ox changes, the definition of the is

of the shear shear strain

strain as the is a component

change in angle - is not acceptable of a tensor. This heuristically

may
of shear

when the be attrib-

uted to the fol owing. vertical direction.

direction in Fig.

The
3-8(b).

In Fig. 3-8(a), same positive

In. Fig. 3-8(c),

positive -y -y is measured

the same

is measured from the

amount

from horizontal
defor-

the

'7y = '7yx Ox Oy
To arrive are equal

Ov +

(3-9)
,

mation is shown to consist of two 'y/2's. 3-8(a) and (b) can be obtained by rotating rigid body through an angle of 'y/2. The the correct one for defining the shear-strain a tensor. Since in this definition, the element the strain is said to be pure or #'rotational.
redefines the shear strains as
2

The deformed elements in Figs. the element in Fig. 3-8(c) as a scheme shown in Fig. 3-8(c) is component as an element of is not rotated as a rigid body, Following this approach, one

(c)

Fig.

3-8

Shear

deformations.

the

3-7(c).
shear

shear

(This
3-9:

strain

at this to the

deformation
see

applies
for

expression, it is assumed that tangents angles themselves in radian measure.

when
1-4.)

corresponds

the element
strains

to the for the

is deformed,

positive

directions yz planes

as shown

of small Positive

angles sign for

y = , _ '2yz _ %, 2

zx = xz --

(3-11)

in Fig.
similar

of the
appreciation

--

stresses;

Fig.

The
to Eq.

definitions

the

shear

xz and

are

5 Rigorous

transformation

of it wil
for

discussion

a two-dimensional

develop,

of this question
however,
case

is beyond
after

is considered.

the

study

the scope

of Chapter

of this text.

8, where

A better
strain

t46

Hooke's

Law,

Pressure

Vessels,

and

Thick-Walled

Cylinders

Sec.

3-6.

Generalized

Hooke's

Law

for

Isotropic

Materials

147

From
assembled

these
as

equations,
fol ows:

the

strain

tensor

in matrix

representation

can

be

have

the three

properties

nine

orthogonal

in the longitudinal,

independent

directions.

radial,
Such
constants,

material

materials,

and transverse
whereas,

referred two.

directions,

as it wil

to as orthotropic,

i.e.,

in

be shown

?yx

?yz

xx xz yx e. Eyy  yz

the

(3-12)

in the next section, isotropic materials have only tropic crystal ine materials the number of independent can be as large as 21.6 In this book consideration isotropic materials, although by properly selecting the developed procedures can be applied to orthotropic examples of these are wood and man-made materials,
sheets or fdament-reinforced plastics.

For ful y anisomaterial constants is basically limited to the directions of axes, problems. Notable such as corrugated
strain, such as shown or expansion of a is being stretched or

The strain tensor is symmetric. in the last expression is particularly in continuum mechanics (elasticity, the stress tensor, using indicial
tensor.

Mathematically, attractive plasticity, notation, one

notation employed and has wide acceptance rheology, etc.). Just as for can write e u for the strain

exists between the in Fig. 3-9. During body.takes place,

According

to the basic

Analogously to the stress tensor, the strain tensor can be diagonalized, having only el, e2, and e3 as the surviving components. For a two-dimensional problem, e3 = 0; and one has the case of plane strain. The
tensor for this situation is

shown

compressed. mulated using of deformations to a tensile

Eq.

The extent Poisson's

3-10.

applied stress and the this process, a lateral depending on whether

concept

of Hooke's

in Fig.

caused

of the lateral deformation ratio (see Section 2-8). by stresses applied along in Fig.
where

resulting contraction a body

law,

a linear

relationship

Fig.
between extensional

3.9

Linear
uniaxial
strain.

relation
stress and

is analytically Qualitative il ustrations the coordinate axes For

for-

are

Consider

first
2-3,

(:;
defined in

yy

i)
and
1-4,

or

The transformation Chapter 8. The similarities

Section

of strain

suggested
be

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION (i'i) www.avs4you.com o)

The corresponding lateral strains
g2

Ee,

stress
one

that

has

O'x, as shown

the element

shown
 and

e' = rx/E,

e' is the

3-10(b).

in Fig.
 along

3-10(a)
strain

this

is subjected
in the

case,

x direction.

from

o' = re4th

only

the

y and
Theory

z axes,
of Elas-

or

e2

(3-13)

ed.,

6 A. P. Boresi
(New
(New

by

Eq.
in

3-13

wil

be

considered

in

ticity

York:

and O. M. Sidebottom,
Wiley,
McGraw-Hil ,

chanics

of a Continuous

York:

1985).

I. S. Sokolnikoff,
1956).

Advanced
E. Malvern,

Medium,

(Englewood

L.

Mathematical

Mechanics
NJ:
Introduction

of Materials,
Prentice-Hall,

Clif s,

to the

1969).

Me-

dif erences
wil

between
discussed

plane
the

strain
next

and
section

plane
after

stress,
the

introduction of the generalized Hooke's law. The reader should note that in discussing the concept of strain, the mechanical properties of the material were not involved. The equations are applicable whatever the mechanical behavior of the material. However, only small strains are defined by the presented equations. Also note
placements

that

strains

give
do

not

only

affect

the

the

relative

strains.

displacement

of points;

rigid-body
Initial shape
(a)

Final

shape
(c)

3-6.

Generalized

Hooke's

Law

for

Isotropic

Materials

In this article, six basic relationships between a general state of stress and strain are synthesized using the principle of superposition from previously established simpler stress-strain equations. This set of ec tions is referred to as the generalized Hooke's law. These equations applicable only to homogeneous isotropic materials, i.e., materials having the same properties in all directions. Hooke's law for anisotropic materials. For example, wood has decidedly

Final

[  '"'
shape
(b)

%
(d)

Finalshape
axes.

Fig.

340

Element

deformations normal
directions

stresses

of

coordinate

caused acting

by

in

t48

Hooke's

Law,

Pressure

Vessels,

and

Thick-Walled

Cylinders

Sec.

3-6.

Generalized

Hooke's

Law

for

Isotropic

Materials

149

e', and e', when

strains, complete
shear
tained.

spectively, -Vrx/E. element

fol ow, Similar is stressed,

stressed,
strains

using Poisson's ratio, Eq. 2-16, and are expressions for strains e, e, and e apply as shown in Fig. 3-10(c), and again for

expressions
for the

as shown
for

normal

in Fig.

strains

3-10(d).
can

ex,
be

By superposing
ey, and
treated as

e = when strains

the

strain must mal deformation

be multiplied by the member's length. Ax in the x direction is given as

Ax = exLx

For

example,

the

nor(3-15)

e are

these where Lx is the member's length for Ay and A. An integration

the

Since

Cartesian

axes

in Fig. 3-1, for priate subscripts Based on the isotropic linearly

be writ en as

the

general problem into Eq. 3-1 are above, six equations elastic materials

only, the introduction needed. for the generalized for use with Cartesian

of the
Hooke's law

length. 'From the

in the x direction. process is used

law equations,

when

Similar

strains
useful

relations

vary
comments

apply along

generalized

Hooke's

some

coordinates

O'x

E
O'x O'x

O'y O'y O'y

O'z

not
O' z

shows that Crx and o'y may exist. If either one or both of these stresses are present, according to the third Eq. 3-14, a normal strain e wil develop. Conversely, in the plane strain problem, defined by Eq. 3-13, the normal strain e must be zero. Therefore, in this case, if either O'x and/or % are present, it can be concluded from the third Eq. 3-14 that cr should
be zero.
are

can be made strain problems.

to clarify the An examination

distinction

between of Eq. 1-3 for

pJane stress and plane the plane stress problem

The

similarity
in

and

the

dif erence

between

the

two

kinds

of

problems
strains

can

shown

be further
Plane

matrix

clarified
Stress

form.

from

the
Plane

table,
Strain

where

the

stresses

and

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION ( rxv 0) www.avs4you.com

v o'y
0

(3-1<

0
0

-/2
0

e,-/20)
ey
0

0
0

'/2
0

ey
0 e

,r 0

c& 0

These taneously
as an exercise.

six equations to express

have stresses

an inverse, in terms

i.e., of strains.

they

can

This

be is left

solved for the term sense the section, v, and

EXAMPLE

3-2

If normal stresses are compressive, the signs of the corresponding change in the previous equations for the normal strains. The positive of the shear strains corresponding to the positive direction of stresses (Fig. 1-3) is shown in Figs. 3-1 and 3-2. In the next wil be shown that in Eq. 3-14, the three elastic constants, E, are not independent of each other, and that for isotropic materials, are only two constants. If a body experiences a change in temperature, the three normal equations should be modified by adding to each the expression Eq. 2-17. No changes in shear strains due to a change in temperature

A 50 mm cube of steel is subjected to a uniform pressure of 200 MPa acting on all faces. Determine the change in dimension between two parallel faces of the
cube. Let E = 200 GPa and v = 0.25.

it

Solution

Using
given

a compressive

the Errst expression

stress,

in Eq.

3-14

and Eq.

3-15,

and noting

that

pressure

is

place
in all

in isotropic
directions.

materials
be clearly understood

since If the
determine

such
that

materials
Eq.
deformation

have
3-14 gives

the
strains,

same
i.e.,

e, = 200 x 105 = --5 X 10 -4

mm/mm

200 X 10 3 -x 50 = -0.025

200 x 10 i
mm (contraction)

It should

Ax
of

= xZx

= -5

x 10 -4

mations
member,

per
in

unit
order

length.
to

strain
the

is constant
of

along
such

the

length

In this case

A = Ay = Az.

a member,

t50
B

Hooke's

Law,

Pressure

Vessels,

and

Thick.Walled

Cylinders

Sec.

3-8.

Dilatation

and

Bulk

Modulus

t5t

3-7.

E, G, and

v Relationships
first it 3~11(a), This can'
a trian then with

()

In order to demonstrate the relationship among E, G, and v, be shown that a state of pure shear, such as shown in Fig. be transformed into an equivalent system of normal stresses. shown in the fol owing manner. Bisect square element ABCD by diagonal AC and isolate element, as shown in Fig. 3-11(b). If this element is dz thick, area associated with sides AB or BC is dA, and that associated

diagonal

AC

is V dA.
acting toward

Since

the shear

stress

acting

on the areas
'V
other

dA
element between extensional
001 002 T

, the forces
normal

the components

forces acting
to AC.

parallel

on these diagonal
force

to diagonal

areas are ' dA. The BD are in equilibrium.

BD develop
by

a resultant
normal

components On the
stresses

of

dA act
00

Fig.

342

force
'(b) Force diagram

on area X, dA associated with diagonal AC. This gives rise 00X/ dA shown in the figure. Since the shear stress resultant
must be equal,
and

This

is equilibrated

the

deformation shear

Kinematics a relationship
and strains.

of

for

it fol ows

that

00 = '. These

stresses

are

to a and
shown

establishing

t

3-11(c) By isolating proceeding 002 = -'. This representa. Fig. 3-1 l(a). represented stresses, as

Eq.

cannot be treated as forces. an element with a side BD, as shown in Eq. 3-11(d), in the same manner as before, a conclusion is reached The results of the two analyses are displayed in Fig. tion of stress is completely equivalent to that shown Therefore, a pure shear stress at a point can be alternative by the normal stresses at 45 with the directions of the shown in Fig. 3-11(e), and numerically,
001  --02  'r

v E =  (1 + v)
relations for the strain along the

(3-18)
shear

(c)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

and 'simplifying,
2(1 +

Equating

the

two

alternative

v)

(3-19)

A B
(d)

This important stress transformation enables one to proceed in establi: ing the relationship among E, G and v. For this purpose, consider deformed element shown in Fig. 3-12, and determine the strain in DB on two dif erent bases. In one approach, determine strain from stresses; in the other, from the equivalent normal stresses. Considering only infinitesimal deformations, and let ing sin -    and cos  -- 1, it fol ows that displacement BB' due to shear is The projection of this displacement onto diagonal DB', which, to the of the approximation adopted, is equal to the stretch of DB, is

is the

basic

relation

between

E,

G,

and

v; it shows

that

these

quan-

tities

are not independent'of one another. If any two of these are deterexperimental y, the third can be computed. Note that the shear G is always less than the elastic modulus E, since the Poisson a positive quantity. For most matedhals, v is in the neighborhood
4.

Therefore,
Hence,

since

the

length

of DB
Eq.

is Va,

its normal

strain

45 is

Dilatation

and

Bulk

Modulus

recalling

that

' = C,W,

3-1,

one

has

-o 2

e45o = -
of

(3-15

(e)

Fig. 3-1t
pure shear equivalent

Transformation
stress normal into stresses.

However, the shear stresses causing the deformation shown in Fig. 12 are equivalent to the normal stresses represented in Fig. 3-1 l(e). fore, if the x axis is directed along diagonal DB, the first Eq. 3-14 applied by taking 00, = 00, cry = -002, and 00z = 0. In this manner alternative expression for the normal strain in diagonal DB is found.

extending some of the established concepts, one can derive an equafor volumetric changes in elastic matedhals subjected to stress. In the process of doing this, two new terms are introduced and defined. The sides dx, dy, and dz of an infinitestimal element after straining become (1 + e,) dx, (1 + %) dy, and (1 + ez) dz, respectively. After g the initial volume from the volume of the strained element, change in volume is determined. This is
Study of this section is optional.

52

Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick-Walled

(1 + e,) dx (1 + ey) dy (1 + ez) dz - dxdydz

Cylinders
 (e + ey + ez) dx dy

Sec. 3.9. Cylindrical

and Spherical

Pressure Vessels
r I = Inside

where the products of strain e.ey + eyez + eze, + e,eyez, being are neglected. Therefore, in the infinitesimal (small) strain theory, change in volume per unit volume, often referred to as dilatation,
fined as

small e, is
(a)

oa p

pLridO_ r;dius
O2

e= ex+ ey+
The

terms

Based

shear

of stresses

on the generalized
and

strains

cause

no

change

material

Hooke's

in volume.

constants.

law,

For
2v

the dilatation
this

purpose,

c an be found
the first

Eqs.

3-14

must

be added

together.

This
--(cr.
1 -

yields

/r lA=P , x pAl=2P oA =P

(3-21
(d) (e)

0 2e P
(f)

e = ex + ey + ez which
normal

+ cry + cr0

P
can

means
stresses.

that body

dilatation is subjected

is proportional

tensity

If an elastic

p, so that

cry, = cry = cr = -p,

to hydrostatic

NON-ACTIVATED i.e., no bending VERSION of the walls takes place. A sphere is an ideal a closed pressure vessel if the contents are of negligible weight; then from Eq. 3-21, www.avs4you.com ends, a matter to be commented on in more detail in the next
to the algebraic sum of
The walls of an ideal thin-walled pressure vessel act

Fig. 3-13 Diagrams

for analysis

of thin-walled

cylindrical

pressure

vessels.

as a membrane,

pressure

of uniform

drical

vessel

is also

good

with

the

exception

of the junctures

e =
The
bulk

E
k represents
in volume

P
the ratio
and

or
is called the

= k modulus

3(1

2v

pressure

The analysi

to the

quantity
modulus.

decrease

of the hydrostatic

of compression,

compressive

isolated from this vessel by passing two planes perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder and one additional longitudinal plane through the same axis, shown in Fig. 3-13(b). The conditions of symmetry exclude the presence of any shear stresses in the planes of the sections, as shear stresses would cause an incompatible distortion of the tube. Therefore, the stresses
that can exist on the sections of the cylinder only be the normal

vessel

s of pressure

such

as a boiler,

vessels

as shown

wil begin

in Fig. 3~13(a).

by considering

A segment

shape for a cylinwith the section. a cylindrical

is

the respective
inder

stresses,

cr! and

3-9.
In this

Cylindrical
vessels:
section,

and

Spherical
and spherical.
Hooke's

Pressure
toward

Vessels
of these
.types

sure

portance.
cation

very- widely

of the

In analyzing

used in industry;
generalized

cylindrical

attention

is directed

such

vessels

hence,
law

for

this topic
is required.

Both

two

elastic

is of great
deformations,

types

of thin-walled

of vessels

Let the internal pressure in excess of the external pressure Pa (gage pressure), and let the internal radius of the cylinder the force on an infinitesimal area Lri dO (where dO is an infinitesimal of the cylinder caused by the internal pressure acting normal pLri dO; see Fig. 3-13(c). The component of this force acting izontal direction is (pLr dO) cos 0; hence, the total resisting

in equilibrium

areas

cr2, shown

against

on which

in Fig.
the

they

3-13(b).

internal

act, maintain
pressure.

These

the element

stresses,

multiplied

of the cyl-

by

practical

an

im?

acting

on the

cylindrical

segment

is

be p psi or be ri. Then angle) thereto is in the horforce of 2P

(3-23)

2P

= 2

pLri

cos

dO

= 2prL

Hooke's

Law,

Pressure

Vessels,

and

Thick.Walled

Cylinders

symmetry, half of this total force is resisted at the top the cylinder and the other half is resisted at the bottom. stresses 0-2 acting in a direction parallel to the axis of the c do not enter into the above integration. Instead of obtaining the force 2P caused by the internal pressure integration, as above, a simpler equivalent procedure is available. an alternate point of view, the two forces P resist the force developed the internal pressure p, which acts perpendicular to the projected are A of the cylindrical segment onto the diametral plane; see Fig. 3-13( This area in Fig. 3-13(b) is 2riL; hence, 2P = Ap = 2riLp. This is resisted by the forces developed in the material in the longitudinal cut and since the outside radius of the cylinder is to, the area of both gitudinal cuts is 2A = 2L(ro - ri). Moreover, if the average acting on the longitudinal cut is 0-2, the force resisted by the walls of t cylinder is 2L(ro - ri)0-. Equating the two forces, 2riLp = 2L(ro - ri)0. Since ro - ri is equal to t, the thickness of the cylinder wall, the expression simplifies' to

Again through normal

from

Etowever, development

ro - r = t, the thickness is restricted to thin-walled

of the cylindrical wall, and since vessels, ro  r - r; hence,

this

(3 -25)

(a)

Note that for thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessels, 0.2  0.#2. An analogous method of analysis can be used to derive an expression for thin-walled spherical pressure vessels. By passing a section through center of the sphere of Fig. 3-14(a), a hemisphere shown in Fig. 3is isolated. By using the same notation as before, an equation idento Eq. 3-25 can be derived. However, for a sphere, any section that asses through the center of the sphere yields the same result whatever the inclination of the element's side; see Fig. 3-14(c). Hence, the maximum membrane stresses for thin-walled spherical pressure vessels are

(b)

The normal

stress

given

by Eq.

ferential or the hoop stress. Equation 3-24 is valid only for thin-w cylinders, as it gives the average stress in the hoop. However, as is in Example 3-6, the wall thickness can reach one-tenth of the inte radius and the error in applying Eq. 3-24 wil stil be small. Since Eq. 24 is used primarily for thin-walled vessels, where ri  to, the for the. radius is usually omit ed. Equation 3-24 can also be derived by passing two longitudinal as shown in Fig. 3-13(e). Because of the assumed membrane action. forces P in the hoop must be considered acting tangential y to the c The horizontal components of the forces P maintain the horizontal ponent of the internal pressure in a state of static equilibrium. The other normal stress 0-2 acting in a cylindrical pressure vessel

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 3-24 is often referred to as the circu' www.avs4you.com

Infinitesimal elements for the vessels

(3-26)

analyzed

showing

the

normal

stresses 0- and 0-2 viewed from 3-14(a), and 3-14(c). According .ociated with these normal Which these shear stresses act ward a section through the wall

the outside are indicated in Figs. 3-13(a), to Eq. 1-10, the maximum shear stresses stresses are half as large. The planes on may be identified on elements viewed to-

Flg. 3-t4 spherical

Thin-walled pressure

vessel.

Fig.3-15. Thestress 0'2actsperpendicultaorlthyeplaneofthefigure.

Consider a closed cylindrical steel pressure vessel, as shown in Fig. 3-13(a). The radius of the cylinder is 1000 mm and its wall thickness is 10 mm. (a) Determine the hoop and the longitudinal stresses in the cylindrical wall caused by an internal pressure of 0.80 MPa. (b) Calculate the change in diameter of the cylinder caused by pressurization. Let E = 200 GPa, and v = 0.25. Assume that r  ro  r.
Solution
Planes
shear

of a vessel.

Such

a section

is shown

in

-*----t

o-

longitudinally, Fig. force problem. By its axis, a free-body

3-13(b), and it is determined passing a section through as shown in Fig. 3-13(0

for 0-2,

by solving the vessel is obtained.

a simple
peri:
The force

veloped longitudinal
forces and

by the internal pressure is prr, and the force developed stress 0-2 in the walls is 0-2(rr - rr2). Equating
solving

these

by the
The stresses fol ow by direct application of Eqs. 3-24 and 3-25:

of

maximum
stresses

prrT
0-2 -I

= 0-2(xPo
prT

- rrT)
prT

(ro

+ r)(ro-

ri)

0'2 =

pr =
t

10 x 10 -3

0.8 x 1

80MPa

Fig. 3-15 In yielded steel pressure vessels shear slip planes at 45 can be
observed on etched

specimens.

'55

Hooke's

Law,

Pressure

Vessels,

and

Thick.

Walled

Cylinders

Sec.

3.10.

Remarks

on

Thin.Walled

Pressure

Vessels

and

0'2 = 2t

pr

2 x 10 x 10 -3 = 40 MPa

0.8 x 1

Hence,

A = er = 0.15 x 10 -3 x 103 = 0.15 mm

decreases side. crBei it can be onegl setting cr t=o zero cry, %.on =theor2,outand = n0g insmal thel, first expressi n ectiend. Eq. Hence, 3-14, one 
obtains the hoop strain el:

The stress perpendicular

to the cylinder wall, or3 = p = 0.80 MPa, on the insi.d

For an industshown rial lainborat unit iswilto operat emple oy ata pressure e dimensions Fig. ory 3-16. a pi Thelot vessel an internal vessel pressure of thof
.7 MPa. If for this unit 20 bolls are to be used on a 650 mm bolt circle diameter, what is the required bolt diameter at the root of the threads? Set the allowable
Bolts

EXA[VIF

650

mm

-----

600

mm-----

el =  - v
On pressurizing condition, the
strained and
the initial h6op

0'

0'2

- 200 x 103

80

4 x 200 x 103

40

= 0.35 x 10 -3 mm/mm

the bolt threads

ution

in tension

the stress

for the bolts at 125 MPa; however,

concentration factor

is 2.

assume

that at the root of

Rubber gasket
500 mm --,

the

the cylinder, the radius hoop strain el can be found

unstrained hoop
length. Therefore,

circumferences
+ A)

r increases by an amount A. For thi by calculating the dif erence in

and dividing this quantity

vertical force F acting on the cover is caused 0.7 MPa acting on the horizontal projected area
gasket, i.e.,

by the internal pressure within the seif-sealhng

p of rubber

gl =
By
earlier,

2r(r

2xr

-- 2rr

--

r
value for el

(3-27

F = 0.7

x 106

x 'i1(600/2)
distributed

2 = 198
among

x 109 N
the 20 bolts,

Figure

3-t6

recasting

this

expression

and

substituting

0.35
EXAMPLE 3-4

x 10 -3

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

factor K = 2 and applying Eq. 2-19, the required x 103 = 0.35 mm
x 9.90 x

the

numerical

per

bolt is 198 x 109/20

that

this

force

= 9.90

is equally

x 109 N. Using

the given
bolt

area

stress-concentration

the

force

A at the root

of the

109

125

x 106

= 158

mm 2

Consider
ness

of 10 mm.

a steel

spherical

(a) Determine

pressure

the

vessel

maximum

of radius

membrane

1000

mm

stresses

having

caused

a wall

Hence
by

internal caused
Solution

pressure of 0.80 by pressurization.

MPa. Let

lb) Calculate the change in diameter E = 200 GPa, and v = 0.25. Assume

in the that ri 

min. tively

Note from Example 2-22 that initial small increase in total bolt stress

the required

bolt diameter

d at the root of the threads

tightening of the bolts results when the vessel is pressurized.

d = 2X/-

in a rela-

= 14.2

Remarks
maximum membrane normal stresses fol ow directly from
= 40 MPa

on to note stress

Thin-Walled

Pressure size and vessel

Vessels wall thickness, is only about the one-

The

Eq.

3-26.

is instructive maximum normal

0'1 = 0'2
expansion
The same

pr

2t

2 x 10 x 10 -3
example

0.80

radius circle.

r due to this cause, A = er, where However, from the first expression

of the sphere

procedure

as in the previous

due to pressurization.

el is the membrane in Eq. 314, one

Hence,

can

if A is the increase
strain

be used
has
x

for finding
on the

in the

el=-v

0'1

0'2

E-200x

40

103

4x200x

40

half as large as that in a cylindrical one. The reason for this can be clarified by making reference to Figs. 3-17 and 3-18. In a cylindrical pressure vesthe longitudinal stresses, 0'2, parallel to the vessel's axis, do not contribute to maintaining the equilibrium of the internal pressure p acting on the curved surface; whereas in a spherical vessel, a system of equal stresses resists the applied internal pressure. These stresses, given by Eqs. 3-24-3-26, are treated as biaxial, although the internal pressure p acting on the wall causes local compressive stresses on the inside equal
Study of this section is optional.

that for comparable in a spherical pressure

103

= 0.15

10-3mm/mm

Hooke's

Law,

Pressure

Vessels,

and

Thick.

Walled

Cylinders

Sec.

3-.

Introduction

(heads)
pressure

erical ends, ses increase

very

of pressure
undesirable.

thick end considerably;

plates

vessels

must be very
in Fig.

see

are

Fig.

used, the 3-19(c).

careful y
with

local bending For this reason,

and

designed.
from

9 Flat ends
given
sheets used in
(a)

the

shear ends

A majority are joined

be found

o 1

dif erent
An vessel. element cylindrical of a
Fig. 3-t8 thin-walled pressure An element spherical of

types

vessels

of pressure together of butt

in Section

are show.n
joints.

vessels by means
1-14.

are manufactured of welding. Examples additional

Some

3-20,

comments

preference
should
based

curved of welds

on welded
derived

to the
joints
thinpres-

Fig. 3-t7 thin-walled pressure

In conclusion, :ases
as in the

it must

be emphasized

that

the formulas

for

vessel.

of internal

pressure

vessels
case

pressure.

in the preceding
If a vessel
tank

to this pressure. As already pointed out in Example 3-3,. such stresses small in comparison with the membrane stresses 0. and 0'2, and are erally ignored for thin-walled pressure vessels. A more complete sion of this problem is given in Section 3-13 and Example 3~6. A more important problem arises at geometrical changes in the shape
vessel. These can cause a disturbance in the membrane action. An

of a vacuum

or a submarine,

is to be designed

section

instability

for

be used
on the

external

only
(buckling)

for
Fig. 3-20 Examples used in pressure Double-fil et lap (b) double-welded with V-grooves.

(b)

the
ulas

walls
can

may
be

occur,
meaningless.

and

stress

calculations

previous

o welds vessels. (a) joint, and butt joint

of

of each

tration of this condition is given in Fig. 3-19 using the numerical found in Examples 3-3 and 3-4. If a cylindrical pressure vessel has hemispherical ends, as shown Fig. 3-19(a), and' if initial y the cylinder and the heads were

other,

under

pressufization

they

by the dashed lines. In general, the cylinder by dif erent amounts and would tend to create as shown at A. However, physical continuity tained by local bending and shear stresses juncture, as shown in Fig. 3-19(b). If instead

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

would tend to expand, as
Introduction

and the ends would a discontinuity in the wall} of the wall must be in the neighborhood of of relatively flexible

Analysis discussed

of thick-walled cylinders under internal and external pressure in this part. This problem is related to the thin-walled cylinpressure vessel problem treated earlier. In order to solve the posed problem, acharacteristic method of the mathematical theory of elasticity is employed. This consists of assuring equilibrium for each infinitesimal and, through the .use of geometric relations, allowing only their (possibl) deformations. The equilibrium conditions are reto those of deformation using the generalized Hooke's law. Then

0.35

mm
Detail A

(b)

R

= 1000

mm

tained

governing dif erential subject to the from that used in statical indeterminancy assumption in each chanics of solids, it

the

equation prescribed engineering is particular becomes

using

the methods
was

of the mathematical

established on the preceding bases is boundary conditions. This approach difmechanics of solids, where the internal resolved by means of a plausible kinematic case. Occasionally, in engineering menecessary to draw upon the solutions ob-

theory

of elasticity.

This,

discontinuities

problems
Deformed

already resorted to in treating in axial y loaded bars. Solutions using the finite-element approach,
Vessel Code gives theory is beyond the formulas for thin-walled
of cases.

stress concentrations of two- and three-dimenphilosophically,

at

are

in

shape
(a) (c) Deformation of the same

9 The
cylindrical
at a flat head

pressure

vessel

ASME of ends; limitation,

Unfired Pressure the necessary the elementary

in the majority

practical information on the scope of this text. In spite of cylinders developed here

Fig.

3-t9

Exaggerated

deformations

of pressure

vessels

at discontinuities.

o The

suitable

remainder

of this

chapter

can

be omit ed

in a first

course.

t60

Hooke's

Law,

Pressure

Vessels,

and

Thick-Walled

Cylinders

Sec.

3-t2.

Solution

of the

General

Problem

'16'1

many ticity. yet

the

Mathematically,
solution

respects In both

similar cases,
is carried

it clearly
cylinders.
solution for

displays

the problem

to the methods of the mathematical one seeks solutions to boundary-value the characteristic
further

of thick-walled
including

by

method
and

cylinders

inelastic

used
plastic

behavior

in elasticity.

is rather

theory of problems
of thi,

zent shown. Further, equai and opposite The nature of the

formulated, pattern

a characteristic of reasoning.

the axial stresses cry, on the two faces of the element normal to the plane of the paper. stresses acting on an infinitesimal element having
elasticity solution pr6ceeds along

the

wailed
amined.

Both
of the

the
problem cylinders.
other

elastic-plastic
of thick-wailed

the

states
under

are
Equilibrium element chosen the desi must be in static is 1 x r dqb; equilibrium. To express err + dcrr this acts matheis 1 x

The

cylinders

pressure
earlier
of extrusion

provides

thin-wailed
molds

bounds
and.

on the applicability
This
mechanicai

solution
equipment.

of the equations
is also useful

for

requires :es are obtained

on which

err acts

the evaiuation by multiplying

of forces stresses
that

on which

acting on the element. These by their respective areas. The

**342.

Solution

of

the

General

Problem

inder be pi and the outside, or external, pressure be po. Stresses in the wall, the cylinder caused by these pressures are sought. This problem can be conveniently solved by using cylindrical nates. Since the cylinder is long, every ring of unit thickness perpendicular to the plane of the paper is stressed alike. A typicai
itesimai element of unit thickness is defined by two and an angle dqb, as shown in Fig. 3-21(b). If the normal radial stress acting on the infinitesimal tance r from the center of the cylinder is err, this distance r + dr wil be crr q- (do'r/dr) dr. Both normal radii, r and r +
element at a

Consider has the

a long cylinder with axial y restrained ends whose cross dimensions shown in Fig. 3-21(a).  The inside radius of this is ri; the outside radius is ro. Let the internal presst/re in the c'

+ dr) dqb; and each area on which crt acts is 1 x dr. The weight of the itself is neglected. Since the angle included between the sides of the element is dqb, both tangential stresses are inclined dqb to the line

erpendicular
0,

to OA. Then,

summing

the forces

aiong

a radiai

line,  Fr

Simplifying, and VERSION neglecting the infinitesimais of higher NON-ACTIVATED www.avs4you.com crt -- crr -- r-F-F = 0 or d-Z- + -dcrr dcrr Crr-

crrr dqb + 2crt dr

crr +  dr (r + dr) dqb = 0

order,
Crt
r

= 0

(3-28)
of defor-

acting ogous from

from

on the other to the hoop the condition

the center must
referred

two faces of the element stresses in a thin cylinder, of symmetry, every element
be stressed
Lamfi

variable stress tangential are err. These stresses, are equal. Moreover, at the same radi
stresses act on

at

it can
the

one equation are required

aiike,

no

shear

be solved. and properties Compatibility

has two to express

This

is done of materiais

unknown stresses, fit and cry. Intermediate this equation in terms of one unknown
by introducing into the the geometry

so

problem.

is sometimes

 This

problem

was

to as the

originally

solved

problem.

by Lamfi,

a French

engineer,

in

:tric

The

deformation . directions.

a cylindricai surface of radius r, Fig. 3-21(a), displacement or movement of the adjacent Hence, the strain er of an element in the radial
u+du

of an element is described by its strains Ifu represents the radial displacement

u + (du/dr) dr is the surface of radius r + direction is

in the radial or movement

and

u + rr du dr ) - u
dr
(b)

du
dr

(3-29)

FiG. 3-21 cylinder.

Thick-walled
(a)

The

strain et in the tangentiai of the circumference

direction of the deformed

fol ows

cylindrical

by subtracting surface

from the of radius

62

Hooke's

Law, Pressure
the

Vessels,
lat er

and Thick. Walled

of the unstrained length. Hence,
2x(r + u)
2xr

Cylinders
cylinder of radius
u
r

Sec. 3d2. Solution

r and

of the General
stresses are

Problem
by

r + u the circumference the dif erence by

s. 3-29
2w'

3-36

by expressing
and 3-30;

then

them

the

radial

in terms

and

of the

tangential

displacement

u, as given

fir = (1 + v)(1 - 2v) (1 - v)r + v

in terms of

(3-37)

Note
unknown

that
variable

Eqs.
of Material

3-29
u.

and

3-30

give

strains

expressed

Properties

(1 - v)(1 - 2v)
law relating strains to stresses here in the form 2 is given by

Vrr
Eq. 3-28 and simplifying, the desired

The generalized 3-14, and can

Hooke's be restated

by substituting

dif erential

these

equation

values

is obtained:

into

;r = _(O'r -- ]JO't -- l/O'x)

1
1

(3-31

k
of the Dif erential can be verified the radial

dr 2 +
Equation

r dr

r2

= 0

(3-38)

However, deformation, equation

in the case of the thick-walled cylinder with axial y the problem is one of plane strain, i.e., e, = 0. The then leads to a relation for the axial stress as
O' x = V(O' r q- O't)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com u= Ar+ A2/r

by substitution, displacement the general u of any point 3-32 O'r and
-- lJ);r

solution on the

of Eq. cylinder,

3-38, is

which

(3-39)

Introducing taneously

gives

this

result into expressions

O' r (1 (1

Eqs. 3-31 for stresses

E

and

and solving crt in terms

q-

them of strains:

the
the boundaries

constants
u is not

A and
of the body.

A2

must

be determined
the

from

the
outer

conditions
boundary

Unfortunately,
2v) 2v)

for

the

+ v)(1
E

[(1

known

determination

at either

of the
inner

constants

or the

A and

A2,

the

of

Stresses
-

the cylinder's

acting

wall.

on the

However,

elements

the known
at the

respective

pressures
err(to) =

radii.

are equal
-po

Hence,

to the radial
(3-40)

+ v)(1

O'r(l'i)

= --pi

and

These
elastic

equations
material.

bring
of the Dif erential

the

plane

strain
Equation

condition

into

the

problem

)Ver,
equilibrium equation,
one

since

the

minus

Formation
Now
one variable
2 Since
two

into

u as given
the
by Eqs.

signs

expression

by Eq.
3-37

are

used

for

3-39

to indicate

O'r given

and

du/dr

compressive

by Eq.

= A - A2/r 2 can be sub3-37, the boundary con-

stresses.

More-

given

become

the

u. Thus,
sides,

eliminates
be

Eq.

3-28,
the
element

strains

can

be expressed
;r and
an

e, from

in terms
Eqs.
an

tween

an infinitesimal
of its
system.

it can

cylindrical

treated

as if it were

includes

an infinitesimal
element

fir(r/) = --pi = (1 + v)(1 - 2v) A - (1 - 2v)

Crr(ro) = -po = (1 + v)(1E - 2v) I A - (1 - 2v)

(3-41)

in a

coordinate

t64

Hooke's

Law,

Pressure

Vessels,

and

Thick.

Walled

Cylinders

Sec.

3.13.

Special

Cases
Plane

'165
of
Trnax

Solving

these

equations

simultaneously

for

A

and

A2

yields

A1 =(1+v)(1 -2v)pi 2-por2o ri1

E r r/2

A2 = 1 E+ v (Pi r2o- -po)riri22ro 2'

It is these stress-strain However, the resulting 38, and the radial and .walled cylinder that a dif erent constant radial displacement u.
A becomes

relations that must be dif erential equation tangential stresses are and are given by Eq. A must be used in The constant A2 remains

used in the solution process. remains the same as Eq. 3also identical to those in the 3-43. The only dif erence is Eq. 3-39 for determining the the same as in Eq. 3-42,

Po =0

Or = --Pi
max

A to

1 - vpri

r2 _ r2
po

2 - por2o

(3-46)
Fig. 3.22
*m

These constants, radial displacement specified pressures. aries of the cylinder If Eq. 3-39 and equations cylinder

used in Eq. 3-39, of any point on the Thus, displacements can be computed. its derivative, together

when

permit the determination elastic cylinder subjected of the inner and outer with stresses the constants at any given point by

An

element
occurs.

in

*'3-13.
Ec s. 3-43

Special
pressure simplify only, to

Cases
i.e., pt  0 and = 0, Fig. 3-22. For this case,

which

3-42,

are

substituted
for
are

the radial obtained.

into

and These

Eqs.

tangential are
C2

3-37,

and

the results

are simplified,

of an elas

O'r

O'r ' Cl

r2

where
Note that

C - piti2ra - Pr2 rt2

-O' r ' fit is constant

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 2 and C2 = (pl www.avs4you.com

and crt = C + -w
F-

C2

- r2o-Pi-- r/2r/2- (1-) /

a compressive stress
and its

(3-47,
and
maxum

(3-43

ro2/r 2  1, fir is ways

, is ways
ri.

is mimum
so occurs

at r

= r. Similarly,

a tensile

stress,

- po)ri t'7 -- r/2

atr=

over

the

whole

cross-sectional

area

the
also inder.

cylinder.
constant

This
over

means
the entire

that

the
cross-sectional

axial

stress
area

cry, as given
of the

by
thick-walled

Eq.

3-34

For brit le mater,s, However, for ductile adopt the criterion mated's capacity ise for thin-wed

the second Eq. 3-47 genery governs the design. materies, such as md steel, it is more appropriate for the if itiation of yielding due to shear rather than for resisting normal stress. This issue does not cylinders. In such problems, the mimum radi

stress
shear nomal

Remarks

on

the

Thin-Disc

Problem

The to a were -v(. For

stress-strain relations used for a thick-walled plane strain condition. If, on the other to be considered, the plane stress condition + c&,)/E) governs. (See the discussion this case, the stress-strain Eqs. 3-31 and

hand,

cylinder corres an annular thin (i.e., cry, = 0 and at the end of Section 3-32 reduce to
1

disc e, = 3-6.'

to Eq. 1-10, the relationship between the mimum stresses is simple and dkect, being *m = */2, or she yield can be used as a criterion. However, cylinders, the radial stress r may be of the same as *t. For such a case, the maximum shear stress

equal

to pt,

i5 neglible

in comparison

with

,.

Therefore,

norm and and either the for thickorder of magmust be found

maximum shear

ac-

by supeosing

the effects
in Fig. 3-23. inner surface

from

both

of the lge

nom

stresses
their

3 in the

found

manner vues

in this manner

shown at the

should

Both of these of the cylinder.

be comped

with

stresses The

the mimum

reach mimum

shear
where

stress

stress
f yp

8r = _(O'r -- l/O't)
and by solving
E

and
simultaneously,

, =  (-vcrr

+ err)

that a material is the no

can yield

attain. stress

Such a vue can in uniial tension.

be taken as f yp/2, On this basis,

--

these

equations

Tmax =

(fit)max
has

-- (fir)max

r2o - r/2
between

p,r2o

-- O'yp

(3-48)

'r - 1 - v 2 (er q- vet)

and

or, - 1 - 1/2 (;t q- ]Yer)

0 <  < 0.5,

13 The

axial

this

stress

stress

cr z given

an intermediate

by Eq.

3-34

does

value

not

enter

the

or, and

problem,

err.

since

for

Fig.

transformations
maximum

3.23

Stress

shear

for

stresses.

obtaining

t66

'Hooke's
and

Law, Pressure

Vessels,

and Thick-Walled

Cylinders

Sec. 3.t4.

Behavior

of Ideally

Plastic

Thick-Walled

Cylinders

67

Pi = Pyp -External pressure

to

0'y(ro

2r2o

this case, Eqs.

only,

i.e.,

pi = 0 and po  O. For

43 simplify

r/2 (1 -'r/ ) O'r -- r2o-P"--2Since r/r 2 -< 1, both stresses compressive stress is crt and are
occurs

(3-5
(at)av = 10pi

(ar)rnin

= 0

(at)av
({/t)rnin = 9.5Pi

= Pi

Equations 3-50 must not be used for very thin-walled ling of the walls may occur and strength formulas give
EXAMPLE 3-6

always compressive. at r = ri.

The

)max = 10.5pi

(at)max
Radial

= Pi
stresses

- 'Pl
Tangential stresses

ylinders. misleading

(a)

G = 1.1q

or t=O.

lq

(b)

q =4qrt

i=3

Fig.

3-24

stress
can

is plot ed

in Fig.
this figure.

3-28(b).
The

A striking
average

variation
tangential

of the tangential
stress given by

given

Make a comparison pressure pl as given

ro = 1.1r,
Solution

of the tangential by the Lam6 by the appro_ximate formula

and if(b) ro = 4r4

see

stress distribution caused by the formula in Section 3-12 with the for thin-walled cylinders of Section 3-9 if
Fig. 3-24.

3-24,

be using

observed from t = 3r, is

(a)

Using

Eq.

3-47b

for

or,,

(Crt)a v = pirit = -Pi 5 NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

stress is nowhere near the true maximum

1 = 5Pi
stress.

The

(O"t)r=r i = (O't)max
while,
3-24 is

(1.1ri)2p,,._2 r/2 [ 1 qt = 0.1r, the average

(1.1ri 2r,)2']
hoop

stresses shown by the It is interesting

radial

= 10.5pi
shrunk

pressure, the maximum tangential this necessitates spe. cial techniques

in gun manufacture, onto the smaller
and tensile cylinder A greater

were shaded to note

also area that

computed by using Eq. 3-47a for in Fig. 3-24(b). no matter how thick a cylinder

err, and

the

results

(0',) . . -- (O")min -- (1.lr' - F/2 1 + kl.lr, j j = 9.5p,

since the wall thickness stress given by

inner

act

in tension.

instead of using a single cylinder, another cylinder one, which sets up initial compressive stresses in the stresses in the outer one. In operation, the compressive is released first, and only then does this cylinder begin range of operating pressures is obtained thereby.

stress 4 wil to reduce

not be smaller the maximum

is made

than p. In stress. For

to resist

pirlrl i -- 10pi (cr,)avg = pir_i t _ O.

24,
are

These results no appreciable

are

shown in Fig. error is involved.

3-24(a).

Note

particularly

that

in using

Eq.

Behavior Cylinders
case
yield

of

Ideally
cylinder section,

Plastic
under Eq. cylinder

Thick-Walled
internal 3-49 was pressure derived alone the was onset
shear.

(b) By using

Eq. 3-47b for or,, the tangential

stresses

are obtained

as before.

These

(O"t)r=ri = (O't)max -- (4ri7r2)21 j = - piri2 r [ 1 + (4ri 17 pi

(0',) . . = (O")min -- (4ri - ri2 k4riJ J = - p'

of a thick-walled in the previous at the inner surface 2uent increase the outer surface,
Problem 3-21.

and

for

of the due in the internal pressure, and an elastic-plastic

to the maximum the yielding state prevails

progresses in the

cyl-

]4 See

68

Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick. Walled Cylinders

inder with a limiting radius c elastic. As the pressure increases, tually, the entire cross section In the fol owing discussion, ideally plastic material wil be beyond

Sec. 344. Behavior of Ideally Plastic Thick-Walled

Cylinders

the

becomes as before, assumed

which radius ful y the as

--

the cross section c also increases until, plastic at the ultimate maximum shear criterion

*max
As noted earlier, this implies fi, and fir. A reexamination in the elastic range, provided this applies only if the ratio certain value. 5 For v = hence, the solutions to be long as ro < 5.75r (with v = is more complicated when the scope of this book.

--

fit

fir

fiyp

2
value this to plastic is less to valid and

(3-51
betwei be ran be
only
Elastic Plastic

that fi, has an of Eqs. 3-34 and that 0 < v < of outer to inner 0.3, this ratio can obtained in this 0.3). The task of this condition is

intermediate 3-47 shows 0.5, but in the radius, ro/rt, be established section wil be finding the stress not satisfied

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig.

3-25

5.75

fir = fiyp

lB r + C
be expressed

(3-53)

cylinder
(zero

is be'

external

with

inner

pressure)
fir(b)

radius

can

a and

outer

radius

as

b, the boundary

con(3-54)

= 0 = fiyp C is given --fiyp

In b + C as

Plastic
The the but Static

Behavior

of Thick-Walled

Cylinders

equations of static equilibrium are applicable, elastic or plastic state is considered. Hence, must be supplemented by a yield condition. equilibriu/n, Eq. 3-28:
dfir
dr

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

regardless Eq. 3-28 of

Hence,

the

integration

constant

is

C =

In b

radial and respectively.

tangential

stresses

are

then

obtained,

using

Eqs.

3-53

and
(3-55) (3-56)

Thus,

fir

-r

fit

fir = fiyp0n r -- In b) = fiyp in r/b fit = fiyp 3c fir = fiyp(1 q- In r/b)

stress distributions 25(c), whereas Fig. given

Yield

condition,

Eq.

3-51:
fit -fir fiyp

plastic state the ultimate

basic dif erential equation

3-25(b) represents internal

by shows

Eqs.

3-55 and 3-56 the elastic stress

are shown distributions.

in Fig. 3Since

the ultimate pressure, using

collapse Eq.

3-55,

of the thick-walled is given as

By
comes

combining

these

two

equations,

the

pult
Behavior
given cross any

= fir(a)
of Thick-Walled

= fiyp In a/b
Cylinders
the yield i.e.,

(3-57)

dfdrir
The solution of this can

fiYr P = 0
be writ en

or
as

dfir = fiyr__ppdr

5 See niversary
251.

W. T. Koiter, "On Volume on Applied

Partial y Mechanics

Plastic Thick-Walled (Haarlem, Holland:

Tubes," H. Stam,

Biezeno 1953),

232

value of pt that is intermediate to by Eq. 3-49 and Eq. 3-57, respectively, section of the cylinder between the radius c is ful y plastic, whereas b is in the elastic domain, Fig. 3-26. yield condition is just satisfied, and the Can be computed using Eq. 3-49 with r =

and ultimate values pyp < pt < pult, the inner radius a and an interthat between c and the outer At the elastic-plastic interface, corresponding radial stress X c and ro = b; hence,

68

' Hooke's Law, Pressure Vessels, and Thick-Walled Cylinders

inder

Sec. 3-t4. Behavior of Ideally Plastic Thick.Walled Cylinders

cross

tually,

elastic.

with

In the fol owing discussion, ideally plastic material wil

the entire

As the pressure

a limiting

radius

cross

section

increases,

c beyond

as before, be assumed

becomes

the radius

which

ful y

c also

the

the maximum as

plastic

increases

section

at the ultimate
shear

until,

criterion

load

'rmax
As

= fit --2 fir -- fiy2p

that fi has an intermediate value

(3-51)
betwe
Elastic Plastic

fi, and fir. A reexamination in the elastic range, provided

noted

earlier,

this

implies

this

certain

applies

value?

only

For

if the ratio
(with
book.

v = 0.3,

of Eqs. 3-34 and 3-47 shows this to be tru. that 0 < v < 0.5, but in the plastic ran of outer to inner radius, ro/ri, is less than
this ratio can be established to be a cylinder (zero

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig.

3-25

fir

= fiyp can

In r + C

(3-53)

hence, the solutions long as ro < 5.75ri is more complicated

the scope of this

to be obtained in this section wil be valid only v = 0.3). The task of finding the stress when this condition is not satisfied and is be'
Cylinders

with external

inner radius pressure)

fir(b)

a and outer be expressed

radius
as

b, the

boundary

con(3-54)

= 0 = fiyp C is given

In b + C as

Plastic

Behavior

of Thick-Walled

The equations of static equilibrium are appl/cable, the elastic or plastic state is considered. Hence,
but must be supplemented by a yield condition.
Static equilibriutn, Eq. 3-28:
--+--=0 dr

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

regardless Eq. 3-28
Hence, the integration constant

is

C =

--fiyp

In b
obtained, using Eqs. 3-53 and
(3-55) (3-56)

radial and respectively.

tangential

stresses

are

then

Thus,

dfir

fir

-r

fit

fir = fiyp(ln r - in b) = fiyp in db fit = fiyp + fir = fiyp(1 + In rib)

stress distributions whereas Fig. plastic state cylinder, the ultimate

Yield

condition,

Eq.

3-51:
fit -fir fiyp

given by Eqs. 3-55 and 3-56 are shown in Fig. 33-25(b) shows the elastic stress distributions. Since represents the ultimate collapse of the thick-walled internal pressure, using Eq. 3-55, is given as

By
comes

combining

these

two

equations,

the

basic

dif erential

equation
Behavior

Pult

= fir(a)

= fiyp

In a/b

(3-57)

of Thick-Walled

Cylinders

dfdrir
The solution of this can

fiYrP = 0
be writ en

or
as

dfir = fiYr__2 dr

any

value by Eq. section radius

of p that is intermediate to the yield and ultimate values 3-49 and Eq. 3-57, respectively, i.e., pyp < pi  pult, the of the cylinder between the inner radius a and an interc is ful y plastic, whereas that between c and the outer
elastic domain, is just satisfied, using Eq. 3-49 Fig. 3-26.

5 See W. T. Koiter, "On niversay Volume on Applied

251.

Partial y Mechanics

Plastic Thick-Walled (Haarlem, Holland:

Tubes," H. Stam

Biezeno

Ai

b is in the yield condition be computed

and

with

At the elastic-plastic the corresponding radial r = c and ro = b; hence,

interface, stress

70

Hooke's

Law,

Pressure

Vessels,

and

Thick.

Walled

Cylinders

Problems

}blerns
x

Sections

3-7

and

3-8

,ction

3-2
the shear mounting shear spring constant to a square pad with in Example ks, but 10-mm-thick 3-1 changing
rub-

3-5.
to

Using Using
moduli customary

the
alloy

values
calculate and

for
steel.

E and
Poisson's

G given
ratios

in Table
for 2024-

1A

Redesign the same dimensions

of the Appendix, T4 aluminum

3-6.
bulk U.S. Section

Table 1A for 6061-T6

units.

in the Appendix, alluminum

alloy

calculate the and steel in

'ion Consider

3-6 a 4-in
biaxial tensile

3-9

square
stresses

steel
of

bar
20

subjected
ksi in the

to
x

3-7.

A stainless-steel

cylindrical

shell

has

a 36-in

inthat es-

Fig.

3-26

XThis stress becomes the boundary

crvp b2 b--2 c2 2
condition to be used in

and 10 ksi in the y direction. to be in a state of plane stress, in the z direction and the elongations the x and y directions. (b) Assuming a state of plane strain, determine the and the elongations of the bar
: bar
Let E = 30 x 103 ksi and

v =

(a) Assuming determine of the the bar stress in in the x

0.25.

the plate to be
the and z y

what is the allowable working pressure? Assume appropriate hemispherical ends are provided. Also timate the bursting pressure. to a hydroelectric If the diameter
lowable quired? 3-9. A tank

side diameter of the material

and is 0.5 in. thick. If the tensile strength is 80 ksi and the factor of safety is 5,

3-8.

A "penstock,"
stress

with
radius

Eq.

3-53
c. Hence,

for

a ful y

plastic

err(C) = -X =
and
By substituting region is obtained

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Cryp - c 2 -- Gyp Inc + C 2 b 2 b2 www.avs4you.com

Let E = 200 GPa and v = 0.25.

segment

with

inner

radius

a and

out

A piece of to uniformly (see the figure). change in 'these forces? ness as in part

50 by 250 by 10 mm steel plate is subdistributed stresses along its edges (a) IfPx = 100 kN and Py = 200 kN, thickness occurs due to the application (b) To cause the same change in thick(a) by P, alone, what must be its mag-

turbine, operates of the penstock

50 MPa, what of butt-welded construction

i.e.,

a pipe

at a head of 90 m. is 0.75 m and the alwall thickness for the is storre-

for

conveying

water

age of gasoline

(a) Select the plates. Allow

plate thickness 20 ksi for steel

is to be 40 ft in diameter

for the in tension

bottom
and

and

16 ft high.
row assume

of

C =
this
as

O-yp 2 b 2 b- 2 c 2
value of C into Eq.

Crvp In c
3-55, the radial stress in the

the efficiency of welds at 80%. Add in to the computed wall thickness corrosion. Neglect local stresses at vertical walls with the bottom. (Specific gasoline to be stored is 0.721.) (b) bottom of the tank does not restrain
of the tank occur at the walls, bottom? what increase E = 29 x
103

approximately to compensate
the juncture

gravity
in

Assuming the displacement

ksi

of the of the that the

would 0.25.

for

diameter and

v =

O' r = O'yp and by using Eq. 3-51, the tangential

In c

Gyp b 2 -- c 2
2 b 2
Fig. P3-3

(NH3)
vapor of the

3-t0.

A cylindrical
at the
pressure vessel

maximum
of NH3 material

vessel

temperature

is used

for

storing
of
The with

50

ammonia
C.
thickness a tensile

The

stress

in the

plastic

zone

becomes

at 50 C is 20 atm. is limited to 20 mm

3-4.
75

A rectangular
has the
and

steel
foilowing
c = 100

block,
dimensions:
mm. The

such
faces

as shown
of this

in Fig.
b
block

a = 50 mm, forces of 180 kN

O't = Cryp "Jc O'r = Cryp 1 + In

The internal be obtained, ri = c and
stress distributions

O'2yp

mm,

b 2

ected

to uniformly

distributed

(tension)

in the x direction,

200 kN

(tension)

in the y

in diameter

strength of 400 assuming that all what can be the For the selected
that

MPa. (a) If the factor of safety is 5, welds wil be inspected with X-rays, maximum diameter of the vessel? (b) wall thickness, calculate the change
would occur with ammonia at 50 C.

pressure pi at which the plastic using Eq. 3-61, simply as'pi ro.-b, provide the necessary
in the elastic zone.

zone extends from a to c = err(a). Equations 3-47, relations for calculating

and 240 kN (compression) in the z direction. the magnitude of a single system of forces in the y direction that would cause the same in the y direction as the initial forces. Let
0.25.

3-11. An air chamber for a pump, the sectional side view of which is shown in mm on the figure, consists of two pieces. Compute the number of 19-mm bolts (net area 195 mm 2) required to attach the chamber to
the cylinder at plane A-A. The allowable tensile stress

'72

Hooke's

Law,

Pressure

Vessels,

and

Thick.Walled
that
2.

Cylinders

Problems

'173
and 343
tangential a thickpressure

cylinder

stress determine
kN/m

to be completely
Let

the cylinder.
3-t5. An the diameter

develops in the ring what bearing develops

wire

rigid,

(a) determire

a = 2 x 10-s/C

upon cooling, and between the rin

taut

the

-t7.

and E = 7 x
as

An aluminum-alloy to form the pressure The wall thickness

of

tube is shrunk vessel il ustrated of each tube

a steel in the figis 4 mm. The

be used in caltube is pressurstress develops the ends of the develop= 0. Let E^ =

onto

Sections
3-19. 3-20. stress walled

3-12

in the figure.
A A

aluminum alloy of a cylindrical

thickness
tiate

X 103 MPa, of the steel

between

is 10 mm.
the

and a^t pressure

For

the wire:
(In
inside

is stretched pressure vessel,

'diameter s is 400 at 2 MPa, the aluminum

mm. what

= 23.4 vessel

A = 0.060

calculations,
and

x 10-a/C. The is 2000 mm and

do not
mean diameters

mm 2, E =
the
of

tube

interface

Fig.

P34t

cylinder.) For 11.7 x 10-a/C,

water
wood

steel, let E = 200 x 103 MPa, and Poisson's ratio v = 0.30.

to 1 MPa drops 50 C, Assume that of the wire
Wire

x 103 MPa and pressure, to cause hoop

;sion in the

can freely of longitudinal

the assembly to If the composite additional hoop tube? Assume that expand, preventing stresses, i.e., cry,

Verify the solution of Eq. 3-38. Show that the ratio of the maximum to the average tangential stress cylinder subjected only to internal

for

is di-

(1 + [32)/(1
3-2t. Show

+ [3), where
that no matter

[3 = roh'i.
how large the outside

Est = 200 x 103 MPa. Hint: The say , between the two materials tension in the outer tube and hoop
inner tube.

ameter of a cylinder, sure, is made, the less than p. (Hint:

3-22.
ameter)

subjected maximum Let ro -->

cylinder
OD.

only tangential
has a 6-in

to internal stress
ID (inside

presis not
di-

An
and

alloy-steel
a 18-in

Ifthi
oft

If it is subjected

to an internal

in the
is 1.5

bolts
MPa.

is 40 MPa,
water tank made

and

the
of

and
staves

air
is

pressure
5 m in

3-t2.

vessel is pressurized the temperature velop in the wire?

wire comes as well lower

diameter and 4 m high. Specify mm stel hoops if the allowable is set at 90 MPa. Use uniform
meter of the tank's height.

the spacing of 30 by 6 tensile stress for steel hoop spacing within each

as that of the and that the

cylinder deformation

and, at the what stress the temperature can be neglected.

same would

pressure
radial cipal)

ofpi
and tangential shear

= 24,000
stress stress.-(c)

psi (p,,
Determine

= 0), (a) determine

the
show

results
nal and
0.3.

on a plot.
internal

(b) Determine
diameters.

distributions

the
the

maximum
change

and

(prin-

the

of the

E = 30

x 106 psi

in exter-

and

v =
a
of

caused

by the

pull

3-23. 0.45
Fig. P347

An alloy-steel cylinder m OD. If it is subjected

has a 0.15-m to an internal

ID pressure

and

3-t3. A cylindrical pressure vessel of 120 in outside diameter, used for processing rubber, is 36 ft long. If the cylindrical portion of the vessel is made from 1-in thick steel plate and the vessel operates at-120-psi 'internal pressure, determine the total elongation Of
he circumference and the increase in the diameter's

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

;-18. Exceptionally been developed
the tensile forces

light-weight by employing
and

using

pressure vessels glass filaments for

epoxy resin

pi = 160 MPa (po = 0), (a) determine the radial and tangential stress distributions and show the results on a plot. (b) Determine the maximum (principal) shear
stress. ternal 3-24.
MPa.

as a

(c) Determine diameters. Rework

the changes in external E = 200 x 103 MPa and 3-23

3-23 of the

and inv = 0.3. po

MPa

Fig.

P345

binder.

dimension

caused

by

the

operating

pressure.

29 x 106 psi and v = 0.25. 3-t4. A thin ring is heated in oil 150 C above room temperature. In this condition, the ring just slips on a solid cylinder, as shown in the figure: Assuming the

3-'16. A cylindrical is made by shrinking tube. Both cylinders

nominal diameter

of

pressure vessel shown a brass tube over have a wall thickness

the vessel is 30

in

and

in the fi a mild of-}

room

0nly
aments

A diagram in the figure. hoop stresses, the cylinder is e  55 (tan'element

of a filament-wound cylinder is If the winding is needed to resist the helix angle a = 90 . If, howclosed, both hoop and longitudinal

Problem
Problem one-half

with
with cylinder

p = 0 and
p = 160

= 80
and 3-25

is to

'ces develop,

and

the requi.red
of unit width

used

in all

calculations

involving

the

diameter.

a = 2). Verify
and

helix

this

angle

result.

of the fil(Hint:
length

3-25. Rework Po = 80 MPa. 3-26. Isolate

of Problem

the

brass

cylinder

is heated

100

F above

a developed

perature, it exactly fits over is at room temperature. What cylinder when the composite
6

perature?
10.7
= 6.7

x 10-6/F.
x

For

brass:

For

steel:

EBr

= 16 X 106 psi and

Est

the steel cylinder, is the stress in the vessels cool to room

= 30 X 106 psi and
Brass tube

as in the if F is a force

figure.

For
is cut

such
by each

an element, n is . on hoop
section.

the
Therefore,

same

by'passing Then, respective

in equilibrium.

by Design

'a plane through the integrating the tangential areas, show that the
for

of the cylinder. stresses over isolated free body

of a 4-in of 8000 psi internal such

axis

the

is
as

10-6/F.

in a filament and a section, Py = Fn sin y. An equation based the longitudinal and the the required result.)

the number of Force P. can be the known ratio stress leads to

3-27. diameter

a thick-walled an internal

cylinder
pressure

to provide: (a) a factor ing in the cylinder, and ultimate collapse. The
is 36 ksi.

of safety of 2 against (b) a factor of safety yield stress of steel

any yieldof 3 against in tension

50

mm
Filaments

3-28. A 16-in OD steel cylinder with approximately a 10-in bore (ID) is shrunk onto another steel cylinder of 10-in OD with a 6-in ID. Initial y, the internal diameter of the outer cylinder was 0.01 in smaller than the external diameter of the inner cylinder. The as-

Developed

element

inder

sembly

in oil.

was

For

accomplished

both

cylinders,
the

by
pressure

heating

E = 30 x 106 psi and

at the boundaries

the

larger

cyl-

Fig.

P3-t4

Fig.

P346

Steel

tube

Fig.

P348

v = 0.3.

(a) Determine

 Hooke's
between in the
decrease modates

Law,

Pressure

Vessels,

and

Thick-Walled

Cylinders

the diameter

two

cylinders. of the

outer

(Hint: The cylinder

elastic increase with the elastic

accomtwo cyl-

in the diameter of the the initial interference

inner cyclinder between the

3-29. Set up the dif erential equation for a thin rotating with an angular velocity of to rad/s. The weight of the material is % Hint: Consider an elem as in Fig. 3-21(b) and add an inertia term.
Section 3-30. outer For radius 3-14 a thick-walled b = 2a, cylinder (a) calculate of inner radius the internal a

inders.) (b) Determine the 'tangential and radial stresses caused by the pressure found in part (a). Show the results on a plot. (c) Determine the internal pressure to which the composite cylinder may be subjected without exceeding a tangential stress of 20,000 psi in the inner cylinder. (Hint: After assembly, the cylinders act as one unit. The initial compressive stress in the inner cylinder is released first.) (d) Superpose the tan_gential stresses found in part (b) with the tangential stresses resulting from the internal pressure found in part (c). Show the results on a plot.

at which the elastic-plastic (b) determine the radial butions due to the internal and show them on a plot,

boundary is at r = 1.5 a tangential stress pressure found in part and (c) calculate the

and

collapse fectly

load. plastic,

Assume the material to be with a yield stress of 250 MPa.

-][.

Introduction

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

re developed tssed in the in this preceding
are confined

Detailed axial y

methods of analysis for determining loaded bars were presented in the for members subjected to torques

first

about

stresses two

their

and chapters.

deformations Analogous longitudinal axes

of action, i.e.,

chapter. chapter

to the

The constitutive wil be employed

effect

of a single

relations for shear for this purpose.

type

disThe

a torque simultaneously By far,

treated

causing

a twist or torsion to torque and bending, part

9.

in a member. frequently is devoted

Members occurring to the

subjected in practice, consideration

ory
the

members having circular. cross sections, of such elastic and inelastic problems dures of engineering mechanics of solids. having noncircular cross sections,

the

in Chapter

major

of this

chapter

of elasticity
dif erence

in

order

(or finite
to

make

elements)

the

reader

must

either solid or tubular. Solution can be obtained using the proceFor the solution of torsion probmethods of the mathematical theaware

be employed.
Further,

of

the

dif erences

This

topic

is briefly
in

such

from

that

for

circular

members.

to lend

emphasis

to

for transmit ing equipment, Therefore,

derived

in the solutions discussed, this chapter is subdivided into parts. It should be noted, however, that in practice, members torque, such as shafts for motors, torque tubes for power etc., are predominantly circular or tubular in cross section. numerous applications fal within the scope of the formulas
in this chapter.

Application
gardless
engineering solid

of the
mechanics,

Method
in analyzing

of Sections
the basic method problems discussed
members

of the type of cross section, is employed. For the torsion

of sections (Section here, there is only

for

torque,

re-

'Torsion one relevant equation member, such an equation minate systems, there ' this torque, an analysis pendicular to the axis
be isolated and the

Sec. 4.3. Basic of statics. Thus, if the x axis is directed along is  M, = 0. Therefore, for statically can only be one reactive torque. After begins by separating a member of a section pe of a member. Then either side of a member
torque found. This internal torque must

Assumptions

for Circular

Members
T

It may be seen intuitively that for a member the maximum internal torque causes the maximum host severe condition on the material. Hence,

internal

ance

torques

the

lems, the formal calculation of a reaction may be bypassed by isolatin a bar segment with the unsupported end. Nevertheless, an equilibrium the whole system must always be assured. In statically problems, the reactions must always be found before one can the internal torques. Some guidance on calculating reactions in indeterminate problems is provided in Section 4-9 of this chapter. For simplicity, the members treated in this chapter wil be "weightless" or supported at frequent enough intervals to make of bending negligible. Axial forces that may also act simultaneously
the bars are excluded for the present.

are equal,

externally

but have

applied

opposite

torques,

sense.

i.e.,

In statically

the

external

determinate'

and

the

intern
ore
;critical

several sections may have to be examined internal torque. A section where the largest :d is the critical section. In Example 4-1, the

of constant cross section, stress and imposes the in investigating a torsion

to

internal critical

determine torque section

the is deis any-

Fig.

4-2

Alternative

representations

of torque.

dif icult

between may

to decide

points

B and

where

C. If the
the

material

torsion

is critically

member

varies computed

stressed.

in size,

Several

it is

eral Instead
Fig.

section. These situations are analogous to the case of an axial y rod, and means must be developed to determine stresses as a of the internal torque and the size of the member. In the next sections, the necessary formulas are derived. of curved arrows as in Fig. 4-1, double-headed vectors fol owing

have

to be investigated

and

stresses

to determine

right-hand
4-2.

screw

rule

sign

convention

wil

also

be used

in this

text;

EXAMPLE

4-t

Find
acted
Solution

the internal
upon by the

trque
three

at section
torques

K-K
indicated.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 4-3. Basic Assumptions for Circular www.avs4you.com

for the shaft shown in Fig. 4-1(a)
establish a relation between the internal

Members
torque and the stresses it sets

The 30 N.m torque at C is balanced by the two torques of 20 and 10 N.m at and B, respectively. Therefore, the body as a whole is in equilibrium. Next, passing a section K-K perpendicular to the axis of the rod an3 and B, a free body of a part of the shaft, shown in Fig. 4-1(b), is obtained. upon, from , Mx = O, or

up

in members

to make

with

in addition

two

assumptions,

circular

solid
homogeneity

to the

the

and

validity

tubular
of the

of which
material,

cross

sections,

wil

are

be justified
as fol ows:

it is nec-

1. A plane

externally
the conclusion shaft between

applied

torque
internal Similar

= internal
or resisting considerations

torque
torque lead developed to the in

is reached that the A and B is 20 N.m.

member remains plane or distortion of parallel place.  2. In a circular member

section

of material

after the torques planes normal

perpendicular

are applied, to the axis

shear when

to the axis

i.e., no warpage of a member takes

strains  vary fin-

of a circular

subjected to D'O03C

to torque,

that

the

internal

torque

resisted

by the

shaft

between

B and
10 N-m

C is 30 N.m.

early from sumption

such

30 N.m
10 K 20 N-m
C B B

30 N-m

as DO03C

the central is il ustrated

moves

axis reaching m,, at the periphery. in Fig. 4-3 and means that an imaginary
the torque

This

is applied.

plane

as-

N.m

Alternatively, rection, similar new positions

Actually, a constant

if an imaginary radius 03C is considered fixed in radii initial y at 02B and OD rotate to the respective 02B' and OLD'. These radii remain straight.

20

N.m

internal
A

torque

Fig.

4-1

(a)

(b)

VI.

negligible. Advanced

since the usual

For

it is also distance

details, Theory

deformations

implied apart.

that parallel This is not

see S. Timoshenko, and Problems (New

are very

planes perpendicular true if deformations

small,

York:

Strength

stresses
Van

of Materials, Nostrand,

not considered

are

to the axis relarge. How-

1956),

3rd.

ed., Chap-

here

Fig. 4-3 circular

torque.

%,x

Variation member

of strain subjected

in to

Torsion
cular

Sec. 4.4. The Torsion

It must
solid

Formula
Trnax

be emphasized
and tubular

members.

that

these

For

assumptions
this

class

of members,

hold

only

for
D'

assumptions
limit

elastic behavior in Section 4-13,

is discussed.

work

of a material. where stress

so well

that

These assumptions distribution beyond

they

apply

beyond

wil be used the proF

the

limit

rmax

r=G7

Cord
Fig. 4-4 assumption Shear
stress

If attention
applies,
strain. For
deformation

is confined
and,
this

to the linearly
complete

elastic
stress
is found
these

material,
is proportional
between
assumptions.

Hooke's
'to
derived
Shear
variation

it fol ows
case

that
based

shear

Hooke's

law

agreement
on

determined
and

and

computed

formulas

quantities
of elasticity.

with

the

strain

Shear

variation

stress

dA

shear circular

leading

strain

distribution

to elastic

in

member.

their
mathematical

validity

can
theory

be rigorously

demonstrated

by the

methods

of

q-max fA p2 dA = T
c

(4-1)
of a cross-sectional area, area. It wil be designated 2xp dp, where 2xp is the width dp. Hence,

4-4.

The

Torsion

Formula

In the elastic is proportional

stresses stresses
variation

the plane sumption in Fig.

uniform
mote

vary linearly fi'om the induced by the assumed

of the-shear

case, on the basis of the previous to strain, and the lat er varies
to the section
stress

parallel

and the 4-4. Unlike

from

intensity.

the

center
the

normal to the axis of a rod. NON-ACTIVATED VERSION use of Hooke's law for shear, Eq. 3-1. This is the case of an axial y loaded rod, this stress is -] qTC4IT4d) www.avs4you.com
fol ows

central axis distortions

taken

of a circular member. are shear stresses and

from the shear-strain

assumptio'ns, linearly from

since the

However, fA p2 dA, the polar/noment of inertia is also a constant for a particular cross-sectional ! J in this text. For a circular section, dA = umference of an annulus 2 with a radius p of

lie

J =

fAfo

92 dA =

2'I103 dp=

2r

[- i 'iTc4
2
If c or

aid 4
32

(4-2)

directly

(4-2)

The

O and

maximum

is designated
linear

shear

stress

q-max.

occurs

These

at points
points,

most

such

points

distance

C and D in Figs.
c from

center.

4-3 and 4-4, lie at the periphery

For shear stress

variation,

of a section
once

d is the

diameter

of

a solid

circular

shaft.

d is measured

in

at any

bitrary

distribution

The

'resisting

point

at a distance
at a section

torque

can be expressed
is established.

p from

O, the shear
For

in terms

stress

equilibrium

of stress

is (D/C)q-max.
this

internal

the

J has the By using the symbol Eq. 4-1 may be writ en

units J for

of mm 4; if in inches, the the polar moment of inertia more compactly as

units become of a circular

in 4. area,

sisting

torque

must

equal

the externally

applied

torque

T. Hence,
(4-3)

fP Tmax
,stress
,force

dm
area,

p = T
arm,

to'que

expresses

equation

dimensions

the

is the maximum

where itesimal 4, over

torque.

the

integral sums up all torques developed on the cut by the forces acting at a distance p from a m.ember's axis, O in Fig. the whole area A of the cross section, and where T is the

be expressed
annulus work

of a member.
area

well-known shear

4 in newton-meters,
contained instruments.

In applying

torsion formula stress in terms

N-m,
name

this

formula,

3 for circular of the resisting

the

or inch-pounds,
concentric been

internal

shafts torque

c in/neters
by

torque

that and

2 An

is an

between

two

circles. immortalized

It was

developed

on

electric

by Coulomb,

a French

His

engineer,

has

in about the

1775

in connection J is used

its

use

At

any
can

given
be

section,
writ en as

q'max

and

c are

constant;

hence,

the

relation

a practical unit of quantity in electricity. 1 N-m is equal to 1 joule (J). However, the polar moment of inertia of a section.

in this

text,

symbol

only

SO

Torsion
or inches,
shear stress

Sec. 4-4. The Torsion Formula

and J in m 4 or in 4. Such usage makes the units of the tors
?c

r=G7

or pascals

(Pa)

in SI units,

or

r = G2'7

[in-l[ibn ] 4] [in] = [lb 1

or psi in the U.S. A more general a distance p from customary units. relation than Eq. 4-3 the center of a section
p
c

circular

Fig.

4-6 an

Elastic

member

behavior
in

torsion

of a

having
{a) lb)

material.

inner

core

of soft

for

a shear

stress,

, at any
If a circular bar is made from two dif erent materials bonded together,

is
Tp

shown

Equations 4-3 and 4-4 are applicable with equal rigor to since the same assumptions as used in the previous derivation apply. is necessary, however, to modify J. For a tube, as may be seen 4-5, the limits of integration for Eq. 4-2 extend from b to c. Hence,
a circular tube,

j = fAp2dA
or stated the outer otherwise: diameter

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION = fi2,lr@3dp _ 'Itcwww.avs4you.com 4 b4

Summary

shear

in Fig. 4-6(a), the same strain assumption applies as for a solid For such a case, through Hooke's law, the shear-stress distribecomes as in Fig. 4-6Co). If the shear modulus for the outer stif er G and that of the inner softer core is G2, the ratio of the respective stresses on a ring of radius OB is G/G2.

For

the

torsion

mechanics

problem

of solids

of circular

as used

shafts

above

the

may

three

be summarized

basic

concepts

in the

of

manner:

J for a circular tube equals +J for a solid and -J for a solid shaft using the inner diameter.

1. Equilibrium

conditions
at a section. varies

are used
from the

for determining
axis of a shaft.

the internal

resisting

of the

For. very

tube,

thin

J reduces

tubes,

ifb is nearly
to a simple

equal

approximate

to c, and c - b = t, the
expression:

2. Geometry
strain

torques

of deformation
linearly stregses case
is extended

(kinematics)
and Hooke's
to non-linear

is postulated
are used

such
of shear

that
stresses preceding

shear
shear
at

J  2xrR3at
where
tions. Tmin Truax

3. Material
strains
accurate in some
discussion.
13.
a section.

to shear elastic
This

properties

(constitutive

permit

relations)

calculation

to relate

Ray

(b

c)/2,

which

is sufficiently

a linear

using

law

is considered
material behavior

in the

in Section

4-

These large

of circular

basic

concepts

shafts.

are used

However,

for

determining
similar

to the

both

case

stresses
for

axial y

and

anglesloaded

the
Fig.
an

stresses

local ues or changes

and

strains

stresses in cross

are

arise at points section. According

accurately

described

of application to Saint-Venant's
by the

developed

of concentrated principle

theory

4-5
elastic

Variation
circular

of
tube.

stress

in

only beyond locations.

a distance Typically
factors.

local

about

equal stresses

to the diameter are determined

of a shaft by using

from stress

these con-

Torsion

4=5.

Remarks
shear

on only indeed

the

Torsion

Formula
have been thou to the axis of resisting the 4-4

So far the of as acting shaft. There

A B

stresses as given by Eqs. 4~3 and in the plane of a cut perpendicular they are acting to form a couple

(a)

applied torques. However, to understand the problem further, an tesimal cylindrical element, 5 shown in Fig.4-7(b), is isolated. The shear stresses acting in the planes Phrpendicular to the axis of rod are known from Eq. 4-4. Their' directions coincide with the direct of the internal torque. (This should be clearly visualized by the read

On adjoining
opposite
cuts

the

directions.
taken

parallel

normal

However,
to

planes

of a disc-like
axis

the

these

of

shear

element,
stresses

a rod

cannot

acting
stresses

these
exist

in the plane
alone, as

stresses

act
4-9 Fractured torsion

Fig. 4-t0 specimen

photograph
widely
shows

Fractured in torsion.
the

shown

in Section

1-4.

Numerically,

equal

shear

must

act

on

axial

requirements

planes

(such

Shear stresses acting intensity as do the shear of the rod. This variation

of static

as the

equilibrium

planes

aef

in the axial planes fol ow the stresses in the planes perpendicular of shear stresses on the mutually

for an element.

and

bcg

in Fig.

4-7(b))
same
pert

to ful al
variation to the

specimen

of A322

steel. if the converse is true, i.e., ch < *, a brit le fracturo is

ends are for such

separated.

specimen

on fhe

right
not

cast iron The

more used

normally specimens).

(Threaded

the bar

by the tensile 4-10.

4-11.

planes
removed
Truax

is shown
for the

in Fig.
purposes

4-7(c),

where

a portion

of the

shaft

has

of il ustration.

According an equivalent
shear each shear failure 4-8.
and

stresses (see Fig. 3-11). Numerically, these stresses other in the fol owing manner: , = ch = -or2. strength of a material is less than its strength in takes place on a plane perpendicular to the axis This kind of failure occurs gradually and exhibits
planes
surfaces

to. Section system

3-7, such shear of normal stresses

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION does not depend on material properties, is also www.avs4you.com

stresses acting can be trans at angles of 45 with
The
Fig.

in Fig.

axis 7; see is shown

Another

Fig. 4-8. A photograph in Fig. 4-9, and that

stresses

along

a helix

examples

of a brit le

of a ductile fracture of a steel of a brit le fracture for cast ron

forming

an angle

of 45 with is shown

fracture
the

for sandstone

stress

transformation

brought

into

previous

discussion,
of wood

since
on planes

are related Therefore, if tension, a of a bar; see ductile

through
coordinates.
Properties

in dif erent

For

example,

directions.

wood

exhibits
The

sheafing

drastically

strength

applicable dif erent

to anisotropic properties

of

(c)

5 Two

Fig, 4-7 stresses

Existence on mutually

of shear

such

two

perpendicular
are

perpendicular circular
torque.

shaft

planes subjected

in a to

6 Note that maximum shear stresses, as shown actually act on planes perpendicular to the axis through the axis of the rod. The representation free surface of a shaft is fi'ee of all stresses.
 Ductile material

an element

at dif erent

expressible

radii

to the

mathematically

are

axis

used

of the

to isolate

rod,

two

diagrammatically of the rod and shown is purely

in cylindrical

this

planes

element.

the

to the grain is much less than on planes perpendicular although equal intensities of shear stress exist planes, wooden shafts of inadequate size axial planes. Such shafts are occasionally used

to the grain. on mutually perfail longitudinally in the process in-

in Fig. on planes schematic.

4-2

the
shaft

maximum
from A to

torsional
C is 10

shear
mm in

stress
diameter.

in shaft

AC

shown

in Fig.

4-1(a).

Assume

failureplane
T T

From

be 30 N.m.

Example

Hence,

4-1,

the maximum

T = 30 N-m,
1d 4

internal

and

c = d/2

torque

resisted

= 5 mm.

by this
From

shaft
Eq.

4-2,

is known

Fig. 4.8 Potential

failure and surfaces
brit le materials.

in

torsional
ductile
Brit le failure material surface

J = 32
twisting

'i X

32

10 4

982 mm 4
in the classroom

Fig. 4-tt Part of fractured

sandstone core specimen

in

Ordinary

a piece

chalk behaves

of chalk

similarly.

to failure.

This may be demonstrated

torsion.
Pirtz).

(Experiment

by D.
'83

Torsion
and from Eq. 4-3,
Tmax
This maximum shear

Sec. 4.6. Design

Design
-stress

of Circular

Members

in Torsion
be seand of ma-

Tc
J

-at

30

103
982

-- 153
axis of the

MPa
rod acts in the

designing

These the intended

of Circular Members in Torsion members for strength, allowable shear

depend on the information application. Accurate
stresses comes from tests in routine tests. Moreover,

5 mm

from

the

of a cut perpendicular passing through

to the axis

the shear
equal.

stresses

on mutually
two

the axis of the rod

that

perpendicular
the

of the rod (Fig. 4-7(c)).

results

and

along Just as for

the

planes

for a cylindrical'
solution

longitudinal a Cartesian
can be

ele

It is instructive

to note

of this

'in

matrix

form

by

elements

in a stress

tensor

as

ing gives
0

tubes. Solid members are often used in power equipment, many fatigue experiments are done. the shear strength of ductile materials is only about half as as their tensile strength. The ASME (American Society of MeEngineers) code of recommended practice for transmission shaft-

; to resist shear is employed

available information

on thin-walled as torsion

stresses must from experiments on the capacity

o
with the ful y

1 3

o
stress tensor

MPa

allertl fter
given by Eq.

and

considerations.

0.3 of yield, In practical

an allowable

or 0.-18 of ultimate, shear strength, designs, suddenly applied and shock

(See Section 4-11.)

value

in shear

stress

of 8000

psi for unspecified

whichever loads warrant

Eq. 4-3,

is

the

This

is to be

contrasted

populated

ortions
EXAMPLE 4-3

allowable shear of a member

torque

to be transmit ed

stress are given

is selected, as

by a shaft

according

is determined

to

and.the

the

Consider a long tube of 20 mm outside d, twisted about its longitudinal axis shear stresses at the outside and the
Solution

diameter, do, and of 16 mm with a torque T of 40 N.m. inside of the tube; see Fig.

From

Eq. J ..

4-5,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

inside dia Determine 4-12.

(4-8)

trea
,r(d4o
32

,i .(C 4 _ b 4)
2

_ &4)

,17(204
32

_ 164)

9270

mm

and fi-om
Tmax

Eq. 4-3,
Tc

'rm,Similarly from Eq. 4-4,

40

103

10

9270

43.1

MPa

Tmin

--

Tp
J

40

x 103
9270

x 8

34.5

MPa

Fig.

442

In a thin-walled tube, all of the material works at approximately the same level. Therefore, thin-walled tubes are more efficient in transmit ing torque solid shafts. Such tubes are also useful for.creating an essential y uniform of pure shear stress needed for establishing ?-,/relationships (Section 3-2). avoid local buckling, however, the wall thickness cannot be excessively

provide the required value of J/c. The reader should careful y note that large local stresses generally deat changes in cross sections and at splines and keyways, where the ue is actually transmit ed. These questions, of critical importance in design of rotating shafts, are briefly discussed in the next section. Members subjected to torque are very widely used as rotating shafts for transmit ing power. For future reference, a formula is derived for the conversion of horsepower, the conventional unit used in the industry, into torque acting through the shaft. By definition, 1 hp does the work of 745.7 One N.m/s is conveniently referred to as a watt (W) in the SI units.

Eq.

By using be determined.

of a member.

J/c is the parameter For an axial y loaded this

For

4-8 by varying

expression Any number

a solid

on which rod, such

shaft,

the ratio

of the outer

and Eq. 4-8, the required radius of tubular shafts can be chosen

J/c

the elastic a parameter

= rc3/2,

strength of a shaft is the cross-sectional

where c is the

de-

radius

to the inner

radius,

of a shaft to satisfy

outside

c/b,

1 hp can be converted dynamics that power

for

into 745.7 W. Likewise, is equal to torque multiplied

materials

it wil

be recalled by the angle,

design books.

8 Recommendations

example,

McGraw-Hil ,

see J. E. Shigley,
1977)
1967).

other

or R. C. Juvinal,

Mechanical

may

Engineering
Stress,

be found

in machine

Strain,

Design,

and

Strength

3rd ed. (New

(New

McGraw-Hil ,

Torsion

Sec.

4-7.

Stress

Concentrations

plied

do 2rfT

measured in radians, through which the shaft rotates per unit of time. a shaft rotating with a frequency of f Hz, 9 the angle is 2rf rad/s. if a shaft were transmit ing a constant torque T measured in N.m, it

c =

7.72

mm

or

d =

2c

15.4

mm.

ractical
MPLE 4-5

purposes,

a 16-mm

shaft

would

probably

be selected.

N.m

of work

per second.
x 745.7
r =

Equating

this

to the horsepower

hp
or

= 2rfT
119
f
159 x kW

[N.m/s]
[N.m]

,elect solid shafts to transmit psi. One of these shafts

iution

200 hp each without operates at 20 rpm

exceeding a shear stress of and the other at 20,000 rpm.

x hp

1 applies
4-11,

to the low-speed

shaft

and

2 to the high-speed

shaft.

From

or

T =

[N.m]

applied

where is the frequency hp, or kilowatts, kW.

torque.

in hertz of the shaft transmit ing These equations convert the

system of units,
minute. similar

applied
work

the horse power

of 550
at N can be

T - hp x N 63,000 _ 200 x 20 63,000 = 630,000 in-lb

'
if-lb
!FrOm Eq. 4-8,
T2 = 630 in-lb

tained:

second, (revolutions

In the

or 550

U.S.

x 12 x 60 in-lb per per minute), an equation

customary

1 hp does

63,000 xhp[in_lb]l
N

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION J d ( www.avs4you.com

C Tmax 10,000
c

If the shaft to those

rotates above

J - -- T
16

630,000

63

in 3

- --

or

d =

63)

= 321

in 3

Hence,

d = 6.85

in

and

d2 = 0.685

in

EXAMPLE
stress

4-4
is limited

machines
shaft
to 55

This

example
tubes.

Select

a solid

for

MPa.

a 10-hp

motor

operating

at 30 Hz.

The

maximum

in mechanical Further savings

il ustrates

equipment. The dif erence in-the weight of the material

the reason

for the modem

in size of the two can be effected

tendency

to use high-speed

shafts is by using

Solution

From

Eq.

4-9,

Stress

Concentrations

119
f
and from Eq. 4-8,
J ... C

x hp

119
30

10

39.7N.m

T Tma x

39.7 55

10 3

722

mm

J
C

,'ITC 3
2

or

c 3 ...

2 J'

2 x 722

4-3, 4-4, and 4-8 apply only to solid and tubular circular shafts material behaves elastically. Moreover, the cross-sectional along the shaft should remain reasonably constant. If a gradual Variation in the diameter takes place, the previous equations give satissolutions. On the other hand, for stepped shafts where the diameters of the adjoining portions change abruptly, large perturbations of stresses take place. High local shear stresses occur at points away
the
mm 3
ratio the center of the shaft. Methods of determining these local concenof the

uations

= 460

of stress

9 1 hertz

(Hz)

= 1 cycle

per second

(cps).

true

are beyond
maximum

shear

the scope

stress

of this
factor

to the

text.

maximum

However,

stress

by forming
given

by

.q. 4-3,

a torsional

stress-concentration

can

be obtained.

An

anal-

88

Torsion
3.4

Sec. 4.8. Angle.of-Twist

msons
tend

of Circular
2-10,
elastic

Members
matedhal
(a)

'ss concentrations
to.be

analogous
somewhat

to those
high.

based

pointed

on the

behavior

out in Section

of linearly

the theoretical

3.0

2.6

Angle.of-Twist
this

of Circular
for

Members
circular

2.2

1.8

X,'2'=7

-of-twist

section,

attention

solid

and

wil

tubular

be directed

to a method
elastic

shafts

for determining

subjected

the

to
(b)

1.4

Fig.
concentration

443

Torsional
factors

stressin

1.0

I
0 0.08
r

i
O. 16
d/2

0.24

circular
diameters.

shafts

of

two

geometry

axial y

ogous

method

loaded

of a member.

members

was

used

(Section

for

obtaining

Stress-concentration

2-10).

the

These

stress-concentration
factors

factors

for

depend

various

only

factors

to design it only to be strong enough: it also must not deform Then, magnitudes of angular rotations of shafts are needed the torsional vibration analysis of machinery. Finally, the angular twist members is needed in dealing with statically indeterminate torsional problems. According to assumption 1 stated in Section 4-3, planes perpendicular deformation
the axis of a circular

is important

loading.

to predict

The

interest

the twist

in this

of a shaft

problem

per se since

is at least

at times

threefold.

it is not
Fig. 445 Circular before and (b) applied.

First,

after

shaft

torque

(a)

is

tions

sponding read from

of stepped round shafts To obtain the actual stress shaft, a curve for a particular stress
to the given r/(d/2) the curve. Lastly,

are shown in Pig. 4-13.  at a geometrical discontinuity D/d is selected in Pig. 4-13.
from ratio,

in its undistorted

of the

type

rod

form

shown

do not

in Fig.

in Fig.

warp.

4-15(a).

4-15(b).

The

elements

From

The

such

shaded

of a shaft

a'shaft,

element

undergo

a typical

is

shear

is obtained

from

the modified

the stress-concentration the definition of/{,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com Denoting the small angle DCD' by /mx,

Eq. 4-3
the actual factor K
osition OD'.

of a Then,

In the element shown, a line on its surface such as CD is initial y parallel the axis of the shaft. After the torque is applied, it assumes a new )osition CD'. At the same time, by virtue of assumption 2, Section 4-3, radius OD remains straight and rotates through a small angle dqb to a new
alternative expressions for the arc DD':

ent of length

dx is shown

isolated

in Fig.

4-16

similar

to Fig.

4-3.

from
arc DD'

geometry,
= dqb c

one has two

arc DD'
where
the

= 'ymax

dx

or

the

shear

stress
is made.

Tc/J

is determined

for

the

smaller

shaft.

the

A study
need
shaft

for

of stress-concentration
a generous stress attaching

diameter

fil et

radius

factors
also

r at all sections

shown

in Pig.

where

4-13

both

angles

are small

and
/,

are measured
dx = dqb c

in radians.

Hence,
(4-13)

a transition and mum shear

for a key, Fig. 4-14, is no longer a circular member. However, to the procedures suggested by the ASME, in ordinary design, tations for shafts with keyways may be made using Eq. 4-3 or 4-8 , the allowable shear stress must be reduced by 25%. This
compensates
area.

Considerable keyways for

increases pulleys

and

occur in shafts gears to the shaft.

at oil holes A shaft

makes /m=

for

the

stress

concentration

and

reduction

in cro,.

sion
the

angle-of-twist

Hooke's law applicable. Therefore, according to Eq. 3-1, the angle is proportional to *mx, i.e., /ma,, = *mx/G. Moreover, by Eq. 4-3, = Tc/J. Hence, /mx = Tc/(JG).  By substituting the lat er expresinto Eq. 4-13 and simplifying, the governing dif erential equation for
is obtained.

only in the zone of an infinitesimal stress *mx. Limiting attention

"tube" to linearly

of constant maxelastic response

Because
Fig. 4-14 keyway. Circular shaft with a

of some
figure
632.

inelastic
of Circular

or nonlinear
from a paper
and Variable

response
by L. S. Jacobsen,
Diameter,"

in real

matedhals,
Trans. ASME

Concentrations
(1925):

0 This

in Shafts

is adapted

gressively
ference

The foregoing
p from

in derivation

becomes

argument
smaller
the center
consists

as the axis of the rod is approached.

of the shaft
in taking

can be carried

out in terms

of any % which
to BD

and using

an arc corresponding

The only

pro-

Tp/J instead

of Tc/J for .

an arbitrary

dif-

circular

Fig. 446 Deformation

bar

'truax

torque.

element

due

of a

to

Torsion

Sec.

4-8.

Angle.of.

Twist

of Circular

Members

191

dqb
dx

T
JG

or

dqb

Tdx
JG

axial y
2-9,

Eq.

loaded

4-16

can

bars.

be recast

Here

qb <=> A, T <=> P, J  A, and G  E. Analogous

to express the torsional spring constant,

or tor-

to

al stif ness,

kt as

This

tesimal of-twist
is

gives

distance

the

relative

dx apart. any two

angle-of-twist
To

find

the

of two
total

angle-of-twist

adjoining
apart, expression

sections

qb between

an
(4-17)

two sections all elements

A and B on a shaft a finite distance must be summed. Hence, a general

the

rotation: for the

Fig. 4-t8 representation

spring.

Schematic

of _a torsion

between

sections

of a shaft

of a linearly

elastic

This

constant
axial y
or

'qb:qbB-qb4= f; dqb=f; JxG

and the
the

1. It depends

represents

loaded

bars,
shaft,

only

one can visualize

the torsional

on the material

the torque

required

properties

to cause

torsion

members

and size of the member.

a rotation

of 1 radian,
for a circular

i.e.,

as springs;

see Fig. 4-

As

reciprocal
hollow

of k, defines

flexibility

ft. Hence,

where

the length
Equation

A. The internal
direction

qbB and

of a shaft.
of the

rotation torque

qb4 are,

at A may T, and the

applied

respectively,

The direction
for

not polar

necessarily moment
T.

the global

torque

of the angle
and

be zero. of inertia

shaft

rotations

of twist
circular

In this e( J, may vary

at en&,

qb coincides
shafts,

ft = kt- JG Lin-lbJ
identifying -17 and 4-18.
Gi/mi

L [rad

or

[rad]

LN.m j
of a unit torque,

(4-18)
i.e.,

fol ows from thb sured in radians. the deformation il ustrate applications
EXAMPLE 4-6

4-15

is valid

assumptions used in the Note the great similarity of axial y loaded rods. of these concepts.

both

solid

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

derivation. The of this relation The fol owing

hollow

angle qb is to Eq. 2-7 three

constant defines = 1. On multiplying If in the analysis,

and

a shaft subscripts For example,

the rotation resulting from application by the torque T, one obtains Eq.

must be subdivided should be attached for the ith segment

crank shafts. problems,
twist.

into of regions, to the definitions given of a bar, one can write

4-16. a number

approby Eqs. (kt)i =

The previous

(f t)i = mi/JiGi.

nission shafts, including statically indeterminate

to limit

equations

are widely

used

Find

the

relative

rotation

of section

B-B

with

respect

to section

A-A

of the

sential

are required

elastic' through
Solution

shaft shown it. The polar

in Fig. moment

4-17

when of inertia

a constant torque of the cross-sectional

T is being area J is

measured
case, T. = T and Jx = J; hence, from Eq. 4-15,

Lastly,

the J/c used in strength calculations, problems, the cross-sectional

the

arhount'of

in the design

of members
For

n These considered
such

in mechanical

it should

or calculated

be noted

In this

for a specimen

from

that
the

can be determined

dimensions

since

in a torsion

is the governing area A serves

applications,

for torsional

equations are also useful for in the next section. These

vibration

analyses

of

stif ness
note

of a specimen,

test,

both

qb, T, L, and J can be

since
the shear

parameter. purposes.

that

when

In axial y
modulus

J, rather

it is

from

Eq.

4-16

G ='TL/Jcb.

JG
A B

JG

JG

JG

4-7

Consider the stepped shaft shown in Fig. 4-19(a) rigidly attached to a wall at E, and determine the angle-of-twist of the end A when the two torques at B and at are applied. Assume the shear modulus G to be 80 GPa, a typical value for

12 According

Fig.

radians.

In applying

Also

observe

Eq.

4-16,

the

note

great

particularly

similarity

of this

that

the angle
relation

qb must
to Eq.

2-9,

be expressed
A =

Errst

York:

Van to recognize

to S. P. Timoshenko,
Nostrand, and

study

1937),

in 1902, this important

Vibration

H.

Frahm, problem.

Problems

a German

in Engineering,

engineer,

2d ed.
was

Torsion

Sec.
25 mm

4.8.
'It

Angle.of-Twist
4

of Circular

Members

193

T o = 1000

N.m

JCD = JDE = (do - &4) = -(50 - 254) = 575 x 103 mm 4

To fnd the angle-of-twist the results summed.
The

'It

_
a-a b-b

of the end A, Eq. limits of integration

abruptly.

4-15 is applied for the segments

for each occur

segment at points

(a)
(c)

1250

-'

I 200.

J 300

ram_

1.

500 mm

the

values

of T or J change

qb =
the last
1150

JxG =
so each

J
reverts

.Je

JcG

+
are constant
solution,
TczLcz JczG
150 X

--JcDG
Eq.

+
4-16. Hence,

JDG

group

TIN-m] [
0

integral

of integrals,

T's and
TecLec
200

to a known

J's

between

the limits

con-

15o I
Torque diagram

=
=0+

JG i. JiTiGiLi_ TL +_ JcG

150 x 103 x

q---q---

TzLz Jz>G
103 X 300

38.3 x 103 x 80 x 103 + 575 + 103 x 80 x 103

+

1150

103

500

575

80

103

X 103

rad
A B

(d)

-23.3

Angle-of-twist

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

= 0 + 9.8 x 10 -3 + 1.0
from
D
E
x

x 10 -3 + 12.5
the angles-of-twist

x 10 -3 = 23.3
for the four shaft

x 10 -3 rad
segments

-13.5

-12.5

diagram

Fig.
Solution

4-t9

10 -3 rad. Summing these for the angle-of-twist shown in Fig. 4-19(d). Since
must be zero
0 -3 rad occurring No doubt local

starting

As can

from

be noted

the left end are: 0 rad,

the above,

at E, as required
direction

quantities beginning from A, in order to obtain the along the shaft, gives the broken line from A to E, no shaft twist can occur at the built-in end, this
by the boundary condition. Therefore,

9.8 x 10 -3 rad,

1.0 x 10 -3 rad,

and 12.5

to the

adopted

Except for the dif erence in parameters, to that of Example 2-2 for an axial y to assure equilibrium. Then internal left segment of a shaft, such as shown

of the

torque

vector

T coincides
This between

with

solution of this problem is loaded bar. First, the torque at E is torques at arbitrary sections, in Fig. 4-19(b), are examined. If the

the

in the disturbances

sign

convention,

of applied torques. in stresses and strains

the

angle-of-twist
occur

at A is -23.3
at the applied con-

centrated
the shaft.

torques
these

are

and

local

the change
effects

having

in the shaft
limited

size,

influence

as well

on the

as at the built-in
overall

behavior

end.

that

of the

positive

x axis,

it is taken
B
4-8
(a)

positive, is no

or vice

torque,

versa. whereas

leads

to the conclusion B and D the torque

that

between internal

D and torques,

E is + 1150 identified

Nm. The torque diagram by subscripts' for the various

is is drawn

between + 150

A and Nm. The

shaft

in Fig. 4-19(c). segments,

Determine that

the the

torsional rubber
metal

stif ness is bonded

k, for the to the steel

rubber shaft

and

bushing the

shown outer steel

in Fig. tube,

4-20. which

TA
The polar

O,
are
J

Teo
found
=

=
of

Tec
inertia

=
Eqs.
d 4 -32

Tco
for the

=
4-2
 --

150
two

N.m,
kinds

and
of cross

To
sections

1150

N.m

is attached
Solution

to a machine
in the

housing.
parts

The
of the

shear
assembly.

modulus

for the rubber

is G. Neglect

moments

this

problem

using
Jc -

and4-5
X
32

giving
254

38.3

103

mm

area

;ymmetry of the problem, on every imaginary cylindrical r, the applied torque T is resisted by constant shear of the imaginary surface is 2rrL. On this basis, the equilibrium

surface stresses equa-

(b)

Fig.

4-20

Torsion

Sec.

4-9.

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

195

tion for stresses

the applied torque x acting at a radius

T and r is

the

resisting

torque

developed

by

the

T =

(2xrL)?r

[area

stress

arm]

Such problems remain simple to analyze regardless of the number kinds of applied torques or variations in the shaft size or material. Torsion problems also occur with bzternal statical indeterminacy
Ec

and
such as

From
1, the thickness

this
shear

relation,
dr,

x = T/2rr2L.
 can 4-20(a), be
from

Hence,
determined the for
fol owing


by using

Hooke's

law
tube

given
of radius

by

;hown

dsite

strain Fig.

an infinitesimal relation:
T

part of the member. Therefore, the particularly simple to apply to linearly roblems, the torque Ti for each ith part of the and 4-17. The total applied torque Tis then

in Fig. 4-6. In such

shafts

built

up from

cases,

two

the angle-of-twist

or more

tubes

displacement (stif ness) elastic problems. In such shafts is Ti = (kt)iqb, Eqs. the sum of its parts, i.e.,
(4-21)

qb is the same

or materials,

in

for each

L

J2

/ - G - 2rLGr
This shear infinitesimal this angle strain angle
is

2
through

in an infinitesimal dqb. Since in the

tube limit

permits the shaft to rotate r + dr is equal to. r, the

T= i(kt)iO)
For complex

dqb = /dr
r

.imilar
over the rubber bushings,

to that given
is limited

kinematic

externally

degrees

statically

to the

in Section

of freedom,
case

indeterminate
the
d.o.f.

of one

2-18 can be used.

Such

general

elastic
cases

displacement

problems
can

Here,

however,

method

with

be analyzed

tile
to

The
infinitesimal

total

rotation
rotations,

qb of the
i.e.,

shaft

is an integral,

From

which

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

For global equilibrium:

the procedure shaft in Fig.

4-21,

described in Section 2-16. Applying one can write the fol owing two
T + T2 + T = 0

this basic

approach equations:
(4-22)

Fig.

indeterminate

4-2t

Externally

bar

in torsion.

statically

For

geometric

compatibility:

k, - qb - 1/d 2 - 1/D 2

rLG

qbAB

= qbBc
A and

(4-23)
fixed.

(4-1
According
and

qbA and qbc are, r.espectively,

BC, assuming

to Eq.

4-16,

that

for linearly

ends

the twists
elastic
C are

at B of the bar segments

Eq. 4-23 becomes
(4-24)

behavior,

*4-9.
The allels with degree tions, problems redundant port. member

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems
shear
dif erent Solutions
bars.

TL -J G

T2L2 J2G2

analysis of statically indeterminate members subjected to twist the procedures discussed earlier in Part B of Chapter 2 in c axial y loaded bars. In considering linearly elastic problems of external indeterminacy, i.e., cases where there are two the force (flexibility) method is particularly advantageous. are reduced to statical determinacy by removing one of reactions and calculating the rotation qbo at the released The required boundary conditions are then restored by at the released end through an angle qb such that
qbo+ qb = 0

moduli

are given
in the d.o.f.

as G and

G2 to provide

for the possibility

inelastic problems

materials for one

two parts statically

of the shaft. indeterminate

fol ow

the
bars
elastic

procedure

given
cross
and

in Example

2-18
than

for
circular,

axial y
such

loaded
as dis-

The

previous
in Sections

procedures
4-14

having
problem

can

sections

be applied

other

to the analysis
method

of statically

4-16.

example

of an application

fol ows.

of the force

for a statically

in-

Torsion
2 mm

Sec. 4-40. Dif erential

1000 N*m

Equation

Approach

for Torsion

Problems

--TiLi
T, has the

TAX103
= (147
units of N.m.

x 10 -6 + 17 x 10-6)TA
defining rotation in the

'38.3x103x80x103 450
direction

= 164 x 10-6TA

+575x103x80x800
of T, as positive,

rad
one

103 )
has

To

500mm I
Hence,

Eq.

4-20

and

-23.3
(b}

x 10 -3
and

+ 164
TB =

x 10-6TA
1150 -142

= 0
= 1008N.m

TA

142N.m

The
isolated iSitive.

torque

diagram for the shaft is shown if the direction of the internal shaft segment coincides with that Note that most of the applied torque
4-7,
A to C is more flexible than from

in Fig. 4-22(d). torque vector of the positive is resisted at

C to E, only

As in Fig. 4-19(c) of T on the left part of x axis, it is taken as the end E. Since the
torque develqps

from
A.

a small

(d)

 X 103

VERSION TN,m.[ NON-ACTIVATED www.avs4you.com

1008

0-142

Torque

diagram

rad

Calculating the angles-of-twist for the four segments of the shafts, as in Example the angle-of-twist diagram along the shaft, Fig. 4-22(e), can be obtained. of this diagram is left as an exercise for the reader.) The angle-ofwist at A and E must be zero from the prescribed boundary conditions. As to expected, the shaft twists in the direction of the applied torques. Whereas this problem is indeterminate only to the first degree, it has three kinematic degrees of freedom. Two of these are associated with the applied torques and one with the change in the shaft size. Therefore, an application of displacement method would be more cumbersome, requiring three simulequations.

taneous

(e)
0

-11,6
Fig. 4-22 EXAMPLE 4-9

-11,1
Angle-of-twist

-11,0
diagram

Alternative
Torsion

Problems

Dif erential
can be recast

Equation
into a second-order

Approach
dif erential

for
4-

Assume

that

the

stepped

shaft

of Example

4-7,

while

loaded

in the

same

is now built-in and plot the

Solution

at both ends, torque diagram

as shown in Fig. 4-22. Determine for the shaft. Apply the force

the
method.

end

Preliminary to this step, consider an element, shown in .Fig. subjected to the end torques Tand T + dTand to an applied distributed ue t, having the units of in-lb/in or N.m/m. By using the right-hand
This and the next two sections can be omit ed. in-lb/in
T+ dT

const,

ant JG,

Eq.

4-14

There

are

two

unknown 10 -3 rad.

reactions,

T, and

TE.

One

of them

can

be considered

qbo = 23.3
A is found

redundant, diagram

shown

and,
x
using

arbitrarily, reaction in Fig. 4-22(b). The

T, is removed..This solution.to Example

results 4-7 gives

in the the end

applying

Fi'om

Example

T, to the tinloaded

Eq.

4-7,

J,c

= 38.3

4-16.

bar, as shown

x 103 mm 2 and

in Fig. 4-22(c),

JcE=

end rotation

575

x 103 mm 2.

qb at

-< dx

Fig.
element

4-23
of

Infinitesimal
a circular bar

subjected

to torque.

Torsion

Sec.

441.

Energy

and

Impact

Loads

199

having

screw

rule

a positive

for

the

sense.

torques,

For

all these

equilibrium

quantities

of this
dT

are

infinitesimal

shown

in

element.
TA
TB

JG  dx
d4
=
=

d24

= 0
=

tx = -to
hence,
toL
2

t dx + dT = 0
On dif erentiating Eq. 4-14 with respect

or
to x,

dx

t

J G xx = T T(0)
T(L)

tox 

2- + C 
C = 0

I JGd24 dT -tx1
dx 2 dx

JG4 = - 6- + C2
4B = 4(L)
of a shaft,

toX 3

= 0 = -
that the

hence, - 6toX 3

C2 = 6

toL 2

The

determined

constants

from

appearing
the

boundary

in the

conditions

solution

of this
at the

ends

dif erential

equation

JG4
those
that of the positive

toZ 2

the

conditions
the

rotation

torque Equation indeterminate

cussed
concentrated

for 4 should

4 or the

torque

in Section

T fol ow from Eq. 4-26 can be used problems. By

5-16, this
moments.

be evident

T must

equation

4-14 since T = JG d4/dx. for solution of statically making use of singularity

can be employed

from

be specified.

the problem,

The

rotation

wl-/ereas
determinate functions,
4-26

means x axis.
(a).

torque

vector

acts

in the

direction

oppos.ite

Except
same

for the change

as in part

in the boundary

conditions,
x

the

solution

procedure

is

The applied

fol owing torque

example il ustrates the is a continuous function.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION J G xx www.avs4you.com

for problems

JG d24 dx 2
d4
JG4

application

of Eq.

when

=T=

---+C

to x2
2L

---

to x3
6L

Cx C2 C

+ = =

C2 0 toL
6

**EXAMPLE

4-t0

= 4(0)
circular

= =

0 0

hence, hence,

Consider

varying

A is free
Solution

its length

torque
and

an

elastic

and

that

the

&, as shown
end

reactions

B is built-in,

at ends

in Fig. 4-24.
(b)

bar

having

a constant

A and

Determine

JG

assume

B for

that

two

the rotation
cases:
ends

subjected

both

(a)

of the

Assume

of the bar al n
bar

to

that

JG4

toLx
6

toX 3
6L

T(O) = T(L)
toL
2

+--

toL
6

toL
6

toL
3

(a) By integrating and C2 from the

Eq. 4-26 boundary

twice and conditions,

determining the required

the

constants solution

of integration is determined.

Energy
X  to

and

Impact

Loads
and impact members,
be

ions

Fig.

4-24

deflection

concepts of elastic strain energy 2-12 and 2-13 for axial y loaded pure shear, transfer directly
of a member can

loads as well
by

discussed as those
equating

in Secin Section

to the

determined

torsion

problem'.

For

the

example,

internal

200
dA = 2rp dp c rma'
Truax
p

Torsion

Sec.

4-t2.

Shaft

Couplings

20't

applied

shear

strain

(Example
EXAMPLE

force,

energy

2-10),
4-tt

Eq.

as well

2-24.

U.h for

as for elementary

This

a member

concept

to the

can be applied
solutions

external

work

of dynamic

to static

W,. due

problemi

to th

-12.

Shaft

Couplings

(a) Find the energy absorbed by an elastic circular shaft torque in terms of maximum shear stress and the volume 25. (b) Find the rotation of the end of an elastic circular
built-in
Fig. 4-5

subjected of material: shaft with

to a constar see Fig. respect to

end

when

a torque

T is applied

at the

free

end.

Solution

(a) The
from

distance 0 from the center of the cross section is 'rmxO/c. and integrating over the volume V of the rod L inches long,

the

shear

longitudinal

stress

in an elastic
axis.

Hence,

circular

the

shaft

shear

subjected
stress

acting

to a torque
Then, one
on

an element

varies

linearb
Eq.

where the available lengths of shafting are for maintenance or assembly reasons, it is desirable to make up a long shaft from several pieces. To join the :es of a shaft together, the so-called ranged shaft couplings of the type in Fig. 4-26 are used. When bolted together, such couplings are rigid, to dif erentiate them from another type called flexible that vides for misalignament of adjoining shafts. The lat er type is almost / used to join the shaft of a motor to the driven equipment. Here rigid-type couplings are considered. The reader is referred to ma:hine-design texts and manufacturer's catalogues for the other type. For rigid couplings, it is customary to assume that shear strains in the bolts vary directly (linearly) as their distance from the axis of the shaft.
at tic

uently, situations arise lon enough. Likewise,

between

the

flanges

is neglected.

Therefore,

analogous

to the

using obtains

shear

problem

Ush =
=
=

, p3 dp = ,72G,x 2rL 2Gax 2rL/ c 2 o NON-ACTIVATED c 2 c4 4 VERSION

for
n'Tnax

9dV

= Jv 2--c 2 2rpdpL

assumed to the center

stresses in the bolts also from the center of a coupling. to be uniform and is governed

of circular

shafts,

if the bolts
vary The

linearly as their respective shear stress in any one bolt by the distance from its center

are

of the

same

mater.

ial,

its cross-sectional

of the coupling.

area,

the

Then,

force

if the shear

in a bolt

is found.

stress

in a bolt
On

this

is multiplied
basis,

for

2G

vol

If there

were

uniform

shear

stress

throughout

the

member,

www.avs4you.com
a more efficient

bolts of equal size in two "bolt circles," the forces on the located by the respective radii a and b are as shown in Fig. 4-26(c). The moment of the forces developed by the bolt3 around the axis of a shaft gives the torque capacity of a coupling. The previous reasoning is the same as that used in deriving the torsion
formula for circular shafts, except that, instead of a continuous cross a discrete number of points is considered. This analysis is crude, since stress concentrations are undoubtedly present at the points of conof the bolts with the fl&nges of a coupling. The outlined method of analysis is valid only for the case of a coupling which the bolts act primarily in shear. However, in some couplings,

rangement 4-8) with

torques from

for their

absorbing small
a shaft.

energy G values

would provide

be obtained. an excellent

Rubber device

bushings for absorbing

(b) If t. orque T is gradually applied to the shaft, the external work We = where (b is the angular rotation of the free end in radians. The expression for internal train energy Ush, which was found in part (a), may be writ en in a

convenient
=

form

by noting

that

rm, = Tc/J,

the volume

of the rod rc2L,

and

'rrC4/2.

Thus,

the bolts
act

initial

tension in friction.

are tightened

in the Under

so much

bolts is great enough these circumstances,

Bolts

that

the coupling

to cause the the suggested

acts

in a dif erent

entire

coupling analysis

fashion.

is

Ush = 'r2G x
Then, from We = Ush

G (1vol) - 2J2G T2c212 'trc2L = ZIT2L

ZIG
T2 L

Tqb
which is the same as Eq.

2
4-16.

and

qb

JG
(a) (b) (c)

TL

Fig.

4-26

Flanged

shaft

coupling.

202
Eight 30-mm bolts

Torsion

Sec.

4-t3.

Shear

Stresses

and

Deformations

in Circular

Shafts

203

coupling should tensile strength and the strength

bolts had to

not

valid,

or is valid

the stresses in the bolts be reduced. bolts are used, there is lit le danger of the coupling may be greater than
in shear. 14

only

as a measure

of the

ultimate

However, of this it would

strength
hap

if

be if i

act

EXAMPLE

4-t2


(b)

(e)

Estimate the torque-carrying capacity of a steel the shaft, shown in Fig. 4-27, as controlled by MPa in the eight bolts. The bolt circle is diameter
Solution
Area of one bolt:

coupling forged integrally an allowable shear stress 240 mm.

Assumed

strain
(c)

(f)

A
Fig. 4-27
Allowable force for one bolt:

= (1/4)r(30)

2 = 706

mm

variation

Pano,

= A%no,

= 706

Since
rnow

eight
= 28.2

bolt
x

are available
103 x 120

at a distance

x 8 = 27.1

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of 120 mm from
x 106N.mm

x 40

= 28.2

103N

the central

axis

= 27.1

103

(g)

Corresponding
stress distribution

(d)

Stress-strain

relations

members

Fig.

4-28

Stresses
due

to torque.

in circular

section

periments 443. Shear in the Stresses Inelastic and Deformations Range in Circular

(d).

case.

The

properties with thin

The

is shown

through

schematically

a shaft

is shown

corresponding

of materials in shear, obtained, tubes in torsion, are as shown

shear-stress distribution
from

in the

in Fig.
same

figure.

4-28(a).

shear stress

strain is found

stresses ate determined is a at an interior annulus, from the stress-strain

The torsion formula for circular sections previously derived is ba Hooke's law. Therefore, it applies 0nly up to the point where the portional limit of a matedhal in shear is reached in the outer annulus
shaft. Now the solution wil be extended to include inelastic

matedhals, The derivation

After

as well provided for

as to integral the corresponding a linearly elastic

is known,

Fig. diagram. shafts

the strain. For example, 4-28(a), the correspondThis procedure is ap-

is shown

for example, in Figs. 4-28(b),

Some

The

possible

linear

strain

to the

in ex(c),
fight

me-

of concentric stress-strain matedhal is simply

T cardhed by these

made

tubes diagrams a special

stresses

a matedhal. As before, met. The deformation remains applicable.

solution.

the equilibrium requirements assumption of linear strain Only the dif erence in matedhal
on High-Strength
AISC

at a section variation from the properties affects

I, by L. T. Wyly,
1-13.

of this approach. the stress distribution as before, i.e.,

torque

T = fA ('r dA)p
integral must be evaluated over the cross-sectional area of the

(4-27)
shaft.

I by

4 See

E.

J. Ruble,

"Symposium

Proc.

(1950).

Also

Bolts,"

see

Section

Part

and

Torsion
Elastic stress distribution

Sec. 4.'13. Shear

Stresses

and Deformations

in Circular

Shafts

205

Inelasticstressdistribution

tubes elastic fs small.

Fig.

4-29

the

dif erence and inelastic

For

thin-walled

Although the shear-stress distribution after the elastic limit is ex( is nonlinear and the elastic torsion formula, Eq. 4-3, does not apply, sometimes used to calculate a fictitious stress for the ultimate torque. computed stress is called the modulus of rupture; see the largest of the dashed lines on Figs. 4-28(0 and (g). It serves as a rough the ultimate strength of a material in torsion..For a thin-walled tube, stress distribution is very nearly the same regardless of the mec properties of the material; see Fig. 4-29. For this reason, with thin-walled tubes are widely used in establishing the shear strain ?-/diagrams. If a shaft is strained into the inelastic range and the applied then removed, every "imaginary" annulus rebounds elastically.

r MPat

160 [- ,

7,/,'

2 d
(b)
MPa

7X

10 3

(a)
51 MPa

between stresses

of the material,

dif erences residual

in the stresses

strain paths, which cause permanent develop. This process wil be il ustrated
of twist form:
dx

set i n
/

89.7

MPa

of the examples that fol ow. For determining the rate can be used in the fol owing

3 MPa

of a circular

shaft

or tube,

Eq.

89.7

MPa
(e) Residual

' 51 MPa
stresses

Here from

either the maximum the stres-strain

shear diagram

strain at c or the must be used.

EXAMPLE

4-13

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strain at pa
'ibution stresses

Elastoplastic

stress

'(d)

Elastic

rebound

Fig.

4-30

the

small

contribution
?max

to the
--

total

of the

first

integral.
MPa

--

Tc J

574

103

(r/32)
~

x 12 = 211 X 244
in Fig.

A solid diameter can be rotation

Solution

steel shaft of 24-mm diameter is so severely twisted that only an elastic core remains on the inside, Fig. 4-30(a). If the material idealized, as shown in Fig. 4-30(b), what residual stresses and wil remain upon release of the applied torque? Let G = 80 GPa.

At

p = 12 ram, Two alternative

7'residual residual

= 211 - 160 = 51 MPa. stress diagrams are shown

4-30(e).

For

clarity,

results

the

are replot ed

in the opposite The initial rotation

the magnitude of the initial y applied torque must be determined. The stress distribution is shown in Fig. 4-30(c). The stresses vary and corresponding linearly

To begin, of twist condition

from

to the 0 to 160

4-16. Same
hzelastic:

At 9 = 4 mm,
The rotation direction,

residual torque is clockwise; an exactly direction in the inner portion of the is best determined by calculating

from

the vertical

line.

In the entire
equal
shaft. the twist

residual

shaded
of the

portion

torque
: ' elastic

when
4-27 elastic two
stresses.

0 -< 9 -< 4 ram;

can

the

stress

is a conskant
applied

160 MPa

for

9 > 4 ram.

Ec

dif erence per unit the shaft

 = 2 x t0 -3. The'
between length responds

the inelastic of shaft. If the elastically.

elastic

and initial

rebound

the

elastic torque

of the shaft

twists is reapplied

is given
gives

the in the

by

be used to determine the stresses, and Eq. 4-3 applies; stress distributions, corresponding

torque T. The release of torque see Fig. 4-30(d). The dif erence 1: to no external torque, gives the

dqb dx
Elastic:

% p,

2 X 10 -3 4 x 10 -3

0.50

rad/m

+
= (16

(160)2*rp
+ 558) x

2 dp
103 N.mm = 574 x 103 N.mm

574

103

103

- JG

(r/32)

x 244

X 80

103

0.22

rad/m

2O6

Torsion

Sec.
Residual:

4.t4.

Solid

Bars

of

any

Cross

Section

207

dO = 0.50 - 0.22 = 0.28 rad/m dx

EXAMPLE 4-t4

found in the preceding example, line i is the residual 0 for the same problem. It should be noted that in machine members,
matrials, ' minor the
importance.

AB

is the because shafts

elastic

rebound,
here

and

point

ultimate

static

capacity

of the

of the fatigue as evaluated

properties is often

Determine the shear stresses For mild steel,

ultimate torque carried above the proportional the shear stress-strain

by a solid circular limit are reached diagram can be

shaft of mild steel essential y idealized to that shown

as the proportional'limit
Solution

Fig.

4-31(a).

The

shear

yield-point

in shear,

%.

stress,

Typ,

is to be taken

as being

the

If a very large torque is imposed on a member, large strains take except near the center. Corresponding to the large strains for the idealized considered, the yield-point shear stress wil be reached everywhere except the center. However, the resistance to the applied torque offered by the located near the center of the shaft is negligible as the corresponding p's Fig. 4-31(b). (See the contribution to torque T by the elastic action in 4-13.) Hence, it can be assumed with a sufficient degree of accuracy that a cons

44.
scope

Solid
of this

Bars
treatment

of Any
of solid

Cross
noncircular

Section
members in torsion is beyond

first

two bers.

assumptions Sections

book.
The

stated perpendicular

Mathematically,

in Section 4-3 do not apply to the axis of a member

the

problem

is complex.
for

noncircular warp when

s The
a

responding 4-31(c)

shear

stress

to this condition gives a firmer basis

Typ i_s acting

everywhere

may be considered for this statement.)

on the

Tult =
Since ihe maximum

4 Typ TfC 4
3 c 2

f ('rypdA)p
this value, of torque is shown

=
3

4 TypJ
c

fo c 2'Irp2'ryp

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

section
the ultimate Thus,

torque

considered.

limit

The

torque.

torque

is applied. section

can

nature be surmised

of the from

distortions Fig. 4-32.

at all. at the

that take place 6 For a rectangular

Therefore midpoints

in a recmem-

ber, the comer the corners are

2C3 do = --Typ
shaft

Figure emanating distribution

shear stresses at of the long sides. 4-33 shows the shear-stress distribution along three radial lines from the center. Note particularly the dif erence in this stress compared with that of a circular section. For the lat er, the is a maximum at the most remote point, but for the former, the is zero at the most remote point. This situation can be clarified by
problem developed
this

elements zero; they

do not distort are maximum

4-3, and Tuft is  times of that at yield. A plot ful plasticity develops

elastic

torque

the remaining torque capacity after yield T vs. 0, the angle of twist per unit distance, in Figure 4-31(c). Point A corresponds to
T Asymptote

capacity

of a solid

is Typ = TypJ/c,

Venant

remained

6 An

experiment

is sometimes

type

with

referred

a solution

unsolved

of distortion.

a rubber

to as the

for

until such

eraser

St.

the famous French elastician problems in 1853. The general

Venant

on which

a rectangular

problem.

B. de torsion

grating

is ruled

Tui t =  Tvp
/ /

T.-Typ  Tpl /

ResidualO

do/dx
(a) (b)

(c)

Fig.

4-3t

(a)

(b)

Rectangular Fig. 4-32 before and (b) after is applied.

bar (a) a torque

208

Torsion
t is useful to recast for a rectangular the section, second
giving

Sec. 4-t4. Solid Bars of any Cross Section

Eq. 4-30 to express the torsional stif ness

209

Tk, - 4)
Formulas
Fig. 4-33 Shear stress distribution in a rectangular shaft subjected to a torque.

[3bt3
for many solved other mathematically, types of

(4-31)
crossa re-

areas

such

Fig.

shown

4-34

cannot

The

shear

exist.

stress

For

cases

as these-are available in more advanced books.S that cannot be conveniently

considering
existed

at the

a comer

corner,

element,

it could

be resolved

as shown

in Fig.
into

two

4-34.

components

If a shear

stres

lem
similar must

method tif erential is mathematically film, lightly

to the be kept
to be true:

tble

has been devised.9 It equation that must be identical to that stretched over a hole.
cross section on one side
at

happens that the solution of the solved in the elastic torsion probfor a thin membrane, such as a This hole must be geometrically
studied. Then

to the edges of the bar. However, as shears always occur in pairs on mutually perpendicular planes, these components would have to met by shears lying in the planes of the outside surfaces. The lat er uation is impossible as outside surfaces are free of all stresses.
must be zero. Similar the boundary. All shear act parallel to them. been The considerations stresses

of the shaft being of the membrane.

the

Light air fol owing

pressure can
of

be
the

in the
used

Analytical

obtained? final results

solutions

The methods of such analysis,

for

torsion
4-33)

are however,

of rectangular,

imum
be put

shear
into

stress
the

(see
fol owing

Fig.
form:

and

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

beyond

can be applied plane of a cut the

to other near

points

are

scope of interest.

elastic

members

1. The shear stress stretched membrane 2. The direction of a to the slope of the 3. Twice the volume

any point is proportional to the slope at the same point, Fig. 4-35(a). particular shear stress at a point is at right membrane at the same point, Fig. 4-35(a). enclosed by the membrane is proportional

angles
to the

of this For the

torque

carried

by the

section.

the angle-of-twist,

these

results

Torsional

s R. J. Roark and W. C. Young, Formulas McGraw-Hil , 1975). Finite-element section are also available. See, for

Analysis

of Irregular

Shapes,"

for Stress and Strain, analyses for solid bars example, L. R. Herrmann, J. Eng. Mech. Div., ASCE

5th

ed. (New of arbitrary "Elastic (December

*max -- cT
where T as before and t is the thickness is the applied or width
recorded in the

and
[3 depend

4) - [3
long

9 This
in 1903.

analogy

was

introduced

by the

German

engineering

scientist

L. Prandtl

torque, b is the length of the of the short side of a rectangular

fol owing table.

The

these

values

values

of parameters
are

c and

upon

For

the

thin

ratio

sections,

b/t.

A few

b is much
Table
b/t

greater

than
for
1.50

t, the values
Rectangular
2.00

of c and
Bars
3.00

[3 approach

.
Weightless

of Coefficients
1.00

x7
6.00 10.0 m

cap

0.208

0.231

0.246

'0.267

0.299

0.312

.
McGraw-Hil ,
7 S. Timoshenko

0.141
1970),
and

0.196
312.
J. N.

0.229
The
Goodier,

0.263
is adapted
Theory

0.299
from
of Elasticity,

0.312
source.
3rd ed. (New

0.333
Stretched membrane

,<['
lb)

Membrane

  ''d'x

Fig. 4-35 Membrane analogy:

(a) simply connected and (b) multiply (tubular) region.
connected

region,

table

this

(a)

Torsion

Sec. 4-15. Warp

of Thin-Walled

Open

Sections

-t ' a

,k- t

Membran,_.x
t -----t
Section

Y

' slope
box

Maximum

ized

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Fig.

4-37

Members

of equal

cross-sectional

areas

of the

same

thickness

carrying

the

same

torque.

(a)

(b)

(c)

)the
MPLE

analysis
4-t5

indeterminate procedures

bars having discussed

any cross in Section

section

are

susceptible

4-9.

Fig.

4-36

Il ustration

of the

membrane

analogy

for

a rectangular

bar

in torsion.

The foregoing analogy is called the membrane its value in experimental applications, it is visualizing stresses and torque capacities of sider a narrow rectangular bar subjected to 36. A stretched membrane for this member such a membrane is lightly stretched by
through the membrane is a parabola, maximum slop6, hence maximum Fig. 4-36(c). No shear' stress develops hess t. The maximum shear stresses volume enclosed by the membrane the member can carry at a given Fig.

4-36(b). For this surface stress, occurs along the along a line bisecting the bat' along the short sides are small. is directly proportional to the maximum stress. For this reason, sections shown in Fig. 4-37 can carry approximately the same torque the same maximum shear stress (same maximum slope of the since the volume enclosed by the membranes would be the same in all cases. (For all these shapes, b = L and the t's are e However, use of a litfie imagination wil convince the reader that contour lines of a soap film wil "pile up" at points a of re-entrant Hence, high local stresses wil occur at those points. Another analogy, the sand-heap analogy, has been developed for

shear

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

?oP a rectangular
W12 x
and

analogy. In addition a very useful mental aid members. For example, torque T, as shown in is shown in Fig. 4-36(a). internal pressure, a

using

with
Jtion

Jquiv for a W12

the 2.18

the

membrane

analogy,

in 4 given

x 65 steel

determine

in the

AISC

beam;

Manual

see Fig.

an approximate

of Steel

4-38.

Compare

value

for

Construction.

the calcula{ed

the

torsion

comparing

the

bar,

equations

Eq.

4-30,

given

it can

for

4 for

be concluded

a circular
as implied

that
from

section,

Jquv
the

Eq.

= f3bt 3. Further,
4-37(e), by
both for

4-16,

with

that
three
I

0.605"
'

65

section

can

be

approximated,

in Fig.
table

separate

narrow

that

for

bars:

the

two

web

flanges

is 10.91/0.390

and a web.

= 28.0,

Since

b/t for the flanges

is 12/0.605

cases,

. Hence,

--0.390"
be

10.91"

Jequiv
value
problem
numerical

= (2 x 12 x 0.6053
in the .AISC
is identical.

+ 10.91
is larger (2.18
inside point

x 0.3903)
in4). The
corners. of view

= 1.99
discrepancy
using Eq.

in 4
can
4-21. The

given
work

Manual

to neglecting can

the f ilets at the four be solved from a dif erent

2.00"  O.E!5"
Fig. 4-38

tic

torsion?

Dry

sand

is poured

onto

a raised

flat

surface

having

shape of the cross section of the member. The surface of the sand so formed assumes a constant slope. For example, a cone is formed a circular disc, or a pyramid on a square base. The constant slope of the sand corresponds to the limiting surface of the membrane the previous analogy. The volume of the sand heap, hence its weight, proportional to the ful y plastic torque carried by a section. The
items in connection with the sand surface have the same

Warpage
solution
section

of Thin.Walled
general
associated

Open
torsion problem
name of Saint-Venant.

Sections
discussed
membrane

of the
is

elastic
with

in the
Solutions

prefor

the

thin-walled
This
In

this

open

rigorous

sections

approach

22 may
As pointed

result

(which

in significant
out in connection
discussion

includes

inaccuracies
with
important

analogy,)

in some
twist
as

as those
McGraw-Hil ,

in the
1950).

membrane Theory of Flow

analogy. andFracture of Solids, Vol. 1, 2nd ed.

mathematics, i.e.,

applications.
section presents
such

the
to

of

2o A. Nadai,

the boundaries sections are

only

a qualitative
neither

of

such sections tubular nor

are hollow.

of this

referred

topic.

simply

Sec,

4-t6.

Thin-Walled

Hollow

Members

2t3

oA

-16.
Fig. 4-39 Cross-sectional

Thin-Walled
solid noncircular

Hollow
members,

Members
thin-walled tubes of any shape can be

warpage
torque.

due

to applied
(a) (b)

a narrow line bisecting take place

The same

rectangular thickness along the

holds true

Fig. t. This entire width

for middle

bar,

4-36, means and

surfaces

no
that length

shear

stresses no in-plane of the bar'

bars/as

develop deformation s middle

well

along smfacei
as for:

shown

ube of an arbitrary Fig. 4-40(a), subjected

enlarged
action of forces

simply -of-twist

analyzed caused
in Fig.

shape
Fz,

by

for

4-40(b). on the

with to torque
F2,

the magnitude a torque applied

This
F3,

varying wall thickness, T. Isolate an element

element must
and F4. These

of the to the

shear tube.

be in equilibrium
are

such from

stresses Thus,

as shovn this tube,

equal

and consider

the

under

in as
the

of curved

forces

to

assembly of of three flat bars do not By virtue which in this

bars. In this sense, an I section, shown in Fig. 4-39, bars, and, during twisting, the three middle surfaces of thes develop in-plane deformations. of symmetry, this I section twists around its centroidal axis: case is also the center of twist. During twisting, as the

hear

stresses

acting

cut

planes

multiplied

by the

respective

areas.

From  F, = 0, F = F3, but 2 and  are shear stresses acting

flanges
about surface warp, members,

displace

laterally,

the

undeformed

ing (See Section

point A, Fig. 4-39(a). Similar of the other flange. In this i.e., cease to be plane, during the sections perpendicular

does take place for effect is negligible. commonly employed

4-3, assumption

cross-sectional

warpage,

other thick On the other in aircraft, and,

or its restraint,
particularly

sections, including rectangular hand, for thin-walled torsion automobiles, ships, bridges,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 1). Although warpage www.avs4you.com of the cross

behavior is exhibited manner, plane sections twisting. By contrast, to the axis remain by the of an I for

middle

surface

abcd

rotate

Hence, x2t2 dx = ? t dx, or t = 1'2t2. However, since the longitudinal sections were taken an arbitrary distance apart, it fol ows from the previous relations that the product of the shear stress and the wall thickness is the same, i.e., constant, on any such planes. This constant wil be denoted by q, which is measured in the units of force per unit distance

F = 1'2t2 dx, on the respective

and

F3 = t dx, where areas t2 dx and t.dx.

along

the

perimeter.

Therefore,

its units

are

either

N/m

or lb/in.

may
its

have

an important

bars, memben etc.,

Section 1-4, Eq. 1-2, tually perpendicular planes at a corner such as A in Fig. 'r4tl = w3t2, or, in general,
dicular mulated. to the axis The inner

In

it was established that shear stresses on muare equal at a corner of an element. Hence, 4-40(b), 'r2 = '3; similarly, z = 4. Therefore, q is constant in the plane of a section perpenthis basis, of the an wall analogy can be can thought be forof as

effect

23

of a member. On and outer boundaries

on

member

strength,

on

stif ness.

being
tity

Warpage applications. support,

compatibility 4-39(b),
beam distance beams,

of deformations, TM must develop.

and reduces

of cross sections For example, the attached cross

in torsion by welding section

Such

in-plane flange moments an enforced restraint

is restrained in many engineering an end of a steel I beam to a rigid cannot warp. To maintain required

of water

the boundaries

steadily

of a hannel.
circulating

in this

Then

channel.

one can imagine

In this

arrangement,

a constant

quan-

the
t1

M,'shown effectively

in Fig. stif ens a

at some for short: This '

F3

from cutouts,

its twist. the support, etc., the

This effect is local in character becomes unimportant. Nevertheless, warpage:restraint effect is dominant.

and,

portant
subject. Israel
are Elastic

topic
See Translations,
shown

is beyond
Vlasov
his book,
in the

the

scope
of 1940

of this
Elastic

text?
Beams,

23 V.

Z.

in a series

24 Shears 25 For
not

that

occur

Thin-walled Office of Technical

papers

made

Structures,

details,

see,

2nd

for example,
ed.

diagram.

in the flanges
(New

and
York:

efficiently
McGraw-Hil ,

Services,

carry and

1961).

2nd

basic

ed.

contributions

(Washington,

to

part
1981).

of the applied Mechanics

torque of
(a) (c)

J. T. Oden

E. A. Ripperget,

Fig.

4-40

Thin-wall

tubular

member

of variable

thickness.

2t2

2t4

Torsion
quantity of water flowing through a plane across the channel Because of this analogy, the quantity q has been termed Next consider the cross section of the tube as shown The force per unit distance of the perimeter of this tube, previous argument, is constant and is the shear flow q. is const the shear in Fig. 4-40 by virtue of This shear

Sec.
In the elastic range, Eqs. For inelastic behavior, analysis of tubes

446.

Thin.Walled

Hollow

Members
shape of t is conscope of

4-34 and 4-35 are Eq. 4-35 applies of more than one

applicable to any only if thickness cell is beyond the

ential length. The product of this infinitesimal some convenient point such as O, Fig. 4~40(c), an element to the resistance of applied torque
this,

multiplied

by the length

ds of the perimeter

gives

force q ds and r gives the contribution T. Adding or

a force

q ds per

book. 27 For linearly elastic materials, the angle of twist for a hollow tube can found by applying the principle of conservation of energy, Eq. 2-24. this derivation, it is convenient to introduce the angle-of-twist per unit of the tube defined as 0 = dqb/dx. The elastic shear strain energy the tube should also be per unit length of the tube. Hence, Eq. 3-5

the elastic
= 1 x t ds. simplifying,

strain
By
--

energy
substituting

here
Eq.
T 2

reduces
4-35 and

to Ush
then
T 2

= J'vo (,2/2G)
Eq. 4-34
ds

dV,
this

where
relation

into

T =  rq ds
where the line of the
be writ en

integration perimeter.
as

process Since

is carried for a tube,

around the q is a constant,

tube this

along equation

the
in the last

Usa '  8Q2G-----'  -ds - - 8(2  5the constants are taken outside the integral. = TO/2,

(4-36)
length
becomes:

expression,

T= qfrds
Instead of carrying out the actual integration, a simple inter of the integral is available. It can be seen from Fig. 4~40(c) that r ds twice the value of the shaded area of an infinitesimal triangle of altit r and base ds. Hence, the complete integral is twice the whole bounded by the center line of the perimeter of the tube. Defining this

Equating

as We

this

relation

to the
the

governing

external

work

dif erential

per

unit

equation

of member

by a special

symbol

(),

one obtains

T 0 = dqb dx - 4(2G NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Here again it is useful to recast Eq. 4-37
for a thin-walled a constant torque, hollow tube. 4> = 0L, Since

 -' ds
to express
a prismatic

(4-37)
the torsional
tube subjected

stif ness
to

for

T = 2()q
proximately an outside surfaces line of the wall's is slit, when Eqs. Since for any the definition of
the wall thickness

or
to thin-walled

q - 2()
tubes. The area () is
portant members
F.XAMPLE

kt - qb-  ds/t
cross-sectional for tubular fol ows
4-t6 Example of 10 and 4-3 8 ram, using Eqs. respectively, 4-34 and and the 4-35. The applied tube torque has outside is 40 N.m. and

(4-38)

This

equation

26 applies

average of the two areas enclosed by the inside and of a tube, or, as noted, it is an area enclosed by the contour. Equation 4-34 is not applicable at all if the 4-30 should be used. tube, the shear flow q given by Eq. 4-34 is constant, shear flow, the shear stress at any point of a tube
is t is

only

warpage members. the procedures

discussed in Section Analysis of statically discussed earlier.

4-15 is not indeterminate

very
tubular

im-

inside

The

mean
York:

radius
McGraw-Hil ,

of the

tube

is 9 mm
1981).

and

the

wall

thickness

is 2 mm.

Hence,

engineer

26 Equation

who

developed

4-34

is sometimes
it.

called

Bredt's

formula

in honor

of the

27 j. T. Oden,

and

E. A. Ripperger,

Mechanics

of Elastic

Structures,

2nd

ed.

*Torsion

Problems

Fig.

t 20mmJ
12.7

mm

x-

q _
t

2()t-

2,r x 92 x 2

40 X 103

-- 39.3 MPa

X-max

..

Tc

50.4

103

10

J T

 X 104/2 25.3 x 224 x

32.1
= = 31.6 46.7

MPa
MPa MPa

103 103

4-t

Note that by using Eqs. 4-34 and 4-35, only one it is just about the average of the two stresses thinner the walls, the more accurate the answer, It is interesting to note that a rectangular tube, thickness of 2 mm, for the same torque wil have
that of the circular tube. This is so because its

shear stress is obtained and t computed in Example 4-3. .or vice versa. shown in Fig. 4-41, with a nearly the same shear stress
enclosed area is about the

*2-m

= ebt 5 = 0.267
T

x 30 x 102

*3-m - 2()t
Stress Tl-max Occurs along the

2 x 40 x 20 x 3
perimeter of the knob,

T2.ma x at the

midheight

of

as the ( of the circular

be present at the inside

(reentrant)

tube.

However,

corners

some

of a square

local

stress
tube.

concentrations

stresses

and 'r3.max in the 3-mm

cannot may

great
lets
EXAMPLE 4-t7

concentrations

at reentrant comers can Member torsional stif ness

tsis and
role.

advantage

to determine
the solution

be considered be particularly

walls

be a remedy. found in this

of statically

the location

precise. important.

of the tube.

of stress
manner,
indeterminate

In mechanical Membrane

Due

to the approximations
analogy

concentrations.
such

applications, can

Generous
for

stress be used to

m?de,

fil-

as needed
elastic problems,

vibration
would

for

An

300 N.m

aluminum

is applied,

extrusion

(a) determine
parts
stress

has

the

cross

the maximum
member, and

section

shown

shear
(b) find

stresses

in Fig.

4-42

that would

If torque

sufficiently

accurate

since

local

effects

such

as stress

concentrations

play

de,

or

in the
the
Solution

three
member.

dif erent
Neglect

of the
concentrations.

the

torsional

stif ness

The cross section consists essential y of three parts: a circular knob (), a  tangular bar (), and a rectangular hollow box with variable wall-thickness,
During application of torque T, each one of these elements rotates through

same

angle

qb, and

therefore

each

element
by the for (kt)[s constants

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

4-4 ond 4.5
The

Probeores

4-2.

6-in

diameter

core

of

3 in

radius

is bored

out

resists

a torque

(kt)iqb.

Hence,

;hown

solid in mm

on

cylindrical the

figure,

shaft of is acted

variable upon

by

size, the

as tor-

from

a 9-in

diameter

solid

circular

shaft.

What

per-

centage
ation?

of the

torsional

strength

is lost

by

this

oper-

to Eq. 4-21, the total torque resisted for the three parts. The expressions by Eqs. 4-17, 4-31, and 4-38. These

member is the for the parts are

sum are

of these

quantitiei

ques

the

indicated.

shaft,

and

What

between

is the
55

what

maximum

two

pulleys

torsional

does

stress

it

N'm

880 N-m

(kt) = J G _ 'rr x 2 104 LG _ 1.57 x 104 G L L

(k,)2 = [3bt  = 0.263 x 30 x 103 = 0.789 x 104
3G G G

(kt)3 = 4Q2 G_
4

ds/t L (40 + 2 x 20)/3 + 40/4  =

values that the are in mm. In 4 mm thickness

4 x (40 x 20) 2
evaluating of the

6.98 x 104 G
in


Fig. P44

'
4-6
4-3. A solid circular shaft of 2-in diameter is to be

2000
A 120-ram-diameter solid-steel sht ansmits

where tion,
=

By adding
9.34 x

all numerical it is assumed

the

104G/L.

the stif nesses

On
torque
N.m

for the parts,

the torques

the member
are 300
the

box

torsional
three

integral extends

for

stif ness
in

40 mm.

4-4.

104G/L) = 50.4 box. The maximum tively, Eqs. 4-3,

(kt)i/

The

applied

(kt)i.

for the knob, stresses in each 4-30, and 4-34.

this

basis,

is

distributed

among

25.3 N-m for of the parts

the are

x (1.57

parts

bar, and determined

104G/L)/(9.34
224 N.m using,

a ratio
for

by

a hollow
mbe

circular
is limited

tube.
to 3 in,

If the
what

outside
must be

dithe

400 kW at 2 Hz. (a) stress. ) What would

Detemine be the

the requked

maximum sh

shear diameter

to operate

at 4 Hz at the same
a set
figure, on

mimum

sess?

of the

tube

for

the

same

linearly

elastic

ma-

terial working at the the ratio of weights

same maximum for the two

stress?

Determine

shafts.

4-5. A motor, through sht, as shown in the delivered to a machine

of ges, drives a line at 630 m. Thiy hp e the right; 90 hp on the left.

 Torsion

Problems
Section 4-8

h 90 Mt 3 r h 0 p 30' >1

Fig. P4-5

200-ram
be the length
that
= 27

pitch

4-10.
minum

What
wire
42 MPa?

must
so

ofa
be

5-mm
twisted

diaineter
through

Through

diameter;

what

angle

the gear at C, a 400-mm

wil end A turn

if at A

pitch

it could

a torqu.e

complete
of

revolution
G

without
GPa.

exceeding
steel line

a shear
shaft s

-15.
AB

is prevented

of 560 N.m

4-1t.

The

solid

50-mm-diameter

in the
Find the

figure
maximum

is driven
torsional

by

a 30-hp
stresses

motor
in

at 3 Hz.
sections

the figure is subjected T2 = -8 k-in, and

A circular
of twist
(b) Let

steel

from

is applied

shaft

rotating?

and end D of the second

of the right

to three torques: T] = 28 kT3 = 10 k-in. (a) What is the

of the dimensions

G = 84 GPa.

shown

end due to the applied

diagram

tor-

Fig.

P447

Select The

a solid allowable

round shear

shaft stress

of the same size is 5750 psi.

throughout.

BC, angle

CD,

and of twist

DE of the shaft. between A and

30 hp

(b) E. Let

ues.

G = 84 GPa.

Plot the angle-of-twist G = 12 x 106 psi.

1"

along

the
rotation of the free end if d] = 6 in, d2 = 2 in, L =

diam.
bore

4-6. (a) Design at 75 rpm without

Use1.2:1 as

the

a hollow exceeding
ratio

steel
of the

shaft a shear
solid

outside

to transmit 300 hp stress of 6000 psi.

diameter to the

Bearing 5hpoff

 N 

15hpoff

10hpoff

jected

20 in, and assumptions

Determine 4-18.

the A thin-walled

to torque

T = 27,000 of strain
torsional

apply,

in-lb. in prismatic

Assume

that

and

flexibility

let G = 12 x 106 psi.

of the shaft. of a cone

circular

the shafts

usual sub-

(b)

elastic

frustum

has

the

inside
instead?

diameter.

(b)

What

shaft

could

be

used

dimensions sional
Fig. P4-tt

shown
stif ness

in the figure. of this member, is G. (b) What

(a) Determine the i.e., the magnitude is the

torof

4-7. A 100-hp motor is driving A at 26.3 rpm. Bevel gears cement mixers. If the power driven by gear B is 25 hp and are the required shaft diameters? stress in the shaft is 6000 psi. bearing is provided to avoid

a line shaft through gear at B and C drive rubberrequirement of the mixer that of C is 75 hp, what The allowable shear A sufficient number of bending.

for
is used as
Fig. P445
of

torque

the
this

material
member?

per

unit

angle

of twist.

The

torsional

shearing

flexibility

modulus

4-12.

A hollow

steel

rod

6 in long

spring. The ratio of inside to outside diameters is The required stif ness for this spring is  of a de per 1 in-lb of torque. (a) Determine the outside ameier of this rod. G = 12 x 106 psi. (b) What is torsional spring constant for this rod?
4-t3. and
shaft shaft

d.

A []

d:z

A solid 1000 mm
of the would

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A dynamometer
two

is employed

an

exhaust

to calibrate
300

fan

at 20

the
apart,

Hz.

re1" diam.

1/2r"Wall
thickness

shaft

dynamometer
and

disks

consists

attached

of a 12-mm-diameter
to the shaft

mm

solid

aluminum-alloy long is to be
outer exceed

shaft replaced

50 mm by a

in

same neither

diameter twice

such the
of

that maximum
the tubular

the

as shown in the figure. tube at the input end; The relative displacement stroboscopic light the given

One

the


Section
4-8. A solid

20
Fig. P4-7

 - 10'-:-

stress
What

nor
should

the
GAI
criteria

angle
be the

of twist
inner

of the
radius

aluminum
= 84 GPa.

shaft.
(b)

(a)

power

speed.

input

was in hp required
Let

is fastened through a other is near the output end. of these two disks as viewed found to be 6 0'. Compute

disk

diam.

G = 84 GPa.

to operate

the

fan

at

Fig.

P448

shaft?
of the

Let
two

= 28 GPa
governs?

and

Gst

4-14. steel 4-7

circular shaft of 150 mm diameter is ma-

Two shafts,

gears are as shown

attached jn the

to two figure. The

gear

at B

449. The loading on a control torque eron of an airplane may be idealized varying torque t = kx in-lb/in, where (see the figure). Determine the angle
free end. Assume JG to be constant.

tube for an ailby a uniformly k is a constant of twist of the

300

mm

chined

down

to a diameter

of 75

mm

along

a part

of

/ 3000mm
12 mm

the
eters,

shaft.
the

If,
fil et

at the
radius

transition
is 12 mm,

point
what

of the
maximum

two

diamshear

stress plied
be

is developed to the shaft?

if the fil et radius

when a torque of 2700 N.m What wil the maximum shear

is reduced to 3 mm?

is apstress of
if
6000 mm

Motor

Dynamometer

Fan

Fig,

P446

4-.9.
the

a 6-iri shear

Find
shaft

diameter

the

required
is limited

shaft

with

fil et

a 4-in

radius
psi.

diameter

for

the juncture
the

Fig.

P449

segment

A solid
Fig. P444

tapered
end

steel
(see

shaft
the

is rigidly
is subjected
Find

fastened
the

to
angular

transmits
stress

110 hp at 100 rpm

to 8000

and

maximum

at the

support

other

at one

end

and

figure).

to a torque

*4-20. A torque applied to a circular as uniformly varying from the built-in

shaft

is idealized

end,

see the

fig-

")20

Torsion
bution and
4-23.
'N.m/m

Problems
on a graph. (b) Determine flexibility of the shaft.
A tube of 50-ram outside

221

the

torsional
and

diameter

it is equal

the application
2-:8.)

to qbba, the angle-of-twist

of a unit torque

of a unit

torque

at b, and show
J = 3J2.

at a. Let

at b due to the
(See

that

thickness flanges in the of the applied

is attached at the ends to a solid shaft of 25-mm figure. If both the tube and same linearly elastic material, torque T is carried by the
25 2

by means of diameter, as show the shaft are what part tube?

:tions

(a) Using the force method, for the circular stepped The applied torques are T and T3 = 200 lb-in. Th 2.83 in and d2 = 2.38 in. (b)
 for the shaft along

Fig.

P4-20

its length.
d2

shaft Plot

determine shaft shown = 600 lb-in,

Let

diameters are the angle-of-twist

E =

the rein the figT2 = 500

Fig.

P4-32

d

of torque
the angle-of-twist

T ;. see

the
q>(x)

figure.
diagrams.

Plot

the

torque

T(x)

and

10 x

103 ksi.

*4-33. Section
reactions
ure

ure. Determine torsional rigidity

the

angle of twist JG of the shaft

of the right is constant.

end.

The

'4-21.

A 2000-mm

long

circular
along rigidity

shaft

attached

at one-

end_and free at the other ing distributed torque figure. The torsional stant. Determine the caused by the applied

is subjected to a linearly varyits length, as shown in the JG of the shaft is conangle of twist at the free end torque.

T I
4-24.
the
of 200

500
Fig. P4-23

. "
4-23,
is subjected
in this condition

 

dl

along
gram Section

I T'

T2

, , T3

for

Using Eq. 4-26 and continuity conditions (see 2-19) or singularity functions, determine the caused by a uniformly distributed torque to one-half of the shaft length, as shown in the figProblem 4-28. Sketch the angle-of-twist dia-

along

the 4-'i'i

shaft

length.

Assume
rigid
N-m

that
plates,
and maintained

in Problem
the shaft

prior
wil

to
to

Fig. An elastic circular

P4-27 shaft attached at both ends

end

2000--

welding
the shaft

process.
upon

4-25. reactions lowing = .2r

Using

the displacement method, determine for the shaft shown in Fig. 4-21 for the data: T = 40 k-in, L = 15 in, L2 = 10 in, in 4, J2 = ,r/2 in 4, and G = G2 = G = 12

103 ksi.
shaft along

Also
its

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release of the applied torque?

What

residual

torque

remain

is subjected to a uniformly distributed torque to per length along one-half of its length, as shown in figure. (a) Using the force method, find the reac(b) Determine the angle of maximum twist and the angle-of-twist diagram along the shaft length.
torsional rigidity JG of the shaft is constant.

4-34. A circular stepped shaft has the dimensions shown in the figure. (a) Using an energy method, determine the angle of twist at the loaded end. G is given. (b) Check the result using Eq. 4-16.
--3 d

plot

the

angle-of-twist
elastic
angle

diagram

for

length.

4-26. shown
Fig. P4-2t

Consider in the
determine

the
two

same alternative
the

stepped
figures. of twist
T

circular
Using the qb,b at a
N

to

Fig.

P4-34

method,

Section
Fig. P4-28

4-'i2

Section

4-9
that cross

4-22. An aluminum-alloy rod, forming a shaft 40 in long and has the

Assume elastic behavior

tube is shrunk acts as a unit. section shown

and let Est =

onto a steel This shaft is in the figure.

3E, u = 30 x

Assume

that

the

shaft

in

Problem

4-20

is at-

4-35. A coupling is made with eight -in-diameter high-strength bolts located on a 10-in-diameter bolt circle. (a) Calculate the torque that can be transmit ed by this coupling if the allowable shear stress in the bolts is 10,500 psi. (b) Find the hp that can be transmit ed
when 4-36. sectional the shaft A flange area and couplings are rotating at 250 rpm. coupling has six bolts having a crossof 0.2 in 2 each in a 8-in-diameter bolt

tached
(a)

at both ends. the reactions.

(a)

Using (b) Find

the the

force angle

method, of maximum

de-

103 ksi.
a torque

(a) What
T = 200

stresses
k-in?

would
Show

be caused
the shear

by applying
stress distri-

and
shaft length.

plot

the

angle-of-twist

diagram

along

the

circle,
4.t0

0.5 in 2 each in a'5-in-diameter able shear stress in the

and

six

bolts

having
bolt

bolt circle. is 16 ksi, what

a cross

sectional

If the is the

area

allowtorque

of

Rework
Rework
Steel

Problem
Problem

4-20
4-21

using
using

Eq.
Eq.

4-26.
4-26.

capacity Section

of this 443

coupling?

(b)

Using 2-19)

Fig.

P4-22

Fig.

P4-26

at the

Eq. 4-26 and or singularity

built-in

ends

continuity functions,
caused

by

conditions determine
the

application

(see the

4-37.

diameter

A specimen
and

450-mm

of an SAE
length

failed

1060

steel

at a torque

bar

of 20-mm

of 900

Torsion
N-m.
torsion?

Problems
of this
and

223

What

is the

modulus
shaft such

of rupture
of 20-ram diameter that. a 16-mm-diameter

steel
1000 core

in

elastic

into

the

600-MPa

range.

Idealized applied stress

(b)

x-- dia

9ram

for
A solid steel long is twisted

the

two

materials

are
4-40 the the residual
critical

il ustrated

in the figure:
torque pattern?
Determine

4-38. mm

remains elastic; see que applied to cause

the the

figure. yield

(a) Determine state. (b)

Find

the torthe re-

4-4t. If in Problem (a) what wil be

results with the

is relea Draw
the

values.

i< 120mm-- 8
Fig. P4-45

sidual stress distribution that would the torque. Draw the residual-stress critical values. Assume the idealized erties for the material given in Fig.
4-13.

occur on removing pattern with the mechanical prop4-30(b) of Example

sidual

angle

of twist

per

unit

length

of shaft.

Section

4-14

,torsional

Using

the sand-heap
moment

of resistance

an.logy,

determine
for

a rectangular

the ul- , 100 mm 

4-42.
and

Compare
a circular

the
members for a square
section.

maximum
of equal section,
All members

shear
length a

stress
and
are

and
cross-

an

of twist for tional areas

Elastic
core

the
is 100 mm

of a by 2a. (Hint: First, using the analogy, Eq. 4-29 for a solid circular shaft, where the of the heap is CXyp. Twice the volume included heap yields the required results.)
on 4-16 a member having the cross section shown

Fig.

P4-48

the
2O T

same

torque.
and Compare
tubes

The
the rectangular

circular
torsional

section
section

diameter

is 25 mm

MPa. there
4-49.

4-43.
thin-wailed

the
of

strength
cross section

and a longitudinal

stif ne
of lira

centerline

Neglect the any advantage

dimensions.

effect of stress concentrations. to thicken the inclined plates?

-

Is Use

circular

For

A shaft

having

elastic (see

the

material figure).

with

and

without

Fig.
4-39. If the shaft in Problem

P4-38
4-38 is twisted at the free

end

through
critical

an angle
values.

qb = 0.25 the

rad

and

then

released,

'what shear
the

wil be the residual stresses. Draw

A thin
circular

angle qb? Also residual-stress

steel
streel. The

find

the residual
pattern with

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Fig. P4-43

figure, find the maximum shear stresses and anof twist per unit length due to an applied torque 1000 in-lb. Neglect stress concentrations. Comment the advantage gained by the increase in the wall thickness over part of the cross section.

figure timate

is subjected the percentage

the cross to a torque of torque

section shown in the T = 150 N.m. (a) Escarried by each of the

two cross-sectional maximum shear concentrations.

components, and calculate the stresses in each part, neglecting stress (b) Find the angle-of-twist per unit

length
103

GPa.

caused

by the

applied
'3 mm

torque.

Let

G = 25

4-40.
a solid

tube
rod

of nickel-alloy
of mild

is shrunk
cross-sectional

onto
in mm
by
on

100

mm
:ram

30

mm

dimensions
on
shaft

of the
figure.
if the

composite
the
shear

shaft
torque
stress

are
deYeloped
measured

shown

the

Determine
maximum

this
the

surface However, whereas

is 480 MPa. the mild the alloy

For steel steel

either yields remains

steel, G = 120 GPa. in shear at 120 MPa, essential y linearly

4-44. An agitator shaft acting as a torsional is made by welding four rectangular bars to a pipe, as shown in the figure. The pipe is of 4 in diameter and is in thick; each of the rectangular

0.20"

Fig.
A thin-walled cross

P4-47
section in the form of a sim-

is { by 2 in. If the maximum glecting the stress concentrations,

what torque T can be applied

elastic
to this

shear is'limited
member?

stress, to 8

airfoil

is shown

in

the

figure.

Determine

the

torque

it would

carry

at a maximum

shear

stress

of 20

Fig.

P4-49

Alst loeyel
Mild steel o

120 MPa
4-45. A torsion member

Fig.

P4-44
has the cross section

Fig.

P4-40

in the

figure.

Estimate

the

torsion

constant

Jequiv.

Sec.

5-2.

Diagrammatic

Conventions

for

Supports

?chapter

ems wil be ful y analyzed for these quantities. Special procedures to developed in subsequent chapters are required for determining reacin.statically indeterminate problems for complete solutions. Extenion to members in three-dimensional systems, where there are six posinternal force components, wil be introduced in later chapters and wil rely on the reader's knowledge of statics. In such at a section of a member there can be: an axial force, two two bending moment components, and a torque. probshear

as

;.2.
5=][. Introduction

Diagrammatic
for and

Conventions

for Supports

The

effect

of axial

forces

and torsion
applied beams.

the preceding chapters. There may be subjected. In many

members must Such members resist forces are called

are other instances

The

laterally main

buildings machinery modern

act materials,

are

beams, just.as simultaneously the beam

an axle of a car is a beam. Many shafts as torsion members and as beams. is a dominant member of construction.
forces objective members necessary of this previously for eq chapter.

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types of forces to which in structural and machine
or transversely members supporting to

on straight

members

was

treated

desi

determination of the system of internal of any beam segment wil be the main For. the axial y or torsionally loaded

only one internal force was required at an arbitrary section to satisfy conditions of equilibrium. However, even for a beam with all forces the same plane, i.e., a planar beam problem, a system of three force components can develop at a section. These are the axial force,
shear, and the bending moment. Determining these quantities is
of this chapter.

it is essential to adopt diagrammatic conand loadings inasmuch as several kinds of of loads are possible. An adherence to such inventions avoids much confusion and minimizes the chances of making These conventions form the pictorial language of engineers. types of supports are recognized for planar structures. These are by the kind of resistance they offer to the forces. One type of physically realized by a roller or a link. It is capable of resisting in only one specific line of action. The link shown in Fig. 5-1(a) can resist a force only in the direction of line AB. The roller in Fig. 5can resist only a vertical force, whereas the rollers in Fig. 5-1(c) can only a force that acts perpendicular to the plane CD. This type of ort wil be usually represented in this text by rollers as shown in Figs. and (c), and it wil be understood that a roller support is capable a force in either direction 2 along the line of action of the To avoid this ambiguity, a schematic link wil be occasionally to indicate that the reactive force may act in either direction

planar structures their supports a great variety

(a)

Roller

IRA

Fig.

chapter lating reactions for calculating representations optional topic

dueed.

The

is divided into three parts. In Part A, methods for are reviewed; in Parts B and C, two dif erent  the internal shear and bending moment and their along a beam are discussed. At the end of Part C, on singularity functions for solving such problems is
largely confined to consideration of single wil be shown in the horizontal position. problems of planar frames resisting axial moments is also given. Only statically

of statics two components type of support a support is realized such supports wil
and the next three

equations the

5-4).

A reaction

applied. For inclined reactions, the ratio is fixed (see Example 1-3). that may be used is a pin. In construction, by using a detail shown in Fig. 5-2(a). In this be represented diagrammatically, as shown in
sections are an informal review of statics.

of this
are

type.

corresponds

to a single

unknown

This

2 This

Attention wil be which, for convenience, discussion of related shears, and bending

y from the beam; in other words, the beam is not allowed to lift off from support at A in Fig. 5-1(b). In this figure, it may be helpful to show the roller top ' the beam in the case of a downward reaction in order to make it clear constrained against moving vertically at the support. This practice
wil be fol owed in the text.

imples

that

in the actual

design,

a link

must

be provided

if the reaction

(c)

Fig,

of supports. possible
reactions dashed

5-1

Link
lines
are lines.)

(']'he only of action

shown by

and

roller

types
of the
the

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment

Sec.

5-3.

Diagrammatic

Conventions

for

Loading

227

L Beam
(a)

Rcx

I I;, / / j/ /Pi/ n/ /"'

(a) (b) (c)

P
RAx

P

b)
actual,

Fig. support: (a)

Fig.

5-2

and

Pinned

roller

Simple

5-4

or a link

Three supports:

basic
resists

types of idealized (a) a pinned support

only one

directed

supports resists

force.

two

for
Fixed

planar structural force components,

support:

(c)

a fixed

and

lb) Fig. 5-5

(a)

(b)

(b)

diagrammatic.

support

resists

two

force

components

and

a moment.

Concentrated

loading

on a beam,

(a) actual,

and

lb) idealized.

Fig. 5~2(b). A pinned support direction of the plane. Hence, may have two components, direction. Unlike the ratio
between determine the these reaction two components components,

is capable of resisting a force acting in general, the reaction at such a one in the horizontal and one in the applying to the roller or link support,
for two the pinned equations support of statics is not must

in

types
loads.

of distributed important: the

The first

could

loads uniformly

easily

occur. Among distributed

be an idealization

loads

these,

and

of the

two the

warehouse

kinds uniformly

are

just
be u.

mentioned, where along the beam. area, is an excellent

and
otherwise.

the same Likewise il ustration

kind of goods the beam itself, of the same

are piled up to the if of constant crosskind of loading. A

Fig.

5-3

Fixed

support.

third type of support is able to resist a force in any and is also capable of resisting a moment or a couple. Physically, a support is obtained by building a beam into a wall, casting it into crete, or welding the end of a member to the main structure. A s
of a is it

The

three forces can exist at such a support, two components of force moment. Such a support is called afixed support, i.e., the built-in fixed or prevented from rotating. The is shown in Fig. 5-3. To dif erentiate fixed supports from the roller and pin supports, are not capable of resisting moment, the lat er two are termed supports. Figure 5-4 summarizes the foregoing distinctions between three types of supports and the kind of resistance offered by each In practice, engineers usually assume the supports to be of one of three types by "judgment," although in actual construction, supports beams do not always clearly fal into these classifications.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

(N/m); per
Hence, the total force exerted
bottom. formly. Finally,

istic situation load is usually noted

a diagrammatic expressed as force

idealization are shown in Fig. 5-6. per unit length of the beam, unless In SI units, it may be given as newtons per

in the U.S. customary units, as pounds per inch (lb/in), as foot (lb/ft), or as kilopounds per foot (k/ft). Uniformly varying loads act on the vertical and inclined walls of a vessel Containing liquid. This is il ustrated in Fig. 5-7, where it is assumed that vertical beam is one meter wide and /(N/m 3) is the unit weight of liquid. For this type of loading, it should be careful y noted that the intensity of the load of qo N/m is applicable only to an infinilength of the beam. It is twice as large as the average intensity
by such a loading on a beam

(qoh/2)

'5-3.

Diagrammatic

Conventions

for Loading
to support to a beam 5~5(a). Such the beam forces. other hand, portion piled up along a variety of loads. through a post, a arrangements apply and are idealized for These are shown in many instances of the beam. In a the length of a

Horizontal bottoms of vessels containing liquid are loaded uniVarious aerodynamic loadings are of distributed type. it is conceivable to load a beam with a concentrated moment to the beam essential y at a point. One of the possible arrangefor applying a concentrated moment is shown in Fig. 5-8(a), and

N,

and

its resultant

acts

at a distance

h/3

above

the

vessel's

Uniformly varying
load

Structural members are called upon example, frequently a force is applied or a bolted detail, as shown in Fig. force over a very limited portion of purposes of beam analysis as concentrated grammatically in Fig. 5~5(b). On the forces are applied over a considerable house, for example, goods may be

Such

distributed
per

loads

are defined

by their

load

intensity

at any

point

i
Fig. 5-6

(a}

(b)

qo N/m

(max)

= 3,'h
wall.

'1

Fig.

5-7
a vertical

Hydrostatic

loading

force

unit

length.

Distributed

loading

on a beam,

(a) actual,

and

lb)

idealized.

on

228

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment
1,1/

Sec.

5-4.

Classification

of

Beams

229

Fig. 5-8 applying

moment

A method a concentrated
to a beam.

for

;Pulley
its diagrammatic
5-8(c).

(a)
1,1/

(b)

(b)

(c)

representation

to be used

in this

text

is shown

in
(c) (f)

A less artificial example of the application of a concentrated to a member, frequently occurring in the design of machine and elements, is il ustrated in Fig. 5-9. In order to maintain the applied P in equilibrium at joint C, a shear P and a moment Pd mt at the support, Fig. 5-9(c). These forces apply a concentrated
and an axial force, as shown in Fig. 5-9(b).

representation particularly ports and

These

The

necessity

notations

supports and forces cannot be overemphasized. the kind of resistance offered by the dif erent types the manner of representation of the forces at such
wil be used to construct free-body diagrams

for

for

a complete

understanding

of the

foregoing

(d)

(g)

Fig.

540

Types

of beams.

*54.

Classification

of

Beams

of supports
or rollers, and (b).

Beams

are classified
the

used.

The
A

beams beam

Thus,

into

are simply supported, becomes a fixed beam,

A

if the supports

Several

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com groups, depending primarily on

i0(c), Scheme one

of

if the ends have fixed supports. Likewise, fol owing the of nomenclature, the beam shown in Fig. 5-10(d) is a beam end and simply supported at the other. Such beams are also ted beams, as one end is "restrained" from rotation. A beam

same fixed called fixed

at one end
the

and

completely
projects the

free

at the other
a support, in Fig.

has a special
the

name,

a cantilever
to have an
beam.

Fig.

5-10(e).

are at the ends

or simple beams, or fixed-ended

and

are either
Figs. beam,

Fig.

(c)
B

Fig. 5-10(g), the beam is termed a continuous beam. For the distance between supports is called a span. In a there are several spans that may be of varying lengths. In addition to classifying beams on the basis of supports, descriptive pertaining to the loading are often used. Thus, the beam shown Fig. 5-10(a) is a simple beam with a concentrated load, whereas the in Fig. 5-10(b) is a simple beam with a uniformly distributed load. types of beams are similarly described. For most of the work in engineering solid mechanics, it is also meanto further classify beams into statically determinate and statically ate beams. If for a planar beam or a frame, the number of reaction components, including a bending moment, does not exceed three, such a structural system is externally statically determinate. unknowns can always be found from the equations of static equi-

If intermediate

beam Thus,

beyond

as a beam, all beams,

supports

beam

are. provided

shown

for a physically

5-10(f)

beam is said is an overhanging

continuous

member

{a)

{b)

librium.

The

next

section

wil

briefly

review

the methods
beams. is given

of statics

for

Fig. 5-9
moment

Loaded
to

the

vertical

horizontal

member.

member

applies

an axial

force

and

a concentrated

:omputing

reactions mg reactions

for

statically in indeterminate

determinate beams

A procedure in Chapter

for
10.

230

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment

Sec.

5.5.

Calculation

of

Beam

Reactions

*5-5.
All
mination

Calculation
subsequent
of the reactions.

of Beam
work with
When

Reactions
all of the

160

200

N.m

beams

in this

forces

chapter

are

wil

applied

begin

in one

with

de
RA 1-

200N.m I100N ] 16N

0.4 m
(b)

three

are  Fx = 0,  Fy = 0, and  Mz = 0, and have

in Chapter
in a horizontal and the z axis

equations

of static

equilibrium

are available

for

be taken rection,

1. For

straight

direction, the y axis in the upward normal to the plane of the paper. The

beams

in the horizontal

position,

already

the

analysis.

been

the x axis
vertical

discus,.

> I RB

(a)

Fig.

5-tt

of these equations to several beam problems is il ustrated in the examples and is intended to serve as a i The deformation'of beams, being small, is neglected when the of statics are applied. For stable beams, the small amount that does take place changes the points of application of the forces
perceptibly.
EXAMPLE 5-'1

If more

unknown reaction components becomes statically indeterminate. .Xlote that the concentrated moment the summation of moments. The been correctly assumed in Fig.
vertical reaction
if the calculations

or moments applied positive 5-11(b).

as shown.

exist

at the

support,

the

prob-

at C enters sign of Rs The opposite

A check on

only into the indicates that is the case

the arithmetical

expressions its direction of R.4y, and

work is

at A

acts
are

downward.
made

Find
11(a).
Solution

the
Neglect

reactions
the

at the
weight

supports
of the beam.

for

a simple

beam

loaded

as shown

in Fi

Solution

The

leading

of the beam

is already

given

supports is examined next, and the unknown components of these reactior clearly indicated on the diagram. The beam, with the unknown reaction ponents and all the applied forces, is redrawn in Fig. 5-11(b) to emphasize important step in constructing a free-body diagram. In order to the applied forces and reactions, fol owing the suggestion made in Section
slashes are drawn across the reaction force vectors.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

in Fig. The this involves
the details are dif erent. The reactions for

computing
a time.

reactions, 5-12.

some engineers Fundamental y,

prefer

to make
the
every

calculations use of the

force are

same

in the manner principles.

one

determined

in diagrammatic

form.

The

nature

of

total reaction is obtained by summing these reactions. This propermits a running check of the computations as they are performed. For t force, the sum of its reactions is equal to the force itself. For example, for 160-N force, it is easy to see that the upward forces of 40 N and 120 N total N. On the other hand, the concentrated moment at C, being a couple, is

by a couple.
of

It causes
500 N at

an upward
the left reaction.

force

of 500

N at the

fight

reaction

and

At A,
The The reaction points

two

unknown
at B can of application

reaction
act

components
the equations

may
direction careful y

exist,
since noted.

since
the After

the
end

end
is on

is
a

only in a vertical of all forces are

200N.m IlOON 1180N

c

gram
solution.

of the

beam

is made,

of statics

are

applied

to

Fx MA

= 0 = 0

200

+ 100

x 0.2

+ 160

x 0.3

--RB
RB = +

RL x 0.4
670
00 x

R}
100 x

i 'R
0.4 m

 M

= 0

R^y

x 0.4

+ 200

- 100

x 0.2

- 160
RAy =

x 0.1
--410

1/(0.4) = 500 N (0.2)/(0.4) =

=
500 N

t MA=0
500 N = 200 X 1/(0.4)

50 40 g0

N N N

i60

x (0.1)/(0.4)

Check:
Note
thus, only

F:,
that
two additional

= 0'

+
one of the three
reaction-components

-410independent
can be

100
determined

- 160 + 670
equations
from

R 410N 
Fig. 5-t2

R=670N

120 N = 160 X (0.3)/(0.41

50 N = 100 X (0.2)/(0.4)

(moment) (100 N force) { 160 N force)

 F. = 0 uses

of

232

Axial Force, Shear, and Bending

Moment
P-sX3X
_ 1

Sec. 5.5. Calculation

10=15kN

of Beam Reactions

q. = 10 kN/m

_,-crlqT
RAx

R''f -X3=2 m
5m

(a)

4k

Fig.

5-t3

(b)

/3k5k
(b)

Rax

RAy

EXAMPLE

5-2

Find shown
Solution

the

reactions for the partial y loaded in Fig. 5-13(a). Neglect the weight

beam with of the beam.

a uniformly

varying
Iution

Fig.

5-t4

An examination-of known reaction

the supporting conditions indicates that there are components; hence, the beam is statically determinate. and the applied load are shown in Fig. 5-13Co). Note particularly that figuration of the member is not important for computing the reactions. shaped outline, bearing no i-esemblance to the actual beam, is indicated

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

y diagram is shown in Fig. 5-14(b).

At

A,

there

are

two

unknown

re-

components,
plane the

RA

and

R,..

At B, the

reaction

RB

acts

normal

to the

supthis are two are

the

10rting

by

and constitutes two components

Similarly,

phasize
same

manner

this point.

as the

However,

original

beam.

this new

body

is supported
load

at points

A and
forces.

to

equal.

components

shown.
tuilibrium.

These
cal.

It is expedient to replace in this particular problem it is best to replace the inclined force with the steps reduce the problem to one where all forces This is of great convenience in applying the equations

a single R.,. and

unknown. RB., which

concentrated

For

calculating

force

the reactions,

P. It acts

through

the distributed
the

centroid

of the

is replaced

distributed

by an

pertinent quantities are marked on the working body diagram is prepared, the solution fol ows
equilibrium.

sketch, Fig. 5-13Co). After by applying the equations

MA=0G+

iM=0G
,F = 0--

+
+

4x3-R RAy
RAx

m. x12=O X 12 - 4 x 9 = 0
-- 3 1 = 0

R,=
RAy

lkt
= 3 k 1

= I g. I

R ,. = 4 k--*

F. = 0 M/ = 07+  M = OG+

+ 15 x 2 - RB x 5 = 0 - RAy x 5 + 15 x 3 = 0
-9+

R/ = 0 RB = 6 R/y = 9
15-6

R,

= X,/42

+ 32 = 5 k

R

= Vff7+

12 = /k

+3-4+1=0

EXAMPLE

5-3

Determine applied

the
force.

reactions

at A and

B for

the

beam

shown

in Fig.

5-14(a)

h#ges or p#medjoints are introduced is capable of transmit ing only horizontal and be transmit ed at a hingedjoht. Therefore, the a particularly convenient location for "separation" oses of computing the reactions. This process part of the beam so separated is treated independently.
axis around which moments may be taken

into beams and frames. vertical forces. No moment point where a hinge occurs of the structure into parts is il ustrated in Fig. 5-15. Each hinge provides
to determine reactions. The

234

Axial Force,

Shear,

and Bending

Moment

Sec. 5-7. Axial Force in Beams

considered earlier in Section 5-5. The externally applied the reactions at the support keep the whole body in equilibrium. ider an imaginary cut X-X normal to the axis of the beam, the beam into two segments, as shown in Figs. 5-16(b) forces Now which and (c).

235

(

1 - -a

.

2
B

particularly that the imaginary section goes through and separates it too. Each of these beam segments must be in equilibrium: These conditions of equilibrium stence of a system of internal forces at the cut section

the distributed is a free-body

require the of the beam.

In general,

Fig. 545 "separated" determine

statics.

Structures the

at hinges reactions

to

by
(b)


introduction of a hinge or hinges
is not

(c)
into a continuous beam in many cases

a moment [m. These quantities wil be discussed

Axial Force

and

at a section

are

necessary to maintain the take on a special significance separately.

Beams

of such

a member,

a vertical

isolated part in equiin beams and there-

force,

a horizontal

in

the
beam

system
results

statically
in a beam

determinate.
that

The
stable.

introduction
Note that

of a hinge
the reaction

into

a deterr
at the hit

horizontal

force

such

as P,

shown

in Fig.

5-16(b)

or

(c),

may

be

nec-

;sary

at a section

one

beam

acts

in an opposite

dh'ection

on

the

other

beam.

5-{.
The
the

Application
main
forces

of the
of this
exist at

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com Method of Sections '

W (total
varying

called a thrust; if away, it is called axial tension. In referring to either these forces, the term axial force is used. The effect of an axial force a section of a member has already been discussed in Chapters 1 and was shown that it is imperative to apply this force through the centroid
uniformly
load)

equation

and

 Fx = 0. If the horizontal

sense

of a beam

of this

to satisfy
force

fol ows

the

conditions

force

from

P acts

a particular

of equilibrium.

toward

the section,

solution

The

of

/P2(tta'ad )
M

objective
that

chapter
of

is to establish
a beam or

means
a frame.

for
To

dete
obtain

a section

(a)

forces,

the

method

of

sections,

the

basic

approach

of solid

wil

be applied. This procedure The analysis of any beam begins with thd preparation plied and the reactive forces. the equations of equilibrium
If the labeled system and is statically shown on
the

is referred to here as a direct or frame for determining the internal of a free-body diagram showing both The reactions can aiwa3 provided the system is staticall3
reactions manner, are
for and section either case,

the
(b)

P2

complete
no distinction The method

indeterminate, the free-body. In this force system is identified. In the has to be made between the of sections can then be applied

subsequent
applied at any

steps
reactive of a
(c)

P

by employing the librium, any part To be specific,

certain concentrated

previously used concept that if a whole body is in of it is likewise in equilibrium. consider a beam, such as shown in Fig. 5-16(a),
and distributed forces acting on it. The

W2
lR,v

B
the method of sections to a

also

presumed

to be known,

since

they

may

be computed

as in the

/RB

statically

determinate'beam.

236

Axial Force, Shear, and Bending

of the cross-sectional area

Moment
of a member to avoid bending. Similarly,
Resultant of all forces

237
wil always
area.

the line
centroid

of action
of the beam's

of the axial
cross-sectional

force

be directed

throu
of is

section along a beam may axial force in the previous manner. tomarily taken positive. The axial
5-16(b) 5-8. and Shear (c) is equal in Beams to the horizontal

Any

be examined The tensile force (thrust)

force

for the magnitude force at a section at section X-X

P2.

," to theleftofsection
+V
element

(including

reactions)

in Fi

Beam
(c)

In general, to maintain a segment of a beam, such as that shown in 5-16(b), in equilibrium, there must be an internal vertical force at cut to satisfy the equation  Fy = 0. This internal force , angles to the axis of the beam, is called the shear, or shear force. shear is numerically equal to the algebraic sum of all the vertical ponents of the external forces acting on the isolated segment,

Arbitrary

section

+ V

opposite

This shown

is opposite

in direction.
to the

shear

direction

may in Fig.

in direction

Given

also be computed 5-16(c). It is then

sum of all the

to the

the qualitative
downward
vertical

by considering equal numerically

forces,

load

data shownin
to the
the
including

action components, segment or the left terial--arithmetical

be computed At this

to the is used simplicity

right of the to determine governs.

shown in the

of section maintain

in Figs. 5-16(b) two diagrams.

X-X, vertical

similarly. time, a significant

the beam
At a section,

exerts
"two

a downward
segment
of the

the beam at the forces in equilibrium.

observation must be made. The same and (c) at the section X-X is opposite in For that part of the downward load W to the
section

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the vertic

right-hand and is

left

of the

Fig. 5-16(b)
se

Fig.

5-t7

Definition

of

sec

positive

shear.

i specifying

section

X-X

section. Whether the ri the shear at a section is ' Shears at any other section

side

the

of Fig.
in

of a section,
Sections

direction

5-16(a)

of a shear
Fig.
1-3 and

is a negative
5-17(c).
1-4.)

V, it is essential
This

shear.

Note

is also

to associate
true

that

in addition
stresses.

with

it with
+v

discussion

shown

selected Historically,

sign

in Fig. 5-18(a). A few books to be consistent with the direction

convention it appears

for shear tO be based

3 reverse f axes

in this book on directing

the direction of positive in Fig. 5-18(b).

is the one the coordinate

generally

axes

force

on the beam,
must

provides Conversely,

as shown
be dif erentiated,

an upward the loaded

Bending
shear

Moment
and axial

in Beams
forces at a section of a beam satisfy only two

(a)

in Fig.

[ de

5-16{
from
in

uations

directions"

of shear

of equilibrium: of static equilibrium

can
moment

 Fx = 0 and  Fy = 0. The remaining confor a planar problem is  M = 0. This, in

only
the

upon

familiar action-reaction case of an axial y

The direction

which

of the
loaded
shear

concept rod,

beam
and

at section

of statics again
of

is considered.
X-X

and has occurred earlier in the torsion problem.

would be reversed

This

fol ows

be

satisfied
within

by
cross-sectional

developing
area

a couple
of the

or an
cut to

internal
counteract

remoment

diagrams
similar another

necessary to dif erentiate between the two possible directions of The definition of positive shear is il ustrated in Fig. 5-17. A internal force V acting at a section on an isolated left segment of beam, as in Fig. 5-17(a), or an upward force V acting at the same on the right segment of the beam, as in Fig. 5-17(b), corresponds
itive lated shear. from Positive a beam

reversal along

if the

in the a beam.

distributed

direction Therefore,

load

W were

shear takes the adoption

acting

place at one of a sign

upward.

Fret

governing

moment act

caused by the external in a direction opposite

section

magnitude These usually To determine . equilibrium,

S. H.

equation

of the internal resisting moment equals the external momoments tend to bend a beam in the plane of the loads and referred as bending moments. an internal bending moment maintaining a beam segment either the left- or the right-hand part of a beam free-body
N.
2nd

 M

= 0. It fol ows

forces. to the

The external

internal

resisting

from

the

moment

same

to

equation

satisfy

that

the

(b)

by

shears two

are shown sections,

and

in Fig. again

5-17(c) in Fig.

for an element 5-17(d). The

Crandall, tSolids,

C. Dahl, ed. (New

and York:

T.

J. Lardner, McGraw-Hil ,

An

2nd Solids,

ed.

(New (Englewood

York:

Clif s,

Wiley,

NJ:

1971). E. Prentice-Hall,

P. Popov,

1968).

Introduction J. L. Introduction
1978).

to the
Merriam,

MeStat-

Fig. 548 Positive sense of shear and bending moment defined in (a) is used in this
text with coordinates shown

to Mechanics

in (b).

238

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and Bending

Moment

Sec. 5-9. Bending

Moment

in Beams

23 {)

can be used, as shown in Figs. 5-16(b) and (c). The magnitude of bending moment is found by the summation of the moments caused all forces multiplied by their respective arms. The internal forces V P, as well as the applied couples, must be included in the sum. In
to exclude the moments caused by V and P, it is advantageous to

Yll 3m 9 kN

)' 10 kN/m
x

--i3

15kkN/m
A 9 kN

which the the beam

the point
moment

of intersection
moments cross section.

are on the

summed. In Figs.

of these

two

This point 5~16(b)

internal
and

lies

forces

on the centroidal (c), the internal

as the point
top fibers

arot
of

may
and

be physically Fig.
lower

interpreted
ones.

as a pull

on the

beam

If the load Win resisting moments situations require

merits. This

a push

convention

5-16(a) were acting in the opposite in Figs. 5-16(b) and (c) would reverse. the adoption of a sign convention for
is associated with a definite

physical

direction, This and the bending

- 2 m--
(a)

-

<

(c)

the beam. For example, in Figs. shown cause tension in the upper lower. This tends to increase the
and to contract the lower surface.

5-16(b) and (c), the internal part of the beam and com length of the top surface
A continuous occurrence

ments "shed versely, in the

Under

along the beam makes the beam deform water." Such bending moments are assigned a positive moment is defined as one that

top

such

part

circumstances,

and

tension

in the
the

beam

water."
forces

deflects

For

example,

down

as shown

a simple

in exaggerated

beam

suggested bending shears

the moment

by physical intuition. Demitions for positive and ne moments are shown in Figs. 5-19(b) and (c). Note that, ast V, in addition to the sense of M, it is also essential to
for a particular side of a section.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

lower
assumes

part

of a beam's
form

of the of such convex upwards, a negative sign. produces compre.,

a shape

cross
that

supporting

a group

in Fig.

5-19(a),

of

(b)

Fig.

5.20

EXAMPLE

5-4

;ider a-a
SOlution

earlier and

Example
b-b; see Fig.

5-2

and 5-20(a).

determine

the

internal

system

of forces

at sec-

+M

+M

free-body
Fibers in Fibers in +M

for
left

the

member,
a-a

including
in Fig.

reactions,
5-20(b)

is shown
shows the

in Fig.
maximum

5-20(a).
ordinate

A freefor

to the

of section

tension
+M
+M

compression

isolated

part

of the
1

applied

load.
2

Using

this

information,

v, = -9 +  x 2 x  x 10 = -2.33kN
{b)

M, = -9 x 2 +
-M

x 2 x  x 10 x  x 2 = -13.6kN.m
sense

forces
{a)

Fig. 5-20(d).
549 Definition of bending moment signs.
directly

are shown Jy to the left

It is evident

with correct of section

that the second

b-b

in the figure. is shown in Fig.

free-body

is simpler

5-20(c),

for calculations,

and

to the

right,

Fig.

240

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and Bending
Vb =

Moment
+6kN

Sec. 5.t0.

Axial.
P=Sk

Force,

Shear,

and Bending.Moment

Diagrams

and
rigidly must

Mb = -6 x 1 = -6kN.m
The same
joined together be perpendicular

-[
I

procedure

as well to the

can be used for frames

as for curved bars. axis of a member.

consisting

In all such

of several
cases,

the

memb
secti6fi

{a) (g)

3k

2X8-4X3= 4 k-ft

2k,J'
J
3k
I I I

I
I
I

5-10.
By the shears, beam. a plot

Axial-Force,
Diagrams
methods discussed and bending Moreover, with of their values

Shear,
before,

and
the

Bending-Moment
magnitude be obtained sense of axial fo at many sections adopted for these separate diagrams.. On such and

.[2k

i
4 k-ft

i, 

113k
4 k-ft

t' '2k

(h)

o
-3 +2 k k I I I Axial force

moments may the sign conventions may be made on

of
3k 2k
(d) (i)

a base line representing the length of a beam. When these ordinate are plot ed and interconnected by lines, graphical representations of functions are obtained. These diagrams, corresponding to the kind quantities they depict, are called,. respectively, the axial-force the shear diagram, or the bending-moment diagram. With the aid of diagrams, the magnitudes and locations of the various quantities becor immediately apparent. It is convenient to make these plots directly the free-body diagram of the beam, using the same horizontal scale the length of the beam. Draftsmanlike precision in making such is usually unnecessary, although the significant ordinates are
marked with their numerical value.

grams,

ordinates

may

be laid

off equal

to the

computed

qantities

2 k T.2, Jr-t
I

 2
2 kj-O k-ft
(j)
+4 k-ft

Shear

2k

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

,-';--J

3k

Ii

+10

k-ft

+4

k-ft

J

5-

Bending

moment

4 kl

(k)

axial-force diagrams are not as commonly the bending-moment diagrams. This is so because investigated in practice are loaded by forces that axis of the beam. For such loadings of a beam, at any section. Shear and moment diagrams are exceedingly designer sees at a glance the kind of performance beam at every section. The procedure of sectioning and finding the system of forces at the section approach. It wil be used in the fol owing il ustrative of these examples, algebraic expressions for these wil be given. A systematic method for rapidly constructing grams wil be discussed in the next part of this
EXAMPLE 5-5

The

used the

act there important. that

as the shear majority perpendicular to are no axial

Deflected

shape

Fig.
Solution

5-21

From them, is desired from a beam or a is the most examples. In functions along a and moment

shear chapter.

A free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. 5-21(b). Reactions fol ow from inspection after the applied force is resolved into the two components. Then several sections through the beam are investigated, as shown in Figs. 5-21(c)(g). In every case, the same question is posed: What are the necessary internal forces to keep the segment of the beam in equilibrium? The corresponding quantifies are recorded on the respective free-body diagrams of the beam segment. The ordinates for these quantifies are indicated by heavy dots in Figs. 5-21(h)(j), with due attention paid to their signs.
Note furnish that the the same free bodies information, shown
and

in Figs. normally

5-21(d) both

and would

(g) are alternates, not be made.

Note

as they that

Construct in Fig.

axial-force, 5-21(a) due

shear, and to the inclined

bending-moment force P = 5 k.

diagrams

for

the

beam

a section just to the left of the applied force has one sign of shear, Fig. 5-21(e), whereas just to the right, Fig. 5-21(f), it has another. This indicates the importance of determining shears on either side of a concentrated force. For the condition shown, the beam does not resist a shear that is equal to the whole force. The
bending moment in both cases is the same.

:242

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment

Sec.

540.

Axial.

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending-Moment

Diagrams

243

In this particular case, after a few individual points have been J the three diagrams in Figs. 5-21(h)-(j), the behavior of the respective across the whole length of the beam may be reasoned out. Thus, although segment of the beam shown in Fig. 5-21(c) is 2 ft long, it may vary in len anywhere from zero to first to the left of the applied force, and no change in shear and the axial force occurs. Hence, the ordinates in Figs. 5-21(h) and remain constant for this segment of the beam. On the other hand, the moment depends directly on the distance from the support; hence, it varies early, as shown in Fig. 5-21(j). Similar reasoning applies to the segment in Fig. 5-21(d), enabling one to complete the three diagrams on the ri side. The use of the free-body of Fig. 5-21(g) for completing the diagram to fight of center yields. the same result. The sign of a bending moment, per Figs. 5-19(b) and (c), defines the sense which a beam bends. Since, in this problem, throughout the beam length, moments are positive, the beam curves to "retain water." In order to this physical behavior some analysts find it advantageous to draw a short line directly on the moment diagram, as shown in Fig. 5-21(j), to ifidicate manner in which a beam or a beam segment curves.
Sometimes, in addition to or instead of the shear or moment dia

(a)

*
(d)

>1

Axial

force

Shear

(f)

p PLf

P I \PL - Px

-PL

Moment

expressions of the

for
beam,
V= V=

these functions are the fol owing relations

+2k -2k

necessary. apply:

For

the

origin

of x at the

left

Deflected

shape

Fig.

5-22

M=

+2x

k-ft

+2xcan respectively,

4(xbe easily

5)

+20-

These expressions of 2 ft and 8 ft,

EXAMPLE 5-6

established in Figs. 5-21(c)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

for0<x<5 for5<x<

for0-<x-<

10 5

EXAMPLE

5-7

2xk-ft

for5-<x-<

10

forces

Construct

shown

shear

in Fig.

and

5-23(a).

bending-moment

diagrams

for

the

beam

loaded

with

the

by mental y and (g) by

replacing an x.

the

Solution

An arbitrary section shown in Fig. 5-23(b).

shear, force and bending-moment at the end; see

at a distance x from the left This section is applicable

support isolates for any value

the beam segment of x just to the left

Determine loaded
Solution

with

axial-force, an inclined

Fig.

diagrams 5-22(a).

for

the

{-,+---a

>l

First, the inclined force is replaced by the two components shown in Fig. and the reactions are determined. The three unknowns at the support fol ow the familiar equations of statics. This completes the free-body diagram shown Fig. 5-22(b). Completeness in indicating all of these forces is of the utmost
portance.

(a)

,
 p,[
(d)
Shear

A segment of the beam is shown in Fig. 5~22(c); from that the axial force and the shear force remain the distance x. On the other hand, the bending moment is summation of moments around C gives PL - Px acting This represents a negative moment. The moment at the negative bending moment as it tends to pull on the upper
seen
three diagrams are plot ed in Figs. $-22(d)-(f).

this segment, it may same regardless a variable quantity. in the direction support is fibers of the beam.

(b)

(e)

Fig.

5-23

Moment

244

' Axial Force, Shear, and Bending

of the applied remains constant port, reaching P. The shear, and is +P. The a maximum of +Pa. force

Moment
regardless bending of the

Sec. 5-10. Axial-Force,

moment
distance from varies linearly the from su the

Shear, and Bending-Moment

Diagrams

obtained
and

customary by considering sign conventions.

(d).

to isolate the left-hand segment, similar expressions may the right-hand segment of the beam, with due attention The plot of the V and M functions is shown in Figs. 5-

An

arbitrary

section

applicable

anywhere
force Only zone. diagrams

between

the

two

applied

forces
mu

shown in Fig. segment in this be resisted by pure bending. Shear and Figs. 5-23(d)
force at any

5-23(c). No shear part of the beam. the beam in this bending-moment and (e).
section

is necessary a constant Such a state for diagram this

to maintain equilibrium bending moment of + Pa of bending or flexure is condition as there are shown is no

MPLE

5-9

No
of the

axial-force
beam.

loading is necessary,

the beam

moment

in Example

M as a function

5-4,

shown

of x along

in Fig.

the

5-25(a),

horizontal

express

member.

the shear

V and

the

Solution

EXAMPLE

5-8

Unlike
diagrams
5-24.

Plot shear distributed

Solution

and a bending-moment load; see Fig.

for

a simple

beam

with

Therefore, the solution is determined V and M are continuous. A free-body load is shown in Fig. 5-25(b), and required expressions for 0 < x < 3 are

the preceding

example,

in this case, a load discontinuity

in two parts for each of which the funcdiagram for the beam segment under for the remainder, in Fig. 5-25(c). The

occurs at x = 3

The best way of solving this problem is to write algebraic expressions quantities sought. For this purpose, an arbitrary section taken at a distance the left support is used to isolate the segment shown in Fig. 5-24(b). applied load is continuously distributed along the beam, this section
and

for
Since is

V(x) = -9 +

x 10

= -9 + x kN

The

applies shear

to any section along the length V is equal to the left upward

section.
action on

The
the

internal
left less

bending
the moment

moment
caused

M resists
by

= -9x + x 10 NON-ACTIVATEDM(x) VERSION www.avs4you.com

of the reaction beam. less

= -9x

+ x kN.m

the

load

to the
left

left

of th

For

3 < x < 5,

the

moment

caused

by

the

the

forces

to the

of the

section.
w o N/m

The

summation

of moments

is performed

around

an axis

at the

V(x) M(x)

= =

-9 -9x

15 = + 15(x

+6kN - 2) = 6x

- 30 kN.m a lit le simpler to use a free-

To obtain
body

the last

expression,

it would

have

been

This

diagram

problem
5-16.

similar

can also

to Fig.

be solved

5-20(d).

using

the singularity

functions

discussed

in

} woL

Section

'

oF>---..

-%L

Y--3 m
I kN

10kN/m

6kN'
I

k.1  ..M(x)
V(x)
90 N

r,,

v=
(b)

Wo.

Moment

-

5m

<
(b)

2 --J-
(c)

- WoX

(d)

Fig.

5.25

Fig.

5-24

246

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment

Sec.

5.10.

Axial-Force,

Shear,
X 1

and

Bending.Moment

Diagrams

2,47

'
P(x)
D

&

Fig,

5-26

V,.
EXAMPLE 5-t0

I V(x)

V.''
2Pa

('M(x,)

Pla x3)

Write
Solution

analytic

expressions

for V and

M for the beam

shown

in Fig.

5-26.

Unlike
degree
procedure
origin,

having

the preceding
careful y
is the

one

redundant
same

cases,

this is a statically
reaction.

There

is no horizontal
numerical

indeterminate

proble
cannot

reaction

m to the
and
be obtai

y2Pa
(b)

V(xa)pl'xa

at A.

(a)

cept

for

identifying

until

the reactions

are determined.
V(x)

as before,

the

although

unknown

reactions

On this
wox

basis,

at a distance

results

as VA,

VB,

MA,

Fig.

5-:27

x away

from

V.

and

M(x)

= MA - Mn

+ +
10 and

VAx Vx

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

(WoX)X/2 WoX2/2

These forces are constant throughout the length of the vertical bar and become the reactions at B for the beam segment BC. It is important to note that the axial force in member AB acts as shear in BC. After the reactions at B for BC are known, the usual procedure gives the fol owing internal forces:

P(x2)

= 0, V(x2)

= -P

and

M(X2)

= +2Pa
the force as before,

- PlX2
P at C, the progiving

for

Sometimes,
unknown

reactions
54

it wil be necessary

in Chapters

to use such expressions

12.

in the process

of solvin

For cedure

member CD, for determining

except

for the the internal

need for resolving forces is the same

P(x3)
bending
directly

= -P/V,
moment

V(x3) = -P/V
x3 = X/a
at D is zero,
of the

and
for this
be.

M(x3)
structural

= + Pa - Px3/V
it can be verified
system

EXAMPLE

By substituting
Shear

into

Consider a structural system of three interconnected straight bars, as shown Fig. 5-27(a). At arbitrary sections, determine the internal forces P, V, and M the members caused by the application of a vertical force P at D.
Solution

and bending-moment
outline

diagrams
frame.

as it should

the last expression,

that

the

can be plot ed

on the

EXAMPLE

542

The frame is conveniently shown in Fig. 5-27(b). and sections through

origin.

analyzed by isolating For each case, a dif erent the members are shown At an arbitrary +P,
by calculating

the three coordinate at arbitrary

at A,

straight members, system is indicated, distances from the

which

Consider

a curved

beam

whose

centroidal

axis

is bent

into

a semicircle

of 0.2

beam
are

The
seen

segment
to

solution
be

AB.

begins

section = 0

the

reaction

through and

this beam, M(x)

the internal = +2Pa

is then

shown

forces

on

radius, forces A-A,

Solution

as shown in Fig. 5-28(a). shown, find the axial force, ct = 45 . The centroidal axis

If this member the shear, and and the applied

is being pulled by the 1000-N the bending moment at section forces all lie in the same plane.

P(x)

V(x)

There

is no essential

dif erence

in the

method

of attack

in this

problem

compared

with

that

in a straight-beam

problem.

The

body

as a whole

is examined

for

con-

248

Axial Force, Shear, and Bending

Moment
derived. These
as well

Sec. 5-tt. Equations

can
as for

of Equilibrium
construction
of reactions.

for a Beam Element

of shear and moment sections

be used
the

for
calculation

the long,

P=I

Consider

a beam

element

Ax

isolated

by

two

adjoining

perpendicular to its axis, Fig. 5-29(b). Such an element is shown a free-body in Fig. 5-29(c). All the forces shown acting on this element have positive sense. The positive sense of the distributed external force
c = 45

(a)

is taken to coincide ar and the moment that on the right designated V +

Eig.

5-28

From

the condition

for equilibrium T +

with the direction may each change side of the element, A V and M + AM.
V+
AV

of the positive from one section these quantities

y axis. As the to the next, are, respec-

of vertical
(V+

forces,
AV)

one
= 0

obtains

ditions

of equilibrium.

From

the

conditions

of the

problem

here,

such

is

A is taken perpendicular to the axis of the beam. Before determining wanted at the cut, the applied force P is resolved into components perpendicular to the cut. These directions are taken respectively axes. This resolution replaces P by the components shown in Fig.
707

the case.

Next,

a segment

of the beam

is isolated;

see Fig.

5-28(b).

 Fx = 0, the axial
in several of action
N in the

Therefore,

dif erent of the

only

direction

force

the

ways. applied

shown.

at the cut is +707

The

axial

For force
force

example, P and
at the

bending

centroid

the

if  Mo = 0 is used, shear at the section

of the cut

moment

N. From

at the

 Fy = 0, the shear
cut can

parallel as the y and 5-28(b).

the

Section

qAx-

Ax
L,
For So, equilibrium, upon noting
one has

= q
arm around A also must of the distributed
since, simplification in the

(5-1)

be considered, in the direction

= 0. At

C, a point

and the resisting bending moment is 707(0.2) shown. An alternative solution may be obtained
lying on the centroid, the axial force

The bending moment is then the m arm. In both of these methods

components of the force

P is avoided

product of the of determining

as this

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com Y +q(x)

times the radius has

note that the line pass through

the summation that from

of q(x) within in q becomes

point

of moments A the

be zero. force is
limit is not as Ax an ap-

and

= 141.4 N.m, by applying

the shear

intersectl

4 No variation O, the change Proximation.

Ax need negligibly

be considered, small. This

is more

applied force P and bending moment,

involved

the 0.141 use of

It is suggested that the reader complete a. Several interesting observations may The moments at the ends wil vanish for shear vanishes and the axial force becomes
the maximum bending moment is associated

this problem in terms of a general be made from such a general solution. a = 0 and a = 180 . For a = 90 , equal to the applied force P. Likewise
with a = 90 .
(a) Beam sign

+'"

+M "+v
convention

+q(x)

5=]]

Dif erential
Element

Equations

of Equilibrium

for

a Beam
shear

Y (qx) load per uni

(b)

(c)

be used.

Instead of the direct approach of cutting a beam and and moment at a section by statics, an efficient alternative
For this purpose, certain fundamental dif erential

determining procedure

Flg.

5-29

Beam

and

beam

elements

between

adjoining

sections.

250

Axial Force, Shear, and Bending

=o+

Moment
+ AM)
AM
Ax
=V+

.
VAx
q Ax
2
-dx

Sec. 542. Shear Diagrams

=

by Integration

of the Load
q = +q2

(M

- M

- (q Ax)(Ax/2)

basic

Equations

dif erential

5-1 and

equations:

5-2 in the limit

as Ax --> 0 yield

the fol owing

dV

= -wodx

and

I dv I )
By substituting Eq. 5-4 into Eq. 5-3, another
=q

Slope = d__V=-wo dx
(a)

xx = +ql
(b)

dV

dV

dx - +q2
(a) a uniformly load intensity, uniformly intensity.

Fig.

5-30

Shear
increasing

Slope

of shear

diagram:

dV
useful relation is

dx - q ""---...Slope

Slope

distributed and (b)

diagrams

for
a load

dx

This

3 and grams.

ically

dif erential
5-4

determinate
are These

equation

very convenient applications

beams

from

can
wil

be used

for construction be discussed

the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION boundary conditions,www.avs4you.com whereas Eqs. by the summation process. For this purpose,
"jump,"
dx 2

cess

remains

in the value
valid
the beam.

of the shear
nevertheless,

occurs.
since

a concentrated

The

continuous

force

summation

may

be

of as being
basis

a distributed
above

force

extending
diagram

for

an infinitesimal
can be established

dis-

for

determining
next.

reactions
and

of

tance

On the

along

of the

reasoning,

a shear

of shear

moment

5-12.
By transposing

Shear

Diagrams
and integrating

by Integration
Eq. 5-3 gives the

of the
shear

Load
V:

be determined are successively mathematical at a section

the section.

Then the vertical components of forces and reactions summed from the left end of the beam to preserve the sign convention for shear adopted in Fig. 5-17. The shear is simply equal to the sum of all vertical forces to the left of
shear diagram is constructed from the load diagram by the

first.

the reactions

must

always

summation process, two important observations can be made regarding its shape. First, the sense of the applied load determines the sign of the slope of the shear diagram. If the applied load acts upward, the slope of the shear diagram is positive, and vice versa. Second, this slope is equal to the corresponding applied load intensity. For example, consider a segBy assigning definite of integration limits to this constant integral, it is seen is equal to the that shear the shear at

When

the

section beam
by

hand

constant
the

is simply from the end.

amount

left

an integral (i.e., a sum) of the vertical end of the beam to the section any two
vertical

Between

C. This any

forces in question the shear

these

along
on the
sections.

plus

ment of a beam with a uniformly distributed downward shears at both ends, as shown in Fig. 5-30(a). Since intensity Wo is negative and uniformly distributed,

of the

def'mite
two

force

seciions

included

of a beam,
between

If a concentrated

no force

occurs

between

force

comes

into

sections,

the

summation,

no change

a discontinuity,

in shear

takes'

or

stant, the slope of the shear diagram exhibits Alternatively, the linearly varying load intensity segment with known shears at the ends, shown in Fig. 5-30(b), gives rise to a dif erently shaped shear diagram. Near the left end of this segment, the locally applied upward load q is smaller than the corresponding one

load Wo and known here the applied load i.e., q = -Wo = conthe same characteristics. acting upward on a beam

q2 near

the fight

end.

Therefore,

the positive

slope

of the shear

diagram

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment

Sec.

543.

Moment

Diagrams

by

Integration

of the

Shear

253

on
concave

the
Do not

left
upward.

is smaller
fail to note

than
that

it is on
a mere

the
systematic

right,

and
consecutive

the

shear
summa

dia

the vertical components of the forces is all that is necessary to the shear diagram. When the consecutive summation process is diagram must end up with the previously calculated shear the right end of a beam. No shear acts through the beam just last vertical force or reaction. The fact that the diagram closes in
manner check offers should

rapidly.

pendently graphical practical

procedure problems.

an important check on the never be ignored. It permits with al. most complete assurance

arithmetical calculations. one to obtain solutions

of integration It is the basis

outlined for sketching

of being correct. The before is very qualitative shear,

dia
with

dMIdx

= -V

From the physical point plotely consistent. Whenever from one side of the beam
by looking this statement at the same on some

beam simple

of view, the shear sign conventionbeams are analyzed, a shear is opposite in sign to a diagram
from the

is not
should 

-M B
MB

dM = - V1dx
(a)

cases,

other such

side. The reader as a cantilever

dM.
Slope of moment diagram:

= V dx

force

trated

unimportant.

in the

force

middle.

at the end

For

and a simply
design

purposes,

5-13.
Transposing

Moment

Diagrams
and integrating Eq.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION dM_ V /+Slope Fig. 541 Shear and moment diagrams for (a) a uniformly by Integration of the Shear www.avs4you.com 5-4 gives the bending moment
the sign of the shear is
dx

supported

beam

with

'"'-----Slope

increasing

load

intensity.

distributed
to their

load intensity,
end and
sign,

and (b) a uniformly

By proceeding

moment
moment
construction

the

where tions

C2 is a constant at x = 0. This
of shear

of integration corresponding equation is analogous to Eq.

diagrams. The meaning

of the

to boundary 5-6 developed

term

V dx is

for

minate

by the hatched of these areas responds to an evaluation are on rollers, pin-ended, are zero. If the end is built-in
beams, the end

graphically summation

moment

areas of the shear diagrams in Fig. 5-31. between definite sections through a beam of the definite integral. If the ends of a or free, the starting and the terminal (fixed against rotation), in statically
is known from the reaction

earlier to go from loading to shear diagrams. The change in in a given segment of a beam is equal to the area of the coronding shear diagram. Qualitatively, the shape of a moment diagram be easily established from the slopes at some selected points along beam. These slopes have the same sign and magnitude as the corshears on the shear diagram, since according to Eq. 5-4, dM/ = V. Alternatively, the change of moment dM = V dx can be studied the beam. Examples are shown in Fig. 5-31. According to these
variable shears cause nonlinear variation of the moment.

from

diagram is obtained. the shear difigram

areas

continuously

of the

shear

along

This process by summation

diagram

the beam

with

from

of obfaining the moment is exactly the same as that

due

the left-hand
regard

constant

sulting
the

If the fixed sign is the 19. Moments

end initial

of a beam constant cause

is on the of integration

left,

this C2. fibers

moment

with

the

Since

in a straight portion
dM/dx

shear

produces

maximum

or minimum

= V, according an invaluable

line in the moment of a beam, no change

moment

a uniform

change

to the

occurs

fundamental

diagram. If no shear occurs in moment takes place.

where the

in the

bending

moment,

along

re-

theorem

shear

is zero.

of calculus, again. The

5 Bending

moments
that

carry

compression

signs according

in the top

to the convention

of the beam

adopted

are

end

In a bending-moment
of the beam,

diagram

check

obtained

on the

by summation,
work

is available

at the right-hand

:254

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment

Sec.

5.13.

Moment

Diagrams

by

Integration

of the

Shear

255

along
P' --2-L

The

sum

cha)Ige
area.

: of +PL/4. the

the beam

of the positive
This

until

in the moment
diagram
second
areas

moment

the quarter

portion

of the

can be made
the
shear

remains

point,

shear

in this zone
decreases

constant

where

diagram

in the by

the moment

increases
half

as there
-P

middle

reaches

at a constant
of the dr.

a magbeam.

is no corresponding
Since

(a)

in this zone
of the

force,

moment

has a constant,
diagram

are equal,

negative

at the right

slope.

dx in eve3'
end,

the

the positive
moment

Hence,

zero.
-p

the work
MPLE

This

is obtained.
5-t4

is as it should

This

be, since
moment

the right
diagram

end is on a roller.
is symmetrical.

Thus,

a check

I
{

I
PL

shown
V and

a simple in Fig. diagrams

M using

beam with a uniformly increasing load intensity 5-33(a). The total applied load is W. (a) Construct with the aid of the integration process. (b) Derive
Eq. 5-5.

from

an end, shear and expressions

(c)

Solution

Elastic

curve

Fig.

5-32

(d)

terminal conditions for or pinned, the computed end moment computed for the reaction. These
be satisfied.

moment must be satisfied. sum must equal zero. If the by summation equals the one are the boundary conditions

the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

shear diagram
load is smaller

the

Since the downward

total load reactions

given

W = kL2/2, k = 2W/L 2. For are W/3 and 2W/3, as shown

in Fig.

on the

5-33(b)
left

end

begins

than

and

on the

ends

the given load in Fig. 5-33(a).

right,

as shown.
the

shear

Since

distribution, Therefore,
diagram

the rate

is

If the end is end is built-in, calculated init: and must

is balanced

upward.

by the

The

applied
W

point

load,
1

of zero
2W

i.e.,

shear

occurs

where

the reaction
L

on the left

- = x-7x
the bending moment is maximum;
W L

hence,
therefore,

x - V

EXAMPLE

5-t3

Construct in Fig.
Solution

shear

and

5-32(a)

by

the

moment integration

diagrams

for

the

symmetrically

loaded

35

+ 2v'

process.

L  - 9V' 1 L 2W L ( L) _ 2WL

+2W/3

The reactions are each equal to P. To obtain the shear diagram, Fig. 5-32(b), summation of forces is started from the left end. The left reaction acts up, so ordinate on the shear diagram at this force equal to P is plot ed up. Since are no other forces until the quarter point, no change in the magnitude of t shear ordinate is made until that point. Then a downward force P brings
ordinate back to the base line, and this zero ordinate remains until the next

(b)
-W/3

ward force P is reached upward reaction closes diagram is antisymmetrical. The moment diagram, shear diagram. As the

where the shear changes the diagram and provides Fig. beam 5-32(c), is simply is obtained supported,

to -P. At the right end, a check on the work. This by the summing moment up the area at the left

kx = (2W/L)x
2W/3

(c)
2WL

9v'

Fig.

5-33

256

' Axial Force,

By fol owing
in Fig.

Shear,
the rules

and Bending
given in Fig.

Moment
5-31, the
the

Sec. 5-t3. Moment

moment diagram has
for
C D
30 k

Diagrams
k

by Integration

of the Shear

257

the

shape
30k

50 40 k

Although
Applying

5-33(c).

the shear
necessary

and bending
to supplement

moment
it twice,

diagrams
results analytically

could
has

be sketched

1 k/ft

tively,
critical

it was
values.

-15'--

Xl-'-

(b)

Eq.

5-5

and

integrating d2M

one

dx 2 - q=
C and
require
M(L)

+kx=
M
that

+'-x
=
the
6

2W

t27.5k
(a)

37.5

o
-150

dM

kx 2

kx 3

Cx

C2
x
-30 k Axial force

 37. k/5ft IF
k/f 

Moment

However,
L be zero,

the
i.e.,

boundary
M(0) =

conditions
0 and

moments
since

at x = 0 and

= 0. Therefore,

(d)
(b)
+10 k 12'
B


 16.36'

M(0)
and, similarly, since M(L) = 0,

C2

+12.5

kZ 3 -+
6

CL

With

these

constants,

dM. dx
and M =

kx 2 2
kx 2
6
those found

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

6
-151 -27.5 k

or

C

kZ 2

Deflected
(e)

shape

kL 2 6

Wx 2 L 2

W 3

Shear

(c)

Fig.

5-34

kL 2x
6
earlier.

Wx
3L 2

Wx
3

sum
acts

of the
forces.

vertical
segment

reaction

components

is 65 kips

and

equals

the

sum

of the

These

results

agree

with

diagram
approach used in this in the
to situations in Section 5-16.

for the axial

AD

force

is shown
beam.

in Fig.
Fig.

5-34(b).

This

compresslye

force

The

attractive

features
dif erential the singularity

of the
equations functions

boundary-value
can be extended discussed

for solving loads using

the beam

EXAMPLE

5-t5

the shear diagram in the zone . This is in accord with Eq. 5-3, il ustrated Wo, the negative slope of this shear diagram
diagrams process. for loaded beam shown in Fig.
to zero at A. The total downward

an equal

known, to obtain the load accumulates

increment

the summation shear diagram, at a rapid

of the

of distance

along

rate.

of forces is begun 5-34(c). At ftrst, Then, as the load

the

CA is a curved line, which is concave in Fig. 5-30. Since dV/dx = q = is large on the left, and gradually
force from C to A is 15 kips, and

beam,

a smaller

from the left end of the downward disintensity decreases,

change

in shear

Construct 34(a) with

Solution

shear and bending-moment the aid of the integration

this is the

Reactions must force is resolved

action

at A is 30 kips

be calculated first, into its horizontal

and

acts

to the right.
this).

and, and

before vertical

From

 M, = 0, the
the reaction

proceeding components.

further, The

the at A is 27.5 kip

negative ordinate the upward reaction + 12.5 kips. This value right of the support
but this total

does

of the shear diagram, just to the left of 27.5 kips moves the ordinate of the of the shear applies to a section through A. The abrupt change in the shear at A
not represent the shear through the

beam.

of the support shear diagram the beam just is equal to the

of the

at B is found

to be 37.5

kips

(check

Similarly,

:rated

the

value

force

of the

are applied

drops

the value

shear.

to the beam
At D,

of the shear

the

40-kip

between

to -27.5

downward

A and

D; hence,

kips.

component

there

is no change

Similarly,

the value

concen-

of

258

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment

Sec.

5.t4.

Concentrated

Moment

on

Moment

Diagrams

259 At

the

shear

tributed decrease
To

is zero,

which

is raised to + 10 kips at B. Since between E and F, the load acts downward, according to Eq. 5-3, and shown in Fig. in shear takes place at a constant rate of 1 kip/foot. Thus,
serves as the final check.

counterclockwise

moment

on

the

right

must

be

Mo

MA.

point

to

construct

the

moment

diagram

shown
CA,

in Fig.

5-34(d)
area that is contributed is concave

by

the
to the

the concentrated in applying the

of the externally

applied
summation their

moment

from the left in a distance

method,

areas

in the moment in Fig. 5-31. progressively of the shear

and

it may

be determined

down is in accord with Eq. 5-4, dM/dx = V, Here V, defining the slope of the moment diagram is negative becomes larger to the fight. The moment at A is equal to the diagram in the segment CA. This area is enclosed by a curved

end. In the segment dx than a lit le farther

of the

shear

diagram

at ftrst, less along, so a line

in Fig.

5-34(c)

must

be continuously

conventional this vertical Oncentrated

over

summation

appears in the moment diagram. process, due regard must be given effect is not apparent in the shear diagram. process may be applied up to the point
this point, a vertical in the diagram. The "jump" direction

moment,

a discontinuity,

or a "jump,"

the of

diagram.

This

of a concentrated to the external moment

moment. At must be made

by integration,

6 since

the shear

along

this

"jump" moment to Fig. 5-35. the summation

the remainder

in the diagram depends and is best determined After the discontinuity process of the shear-diagram
of the beam.

upon the sense of the with the aid of a sketch in the moment diagram is areas may be con-

be expressed analytically. bending moment at A may

This procedure be obtained

often
from

is cumbersome, the fundamental

and definition

of a

ment at a section. By passing a section the moment at A is found. The other

are easily is convenient
the

determined. to arrange
check

Due

attention the work

must in tabular

through A and isolating areas of the shear d!agram

be paid form. to the signs At the right

the

of these area end of the

segment in this

:EXAMPLE

546

customary

is obtained.

 Fig.
ution

5-36(a).

bending-moment

diagram

for

the

horizontal

beam

loaded

as shown

MA
MD

--(15)2(10) + 12.5(15)
-27.5(5)

= =
=
=

--150.0 + 187.5
+ - 100.0

37.5

- 137.5
+
-

MB

+ 10(5)
ME

50.0
50.0

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

k-ft

k-ft

(moment (shear
(shear
(shear

around A) area A to D)
area
area

! taking
drawn

be P/6.

moments

At A, the
beam.

about

reaction
After

either

acts

end

down;

of the

at C, it acts
the summation

beam,

the

vertical

up.

From

reactions

 Fx = 0, it is
shear diagram for the whole
the moment

are found

D to B)
B to E)

that
of

k-ft k-ft

next;

at A, a horizontal reaction equal to P acts to the see Fig. 5-36(b). It has a constant negative
this, by using

left. The ordinate

process,

the

+(10)10
MF

50.0 0.0

k-ft

(shear (check)

area

E to F) 2Pa/3.
further
The

shown in Fig. 5-36(c) is constructed. is zero, since the support is pinned. is given by the area of the shear diagram

The

moment

diagram

in zone
of

AB

moment The total change between these

The

has
the

a constant
force

at the left in moment sections

negative
to

of the from A and equals

end

slope.

For
and

analysis,
moment on

an element
the left-hand

is isolated
side

from
this

beam,

as shown
is known be

in Fig.
-2Pa/3,

5-36(d).

element

5-]4.

Effect Diagrams

of Concentrated

Moment
by

on

Moment

concentrated

moment

caused

by the

applied

P about

the

neutral

axis

In the derivation for moment diagrams areas, no external concentrated moment ment was included, yet such a moment the summation process derived applies of an external moment. At a section moment, a dif erent bending moment of a beam in equilibrium. For example, moment MA is acting on the element of clockwise moment on the left is Mo,

summation of acting on the infinitesimal may actually be applied. only up to the just beyond an externally is required to maintain the in Fig. 5-35 an external the beam at A. Then, if the for equilibrium of the element,
by various

.p
P

(c)

(a)
=?

FIG.'5-35
on

An external
element

concentrated
an

moment
of

a beam.

acting

a vertical the Appendix.

6 In this

line

case,

through

the

shear

A.

For

curve

areas

is a second-degree
enclosed

parabola

curves,

whose

_ 2Pa

see

Table

(b)

(d)

Fig.

5-36

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment

Sec.

5-t5.

Moment

Diagram

and

the

Elastic

Curve

of the beam
element diagram,
summation

is Pa; hence,
be +Pal3. just to the
of the shear

for equilibrium,
AtB, right
diagram

the moment
"jump" ordinate
is continued.

on the rigfit
is made Beyond
area
Note

side
in the point
B

must and to
and

an upward of B, the
area

of +Pa is +Pa/3.
The

beam

at this
of +48
moment

end.
N.m.
of 0.6

Hence,
The
x. 120

the
other
=

plot
point

of the
on

moment
the
around

diagram
beam
the

must
axis.

start

with

where
neutral

a concentrated

between

o. ccurs

is C. Here

the horizontal

72 N.m

component

of the applied

force

Just

induces

to the

equal
beam,

-Pa/3.
thus the

This
that

value
boundary

closes
conditions

the
downward the

moment
are satisfied.

diagram
to the right is negative are

at the
that

right
the

end
lines

i0f

moment because
EXAMPLE

diagram the shear

5- 7

are everywhere

inclined
along

beam

parallel. This and constant.

a discontinuity

C, this

moment
areas

in the

must

are applied.

The

applies

necessai'y

moment diagram. for the segments

be resisted

by an additional

calculations
= = = =

The summation of the beam where

positive

are carried

out in tabular
area

process no external

moment.

form.

of the mo-

This

Construct dimensions
Solution

shear are

ar/d shown

moment in mm.

diagrams Neglect

for the member shown the weight of the beam.

in Fig.

ust

to

left

+0.6x80 +0.4x400 of C +0.6

x
x

120
700

+ 48N.m +160 + 208 N-m + 72

+280 kN.m
0

(shear

A to C)

(external
(shear (check) area

moment
C to B)

at C)

ust
are ass

to right

of C
-0.4

=
= =

- 280

In

this

case,

unlike

all

cases

considered

so far,

definite

dimensions

for the depth of the in its cross-sectional the top of the beam.
axis.

beam. The beam, for simplicity, is assumed area; consequently, the centroidal axis Note careful y that this beam is not supported
beam with Reactions the applied are computed force

to be lies 80 mm at the
resolved in the usual int

Note
a beam

that act

in solving this problem, the forces were on the beam. The investigation for shear determines what the beam is actually experiencing.

considered wherever they and moments at a section At times, this dif ers

the

procedure
of a member

of determining
is not important.

reactions,
that member, if a moment the basic
acts

where

the

actual

framing

or con-

A free-body diagram of the ponents is shown in Fig. 5-37(b).

Moreover,

since'the

shear
and

diagram
diagram

is concerned
shown

is easily

constructed

is shown

in Fig.

In constructing be exercised.

As

the moment was emphasized

earlier,

determined by considering a segment of a beam, computed by taking moments of external forces axis of the beam. Thus, by passing a section just the left-hand segment, it can be seen that a positive

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

only with the vertical it must be emphasized section through any
For inclined

or a shear is needed at a parmethod of sections may ahvays

normal to the axis of the beatn.

5-37(c).

; used.

members,

the

shear

in Fig. the bending

5-37(d),

particular

moments

may

care always
cem

and they are most around a point on the to the right of A and moment of 48 N.m

Moment
defined

Diagram

and

the

Elastic

Curve

7/'/ / / / / / / /

/ / / / / / / / /

20

in Section 5-9, .a positive moment causes a beam to deform upwards or to "retain water," and vice versa. Hence, the shape deflected axis of a beam can be definitely established from the sign moment diagram. The trace of this axis of a loaded elastic beam a deflected position is known as the elastic curve. It is customary to
the elastic curve on a sketch, where the actual small deflections

practice the physical

(a)
280 N 'm

calculations

are greatly exaggerated. action of a beam.

of beam

deflections

A sketch It also provides

to be

discussed

of the elastic curve a useful basis for

in Sections

[0-13

and
of

10-14. diagrams
a beam.

Some were

of the constructed

preceding

wil

examples be used

for to il ustrate

which

the

bendingphysical

48N.m o

0.6 kN 1
Fig. 5-37

0.8

kN

g. 5-32(c) shows that the bending length of the beam is positive. Accordingly, the Fig. 5-32(d) is concave up at every point. Correct or concavity of the elastic curve is important.
of the
(d)

moment throughout elastic curve shown representation of In this case, the

beam

rest

on

supports.

(b)

a more

complex

moment

diagram,

Fig.

5~34(d),

zones

of positive

262

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment

Sec.

5-t6.

Singularity

Functions

263
+

and negative moment occur. Corresponding ment, a definite curvature of the elastic place; see Fig. 5-34(e). On the other positive moment occurs, the concavity
Where
that There
of the

two

joining
the

curves

free is no

curves

join,

as at H and

end FG curvature

since

of the in FG,

the beam

J, there

to the zones of negative curve that is concave down hand, for the zone HJ, of the elastic curve is
are lines that
to the elastic curve is zero in that

of the

shear-diagram

area

from

A to H equals

this

moment,

i.e.,

- 150

12.5x

beam since

is tangent the moment

is physically

continuous.

are

tangent

Similarly, secofid r-cliagram

before.

= 0. Hence,

Also

-- 37.5/27.5

by beginning with a known positive moment of + 37.5 kip-ft at D, inflection point is known to occur when a portion of the negative area between D and J reduces this value to zero. Hence, distance
= 1.36 ft, or distance AJ = 15 + 1.36 = 16.36 ft, Fig. 5-34(e),

distance

AH

= 150/12.5

= 12 ft as before.

as any
, comer

infinitesimal of elastic

beam
in a continuous can act only

element
frame either

must
with rigid as shown

be in equilibrium,
joints. in Fig. Therefore, 5-38(a)

so must

also
(a)

beam.

element at a comer

the bending or 5-38(b). The

If the suggestion made in Example segments by means of short curved lowed, as in Fig. 5-34(d), the elastic
curves

5-5, indicating the curvature lines on the moment diagram curve is simply an assembly

of l

parts

curves

are

shown

in these

figures.

The called changes

This

fact

point of transition on the elastic curve into reverse the point of inflection or contraflexure. At this point, its sign, and the beam is not called upon to resist
often makes these points a deskable place for

drawn

to a proper

scale.

a field

curvature the any

g-16.

Singularity

Functions
(b)

connect

of large termining
EXAMPLE

members, points
5-t8

and their of inflection

location is calculated. wil be il ustrated

A procedure in the next

was pointed out earlier, analytical expressions for the shear V(x) and moment M(x) of a given beam may be needed in an analysis. If the q(x) is a continuous function between the supports, solution of dif erential equation d2m/dx 2 = q(x) is a convenient approach for V(x) and M(x) (see Example 5-14). Here this wil be extended
situations in which the loading function is discontinuous. For this

Fig.

5.38

Elastic

curves

at

comers
frames.

of planar

rigid

Find
see
Solution

the
Fig.

location
5-34(a)

of the

inflection

points

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

for the beam analyzed in Example 5-1

the considered of other

By definition, an inflection point corresponds to a point bending moment is zero. Hence, an inflection point can be an algebraic expression for the moment in a beam for the point. is anticipated, and solving this relation equated to
from end the beam C of the beam, is M = -(15)(2)(x Fig. 5-34(e), the bending - 5) + (27.5)(x -

15).

moment By

for simplifying
ft

on a beam located by segment where zero. By

segment

i ons
Consider

of this of beams.

notation here functions however, approach

of operational calculus wil be used. The functions are polynomials with integral powers ofx. The treatis beyond the scope of this text. For the functions the method is perfectly general. Further applicawil be given in Chapter 10 for calculating deflecas in Fig. 5-39. Since the applied loads are

a beam

loaded

3int
M

(concentrated)
moment
= RlX

forces,
expression

four
apply.

distinct
These

regions
are

exist
when

to which

dif erent
d b
c
L

and

0 -< x -< d -<

b <
c -<

this

expression

equal
M

to zero,
= 12.5x

a solution
337.5

for x is obtained.
= 0 x = 27

M M M
7 This

=Rlx-P(x= Rx-P(x= Rx Section can

P(x
be

omit ed.

d) d) d)

when

x <
x
x

+ Mo + Mo

when

<
-<

+ P2(x

c)

when

Therefore,

the

inflection
support A.

point

occurring

in segment

AD

of the beam

is 27

Similarly, ment DB

12 ft from

by writing and setting

an algebraic expression it equal to zero, the location

for the bending of inflection

moment for point J is

, P2

M
where
Often

=
a more

-(15)(2)(x
ft; hence,
convenient

- 5) + 27.5(x
the
method

AJ
finding

15)
the

- 40(x
ft.
inflection

- 30)
points

= 0

x = 31.36

distance
for

= 16.36

utilizing the known relations between the shear and moment diagrams. the moment at A is - 150 kip-ft, the point of zero moment occurs when

Thus the

Fig.

5-39

A loaded

beam.

Sec.

5.t6.

Singularity

Functions

265

All four equations

lowing symbolic
P (total)

function:

can be writ en

as one, providing
a) 

one demes

becomes a reminder

this

expression

infinite that the

and according range

is dimensionally
by

definition

is zero

correct,

everywhere integral and upon

although
subscript

(x - a) - at x
else. Thus, it of this integration,

sin. guIarfunction.
over

In Eq.

(x- a)= {0 (xx

ffoora<x< rO<x<a
becomes is unity.

to Eq. 5-9, e remains bounded

5-10,

the

asterisk

the

of the

expression

bracket
yields

point

wheren->0(n

= 0,1,2

..

).

be

adopted:

force

itself.

Therefore,

a special

symbolic

rule

of integration

(a)

reaches a. For x beyond a, the expression For n = 0 and-for x > a, the function

The expression

enclosed

by the pointed

brackets
across

separate
bined

into one expression

functions

for M(x) given for the beam of Fig. 5-39 can bel
that is appliable the whold

an ordinary On this basis,

does not exist

I P<x- a)"dx=P(x- a) 1
coefficient P in the previous functions is known as the strength t. For P equal to unity, the unit point load fimction is also called the Dirac delta or the unit impulse fimction. analogous reasoning, see Fig. 5-40(b), the loading function
moment at x = a is recentrated

(5-11)

M = R(x
m a

- O? - P(x - d)  + Mb(X
of a are 0, d, b, and this function further,

-- b) + P2(x
to

-- C)!

(x

of -

-

Ma (total)

Here

additional symbolic it as a degenerate

the values To work with

trated moment, treating it similarly. Rules for integrating all tions must b also established. In this discussion, the heuristic rigorous) approach wil be fol owed. A concentrated (point) force may be considered as an
treating

functions. One is for the concentrated case of a distributed load. The other

c, respectively. it is convenient

q for

strong

distributed

e as a constant,

load

acting

the fol owing

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION I www.avs4you.com over a small interval e, Fig.

function

force, is for the

(5-12)

is true

The

been

in being integrated second integral, stated as Eq. 5-11.

twice except

defines for the

two symbolic rules of inexchange of P by M, has

(b)
e--O .Ja-2 

'M,(x - a)-2 dx = M,(x - a) 

of force

(5-13)

+P(x

Here
for

such as lb/in, and corresponds to the distributed load treatment. Therefore, as (x - a)  -> 0, by an analogy
a concentrated force at x = a,

it can be noted

that

P/ has the dimensions

q(x) in the of (x -

per

fi M,(x - a) dx = M,(x - a)

5-12, the expression For M, equal to unity, -- a) 2, which is also so being infinite twice, a bounded are symbolic in character. loads is clearly evident The integral of binomial
the fol owing rule:

(5-14)

Eq.

q = P(x - a))
8 This approach was first his Electromagnetic Theory ational calculus. In 1919, W. brackets for beam problems.
transforms.

(c)

P and

Fig.

5-40

(b) considered
load,
notation

moment

Concentrated
(c)

and

for

P and

symbolic

as distributed
M

Ma:

(a) and

force

development

of this topic should

introduced by A. Clebsch in 1862. O. initiated and greatly extended the methods of H. Macaulay specifically suggested the use of s The reader interested in further and/or

is correct dimensionally one obtains the called the doublet at x = a and zero result is obtained. The relation of from Eqs. 5-11, functions in pointed

since q has the unit point moment function, or dipole. This function elsewhere. However, Equations 5-10, 5-12, these equations to the and 5-14. brackets for n -> 0 is

units

is
after and given

given

consult

texts on mathematics

treating

at a.

(x - a)n dx = (x n- +a)n+ 1

for n > 0

(5-15)

264

266

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment
+y 

Sec.

5-16.

Singularity

Functions

267

q = -w o lb/in

+q

+w
o

(a)
qo

L/2

-'

L/24
+ C2

(a)

(b)

Fig. M
(b)

5-42

dx 2 - q = -wo(x
--=
dM dx

- O) + wo( x - LI2)
O)  + wo(x - LI2) 1 + C1

V=

-wo(x-

ql=:qod[
oFig. 5.4'1 Typical integrations.

1 ' (x

- a) 1

m(x)
M(O)

= -
= C2

Wo(X
= 0

- 0) 2 + Wo(X
2 + wo(L/2)
Ci =

- L/2)

2 + Cx
= 0

}-'"
(c)

M(L)
x

woZ

2 + CiL
+as poL

 -(x

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Hence,

V(x) M(x)

= -Wo(X - O)  + Wo(X - L/2)  + as woL = - Wo(X - 0) 2 + Wo(X - L/2) 2 + as woLx

is obtained,
form:

the

solution

these

relations

are

more

easily

read

by

rewriting

in
(d)

conventional

This equal
EXAMPLE

integration to zero,
5-t9

process one obtains

is shown conventional

in Fig.

5-41. integrals.

If the

distance

a is

+- woLx - - Wo. wox V = +-woL X 2 } when M + woL 2 - woL  woLx = -woL} V = +aswoLcan be checked of maximum moment to complete. by conventional can be found.

0 < x < LI2

when L/2 <- x < L

statics. By A plot of these setting functions V = 0, the is left for

reactions

Using
ing
Solution

symbolic
in Fig. 5-42(a).

functional

notation,

determine

V(x)

and

M(x)

caused

by the
EXAMPLE

5-20

To

and

solve

the same, see Fig.

begins

this

problem,
together 0 and

must 5-42(b).

at x = 0. Therefore,
exist. To

problem,

Eq.

5-5 can
function,

For

M(L)

this

represent

another

function

This terminate

a term

be used.

simply

= 0. These

supported

correctly

+wo(x
the are used

the

however, distributed

q = -wo

The

applied

beam,

applied

- L/2) must

propagates across the whole load at x = L/2 as required

or wo(x

load

- 0) , which two

q(x)

acts

V(x)
functions

and
and

M(x)
treat

for

a beam

loaded

as shown
problem.

in Fig.

5-43.

Use

singularity

it as a boundary-value

to determine

the known

load.

be added.
reactions:

The

in making
form. From of integration

direct

use

the

boundary

conditions

are M(0)

the

of Eqs.

conditions can be found:

5-10

and

M(0)

5-12,

= 0 and

the

function

M(L)

= 0, with

q(x)

can

be writ en

L = 3a,

the

in

268
-q ,

Problems

269

(a)

Fig.

5-43
a  C
b

aeM/dx dM/dx
M(O)
and

2 = q = -P(x = V = -P(x

- a);  + Pa(x - a} + Pa(x

- 2a) 2 - 2a)  + C

-=-%

M = -P(x
= C2 = 0

- a)  + Pa(x
+ Pa + 3Ca

- 2a} + Cx + :C2

= 0 Fig.
(b)

(c)

M(3a)
Hence,

-2Pa

5-44

Il ustration

for

formulating

signularity

functions

for

reactions.

C,=
and

V(_x)
M(x)
In

= +-aP(x= +P(x
for

0} -

- O)  - P(x
y(x),

writ en

the

final

in conventional

expression

form.

Such

the

terms.

last

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

P(x - a} + Pa(x
- a}  + Pa(x
has

- 2a};

- 2a}

through

5-4.

term

are

used

no

only

value

as tracers

if the

during

in the figures.

by

the

Determine applied loads

the

Correctly

for

draw}z'

reaction the

planar

fke-body

components framing

dia-

grams are essential parts of solutions. (Hint for Prob. 5-1: The effect on a structure of two cable forces acting over a frictionless pulley is the same as that of the same two forces applied at the center of the axle. Prove before using.)

integration process. It is suggested that the reader check the reactions out V(x) and M(x) for the three ranges of the are continuous, and compare these with a plot constructed by the summation procedure. A suggestion of the manner of representing 44(a), acting on a part of a beam is indicated functions are needed to define the given load In the previous discussion, it has been tacitly
at the ends of the beams. If such is not the

Cable

by conventional statics. beam within which these of the shear and moment a uniformly in Fig. completely. assumed
the unknown

3 k/f[

/ 12 k

varying 5-44(b). Three

load,

Fig
Fig, Fig. P54 P5-3

that
as

the
constants
_

case,

C2 must

be introduced

into

Eq.

5-5

as point

loads,

i.e.,

2 N/mm

C(x
This are

- a) 1

and

C2(x

- b) -

'x3 {

150 N'm
rl=1 rl

6k/f[
{-<--10' -- -<-- 10'
Fig.

C
P5-4

4k'1

is the condition shown necessary in a solution Singularity functions can lems for axial y loaded bars, the solutions are limited to the length of a member, the impractical.

in Fig. 5-44(c). No additional constants obtained in this manner. be used to advantage in statically indeterminate as well as for torsion members and prismatic members. If the cross procedure for using singularity functions

L300. 600ram[ 300 300J

IFig. P5-2

10'-- -<-- 10"' O,---

270

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment

125

kN

Sections
5-5 through the figures,
forces caused

5.6

through

5-9
shown in the axial
M

as specified.
tides For

P, the shears by the applied

-6 k/ft

549. For the planar structures find the reactions and determine
V, and the bending loads at sections

moments a-a, b-b,

sented by lines. are shown close

should simplicity,

be shown assume

Magnitude

When together,

etc.

of a given

dimension

sections such as a-a and one section is just to and the other is just to the

on separate free-body that members can

and

sense

of calculated
be

/Pin

2 

/Rod

2"

'---1800 mm 1200mm>
900 mm

--

mm
Fig. P5-16 P543 

1500

mm

Fig.

P5-5

4 kN/m

20 kN
I

Fig. P5*9 ---4'-''

Smooth wall

4'---

25

kN

] 5 m-

3m
Fig.

4m4 m--
P5-6
4k

Hinge

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Fig.

P5-t7

T 9 k
8 N/mm

15kg/2
P

Fig.

P5.14

lk

2k

5 

12k

2000
mm

Fig. P5-t0 F1000 mm--

Fig.
4kN-

g. P5-15
8 kN/m--

Fig. P5-t8
C

' mm
6 kN/m

1500

mm-*'

P5-7

-
2000mm
Fig. P5-8

t 500

t
m

/.F
H s

2000mm I

Hin

Fig.

Fig.

P5d9

I lm

Ilm

3m

272
Section 5-10

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment

Problems

27:
y

5-26

through

5-28.

For

the

beams
expressions origins

loaded
for

as

5-20 through for the beams

5-24. shown

?lot shear and in the figures.

moment

diagrams

in the figures, along the spans. the applied loads apply for regions

write explicit Assume the are discontinuous. AC and CB.

of x at A.
z

Fig. P530
Fig.
(a) (b)

P5-35

Fig.

P5-20

3' >  3'-----

Fig. P5-26
Fig. P5-31

general by the
the bent

expressions application
bar. Plot

for V, of a force
the results.

M,

and T (torque) F normal to the

(b) If in addition

caused plane of
to the

applied length force for

M(0)

force is also components

weight to be considered, develops

F,

the

of the bar w lb per unit what system of internal at the fixed end?

Fig.

P5-2t

Establish
Fig. P5-27

general
V(0), 5-12, and Fig.

expressions
moment 5-28.

the

axial

force
bar

t p [P
 3@L/3 
Fig. P5-22
A

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Angle
A rectangular
3m,

shear a Example

for the curved 0 is measured

coun-

Section 5-36.
mine

541 Using
V(x) and

the positive x axis. Establish general expressions for the axial force shear V(0), and moment M(0) for the ring with hinges of Prob. 5-11. Angle 0 is measured counfrom the positive x axis.
bar bent into a semicircle is built

the
M(x)

dif erential
for the

equation,
beam loaded

Eq.
as

5-5,
shown

deterin

Prob. statics. found

M(L) =

5-24. (Hint: from

0.)

Verify

the reactions The constants of the boundary conditions

using integration V(L)

conventional = can be 0 and

w o N/m

/,
Fig. P5-28

and is subjected to a radial pressure of length (see figure). Write the general for P(0), V(0), and M(0), and plot the reon a polar diagram. Show positive directions asP, V, and M on a free-body diagram.

one per

end unit

5-37

through

5-39.

Using

Eq.

5-5

for

the

statically

5-29
Fig. P5-23

through

5-3t.

Write

explicit
the statically in the figures. the reactions of symmetry
p lb/in

determinate beams shown in the figures, find V(x) and M(x) and the reactions at the supports. Plot the shear and moment diagrams. (Hint: The constants of integration are found from the boundary conditions for V and M. This approach cannot be extended to statically

M(x) along the spans for beams loaded as shown origins ofx at A. Consider unknowns. Take advantage
29.

indeterminate higher-order
ter 10.)

beams, dif erential

which equation,

require
discussed

the

use of in Chap-

on

the

in

------ L . x
Fig. P5-24

w o Ib/ft
Bar radius = R

Fig.

P5-34

5-25. shown

Plot shear and in Fig. 5-15.

moment

diagrams

for

the

beam

Fig 5-29

A bar

in the

shape

of a right

angle,

as shown

in

figure,

is fixed

at one

of its

ends.

(a)

Write

the

Fig.

P5-37

274

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment
M1
4k

Problems

275

Fig.

P5-42 Fig. P5-48

. m_ - 2m 1
Fig. P5-53

Fig.

P5-38

k sin

2rx/L

-----a
Fig. P5-43-

> -- bJ
Fig. P5-49

2 k/ft
> -
Fig.

/8 k
8'
P5-54
5 k/ft

> 2'

Fig.

P5-39

Sections

5-12

and

543

-Problems
oped

signed
5-40
for the

in these

for

5-20

solution

through
two
and

sections.

using

5-3t

the
and

can

methods
using

also

be

devel-

as-

NON-ACTIVATED k/ VERSION I/  6 , k/  6 kf f'" www.avs4you.com ---3' --'- 3' 8k 112k 18k
ig. P5-4
Fig. P5-50

Fig.

P5-55

through

beams
5-12

shown

5-66.

Plot
5-13.

in the

shear

figures

moment

the

diagrams
methods
to draw

of Sections

It is also

suggested

4@4'=
Fig. P5-45

16'
300 Ib/ft

the deflected given in Fig. drawing such

shapes 5-19. shapes

of the (A more is given

beams using the detailed discussion in Section 5-15.)

criteria

for

50 k 2 k/ft

Distribreact . ion
Fig. P5-51
2.5 N/mm 2.5

200Ib/ft
N/mm

4@3 "= 12"

Fig. P5-56

Fig. Fig. P5-40

P5-46

!;m._m,<40ram r,2-0m!'
Fig. P5-41

Fig.

P5-47

Fig.

P5-52

Fig.

P5-57

276
2qo

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment
200 Ib/ft
300 lb

Problems
The load distribution for may be idealized a small single-engine as shown in the

277

fig-

In

this

diagram,

vector

A represents

the

weight

the

'engine;

B,

the

uniformly

distributed

cabin

5-7t through 5-73. For the structural systems shown in the figures, plot the axial force P, shear V, and moment M diagrams. Note that the axial force and shear contribute to the equilibrium of forces at a joint in bent
members (see Fig. 5-27).

Fig.

P5-58

Fig.

P5-63

C, the weight of the aft fuselage; and D, the from the tail control surfaces. The upward ;E are developed by the two longerons from the Using this data, constrLtct plausible, qualitative  and moment diagrams for the fuselage.

.1.
qo qo

400 Ib/ft

,200mm 200mm ! 200mm

2q1/
Fig. Fig. P5-59 P5-64 Fig. P5-68

Fig.

P5-7t

10

kN/m

20kN 5kN/m NON-ACTIVATED VERSION +55 k-ft / +65 k-h: www.avs4you.com

and

The moment B is shown

diagram in the

for figure.

a beam How

supported is the

at
beam

Cables
Fig. P5-72

loaded?

Fig,

P5-65

Fig.

P5-60

160kN
3 wall

qo

Hinge

Fig.

P5-69

Fig. Fig. P5-61

P5-66

The
diaams

redundant

moment

over

support

B for

the

5-67, Qgue.

A sm lot she

and

momeQt

shown in the by the methods and moment

100
15k

figure

can discussed diagrams

be

shown to be -400 in Chapter 10. Plot for this beam.

Fig. P5-73

k N/m

20

kN/m

Water

level

1.5 k/ft

I,
Fig. P5-70

5-74. For member DF the axial force, shear, by the applied force.

of the frame and moment

in Prob. diagrams

1-44, caused

plot

3m3m
Fig. P5-62

! 8m----8 m 
Fig. P5-67

Sections 5-75 through in the figures,

5-14 5-8t. plot

and For
the axial

5-15 the structural systems shown force P, shear V, and mo-

278

Axial

Force,

Shear,

and

Bending

Moment

Problems

279

ment M diagrams due to the applied loads. grams are to be contimed only to the main members. Note that the beams in the last lems have finite depth.

These diahorizontal four prob-

Cable

3o"
Fig. Fig. P5-79 P5-83

"
--

Fig.

P5-85

9 lb/in

--

Fig.

P5-75

900

M o = 4 Pa

'
Cables

600

Fig.

P5-84

Fig.

P5-86

1200

900

Fig.

P5-76

80kN
A

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Fig. P5-80
2 N/mm 4 N/mm
Cable B

' 35 kN

Fig.

P5-87

2--m  'Hinge
Fig. P5-77
50 k

Fig.

P5-8t

Section

5-16

5-82 through in the figures, (a) find V(x) tional statics.

5-87. For the beams loaded as using singularity functions and Eq. and M(x). Check reactions by (b) Plot shear and moment
qo N/m

Fig.

P5-78

Fig.

P5-82

Sec.

6-2.

The

Basic

Kinematic

Assumption

_ chapter

e of this
result

after

chapter.

the

study

A better

of column

appreciation

buckling

of the instability
in Chapter

11.

phenomenon

The

Basic

Kinematic

Assumption

the simplified engineering the applied bending

and the internal

stresses

theory moment,

and

of bending, to establish the relation the cross-sectional properties of a

deformations, the approach applied

a plausible
6-1o Introduction

in the torsion
strains

deformation
problem
be related

problem

to a determinate

assumption

is again

reduce
through

employed.

to stresses

one;

second,
the

the internally
appropriate

This

requires,

that

the deformations

statically

first,

that

in-

stress-strain

In the previous chapter, it was shown that a system of internal consisting of an axial force, a shear force, and a bending moment develop in planar frames and beams. The stresses caused b were already discussed in Chapter 1. The stresses due to bending considered in this chapter. For this treatment, it is convenient to the chapter into two parts. In Part A, only members having cross sections and subjected to bending in the plane of symmetry considered. Both elastic and inelastic stress distributions caused by ing are discussed. Stress distribution in curved bars is also included. Part B, the problem is generalized to include unsymmetric bending members with symmetric cross sections as well as bending of of arbitrary cross section. Consideration is also given to problems bending occurs in the presence of axial forces. For completeness, cussion on area moments of inertia for arbitrary cross
in Part C.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION For present purposes, consider a horizontal www.avs4you.com

md shells.

; and, finally, that the equilibrium requirements of external and forces be met. The key kinematic assumption for the deformation a beam as used in the simplified theory is discussed in this section. A of this assumption forms the basis for the theories of plates
section with avertical axis of symmetry; a typical see Fig. element

prismatic

line

simplicity, members wil generally be shown as beams in a zontal position. When a segment of a beam is in equilibrium under action of bending moments alone, such a condition is referred to as bending, orfiexure. A cantilever loaded with a concentrated the end, or a segment of a beam between the concentrated forces shown in Fig. 5-23, are examples of pure bending. Studies in subset chapters wil show that usually the bending stresses in slender beams dominant. Therefore, the formulas derived in this chapter for

For

to the as abcd. end moments Mz acting around in the plane of symmetry, and beam axis slightly tilt. Nevertheless, and b' c' remain straight. fundamental hypothesis 2 of the sections through a beam taken
beam
 This

two planes identified

txis

through

of a beam.

the centroid
Next,

perpendicular in the figure

consider

of the

cross

section

wil

beam axis. In side view, such When such a beam is subjected the planes initial y the lines such
observation

of the

be referred

6-1(a).

beam
beam

A horizontal

having
between

to as the

the

z axis,

Fig.

6-1(b),

 This

flexure normal

theory. It may be stated thus: plane to its axis remain plane after the
model with a ruled grating drawn

forms

perpendicular to the as ad and bc becoming

the basis for the

this

beam

an element to equal
bends

is subjected

to bending.

are

directly

applicable

in numerous

design

situations.
virtue under do of their an applied not come load within

It is important to note that some or lack of lateral support may become may buckle laterally and collapse.

beams by unstable Such beams

2 This hypothesis with an inaccuracy was first introduced by 1645-1705), a Swiss mathematician. At a later date a great Swiss Euler (1707-1783), who largely worked in Russia and tmportant use of this concept. This assumption is often referred noulli-Euler hypothesis. In the correct final form, it dates back
French engineering educator M. Navier (1785-1836).

is only

it. Alternatively, In the immediate However,

a local

can

be demonstrated

phenomenon

vertical rods passing through the rubber block can be vicinity of the applied moments, the deformation is more in accord with the St. Venant's principle (Section 2-10), this
that rapidly dissipates.

thin

by using

a rubber

Jacob Bernoulli mathematician, Germany, made to as the Berto the writings of

28O

282

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-3.

The

Elastic

Flexure

Formula

283

b , d
p-y

The

fiber

dfi can

dif erence be expressed

the

length

gh located

between as fol ows

on a radius
fiber

lengths

p - y can
gh

and

be found

ef identified

similarly.

here
(6-2)

dfi

= (pand

y) d0-

pd0
of the

=
beam

-yd0
axis

--
(a)

Beamaxis

t dividing
Bent axis

d t

the

deflection

by ds and

using

rotations

Eq.

6-1,

the last

term

becomes

are

very

K. Moreover,
small,

the

(b)

:osines of the angles involved the horizontal axis are very

iber

the simplified
e,,

deformation,
one

beam

Omax

Plane

of

dds
has

and

ds by dx. 4 Hence, by dividing Eq. 6-2 by ds and by du/dx, which according to Eq. 2-6 is the normal

theory,

in making nearly unity.

it is possible

the projections Therefore,

to replace

of dfi and ds onto in the development

dfi by du, the axial

M z

I Y Imax

= C

a= EEl_

(6-3)

.nit lengt
(c)

(d)

Fig.

6-1

Assumed

behavior

of elastic

beam

As

demonstrated

in texts

on

the

true for elastic, rectangular members in pure bending; exist, a small error is introduced. 3 Practically, however, assumption is generally applicable with a high degree of the material behaves elastically or plastically, providing the depth of beam. is small in relation to its span. In this chapter, the stress anal' of all beams is based on this assumption.
In pure bending of a circle of radius by an infinitesimal
as ds = 0 dO. Hence,

is completely shears also

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

(e)

This

train

for the flexure theory. However, in a bent beam varies along the beam

equation

establishes

the

expression

although depth

for

the

it is clear linearly with

basic

kinematic

that the y, infor-

hy-

in bending.

nation is lacking oke's law and

next section.

for locating an equation

the origin of equilibrium,

of the y axis. this problem

With

the aid is resolved

of in

theory

of elasticity,

this

The

Elastic

Flexure
into

Formula

using
can

be

Hooke's

recast

law,

a relation

th.e expression

for

the

for the normal

normal

longitudinal

strain

given

stress

by Eq.
or.,.'

of a prismatic beam, the p, (rho) as shown in Fig. angle d0, the fiber length

beam axis deforms 6-1(b). For an ef of the beam

into

(6-4)

axis

is

this
Two

equation,
nontrivial

the
equations

variable

y can
of equilibrium

assume

both
are available

positive

and
to solve

negative
the beam

completes equations,
where bending
3 See

the

reciprocal of prismatic
discussion

of p defines beams, both

in Section 7-5.

the axis curvature p and K are constant.

K (kappa).

In

the

x direction

problem. One of these determines the origin for y: the second the solution for the flexure formula. Using the first one of these requiring that in pure bending, the sum of all forces at a section
must vanish, one has

4 A further

discussion

of the approximations

involved

may

be found

in Section

the

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-3.

The

Elastic

Flexure

Formula
Omax

285

, F. = 0
(a)

/AO-dA = 0

where forces beam.

the must This

subscript be carded

A indicates out over

equation

with

the

that the summation of the infinites the entire cross-sectional area A of aid of Eq. 6-4 can be rewrit en as

a
X

=-Et<y
I Ymax
z

I = c

/A -E Ky dA = -E K fA Y dA = 0
where
(b)
M

definition,

the

constants
this

integral

E and

.fy dA

 are

= yA,

taken

where

outside

y is the

the

second

distance

integral. equals
the

fro m

(a)

(b)

(c)

origin to the centreid of an area A. Since here this and area A is not zero, distance y must be set .equal the z axis must pass through the centreid of a section'.

Neutral axis

is referred to as the neutral axis beam of homogeneous material

centreid of a cross-sectional
(c)

6-3 and 6-4, this means strain e, and the normal

that along the stress cry, are

area.

of a beam. The can be easily

elastic stress

z axis zero.

so chosen, In bending

integral to According

Fig.

6.4

Segment

of a beam

in pure

flexure.

neutral determined

axis

both theory,

to this
In

Mz = E fA y2 dA

(6-8)

for any by finding

in Fig. 6-1(c). with Eq. 6-4 a beam

Based

on this

corresponding is shown in Fig.

The

result,

linear

variation
6-1(d).

e, and the Alternative

absolute
are

il ustrated

maximum representations
are generally

in Fig.

stress of the
6-2.
used.

representations

problem

is three-dimensional,

although

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Both distribution the absolute need in accord maximum Note

in strain

is schematically

mechanics, the last integral, depending only on the geometrical propof a cross-sectional area, is called the rectangular moment of inertia or second moment of the area A and wil be designated in this text by I. must be found with respect to the cross section's neutral (centroidal) Since I must always be determined with respect to a particular axis, is often meaningful to identify it with a subscript corresponding to such axis. For the case considered, this subscript is z, i.e.,

Crmx occur at the largest value elastic bending stress distribution

the for awareness

of;

that

The

for

locus

simplicity,
of

a neutral

two-dimensi

axis

length
(d)

Fig.
moment.

6-2

Alternative

representations

of bending

To complete relevant equation ternally applied in equilibrium.

of a beam

derivation of equilibrium and the internal For the beam

the

defines

the

neutral

of the elastic flexure formula, the must be brought in: the sum of the resisting moments must vanish, i.e., segment in Fig. 6-4(a), this yields
area

surface,

as noted

in Fig.

6-3.

Iz=/Ay2dA 1
yields the fol owing result: the curvature of an elastic beam subjected

(6-9)
(6-10)

this

notation,

Eq.

6-8

Neutral surface

 Mo = OG +
A negative
pressive

Mz - fAErYstress
of the
moment

dA 
because
moment

y=0
rhis

sign
stresses

in front
cry, develop
to this

integral
a counterclockwise
in the

is necessary
same

the
around

By
Errst

is the a specified
is

basic
obtained:

substituting

relation moment.

giving

Eq.

6-10

into

Eq.

6-4,

the

elastic

flexure

formula

5 for

axis.
sign,

The

contribute

tensile

stresses

below

the neutral

axis,

manner.

where

This

y's have

a ne

directly
Neutral axis

from
the

Eq.

6-4.

From

a slightly

dif erent

point

of view,
the at a section.  are c by

Eq.

Fig.

6-3

states that terclockwise casting Eq.

clockwise external moment Mz is balanced moment developed by the internal stresses 6-7 into this form, and recognizing that E and

5 It took nearly two centuries to develop this seemingly simple expression. The attempts to solve the flexure problem were made by Galileo in the sevencentury. In the form in which it is used today, the problem was solved in early part of the nineteenth century. Generally, Navier is credited for this
. some maintain that credit should go to Coulomb, who
derived the torsion formula.

286

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-3.

The

Elastic

Flexure

Formula

287

that

results
of

from
the

pure
stress

bending
tensor, one

of a beam.
has

Therefore,

in the

matrix

Crx = -zy
The symmetric 6-5(b), derivation of this cross expression formula were for the was carried with out with the coordinate

(6:1

shown

in Fig.
the

6-5(a).

section

If the

derivation

(a)

done longitudinal

for

the coordinates stress crx would

a member

having

shown read

in

solved into In concluding

wil

be pointed

O'=x MZl
The My sign reversal in relation to Eq. 6-11 is necessary causes tensile stresses for positive z's. Application of these equations to biaxial bending of the bending theory for beams with unsymmetric because a

contracts. The strains in the ex = x/E, and crx is given

ratio,

the compressed

stresses this

out

acting discussion,

in Chapter

along

zone

dif erent it is interesting

8, this

stress

sets

of a beam

y and z directions by Eq. 6-11. This

expands

of coordinate to note that

may

be transformed
due

are ey = e = -vex, is in complete agree-

laterally;

6 the tensile

axes. to Pois-

or

Beam axis

sidered
(b)

Fig.
positive

6 -5 Definitions
moments.

of

confined symmetry. formula

sign as in Eq. stresses must moment, their

flexure formula

the value

as well as an cross sections is in Sections 6-11 and 6-14. In this part of the chapter, to beams having symmetric cross sections bent in the For such applications, it is customary to recast the to give the maximum normal stress Crmx directly and to desi

with the rigorous solution. Poisson's effect, as may be shown by methods of elasticity, deforms the neutral axis into a curve of large and the neutral surface becomes curved in two opposite directions; Fig. 6-6. In the previous treatment, the neutral surface was assumed be curved in one direction only. These interesting details are not sigin most practical problems. wedure Summary and Extensions

Neutral surface

of l y Im,, by c. It is also

6-11 as well as with subscripts develop a couple statically sense can be determined
becomes

common

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

onM and I. Since equivalent to the by inspection. On this

practice

to dispense

with

same three basic concepts of engineering mechanics of solids that used in developing the theories for axial y loaded bars and circular s in torsion are used in the preceding derivation of flexure formulas. may be summarized as fol ows:

basis,

(6-1!

resisting bending moment at a section. 2. Geometry ofdeformition (kinematics) sections through a beam remain plane to the conclusion that normal strains early from the neutral axis.

1. Equilibrium

conditions

(statics)

are used

for determining
is used by assuming after deformation. along a beam section

the internal
that This plane leads vary lin-

Fig.
beam.

6.6

Segment

of a bent

In conformity metric beam in Eq. 6-11

The flexure

with sections, on M and

formula

the

above practice, in dealing with the simplified notation of leaving out I wil be employed often in this text.
and its variations discussed before are

3. Properties Hooke's
Poisson

law effect

of

materials are assumed of transverse

(constitutive relations) to apply to the longitudinal contraction and expansion

in

the form normal strains. is neglected.

of

great importance in applications to structural plying these formulas, the internal bending newton-meters IN.m] or inch-pounds [in-lb], [in], and I in m 4 or in 4. The use of consistent

and moment

machine design. can be expressed c in meters [m] or units as indicated

In

In extending this approach to bending of beams (Section 6-8), as well as to inelastic bending the first two of the enumerated concepts remain the third, dealing with the mechanical properties As an example of a change necessary for

the

[lb/in

units

2] = psi,

of or: [N.m][m]/[m
be noted

as to be expected.
that

4]

= N/m2
by

= Pa,
Eqs. 6-11

or
or

[in-lb][in]/[in
6-12 is the

4]

the beam
6 An

up of two

having

materials,

the cross
with

1 and 2, bonded
an ordinary

section

shown

together

in Fig.

at their

6-7(a).

of two and more maof beams (Section 6ful y applicable. Only of materials must be such cases consider

interface.

This

beam

The

is made
elastic

It should

crx as given

experiment

rubber

eraser

is recommended!

288

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-4.

Computation

of

the

Moment

of

Inertia

289

Stress

o=E

Mz

o = E2 E

Yb -- /A Ei dA
the integration This equation
axis.

(6-16)

Bending
(a)

strain
(b)

Bending
(c)

stresses
(d)

must be carried out with defines the modulus-weighted

appropriate centroid

E?s, and

for

each locates

neutral

Fig.

6-7

Beam
moduli
the

of two elastic
for the two

materials
materials

in bending
are E1 and

where
E2,

E2 > E.
where the-subscripts

material. For the purposes of discussion assume that E2 When such a composite beam is bent, as for a beam of one the strains vary linearly, as shown in Fig. 6~7(b). However, the dinal stresses depend on the elastic moduli and are as shown in
7(c). At the interface between the two materials, whereas the strain

both materials is the same, the stresses magnitudes of E and E2. The remaining of locating the neutral axis or surface. having cross sections with symmetry
For material
to

beams must

of
be

several identified.

dif erent
Let Ei

materials, be such

ith material
read

in a composite
Crx

cross

section.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

around the the
an

are dif erent, and depend on issue in such problems cons: This can be easily done for
vertical elastic axes. moduli
for
elastic modulus for

the same process is used for inelastic bending analysis of changing the stress-strain relations. The first two of the enubasic concepts remain applicable. developed theory for elastic beams of one material is in complete with the mathematically exact solution 7 based on the theory pure bending of an elastic rectangular bar. However, even this limited case, the boundary conditions at the ends require the stresses Crx to be distributed over the ends as given by Eq. 6-11. )r this case plane sections through a beam remain precisely plane after However, in usual applications, per Saint-Venant's principle, it is generally assumed that the stresses, at a distance about equal to the

Essential y

by

depth

of a member
given

away

from

the applied

moment,
at points using stress is routinely

are essential y
of force concentration applied

uniform
application
fac-

Then

Eq.

6-4 can

be g

of cross

by Eq. 6-11. The in cross section are In applications the theory

section,

whether

a material

local stresses calculated discussed

is elastic

or plastic.

to any

kind

= Eix

-Ei

K y

measured
as shown.

Where

from

from

Fig.

the

6-7(a),

bottom

y = Yb -- Yb.
of the section,

In this
and

yb locates

relation

Yb is
the

neutral

In conclusion it should be noted that, in all cases in pure bending, the stresses acting on the area above the neutral axis develop a force of one whereas those below the neutral axis develop a force acting in the direction. An example is shown in Fig. 6~7(d) where the tension T is equal to the compression C, and the T - C couple.is equal to the moment Mz. This method of reducing stresses to forces and a couple can

Since vanish, 14 into

for pure fol owing Eq. 6-5,

bending the force the same procedure

Fx at a section as before,

in the x direction and substituting

be used

to advantage
Computation

in some

problems..

Eq.
In applying
the cross-sectional

of
flexure
area

the
the
the

Moment
rectangular
neutral axis

of

Inertia
moment
must be

the

formula,
about

of inertia
determined.

I of
Its

The the
that

last expression integral. By

Yb is a constant,

dif ers substituting

from

Eq. 6-6 only by not placing Ei outside y = yu - yu into Eq. 6-15, and reco

area

of a member,

is defined

by the

and it must

integral

be emphasized
computed of the

of y2 dA

over

that

the

for the flexure

the neutral area. 3rd ed.

entire

cross-sectional

formula,

moment ixis passes 7 S. Timoshenko,

8 This

of inertia through and

1970), 284.

must be the centroid J. N. Goodier,

around cross-sectional of Elasticity,

axis. This It is shown (New York:

-}c /A Ei Yb dA + }cYb fA Ei dA = 0

Theory

is a review

section.

290

Pure Bending

and Bending
and

with Axial

Forces

Sec. 6-4. Computation

of the Moment

of Inertia
(6-18)

in Sections 6-15 axis is perpendicular around such an reason, this axis for determining thoroughly discussed they are reviewed The first step

6-16 that for symmetric cross sections, the to the axis of symmetry. The moment of axis is either a maximum or a minimum, and for is one of the principal axes for an area. The centroids and moments of inertia of areas are in texts on statics. 9 However, for in what fol ows. in evaluating I for an area is to find its centroid

Iz = Izc+ Adz 2
is the parallel-axis 'inertia of an area the same area around theorem. around any a parallel

It can be stated as fol ows: the moment axis is equal to the moment of inertia axis passing through the area's centroid,

of

integration

of y2 dA is then

performed

with

respect

to the horizontal

the
the two

product
axes.

of the
Eq.
area has

same
6-18
been

area
must
subdivided

and
be

the
applied
and

square
to
the

of the
each
results

distance
part
summed

between
into which
to obtain

passing through the area's centroid. the actual integration over areas is shapes, such as rectangles, triangles, for some simple shapes may be found standard civil or mechanical engineering the Appendix). Most cross-sectional combination of these simple shapes. several simple shapes, the parallel-axis transfer formula) is necessary; its Consider that the area A shown of a cross section of a beam in flexure.
is at a distance dz from the centroidal

In applications of the flexure fo necessary for only a few etc. Values of moments of in texts on statics as well as. in handbook (also see Table areas used may be divided To find I for an area theorem (sometimes called development fol ows. in Fig. 6-8 is a part of a complex The centroidal axis zc for this
z axis for the whole

In

calculations,

ss-sectional

Iz for

the

whole

section,

i.e.,

It (whole
process is completed,

section)

= (Izc
the z subscript

+ Ad 2)
may be dropped

(6-18a)

in treating

of symmetric cross sections. The fol owing examples il ustrate integration for two simple areas.

area.
its

Then,
zc axis is

by

definition,

the

moment

Itc = AY2
On
the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

of inertia Izc of the area A

theorem

fabricated Appendix.

steel

to a composite beams, angles,

the method of computing I directly Then an application of the parallelarea is given. Values for I for commercial y and pipes are given in Tables 3 to 8 of the

(6-1

EXAMPLE

6-t

the

moment

of inertia

around

the

horizontal

axis

passing

through

the

centroid

for the
z axis

the

rectangular

area

shown

in Fig.

6-9.

other
is

hand,

the

moment

of inertia

It of the

same

area

Iz = A (y + dz)2dA
By
outside

The Here

centroid of this it is convenient

section lies at the intersection to take dA as b dy. Hence,

of the

two

axes +hi2
--h/2

of symmetry. bh 3
12
y

squaring
the

the
integrals,

quantities

in the

parentheses

and

placing

the

.J-hi2

y2b dy = b

Iz = fA y2dA + 2dz A yC dA + d2 A dA

Here integral integral
Fig. 6-8 parallel-axis Area for deriving theorem. the

C bh3h
expressions are used frequently,

ib3h)
as rectangular beams are common.
Fig. 6-9

the

first vanishes reduces

integral

according as y passes to Ad 2. Hence,

ed. (New York:

to Eq. through

6-17 is equal the centroid

to Izc, the of A, and the

Vol.

9 For

1, Statics,

example,

2nd

see J. L. Meriam

and

Wiley,

L. G. Kraige,
1986).

Engineering

292

Pure Bending
EXAMPLE 6-2

and Bending
of inertia

with Axial Forces

,. the entire area:

Sec. 6-5. Applications

for a circular area of radius c;
bh 3 40 x 603

of the Flexure Formula

293

Fig.
y

Find

6-10.

the

moment

about

a diameter

Izc = 1-- =
Ad 2 = 2400(30
I for a circle,
the definition

12

- 72 x 104 mm 4
2 = 0.69 I = 72.69 X 104 mm 4 x 104 mm 4

Solution

- 28.3)

To find
Then
Eq. 4-2,

first

note

that

D 2 = Z 2 + y2, as may
the symmetry around

be seen
both

from
axes,

the fi
and

using

of J, noting

the

hollow

interior:

bh 3

20

X
12

303

Fig.

6-t0

J= f,p2.dA = f,(Y2+z2)
= + Iy=

dA= f,y2dA+
2 4

f,z2dA
composite

12

4.50

x
x

104
104

mm
mm

4
4

Ad 2 = 600(35
section:

- 28.3)

2 =
Iz=

2.69

7.19

104

mm

= --J_
In mechanical
20 wil interior be found must be

Iz = (72.69
Note particularly composite
area of an area

7.19)104

= 65.50

104

mm
term

4
element of is the moment term is due to the each

applications,
useful. subtracted For

circular
a tubular from the

shaft, the last expression.

EXAMPLE
Determine

6-3
the moment of inertia I around

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com 6-5. Applications of the Flexure Formula

moment of inertia of the

shafts

often

act

as beams;

hence,

Eq.

' inertia

that in applying contributes two around its own

the parallel-axis terms to the total centroidal axis,

theorem, I. One the other

transfer

of its axis in solving

to the such

centroid problems

of the whole correctly.

area.

Methodical

work

is the

prime

the

horizontal

axis

for

the

area

in mm
Solution

in Fig.

6-11

for

use

in the

flexure

formula.

largest

stress

at a section

of a beam

is given

by Eq.

6-13,

O'max

As

the

moment

of inertia

is for

use

in the

flexure

formula,

it must

be

around the axis through the centroid of the area. Hence, the centroid of the must be found first. This is most easily done by treating the entire outer and deducting the hollow interior from it. For convenience, the work is out in tabular form. Then the parallel-axis theorem is used to obtain I.
y [ram]

and in most practical be determined. Therefore, g O'max as simple as both I and c are constants is a constant. Moreover, dimensions of a
area. This

problems, it is this maximum stress that has it is desirable to make the process of depossible. This can be accomplished by noting for a given section of a beam. Hence, since this ratio is only a function of the crossbeam, it can be uniquely determined for any
ratio is called the elastic section modulus of a

wil

be designated

by

S. With

this

notation,

Eq.

6-13

becomes

Area
Entire Hollow
60

A [mm
40

2]
= = 2400 -600

(from

bottom)
30 35

Ay
72

area interior

-20

x x

60 30

-21

000 000

A

1800mm
28.3

2
mm from

Ay
bottom

= 51000
stated otherwise

O'max--
maximum bending stress =
bending
elastic section

(6-21)
moment
modulus

28.3

 Ay
Fig. 6-11

51 000 800

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-5.
300

Applications

of

the

Flexure

Formula

295

If the moment S is measured

of inertia I is measured in in 3 (or m3). Likewise,

in in 4 (or m 4) and c in in ifM is measured in in-lb (or

r=20

kN
0.75 kN/m

mm

20kN 0.75kN/m
rn

the
that

units
the

of stress,
distance c as

as before,
used here

become
is measured

psi

(or
from

N/m2).
the

It bears
neutral axis to

Pa

most remote fiber of the beam. This makes consequently M/S gives the maximum stress. resisting elastic bending have as large an S as of material. This is accomplished by locating possible far from the neutral axis. The use of the elastic section modulus in what to the use of the area termA in Eq. 1-13 the maximum flexural stress on a section whereas the stress computed from Eq. 1-13
section of a member.

I/c = S a minimum, The efficient sections possible for a as much of the Eq. 6-21 corresponds (or = P/A). However, is obtained from Eq. holds true across the

--L

.I
(a) (b)
(c)

(d)

Fig.

6-t2

Eq.

6-19:

It . .
Eq. 6-13:

bh 3
12

300

X
12

4003

16 x 108 mm

Equation
facilitate are tabulated its

6-21

is widely

used
moduli

in practice
for many

because
manufactured a few steel

of its

simplicity.
cross

sections are givenl Tables 3 to 8 in the Appendix. Equation 6-21 is particularly for the design of beams. Once the maximum bending moment for is determined and an allowable stress is decided upon, Eq. 6-21 may solved for the required section modulus. This information is sufficientq select a beam. However, a detailed consideration of beam design delayed until Chapter 9. This is necessary inasmuch as a shear which in turn causes stresses, usually also acts at a beam section.
interaction of the various kinds of stresses must be considered first

use, section in handbooks.

Values

for

Crmx
From the are ,riven, sense seen the

Mc

38.5

16 X 108

106

200

= +4.81

MPa
the top fibers of in tension. In the the negative sign

gain

The fol owing two examples il ustrate at specified sections, where, in addition also required for equilibrium. As shown of small or moderate shears does not stresses in slender beams. Both moment the same section simultaneously.
EXAMPLE 6-4

complete

insight

into

the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com problem.

of the bending moment to be in compression positive sign applies

shown in Fig. 6-12(c), and the bottom ones to the tensile stress and

applies

to the
the

compressive

stress.

Both

of these

stresses

decrease

at a linear

rate

toward

calculations for bending to bending moments, shears in the next chapter, the significantly affect the and shear frequently

neutral axis, where the bending on infinitesimal elements at A and  learn to make such a representation Chapters 8 and 9.

stress is zero. The normal stresses B are shown in Fig. 6-12(d). It is imof an element as it wil be frequently

Soldion

If only the maximum may be used. The

stress section

is desired, modulus

for I
c

the equation a rectangular bh 3 2

12 h

involving section bh 2
6

the section in algebraic

modulus form

is

A 300 by 400 mm wooden cantilever beam weighing concentrated force of 20 kN at the end, as shown maximum bending stresses at a section 2 m from
Solution

0.75 kN/m carries an in Fig. 6-12(a). Determine the free end.

s ..

(6-22)

[n this

problem,

S = 300

x 4002/6
M

= 8 x 106 mm 3, and
38.5

by Eq.

6-21,

A free-body diagram for a 2-m segment of the beam is shown in Fig. keep this segment in equilibrium requires a shear of 20 - (0.75 x 2) = 18.5 and a bending moment of(20 x 2) - (0.75 x 2 x 1) = 38.5 Both of these quantities are shown with their proper sense in.Fig. 6-12(c).
distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fibers c = 200 mm. Thi

O'maxsolutions lead to identical

S
results.

8 X 106

10 6

4.81 MPa

to both

the

tension

and

the

compression

fibers.

296

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with
8k

Axial

Forces
8k

Sec.

6-6.

Stress

Concentrations

297

:P16"

 Ay

E
+

= 10.--- = +Ad 2)2xlx3

12.
8 8 x x 16
14.43

17.0

1.70

in

from

line

ab

I=
8 X

(Io
-
Mc
I

4xl 3
x x

12
2 x

+ 4 x 1.2 2
3 x 0.82 = 14.43in 4

.8k
16

+
2.3 1.7

k-in

mx O'max
These
obtained

= 20.4 =
the

ksi ksi
axis
properties
channel. Both

(compression) (tension)
and
area

(a)

Mc
I

16
14.43

15.1
neutral

stresses
would

vary
be

linearly
the
same

toward
same if the

vanish
of
these

there.
the bracket

The
were

rethe
have

cross-sectional

led,
axis

as shown
are the

in Fig.
as

6-13(e).
those of

The
the

of this

section
sections

about

I? .v_ i?':1
(d) (e)

axis

of symmetry.

Section

A-A

(b)

Fig.
EXAMPLE

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

ortioned

previous

so

as

example

to

have

shows

a dif erent

that

members

maximum

resisting
stress

in tension

flexure

may

than

be

in

6-t3

Find the A of the

kips.
Solution

maximum machine

tensile bracket

and shown

compressive in Fig.

stresses

acting

6-13(a)

caused

by

normal to the applied

This is significant for materials having dif erent strengths tension and compression. For example, cast iron is strong in compresand weak in tension. Thus, the proportions of a cast-iron member be so set as to have a low maximum tensile stress. The potential of. the material may thus be better utilized.
Stress Concentrations

force

The segment axis area the section sense

desired

and bending moment of proper magnitude and sense to of the member in equilibrium are shown in Fig. 6-13(c). Next the: of the beam must be located. This is done by locating the centroid shown in Fig. 6-13(b); see also Fig. 6-13(d). Then the moment neutral axis is computed. In both these calculations, the legs of the are assumed rectangular, neglecting fil ets. Then, keeping in mind of the resisting bending moment and applying Eq. 6-13, one obtains
values.

shear

beams

flexure theory developed of constant cross section, area of the beam varies 3attern discussed earlier holes, or an abrupt change high local stresses arise. earlier for axial and

in the preceding sections applies i.e., prismatic beams. If the gradually, no significant deviation takes place. However, if notches, in the cross-sectional area of This situation is analogous to torsion members. Again, it is very

only to cross-secfrom the grooves, the beam the ones dif icult

to obtain
Ihe

analytical

expressions
regarding experiments. extensively the

for

the

actual

stress.

In the past,
came

most
from finite

of
acelesince

y [in]

Area

Number
1 2 3

A [in 2]
4.0 3.0 3.0

(from
0.5 2.5 2.5

ab)

Ay
2.0 7.5 7.5

information photoelastic are now

actual stress distribution Numerical methods used for the same purpose.

employing

Fortunately,

of the

as in the
member

affect

other maximum

cases
the The

local

discussed, stress,

stress

pattern.

only

the

Moreover,

geometric

pro-

generally
in3
to

is in the
to an advantage. maximum

stress-concentration
maximum as given

factors
by

 A = 10.0

in 2

 Ay

= 17.0

be used the nominal

stress

ratio K of the actual in the nin#num section,

stress Eq.

298

Pure Bending

and Bending

with Axial Forces

Sec. 6-7. Elastic

Strain Energy

in Pure Bending

2.2

. r/d

= 0.05

(ama x) nominal
Fig. 644 concentratioh
bending.

= 'T

Me

1.8

0.1

,'
' ....
1.0 2.0

0.2
0.75
3.0 4.0 5.0

1.4

Meaning

factor

of stressin

K=

(amax) actual (ama x ) nominal

1.0

h

Fig. 6.t6 Stess-concentration factors in bending grooved flat bars.

for

6-13, is defined is il ustrated

as the stress-concentration in Fig. 6-14. Hence,

factor
in general,

in bending.

This

area

has

reentrant

angles.

For

example,

high

localized

stresses

may

at the point

where

the range

 and

the web

of an I beam

meet.

To

(O'max)actual
In this equation Figures 6-15 member, indicates
notches

representative
desirable

to reduce

may the

be obtained desirability
local

ases. o The factor

design.
stress

Mc/I is for the small width of a bar. and 6-16 are plots of stress-concentration from these of generous

K, depending
ductile

in machine

concentrations.

For

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION on the proportions of i www.avs4you.com

factors for
diagrams. fil ets and
are less

these, commercial y rolled or extruded shapes have a generous at all such points. In addition to stress concentrations caused by changes in the cross,nal area of a beam, another effect is significant. Forces often are over a limited area of a beam. Moreover, the reactions act only on a beam at the points of support. In the previous treatment, all uch forces were idealized as concentrated forces. In practice, the average

materials,

These

A study of these grap the elimination of

remedies

beam

pressure between the member delivering such a force and the are computed at the point of contact of such forces with the beam. bearing pressure, or stress, acts normal to the neutral surface of a and is at right angles to the bending stresses discussed in this chapstudy of all of the stresses effect of such forces on a local scale, and shows that the bearing they pres-

where

the 

A more detailed a disturbance

forces

are

Stress
o These Concentration

static, concentrations figures

stress

concentrations become

particularly

mportant. significant

sure
The

as normally
to the reader

computed
flexural stresses must remember the material behaves
these factors.

is a crude

approximation.

The
as shown

stresses

at right

if the
"Factors 57, (1935):

are adapted Photoelastically

rid = 0.05

from a paper Determined,"

h

by M. M. Frocht, Trans. ASME

while
to reduce

behave more nearly that the stress-concentration elastically. Inelastic

behavior

in Fig. 2-30. factors apply of material

2.0

:26=7.

Elastic
the

Strain
elastic stress

Energy
strain energy

in Pure

Bending
subelastic

My
I

1.8

Section 2-11, ected to a normal

0.2

1.6
K

1.4

0.27
0.5

17,

1.2

was energy for beams in stress varies linearly and, according to Eq. The volume of a dx is its length, and web
flanges.

pure

formulated. bending can from the neutral 6-11, in simplified typical infinitesimal dA is its cross-sectional part of a beam. until study

for an infinitesimal element Using this as a basis, the

be found. axis, notation, beam

Thin of Chapter

For this case, the as shown in Fig. 6this stress cr = element is dx dA, area. By substituting
parts 12. of a beam
Fig. 6-t7 deriving
bending.

dA

(a)

(b)

factors
flat

Fig.

6-t5
bars

in pure
with

Stress-concentration
vhrious

1.0

bending

Eftlets.

for

1.0

2.0 h/r

..

3.0

1.0

n The
4.0 5.0

n This

called

is a thin can

vertical be postponed

horizontal

section

A beam segment strain energy in

for

300

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-8.

Beams

of Composite

Cross

Section

30'

these beam,
bending

expressions the expression

is obtained.

into

Eq. 2-23 and for the elastic

integrating strain

energy

over

the volume U in a beam

V of in
instructive
= 2CrmaxI/h,

U=
to write

 M2EI2 dx - 2EI M -t2o fz

and

dx'Thus,

M2L 2EI
since O'ma x ----- Mc/I, M
2E

this result

I = bh3/12,

in another

form:

J

2E

Rearranging constant

and

terms that U'=

and
the

remembering order of performing

ngth

that

M the

at a section integration =
2EI

of a
is

(2ffmaxI/h)2Z.=f 2max(bh_)= O'2max (31_VOl)

2EI 2E

--

2EI

dx

ea

y2 dA

given maximum as effective for U = (tr2/2E)(voD.

moment
even less

stress, absorbing
varies
effective.

the This
along

volume energy results

of the material in this beam is only oneas it would be in a uniformly stressed bar, from variable stresses in a beam. If the
beam, the volume of the material

also

a prismatic

where Equation matic

of

the
beams

last 6-24

simplification reduces the in pure flexure

is possible since, by deflation, I = f y2 volume integral for the elastic energy of to a single integral taken over the
from a dif erent point of a beam dx long, as is moments M, the two parallel. After the same two planes, which between these two
moment M is attained

a beam.

Alternatively, -Eq. 624 can be derived by considering an elementary segment of Fig. 6-18. Before the application of bending perpendicular to the axis of the beam are of the bendingmoments, extensions of the planes, intersect at O, and the angle included
is dO.
alternative

Beams den
uses beams

of

Composite
of dif erent reinforced

Cross by

Section
materials metal occur straps, in practice. plastics
steel

Fig.

6-18
energy

Beam

derivation

segment

of

for

ually,

Moreover,

strain

in bending.

external work We done on a segment of a beam since for small deflections, dx  O dO, where of the elastic curve, per Eq. 6-10 1/p = M/EL of conservation of energy, the internal strain
beam is

the average

since

'moment

the

ful

acting

value

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION through an anglewww.avs4you.com dO is M. Hence,

and reinforced concrete

of beams made are sometimes

is concrete

with

rein-

are

of the

is dWe  is the Hence, energy

= M dO: radius of from the of an element

the

The elastic bending theory discussed before can be readily to include such beams of composite cross section. an elastic beam of several materials bonded together with a axis of symmetry as shown in Fig. 6-20(a). The elastic moduli Ei dif erent materials are given. As for a homogeneous material, the extensional strains ex are assumed to vary linearly as shown
is an optional section.

bars.

This

dU = dWe = lMdO = lMdX p - M2 2EI dx

which has the same meaning as Eq. 6-24.
EXAMPLE 6-7

x

Find bending
Soldion
Section

the

elastic moment

strain energy M applied

stored in a rectangular at the end; see Fig. 6-19.

cantilever

beam

due

Unit distance

Cross

section

Bending (b)

strain

Bending (c)

stresses

Fig.

'6-'19

The El,

bending is constant.

moment By

at every section direct application

of this of Eq.

beam, 6-24,

as well

as the

flexural

(a)

Fig.

6-20

Elastic

beam

of composite

cross

section

in bending.

302

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-8.

Beams

of Composite
7.5

Cross
= 150/20

Section

303'

in Fig. 6-20(b). ulus-weighted

using

At the interfaces of their Ei's, Following

ment

Eq. 6-16.

The neutral axis centroid, is located

between two a sharp discontinuity the same procedure

The stresses

shown

for this section, by the distance

materials,

depending in stress magnitudes as in Eq. 6-7, the

in Fig. 6-20(c)

passing through Yb and can

the

fol ow

relative arises. resisting bending

on the

from

Eq.

-t

250

mm

Neutral

axis

Mz = K fA Eiy2 dA = K(EI)*
where the curvature K, being constant for the section, is taken

10mm 
(a)

20X150=3000mm
Fig.
(b) 6-2t

mm

150
(c)

_1

the
the

integral,
middle

and
expression.

(E/)*

defines
Hence

symbolically
mz

the

value

of the

PLE

6-8

(E/)*

mm
'30

The strap
kN.m
wood?

a composite beam upper 150 by 250 is steel, Es = 200

around a horizontal

of the cross-sectional mm part is wood, GPa. If this beam

axis, what are

dimensions shown E, = 10 GPa; the lower is subjected to a bending

the maximum stresses

in Fig. 610 by 150 moment

in the steel

and

by substituting

this

relation

into

Eqs.

6-3 and

6-14,

e,=-(E/),y
where the last diately specialized In calculations

Mz

and

useful

sectional erence

to introduce
constant

expression is an analogue for a homogeneous of bending of composite

area in one material. Ei, defined here as Eref.

the concept

This Using

of an equivalent
requires this

cr,=- i(-Y NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

as in Fig.
The

E M

ilution

as Ee. 6-21(b)

Then with

n = EdEw the equivalent

= 20. Hence the width of steel

around the

transformed equal to 150

centroidal axis

cross x 20
for this

section = 3000
trans-

to Eq.
cross

6-11,

and

can

be

centtold

and

moment

of inertia

beam.

section
150

are,

respectively,
125

sections,

arbitrary notation

or transformed
selection the integral

sometimes

of

=
-

x 250

150 x 250 + 10 x 3000

+ 150x
4
in the wood is

10

x 3000

x 255

= 183mm
x 103
12

(from the top)

+ 10 x 3000 x722

in

150

x 2503
12

15, for

curvature

, can

be recast

as fol ows:

250x

582+

3000

= 478

x 10 6 mm
stress

Ely dA = Eref
where ni dA = (Ei/Ee) can be considered to dA. have

Yr dA = Erie
Therefore a beam the mechanical a cross section In transformed

y(ni dA) = 0
(O'w)mx
of composite properties
of

Mc

I
steel

0.03

478 X 10 6
0.03 x 109

109

183

11.5 MPa
77

cross the

maximum

stress

in

the

is

material,
vary

of Ei to Erie. tional elastic

obtained materials

provided

linearly

for the reference must be multiplied

from

After analysis

the dif erential

the neural

transforming is applicable.

areas

dA are multiplied

material, by

axis

in all materials.
whereas

in this manner, sections the

by hi, the
stresses
the

(O')mx
klternative Solution

= no-,

= 20

478

10 6

96.7

MPa

the

The

stresses

actual

in

ielect

E as Er.
6-21(c).

Then

nw

= Ew/E

= 1/20,

and

the

transformed

section

is as in

This

procedure

is il ustrated

on the

two

examples

that

fol ow.

304

Pure

Bending

and

Bending
7.5 x

with
250

Axial
x 135

Forces
+ 150 x 10 x 5

Sec.

6-8.

Beams

of Composite

Cross

Section

305

7.5 x 250 + 150 x 10

(from
2503
12

= 77

mm
x

the

bottom)

this sumes

the tension
hape

analysis, it virtually the form shown

can resist

zone

of a beam
the

Iz-

7.5

+ 7.5
10 x x 77 722

x 250
= 23.9

x 582
x

+
106mm

150

x
12

103

above

tension, There

neutral
the

does in Fig. steel

only

so it is shown

axis;

not exist at all, 6-22(c). The cross

holds

the reinforcing

below

as the dif erence

it, no concrete
transformed between

and the section

steel

transformed of concrete

in place?

is shown.
concrete

area.

section has the Steel, of

For

Hence,

(crs)mx = (Crw)mx
Note that if the

0.03

23.9 X 106 20 x
piece
of the

150 x

x 109

purposes,
to its centreid.
distances to the

is located
teel fibers.

by a single
been used, but

dimension
this

from
distance

the

neutral
and the

is a negligible

= 96.7 MPa 23.9 X 106

is an

various

far,

the

idea

of the

neutral

axis

has

its location

is unknown.

ors

0.03

109

x 183

11.5 MPa
wooden section

However,
the the

transformed

section

equivalent

transformed section. It is further known that the fn:st (or statical) area on one side of a centroidal axis is equal to the first moment on the other side. Thus, let kd be the distance from the top of the

it is known

that

this

axis

coincides

with

the axis

through

the

centreid

moment of the beam to

alent
stif er

stresses

section
than

in the
unit

is steel,
the material

actual

wooden

stresses
a higher

in steel
stress

are

are obtained
section

obtained

directly.

directly.

Conversely,

The

stress
since,

in

'if the
to

centroidal
the
stresses

axis,
distance from

as shown
top

in Fig.

6-22(c),

where

k is an unknown

ratio,

5 and

transformed

is increased,

the

same

strain,

is required.

the of the foregoing are determined

of the beam to the center of the steel. locates the neutral axis, about which as in the preceding example.

An algebraic I is computed

10(kd)
EXAMPLE
Determine

(kd12)
arm

=
transformed steel

30
area

(20

arm

kd)

6-9
the maximum stress in the concrete and the steel for a

concrete area

concrete

beam

with

the

section

shown

in Fig.

bending

(These
Solution

bars
ratio

momeni

are 1 in in diameter
steel

of 50,000

ft-lb.
of

The

and
concrete

have

reinforcement

the

of E for

to that

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

6-21(a) if it is subjected to a

a cross-sectional
to be

consists
i.e.,

area

of two
15.

of 1 in 2'

#9

steel

5(kd) 2 = 600 (kd) 2 + 6(kd)

30(kd) 120 = 0

15,

n =

kd

8.36

in

and

20

kd

11.64

in

Plane
line

beam.
ab.

sections

Strains
A transformed

vary
concrete
not

are

linearly

assumed
section

from

to

remain
in terms

the neutral
of

plane

axis,
the

in

as shown
is used

an

elastic
to

in Fig.
solve

6-22(b)
this

by
no

concrete

Mc

12 367 + 10(8.
I
Mc
I

10(8.36)
x
x

50,000
15

However,
cracks wil

is so weak
occur in the tension

in tension
zone of

that

there
beam.

is no
For

assurance
this reason,

that

6020

12

-- -+ (86)
8.36
x 12 x 11.64

0 + 30(11.64) 2 = 6020 in 4
= 17,400 psi

= 833 psi

50,000
6020

is given

to concrete

for

resisting

tension.

On
Solution

kd is determined, may be used. ;hydrostatic" manner

20 kd

Unit

distance

hA, = 30 in 2
(c)

I, a procedure evident from Fig. 6developed by the stresses acting in a side of the beam must be located kd/ below the top of the beam. Moreover, if b is the width of the beam, this resultant C = (cr)m,b(kd) (average stress times area). The resultant tensile force steel and is equal to Acr, where A is the cross-sectional the steel. Then, ifjd is the distance between T and C, and since T = C, applied moment M is resisted by a couple equal to Tjd or Cjd.

The

instead of computing resultant force on the compression

(b)

(d)

Fig.

6-22

In this text,

 This

Actually,

conforms

it is used
with

to resist
the

h is generally

used

usual

shear

to represent

notation

and

used

provide

the height

in books

fireproofing

or depth

on reinforced

for

the

of the beam.

concrete.

steel.

306

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-9.

Curved

Bars

307

jd

= d -

kd/3

= 20

(8.36/3)

17.21

in

b Centroid

M = Cjd = b(kd)(c)mx(jd)
(O)m,,
M b(kd)(jd) = Tjd = Assjd
M

+y

--

2M

-50,000

2 x

50,00.0

12

10

x 8.36
x 12

x =

17.21 17,400
The second concrete

= 833

psi
.\
\

o-s = -A(jd)
Both convenient
lowable

the
said

2 x
same Since
to

17.21
answer. steel
have balanced

psi
method have
when

Straight
\

beam
(c)

\
is

(b)

methods
in practical
stresses,

naturally
the

give applications.
beam is

and allowable

reinforcement

designed

so that

the

respective

stresses

are

at their

level

simuttaneou

Note

ments

that

were

the

applied

beam

in the

shown

opposite

would

become

direction.

virtually

worthless

if the

bending
(a)

Fig.

6-23

Curved

bar

in pure

bending.

Curved
The flexure is confined this axis

Bars
is developed of symmetry the length as shown in this section. of the cross section, of the bar. Only the
area

b)/rqb,

its initial
is

and

the

length

normal

is rqb. The
stress

tr on

strain

an element

e of any

arbitrary
dA

of the

fiber

cross-sectional

is (R

- r)

case

is treated,
fibers fibers

theory for curved bars to bars having an axis lying in one plane along

7 with
and

the

usual

proviso

same Consider
outer inner

in tension a curved
are are

compression. member

such
of

at a distance at a distance

ro from of r. The

 = Ee = E (R - r) dqb NON-ACTIVATED VERSION rqb www.avs4you.com

that the elastic
of

modulus

is

(6-29a)
(6-29b)

For

future

use,

note

also

that

in Figs.
center

6-23(a)

and

(b).

the distance

from

curvatur60. O to the

trr -R -

r
The

E dqb qb
location

axis

is L The

solution

8 of this

problem

is again

based

on the

assumption: Sections perpendicular to the axis of the beam remain after a bending moment M is applied. This is diagrammatically by the line ef in relation to an element of the beam abcd. The is defined by the central angle qb. Although the basic deformation assumption is the same as for strai beams, and, from Hooke's law, the normal stress tr = Ee, a dif iculty encountered. The initial length of a beam fiber such as gh depends the distance r from the center of curvature. Thus, although the. total formation of beam fibers (described by the small angle dqb) fol ows law, strains do not. The elongation of a generic fiber gh is (R - r) where R is the distance from O to the neutral surface (not yet 6 Study of this section 7 For plastic analysis
Bending 27/4 (December

Equation

6-29a
section

gives
of a curved

the
be equal

normal
beam.

stress
i.e.,

acting

on
of the

an element

of area

of

from

the

the condition
section

must

that the summation

to zero,

of the forces

acting

neutral

perpendicular

axis

fol ows

F.=0
since bar,
obtained.

fA ,y a_A = fA E(R -rqb r) d4 dA

E, R, may qb, and dqb are be taken outside constant the at any integral sign one
Thus:

= 0
and section of a a solution

they

tic-Plastic Mech.

solution ticity

is This

of the same problem is due to M. Golovin,

approximate

of Curved 1960):

is optional. of curved

oo

---7--

oo

---

aA

=0
(6-30)

solution

Bars of Constant 733-734.

bars,

see,

for example,
and

Variable

H. D. Conway,
Thickness.

by who

was

the methods of the solved it in 1881.

developed

by E. Wintaler

mathematical

in 1858.

theory

The

of

308

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-9.

Curved

Bars

309

where axis.
troidal
elastic

A is the Note that

axis.
beams.

cross-sectional the neutral

This dif ers from

area
axis
the

of the so found
situation

beam, does
found

and
not

R locates coincide
to be true

the
with
for

the

cr-

My

Ae(R

y)

(6-32)

that the location of the neutral axis is known, the equation for stress distribution is obtained by equating the external moment to internal resisting moment built up by the stresses given by Eq. The summation of moments is made around the z axis, which is to the plane of the figure at O in Fig. 6-23(a).

Now

These
fol ows
center

equations a hyperbolic
of

from
the

the

indicate pattern.

that

formula
of

the stress A comparison

for straight
the

bars

distribution of this

is shown
results

result

in a curved with the

in Fig.
from

6-23(c).

bar one

particularly

that

curvature

in the curved

bar,

beam.

the neutral
This

axis

is pulled

the

toward

higher

Stresses

 Mz=O
Again, remembering

M= /,cr dA (R- r)= f, E(R - r) 2 dqb

force arm

course,

developed only
For

a consideration

below to elastic
see

the neutral axis. stress distribution

of situations

The

where

theory and only

an

developed to beams
axial

force

applies, in pure
is

also

at a section,

Section

6-12.

that

E, R,

qb, and

dqb are

constant

at a section,

Eq.

obtained:

6-29b,

and

performing

the

algebraic

steps

indicated,

the

fol owing
2083
:urved

tVIPLE

6-'10

are N.m
to

stresses in three
? = 75

M=E  dqbf, (R -r r)2 dA - R---rr f, (R -r r)2 dA Solution + r2 R err -r f, g 2 - Rr r Rr NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
mm.

the

in a 50 by 50 mm rectangular special cases: (a) straight

centroidal axis, i.e.,

i = 250

bar beam,

mm,

subjected (b) beam

Fig.

6-24(a),

to end curved

and

moments of to a radius
(c) beam

dA

_ err (R2fAdA_RfAdA_RfAdA
R-r r

Here, from third

the

since R is a constant, the the expression in parentheses integral is A, and the last
radius of the centroidal
M

first

two integrals vanish appearing just before integral, by definition,

Hence,

+ fArdA) www.avs4you.com
S =

This

fol ows

directly

by

applying

Eqs.

6-21

and

6-22.

as may be Eq. 6-30. is ?A where

bh2/6 M

= 50 2083

x 502/6 103

=
+100

20.83
MPa

103

mm

crmx
This result
of curvature.

S
in Fig.

20.83
6-24(c).

x 103

axis.
O't"

is shown

? = oo since

a straight

bar

has

an infinite

.(?A

RA)

m
beam at a

To solve parts (b) general terms by mentary area is taken

limits r and
50

and (c) the neutral axis must be located first. This integrating Eq. 6-30. For the rectangular section, as b dr, Fig. 6-24(b). The integration is carried out
the
mm

is found the elebetween

from
from

where
the center

the

normal
of curvature

stress
is

acting

on

a curved

ro,
X 50

inner

and

outer

radii,

respectively.

100

MPa

93.6

MPa

80.9

MPa

I M(R- r)1
orrA(?R)
If positive
axis, and resembles

100 MPa 7' = .o

107 MPa 7' = 250 mm

/I-T

-v

{----v
128 MPa 7' = 75 mm

60ram

y is measured

toward
may for

the center

of curvature

from
that more

the
(a)

? - R = e, Eq. 6-31 the flexure formula

be writ en in aform straight beams:

0

(b)

(c)

Fig.

6-24

Pure

Bending

and

Bending
A

with

Axial

Forces
bh h

Sec.

6-10.

Inelastic

Bending

of Beams

I In r Ir?

In (ro/ri)

2.3026

log

(ro/rt)
and log is a
mm.

cross-sectional area may become very complex. Finally, calculations must be very accurate since dif erences between R and numerically quantities are used in the stress formula. last two dif iculties prompted the development of other methods solution. One such method consists of expanding certain terms of the into a series? another of building up a solution on the basis of

where h is the depth of the section, In is the natural logarithm, arithm with a base of 10 (common logarithm). (b) For this case, h = 50 mm, ? = 250 mm, rt = 225 mm, and solution is obtained by evaluating Eqs. 6-33 and 6-31. Subscript normal stress  of the inside fibers; o of the outside fibers.
g
e

special

reverse."

transformed
moments

Curved

section.
beams

of

Yet
exist

various

another
the

cross

approach

sections,

consists
quantities

curvatures,

of working
are divided

and

re = 275

are analyzed
stress that would are then tabulated?

for

stress;
for Hence,

then
same conversely,

these
beam

i refers

to

a flexural : ratios

if it were straight. if stress in a curved

m
=

50

beam
= 250 249.164 249.164 mm = 0.836 mm

is wanted,

it is given

as
 =

In (275/225)
? R

K McI
from a table or a graph and
is now

(6-34)

O'i

M(R riA(?
107 MPa

- ri) - R)
- re) - R)
MPa

2083

x 103 x (249.164 225 x 502 x 0.836

x 103 x (249.164 275 x 502 x 0.836

225)
ere the
axis

coefficient
as in the usual

K is obtained
flexure formula.

Mc/I
given

is

M(R roA(b
- 93.6

2083

275)
for

An expression
future

The the

negative corresponding

sign

of ere indicates stress distribution

a compressive are shown

(c) This 50 mm,

case is computed and re = 100.

R =

in the
Results
50

same of the
--50

way. computation
-

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

reference:

of a curved

for

the

beam

distance

of circular

from

the

cross-sectional

center

of curvature

area

to the

neu-

stress. These in Fig. 6-24(c);

quantities ? = 250

mm.

p+

V.2

- c2

(6-35)

Here

h = 50 mm, ? = 75 ram, as shown in Fig. 6-24(c).

ri:

where

? is the
radius

distance
of

from

the

center

of curvature
area.

to the

centroid,

and

c is the

the

circular

cross-sectional

In (100/50)
gR = 75

In 2
73.13

72.13mm

6-10.
2.87mm

Inelastic

Bending

of Beams
it is becoming beyond the in the post is limited increasingly important to deterelastic limit. In this section the inelastic rage of material behavior is to pure bending of beams around

e =

o-i = ' =

2083 2083

50 x 502 x 2.87 100 x 502 x 2.87

x 103 x (72.13

103

x (72.13

- 50) 100)

= 128 MPa = -80.9 MPa

reasons of economy, member strengths bending of beams considered. The discussion

mine

The
Several important conclusions, generally true, may be reached this example. First, the usual flexure formula is reasonably good beams of considerable curvature. Only 7 percent error in the stress occurs in part (b) for ?/h = 5, an error tolerable for most cations. For greater ratios of ?/h, this error diminishes. As the of the beam increases, the stress on the concave side rapidly ' over the one given by the usual flexure formula. When ?/h = 1.5, percent error occurs. Second, the evaluation of the integral for R

axis

elastic

perpendicular

bending

to the axis
introducing
the

theory

ship
To

for the material.

remain

The

same

for beams an uniaxial basic requirements

as for

of symmetry

the

elastic

can be readily extended to innonlinear stress-strain relationof statics and kinematics of

case.

of the beam

cross

section.

il ustrate such
1955),

the analysis procedure as shown in Fig. 6-25(a).

369

consider By assuming
3rd for ed., Stress

a beam having a cross as before that plane

Part and I (Princeton, Strain, NJ: Van

Nostrand,
York:

19 S. Timoshenko,
McGraw-Hil ,

Strength
and
1975).

20 R. J. Roark,

and

W. C. Young,

373.

of Materials, Formulas

5th ed. (New

Pure Bending

and Bending

with Axial Forces

Sec. 640. Inelastic

Bending

of Beams

5
0 2 ---

Y4

Y5
01

Finding the location of the neutral axis such that T = C may require trial-and-error process, although direct procedures have been devised some cross sections. TM After the neutral axis is correctly located, the : bending moment Mz at the same section is known to be C(a + or T(a + b), see Fig. 6-25(d). Alternatively, in the form of a general equation,

Mz = - cry dA
5 4 1 E2 3

(6-37)
cross
are the a priori

_ Unit 
length(a) Beam section

The

problem

I'strain

1
-O 4

horizontal

is greatly
For

axis and material these conditions

simplified

if the beam

properties it is known

section

same that

is symmetric

in tension the neutral

(b)

Bending

passes through applied. The

diagram

(c)

Stress-strain

ciated

define

in Fig. 6-26. with plane

the

the centroid of the section, and Eq. behavior of such a beam in bending
A sequence of progressively sections is shown in Fig.
stresses in the outer

maximum

6-26(b).

increasing

6-37 can is shown

of the

fibers

These

beam,

strains maximum

be diqualiasFig.

M z

(/5

o3

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the
Hil ,
(e)

resulting in progressively increasing bending stresses. As can be seen from Figs. 6-26(a) and (c), the maximum attainable 0-3. The instantaneous stress distribution in the beam associated 0-3, for this brit le material, is given by the curved line AB in Fig. in routine experiments the nominal stress in the extreme

often computed experimental y

1950), 356.

by applying determined
of Flow

the elastic ultimate

flexure bending

formula, moment.

Eq.

The

6-13, using stress so

McGraw-

stress with 6-26(c). fibers

2 A. Nadai,

Theory

andFracture

of Solids,

vol.

! (New

York:

(d)

Bending

stresses

Fig.

6-25

Inelastic

bending

of beam.

sections

remain

plane

after

deformation,

the

longitudinal

normal

Fracture

vary linearly as in Fig. 6-25(b). For the several selected strains .. es in this diagram, the correponding stresses 0., 0-2 . . . 0-5 defined on the given stress-strain diagram in Fig. 6-25(c). A plot of stresses along a section establishes a possible stress distribution in beam along the curved line AB as il ustrated in Fig. 6-25(d). (Except vertical scale, this line precisely corresponds to the curved line in stress-strain diagram.) These stresses, acting on the corresponding of the cross section, develop a compressive force C above the axis, and a tensile force T below it. When T = C, a correct location the neutral axis is found. This condition is equivalent to the
that at a section

Propordonal
limit

(b)
E1 2 3 01 0 2 0 3

fA 0- dA = 0
where 0- is the normal bending stress acting on a section.

(a)

Fig. 6-26 in bending proportional

(c)

Rectangular exceeding limit

beam the of the

material.

Pure Bending
Plastic zone

and Bending

with Axial

Forces
Elastic core

Sec. 6.t0. Inelastic

-The to that whole shown upper evenly into in Fig. 6-28(c) is permissible half of the beam is subjected a tension

Bending

of Beams

and has a simple physical to a uniform compressive zone

M2

-crvp,

divided

whereas

the lower

half

is all under
and

a compression

a uniform

tension

fol ows

crvp.

from

That

sym-

the

Numerically,

I
(a)

C = T = o.yp(bh/2)

i.e.,

stress
is

x area
the neutral axis. Hence,

(b)


of straining.

Neutralaxis
(c)

Each

one

of these
or ultimate

forces acts resisting,

at a distance hi4 from moment of the beam

Fig.

6-27

Elastic-plastic

'beam

at large

levels

found

is associated
actually

is called
attained.

with

the rupture
the

line

modulus
CD

in Fig.

of the material
6-26(c)

and

is larger

in bending.

than

This

Mp  Muir = C
is the breadth of the beam, and

( + )
h is its

= o.yp- 4
height.

bh2
Eqs. 6-36 and 6-37.

the
The

The elastic perfectly plastic idealization [Fig. 2-13(b)], for reasons simplicity, is very frequently used for beams of ductile materials in termining their behavior in bending, and as an important example elastic bending, consider a rectangular beam of elastic-plastic see Fig. 6-27. In such an idealization of material behavior, a sharp aration of the member into distinct elastic and plastic zones is For example, if'the strain in the extreme fibers is double that at the ginning of yielding, only the middle half of the beam remains elastic; Fig. 6-27(a). In this case, the outer quarters of the beam yield. The nltude of moment M corresponding to this condition can be readily puted (see Example 6-13). At higher strains, the elastic zone, 6r diminishes. Stress distribution corresponding to this situation is
in Figs.
EXAMPLE

same

solution

may

be obtained

by

directly

applying

NOting

neutral symmetry

the sign
axis

through around

of stresses,
the

the middle neutral

one

can conclude

of the beam. By taking dA = b dy and axis, one changes Eq. 6-37 to

that

Eq.

6-36

is satisfied

by taking
noting

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bending moment of a beam

Mp - Mult
crv,

= - 2

oh/2 (-

o.yp)yb
of rectangular

dy = o.ypbh2/4
section when the

(6-38)

outer

ust reach

as given

by the elastic

flexure

formula,

is

Myp

= o-ypI/c
the

= o-yp(bh2/6)
factor.

therefore,
factor just

Mp/Myp
given

= 1.50
for the

6-27(b)
6-tt

and

(c).

The

is called

ratio

Mp/Mvp

shows

For plastic

of a rectangular static loads such

section modulus

that

Myp

shape

depends
may

only

beam as occur

b& exceeded

The

on the

shape

cross-sectional
by 50 percent
ultimate

properties

of a member
rectangular
be

is reached. in buildings,

before

the ultimate
can

plastic

capacities

approx-

Determine gular cross

Soldion

the ultimate section.

Consider

capacity the material

in flexure of a mild steel to be ideally elastic-plastic.

beam

imately

determined are referred

using plastic to as the plastic

Z is defined

moments. method
as fol ows:

The procedures based on such conof analysis or design. For such work,

The
can

the material
take

idealized
place
moment.

has the same

in steel during

stress-strain

properties

diagram
yielding

is shown
are

in tension
much

in Fig.

and

compression.

6-28(a).
than the

It is assumed

The

strain
as
Oyp
E

greater

maximum

strain (15 of a beam

ultimate

to 20 times the lat er would occur at larger

distribution takes place. to triangular the accuracy.
of their

quantity). strains,

Since
the plastic

unacceptably moment

large may be taken

large amount the stresses without applied
of the

The deformation responding impairing

moment

stress

because

shown in Fig. In computing areas abc and They contribute

short moment

arms.

6-28(b) applies after a the resisting moment, bde may be neglected lit le resistance to the
Hence, the idealization

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

stress

Fig.

6-28

Pure Bending

and Bending

with Axial Forces

Mp - O-ypZ
Elastic-plastic
boundaW

Sec. 6-10. Inelastic

Bending

of Beams

For

the

The
many

rectangular Steel Construction

common steel

beam
shapes.

just analyzed, Z = bh2/4. Manual 22 provides a table

An abridged list of these

of plastic
moduli

section
for steel

moduli
sec

is given
6-39

for

The situations

Z is very simple. method of limit where fatigue

in Table

9 of the

Appendix.
or plastic properties

For
analysis of the

a given

M s and

Cryp the
in machine

solution

of i

is unacceptable material are

important.

EXAMPLE

6-t2

(b)

(c)

Fig.

6-30

Elastic-plastic

cantilever

beam.

Find
plastic
Solution

the

residual
bending

stresses
moment.

in a rectangular

beam

upon

removal

of the
643

)etermine
stress 6-29(a). distribution The magnitude associated
of this

the

moment

resisting

capacity

of an elastic-plastic

rectangular

beam.

The Fig.

with moment

an

ultimate has been

plastic determined

moment
in the

is shown

Solution To make the problem more definite, consider a cantilever loaded as shown in Fig. 6-30(a). If the beam is made of ideal elastic-plastic material and the applied force P is large enough to cause yielding, plastic zones wil be formed (shown shaded the figure). At an arbitrary section a-a, the corresponding stress distribution be as shown in Fig. 6-30(c). The elastic zone extends over the depth of 2yo.
that within the elastic zone the stresses vary linearly and that everywhere

fiber

example

the maximum Fig. 6-29(b). stresses due

Both tensile The tensile gradually
undesirable

unloading is double that which could take place since Myp = crypbh2/6 and the moment being
stress calculated Superimposing.the to the release ofM,
compressive are colored its depth,
of the

in the

and is M s = crypbh2/4.
beam can rebound

elastically.

Upon

release

on the basis of elastic action is cryp, as shown initial stresses at M s with the elastic one finds the residual stresses; see Fid.
residual stresses remain If such a beam were of the residual stresses in the machined would

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The

of this
material

plastic

initial y released

(see Fig. 2-13). is cryp(bh2[4)

elastic

moment

range

M s,
during

or

and zones reducing

deformations

longitudinal in the figure. the release

bar.

the plastic
=

zone
-

the longitudinal

stress

is crvv,
-

the resisting
(Cryp)(b

moment
dy)y

M is
(6-40)

9th

22 American
ed.

(Chicago:

Institute

AISC,

of Steel
1989).

Construction,

AISC

Steel

Construction

Manual

= YP'4
moment.

bh 2

YP--

by2o

= Me - YP' 3

by2o
with Eq. 6-38. In this general equal to the ultimate plastic to the limiting elastic case,
cannot progress with-

the last simplification is done in accordance if yo = 0, the moment capacity becomes However, if yo = h/2, the moment reverts

Oy p

the elastic-plastic
an elastic
a limit. out

= cv, bh2/6. When boundary

zone or core
This is a case

remains,

the applied bending can be determined

the plastic
plastic

deformations
flow.

moment by solving

along the span is known, Eq. 6-40 for yo. As long

where plastic

of contained

O'yp (b)

deformations
Fig. 6.29 Residual stress distribution in a rectangular bar.

After

the applied

distribution
axis

pattern than the one shown in Fig. 6-29(c), where the idealization of dividing the tension and compression zones in the beam at the neutral in reality is impossible to attain. That pattern of stress distribution represents g case of the stress distribution pattern given in Fig. 6-31. Many inelastic

occurred, for this

force

residual stresses wil remain. region is shown in Fig. 6-31. This

P is released,

along

the length

of the beam
A typical is a more

residual realistic

stress stress

(a)

(b)

Fig.

distribution

6-31

Residual

in

the

stress

beam.

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6.1t.

Bending

About

Both

Principal

Axes

The

materials

residual

tend
curved

stress

to have
line

pattern

a stress-strain
for

such

materials

relationship
CD

would

such

resemble

as shown

the

stress

in Fig.

between

AB

and

straight

line

of Fig.

6-26(c).

EXAMPLE

6-t4

l.
strength for the steel reinforcement f = 2500 psi. reinforced yields concrete at 40,000 beam psi and in that

Bending

About

Both

Principal

Axes

24
consider M act in in Fig. resolved this beam 6-3 are for this axes for
of singly

Determine ample ultimate

Solution

the plastic moment 6-9. Assume that the strength of concrete

When

the
At the

reinforcing

steel
or plastic

begins

to yield,

large

deformations

commence.

is taken block
=

to be the ultimate
ultimate

capacity

moment,

of steel;
can

experimental

hence, to assume

T,u

evidence

= Ascryp.

indicates

that

example of skew or unsymmetrical pure bending, beam shown in Fig. 6-33. The applied moments abcd. By using the vector representation for M shown this vector forms an angle c with the z axis and can be , the two components, My and Mz. Since the cross section of symmetry about both axes, the formulas derived in Section applicable. Because of symmetry, the product of inertia is zero, and the orthogonal axes shown are the principal
cross section. areas. This (For also details holds see true Sections for the 6-15 centroidal and 6-16.) axes

a simple rectangular

compressive
C,t,

compressive

shown
one

stresses
has

stress

in Fig.

block

6-32. 23 It is customary
to be 0.85f;.

in concrete

be approximated On
80,000 x

this

basis,
=

the average
keeping

by the

rectangular

in mind

stress

that

in

By

assuming .ses caused

and

elastic by My
6-12,

behavior of the material, and Mz is the solution to the

Mzy Myz --

a superposition problem.

Hence,

of the using

Yult
k'd

= gypAs C.t 0.85b

= 40,000
=

0.85

x 2 = 80,000 x 2,500

Mt

= Tt(d

- k'd/2)

= 80,000(20
5th ed. Structures

forced Concrete Fundamentals, T. Paulay, Reinforced Concrete

23 For further

details,

see P.M.

Ferguson,

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lb 10
= 3.77 in

s. 6-11

. =

---

(6-41)

- 3.77/2)/12
York:

= 121,000

ft-lb

all terms

have

the

previously

defined

meanings. 6-14 fkst, and then consider this

(New

J. E. Breen,
York: Wiley,

and J. O. J'sa,
1988),

(New

Wiley,

or R. Park 1975).

24 Some

as a special

readers

may

case.

prefer

to study

Section

Probable
stress

distribution
c

Muir
M

Assumed
stress

distribution

Gyp

(a)

(b)

Fig.

6-32
(a) (b)

Fig.

6-33

Unsymmetrical

bending

of a beam

with

doubly

symmetric

cross

section.

320

Pure

Bending

and

Bending
Y,

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-tt.

Bending

About

Both

Principal

Axes

32'

the constants are placed in front of the second integral, which is to zero because by definition a product of inertia for a principal vanishes. virtue of the above, the restriction placed on the elastic flexure . at the beginning of the chapter limiting it to applications for symcross sections can be removed. However, in the application of Eq.

the principal bypassing this

axes for requirement

a cross section must is given in Section

be used. 6-14.

A procedure

PLE
Mzy

645

. _
(b)

Myz
(c)

100

by

distributed

150

mm

wooden
load

of 4 kN

beam

(total)

shown

on

in Fig.

a simple

6-36(a)

span

is used

of 3 m.

to support
The

applied

(a)

Fig.

6-34

Superposition

of elastic

bending

stresses.

in a plane making an angle of 30 with the vertical, as shown in Fig. 6and again in Fig. 6-36(c). Calculate the maximum bending stress at midspan, for the same section, locate the neutral axis. Neglect the weight of the beam.
a = 30

A graphical a line of zero axis. Analytically, given by Eq.

---

il ustration stress,
6-41

of superposition is given in Fig. 6-34. Note i.e., a neutral axis, forms at an angle [3 with such an axis can be determined by setting the to zero, i.e.,
+--

Mzy Iz My

Myz Iy'

= 0

or

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4 kN (total)

tan

[3-

y Mylz --z Mzly

Since,
to

in general,

= M sin e and

Mz

= M cos

e, this

equation

J<

3m

'

tan [3 =  tan e
This
Centroid

(a)

(b)

equation

shows

that

unless

I = Iy,

or e is either
the acts

0 or 90 ,
neutral do not axis

angles e and [3 are not equal. the normal to a plane in which

Therefore, the applied

in general, moment

Direction of load

sections of any shape provided the principal axes are employed. this statement, consider a beam with the arbitrary cross section in Fig. 6-35. Let such an elastic beam be bent about the principal and assume that the stress distribution is given as crx = -My/I,
y axis, this sion gives
bending axis.

The

results

just

given

can be generalized

to apply

to beams

having

TO

cros!
z Eq.

-0.47

MPa

-6.47

MPa

150 150

11. If this

stress

is the

correct

distribution

solution

causes

of the

no bending
problem.

Forming

moment

such

My

around
an

+6.47

MPa

+0.47

MPa

(b)

Fig. 6-35 Pure around a principal

My=

- -z yz dA =

yz dA = 0

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

Fig.

6-36

322

Pure Bending
Solution

and Bending
bending
Hence,
M ..

with Axial Forces

in the plane of the applied load occurs at midspan

Sec. 6-It, Bending

About

Both Principal

Axes

323

The

according

maximum
on span

to Example
L.

5-8,

it is equal
WL 8

to woL2/8

or WL/8,

where

W is the

NA Y'

load

4x3 8

1.5

kN.m

Next,

this

moment

is resolved

into

components

acting

around

the

res[

and

I and

Iy are

calculated.

125.7
i
s incorrect to solve this formulas developed ever, using the principal

Mz
My

= M cos tx = 1.5
= M sin tx = 1.5

x X/-/2
x 0.5

= 1.3 kN.m
= 0.75 kN.m

Iz = 100

x 1503/12

= 28.1

x 10 6 mm 4

Iy = 150

x 1003/12

= 12.5

x 10 6 mm 4

By considering
the maximum ering the other can be substituted tensile corner

the sense
stress points. directly

of the moment
occurs at A. Alternatively, into Eq. 6,41.

components,
Similar

it can be concluded
applies when the coordinate

100 ,. t
Example = 23.95
an angle

74.3
Fig. 6-37

era =
= +3.47

M(:-ci)
+ 3.47 -3.47 -3.47
the stress axis

Iz
+ 3.00

+ Iy
= +6.47

Myc2
=' = =

1.3
+ 0.47 -6.47 -0.47

MPa

ere crc crz>

Note equal. The that

= = =

3.00 3.00 3.00

magnitudes is located

MPa MPa MPa

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 28.1 X 106 www.avs4you.com

x 106 x 75
+

reasoning the values for On either basis,

0.75

12.5

106 x 50 x 10 6

6-15,

where

x 106 mm 4 and Imin

0 = 14.34

it is found

problem using the y and z coordinates shown with the so far in the text. The solution can be obtained, howaxes for the cross section. These are determined in to locate

that

the axes
such

= Iy, = 2.53

axes.

must

x 106 mm 4. For

For

be rotated
these

principal

counterclockwise these

axes,

axes,

Imx

+M +M
opposite [3, using Eq. 6-43:

cos 0 = 10 x 106 COS 14.34 = 9.689 sin 0 = 10 x 10 6 sin 14.34 = 2.475

stressed locate points on the cross this axis, the angle

x 10 6 N.mm x 10 6 N.mm

on diametrically by the angle

highest
and

neutral

To

section lie at points farthest from the [3 is given by Eq. 6-43. Hence, using

z' coordinates,

tan [3 - 12.5 x 106 tan 30 = 1.30

between
Alternatively,

28.1

10 6

or
distribution,

[3 = 52.4
triangles,
which

tan [3' =y, tan0 = 2.53 x 106 tan 14.34 = 2.42

- a)
[3' = 67.5 . Since
14.3 = 53.2

Iz,

23.95

X 10 6
from
the

any
giving pass

two

it can

points.

be

found

For

from

example,

the

stress

from
the

similar

a/(150

varies

this

0.47/6.47, as it must

a = 10.2 mm. This through the section

locates centroid.

neutral axis These results

shown lead

in Fig. to the same

with

angle

the

is measured
z axis.

Note

large

the z' axis,

inclination

it forms

of the

an angle
neutral be seen

with

respect established Eq.

to the

z axis, the neutral

which axis,

is much larger by inspection stresses are found.

0. of the sketch,

than

it can

that
*EXAMPLE
Determine moment in Fig.

646
the maximum of 10 kN-m acting 6-37. tensile around and the compressive horizontal axis stresses for the caused angle by a shown in

the highest : F. By locating

applying

stressed these

6-41,

point points
the

required

in compression is at B, whereas that in tension is in the y'z' coordinate system of the principal axes sin0 + 125.7cos cos 0 - 125.7 0 = 122.9mm sin 0 = -26.95

y = zesin0z zb = z cos

+ yecos0 = +4.3 0 - y sin 0 = +4.3

mm

324

Pure

Bending
O'B =

and

Bending
+

with
--

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-t2.

Elastic

Bending

with

Axial

Loads

325

xt
X
x

9.689
23.95
= - 76.1 MPa

106

122.9

10 6

2.475

x 106
2.53 x

x (-26.95)
10 6

II
d

Similarly,

Yb zb

= zF sin = z cos

0 + yF cos 0 - y sin mz,yj

0 = 24.3 0 = 24.3 my,z

sin cos

0 - 74.3 0 + 74.3

cos sin

0 = 0 =

-65.97 +41.93
(c)

9.689
= + 67.7 MPa

x 106
23.95 x

X (--65.97)
10 6

2.475

X !06
2.53 X

X 41.93
10 6
(b)

Fig.

6-39

When forces, venient.

parallel moments

axes of the cross-sectional area. Then the these components around the respective axesi computed for use in the flexure formula. In Example 6-15, such ponents of the applied load are shown in Fig. 6-36(g). To avoid stresses, the applied transverse forces must act through the shear cent a concept discussed in the next chapter. For bilaterally symmetrical tions, e.g., a rectangle, a circle, an I beam, etc., the shear center with the geometric center (centroid) of the cross section. For other sections, such as a channel, the shear center lies elsewhere, as at S in Fig. 6-38, and it is at this point that the transverse force must to prevent occurrence of torsional stresses. Single angles acting as must be treated similarly (see Fig. 7-24). For analysis of uns'
bending, to the the principal applied axes forces of the must cross be resolved section. at the shear center

unsymmetrical bending of a beam is caused by applied another procedure equivalent to that just given is often The applied forces are first resolved into components
to the principal caused by

 + -y I crx = AP Mzy Myz1 NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

transv more

(6-45)

6-12.

Elastic

Bending

with

Axial

Loads

through
causes

Fig. 6-38
no

shear

Lateral
torsion.

center

force

A solution for pure bending around both principal axes of a member be extended to include the effect of axial loads by employing sition. Such an approach is applicable only in the range of elastic of members. Further, if an applied axial force causes member must be stocky, lest a buckling problem of the type in Chapter 11 arises. With these reservations, Eq. 6-41 can be
to read

P is taken positive for axial tensile forces, and bending takes place the two principal y and z axes. the particular case of an eccentrically applied axial force, consider case shown in Fig. 6-39(a). By applying two equal but opposite forces at centroid C, as shown in Fig. 6-39(b), an equivalent problem is obIn this formulation, the applied axial force P acting at C gives rise term P/A in Eq. 6-45; whereas a couple Pd developed by the opforces P a distance d apart causes unsymmetrical bending. The Pd applied by this couple can be resolved into two components the principal axes, as shown in Fig. 6-39(c). These components are Pzo and M = Pyo. Since the sense of these moments coincides the positive directions of the y and z axes, these moments in Eq. 6are positive. the principal axes are used, Eq. 6-45 can be applied to memof any cross section. In some instances, however, it may be more to use an arbitrary set of orthogonal axes and to determine bending stresses using Eq. 6-64 given in Section 6-14. To complete a the normal stress caused by axial force must be superposed. It is instructive to note that in calculus, the equation of a plane is given
Ax + By + Cz + D=O

B, C, andD

are

constants.

By

settingA

= 1, x = cry,, B = M/I,

-My/Iy,

and

D = -P/A,

it can

be recognized

that

Eq.

6-45

defines

326

Pure Bending
a plane.
to read

and
Similary,

Bending
since

with

Axial
Eq.

Forces
6-45
+

Sec.
can
cz +

6-12.

Elastic

Bending

with

Axial

Loads

e = rifE,
e, = x =

be recast
d)

in terms

of:

3.6

kN

25 kN
-(by

25

kN

where

a =

1, and

b,

c, and

d are

constants.

Since

this

equation

-x375. 
(a)

1125

.-I
3,6kN

defines theory strain

an amount

a plane, the basic of flexure is verified. due to P, the "plane

P/AE.

strain

assumption of the simplified However, because of the presence sections" not only rotate, but also
it can be concluded that the Ion

of transla

Based

on the

above

discussion,

strain magnitudes be represented

The same

is true

in members by distances
for elastic

stresses.

subjected to bending from a reference plane

These inclined

and axial forces to an inclined

planes intersect

i
2.7 kN 0.9 kN

reference the neutral ever, when For large or strain that the applied
45 remains

plane in a line. This line of zero stress or strain is analo axis occurring in pure bending. Unlike the former case, P  0, this line does not pass through the centroid of a sec axial forces and small bending moments, the line of zero may lie outside a cross section. The significance of this normal stresses or strains vary from it linearly.
instances, forces rather the bending than by moment

(b)
-21.6 MPa

(c)
-14.9 MPa

M
+

It should be noted that in many member is caused by transverse

axial
takes

force
applicable.

such
only

as il ustrated

bending

Several

il ustrative

place

examples

around

fol ow,
one

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

an

in Fig.

6-39.

In such
axes.

cases,

Ec

+6.67

MPa

+21.6

MPa

+28.3

MPa

of the

beginning

principal

with

situations

(d)

(e)

(f)

Fig.

6-40

10 3 x

375
at the

=
extreme

1.013
Mc
I

x
fibers
-

10 6 N.mm.
caused
-

From
by this

the
moment

flexure
are

formula,

the

maximum

EXAMPLE

6-19

cr-

6M.
bh 2

6 x
50

1.013
x 752

106

+21.6

MPa

A 50 bY 75 mm, 1.5 m long mm in Fig. 6-40(a). Determine

acting
Solution

elastic
the
through

bar

of negligible weight maximum tensile and

the beam.

is loaded compressive

as
act

normal

to the

section

neutral

To emphasize into two parts.

and For

the method of superposition, In Fig. 6-40(b), the bar

in Fig. 6-40(c) the axial force, cr-

this problem is solved by is shown subjected only to the axial the same bar is shown subjected only to the transverse the normal stress throughout the length of the bar is
P
A

normal to the section of the beam as in Fig. 6-40(e). Then, to obtain bending stresses must be added stress. Thus, as may be seen from Fig. 6-40(f), stress is 14.9 MPa compression, and at B, of the stress vectors as commonly drawn are in this problem, the given axial force

axis element,

and decrease linearly toward the compound stress for any algebraically to the direct at point A, the resultant it is 28.3 MPa tension. Side shown in the figure. is larger than the transverse

force,
Note

bending
slender
that in

causes
compression
the final

higher
result,

stresses.
members
the line

However,
in the
of

the
same
zero

reader
which

is cautioned
is located

not
at the

to

light.
stress,

25
50

x
x

103
75

The

6.67
normal

MPa
stresses

(tension)
due to the

This

result

is indicated

in Fig.

6-40(d).

force
moment

depend
occurs

on the

magnitude
applied

of the
force.

bending
As the

moment,
left reaction

and

the
is 2.7

maximum
kN, Mmax

at the

of the section for flexure, moves caused by the concentrated force, beam, were not considered. Generally, as local bearing stresses. stress distribution shown in Fig. 6-40(f) s applied at the ends, compressive

upward. which these

would

act stresses

Also normal

that the local to the top surface are treated indepenif instead of the axial

note

change

forces

of the

same

magnitude

were

328

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.
stress
in a beam

642.

Elastic

Bending

with

Axial

Loads

329

acting
from

on the
28.3 MPa,

member.
which

The
would

maximum
be deskable

tensile This

would
made

be reduced
of a material

to 14.9

i Shear

The

force

relative

is necessary

insignificance

to maintain

of the

equilibrium
stress

caused

of the

by the

segment

axial

shown
force

is strik-

in Fig.

tension and carrying struction. Tendons beam with anchorages artificial y applied also has been used

a transverse load. made of high-strength

idea

steel

rods

is utilized or cable

at the ends are used fomes inhibit the development in racing-car frames.

to precompress of tensile

in prestressed passing concrete beams. stresses. Prestre

Problems

C clamps,

similar

**EXAMPLE

648

to which
649

frames
the

to

the

foregoing

f punch

above

commonly methods

presses,

of analysis

etc. il ustrate

occur

in machine must

the variety

design.

be applied.

of

A 50 by 50 mm elastic bar bent by two opposing forces P of 8.33 occurring at section A-B.
Solution

into kN

a U shape, each. Determine

as in Fig. 6-41(a); the maximum

is normal

,.

LE

s. 6-42(a) and caused by the

to be investigated is in the curved region of the bar, but this dif erence in the procedure. First, a segment of the bar is as shown in Fig. 6-41(b). At section A-B, the axial force, of the section, and the bending moment necessary to maintain determined. Then, each element of the force system is con,.

having (b). Determine applied force

a rectangular the maximum P is zero.

cross

section eccentricity

at the base, e such that

as shown the stress

lB
Pe

The section no essential a free-body, the centroid librium are

ution

(b)

in order to maiPntaand in aappl ied force um, be an axi moment Pe at P thein equi base librihavi ng thteheresenses must shown. The al strcomess
by the axial force is  = -P/A = -P/bh, whereas the largest the tensile section
having

,_
t'""'t t tt

separately.

The

stress
P
A

caused

by th
X
x

axial

 --

--

8.33
50

103
50

-- 3.33

and

is shown

in the first

diagram

of Fig.

the bending moment may be obtained by using bent to a 75-mm radius, the solution is already stress distribution corresponding to this case is Fig. 6-41(c). By superposing the results of these stress' distribution is obtained. This is shown in The maximum compressive stress occurs atA and for point A is shown in Fig. 6-41(d). Shear stresses
8.33 kN --

;tress caused by bending is O'max = Mc/I = M/S = 6Pelbh 2, where NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com  = bh + bh 2 = 0 or e = forces is

MPa

(compression)

modulus of the rectangular cross stress at B equal to zero, it fol ows

P 6Pe

section. that

To

satisfy

bh2/6 is the (c)

condition
(d)

6-41(c).

The

normal

stresses

caused

Eq. 6-31. However, for this known from Example shown in the second dia two solutions, the the third diagram of Fig. is 131 MPa. An is{ are absent at
128 MPa

means that if force of the cross section,

P is applied at a distance the.stress at B is just zero.

of h/6 Stress

from the distributions

centroidal
across

tel

base

in Figs.

corresponding,

6-42(c)

and

respectively,
(d),

and

their

to the

algebraic

axial

force

sum

and

in Fig.

bending

6-42(e).

moment

are

causing

Fig.

6-42

zero

Location

stress

of force
at B.

3.33

MPa

131

175

'=75

250

+
80.9 2083 N-m MPa

77.6

(c)
kN

the above problem, if force P were applied section, a smaller bending moment would be and there would be some compression stress be repeated for the force acting to the right a practical rule, much used by the early may be formulated thus:/f the resultant within the middle third of the rectangular
in the material at that section. It is understood

closer to the centroid of developed at section Aat B. The same argument of the centroidal axis. designers of masonry of all vertical forces cross section, there is no
that the resultant

131 MPa141 MPa

(a) (b) (d)

in a vertical
cross-sectional

plane

containing
area.

one
on a member.

of the
The

axes
resultant

of symmetry

of the

The

foregoing
system

discussion
of forces acting

may

be generalized

in order

to apply
of these

to any
forces

Fig.

6-4t

330
Resultant

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec. 6.t2.
Ith
This

Elastic
from

Bending
such

with Axial
a transformed

Loads
equa-

Fig.
no

6-43
tension

Resultant
at B.

causing

may be made to intersect the plane of the cross section, as is Fig. 6-43. At the point of intersection of this resultant with the it may be resolved into horizontal and vertical components. If the component of the resultant fulfs the conditions of the former no tension wil be developed at point B, as the horizontal causes only shear stresses. Hence, a more general "middle-third" may be stated thus: there wil be no tension at a section of a mem a rectangular cross section if the resultant of the forces above this s intersects one of the axes of symmetry of the section within the
third.

comer
equation

of the

block
reads

can

be found

directly

Mz + My St Sy

(6-48)
are P = -64 x 10 3 N, My = -64 x 103 x (75 + 75) the fol owing properties: A = 1.125 x 106 mm 3, and Sy

Sz = bh2/6, and Sy = hb2/6. forces acting on section ABCD, Fig. 6-44(c), -64 x 103 x 150 = -9.6 x 106 N.mm, and M x 106 N-nlm. The cross-sectional area has 150 x 300 = 45 x 10 3 mm 2, Sz = 300 x 1502/6
X 3002/6 = 2.25 X 10 6 mm 3.

EXAMPLE

6-20

the

Find

the

stress

distribution
the

at section
same section,

ABCD
locate

for

the
the

block
line

hown
of zero

in mm
stress. Ne

n.

6-44(a) if P = 64 kN. At the weight of the block.

Solution

normal stresses at the comers are found stresses caused by moments by inspection. it can be seen that due to My, the stresses ;ive. Other cases are treated similarly. Using 64 45 x x
-

using

Eq. 6-48, assigning signs For example, from Fig. 6at comers A and D are comthis approach, 9.6 2.25
MPa

103 103
8.53 -

9.6 1.125
4.27

106 x 106
= -14.2

106 x 106

22,
P
75

In this

defining

problem,

the

elastic

it is somewhat

section

modulus

simpler

to recast

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

A', stresses are shown B', C', and D' lie ABCD and A'B'C'D' The intersection
FE. stress

S = I/c

Eq.

as bh2/6.

6-45

with

The

the

normal

aid

of

-1.42

orb crc crz)

= = =

-1.42 -1.42 -1.42

+ +

8.53 8.53 8.53

+ + -

4.27 4.27 4.27

= = =

-5.7 +11.4 +2.8

MPa MPa MPa

stress vectors distance between point on the cross locates the line of four

500

in Fig. 6-44(d). The ends of these in the plane A'B'C'D'. The vertical defines the total stress at any of plane A'B'C'D' with plane ABCD

By

drawing
weight
to

thus,
ABCD

a line B'C" the distance

is found to be
same.

parallel E
125 mm.

to BC, similar triangles = [11.4/(11.4 + 5.7)]150

Points E and F locate

C'B'C" and C'EC = 100 mm. Similarly,

the line of zero stress.

are

(b)

of the
is

block
the

is neglected,

the

stress

distribution

on any

other

section

(a)

/D

+2.8

MPa
+11.4 MPa

6-21

125

zone
at

over weightless
the section

which block
A-B.

the

vertical shown

in

downward Fig.

force 6-45(a) without

Po

may

be causing

applied any

to the tensile

-14.MPa 2
(c)

-5.7

MPa

'A,/ 
zero

force

P = e system

-Po

(d)

is placed at an arbitrary point shown. Then the same reasoning this position of the force, the greatest

in the first used in the tendency

quadrant of the yz preceding example for a tensile stress

Fig.

6-44

atA.

With

P =

-Po,

M

= +PoY,

and

My

-Poz,

setting

the

stress

at

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-t3.

Inelastic

Bending

with

Axial

Loads
P

333

xI Po
z b/6
Fig. 6-45 .
(a) (b)

)lution

sume resisting
h/6

that

stress stress

a portion AB of the foundation force P. This corresponds along line B-B is zero by definition. at B may be writ en.

only applied

of length x and width b is effective to the colored area in Fig. 6-46(c).

Hence, the fol owing equation for

trB=
of the

xb + P
area,
the

P
As

() becomes

k x 
distribution wil

0
modulus.

, x/2 - k is the eccentricity

shaded contact
that

of the applied
and bx2/6
pressure

is its section

force with r6spect

be

to the centroidal
By solving
"triangular,"

for
as
A

it is found

x = 3k and

shown
y

in Fig.
increases;

6-46(b)
when

(why?).
k is zero,

k decreases,
the block

the
in the
contact

intensity
unstable.

of pressure
of foundations
surface of a concrete

on line
for chimpad

Problems
as no

such
tensile

as this
stresses

arise,
can

for

example,
develop

design

(a)

at the

soil.
Eq. 6-45
contact

Similar problems can be applied

area is of any

arise

where
shape.

in foundations a number of forces

for

are

heavy acting

machinery. Similar on a member and

A equal
the stress

to zero

fulf'fils

the
expressed

limiting
as

condition

of the

problem.

Using

at A to be'

era

0 -

- Po A

or

Po ---

Simplifying,
which when 45(b).

;o13. InelVERSION astic Bending with Axial NON-ACTIVATED Poy PoZ _ 0 + b-h/6 + bh2/6 www.avs4you.com h/6 +  = 1
Izz
+

(PoY)(

- b/2)

( - Poz)(

- h/2)

Iyy

Loads
kinematic assumption
behaves

(b)

In Section

6-10,

it is pointed

out

that

the

basic
material

that

plane

a beam

sections

is bent

through

remains

a beam
valid

even

taken

if the

normal

to its axis
axis

remain
move

inelastically.

plane

after
it parsmall

stress

is an equation of a straight line. It shows that when y = O, z -- hi6. Hence, this line may be represented A vertical force may be applied to the block anywhere
aA wil be zero. Similar lines may be established

for the

z = 0, y = b/6; by line CD in Fig. on this line and t

other

allel to themselves deformations,

Similary,

plane

sections

the

when normal

perpendicular

an inelastic strains

member corresponding

to a beam

is loaded axial y. to these actions

along

For

can

be

P may tensile
found

of the section; of these lines section, there

sectional the force

be applied anywhere within the ruled area stress at any of the four coruers or anywhere
area is called to thelines kern of symmetry the of a section. of the

these are shown in Fig. 6-45(b). If force P is applied on any or on any line parallel to such a line toward the centtold wil be no tensile stress at the corresponding coruer. Hence,
By limiting rectangular

cumbersome
ected

47 can

superposed.
to a planar

be formulated.
case.

As a result

and is not considered

force

Such

of-such

general

superposition,

in this text?
a planar
moment

analysis

of inelastic

a plane

defined

Here' attention

beams

by EqJ

is Confined

is rather

6-

in Fig. else.

6-45(b) This
the

in this

example

verify

the

"middle-third"

rule

cross discussed

possible section,

without zone of the

in Example

The

to an axial

superposition

of strains
P and

a bending

for

member

M is shown

simultaneously

schematically

subFig. two 6-46 Stresses contacting

transmit

location the

in Fig. 6-47. For clarity, of strains due to P and

within a section.

the strains are greatly exaggerated. Superposition M moves a plane section axial y and rotates it as shown. If axial force P causes strain larger than any strain of opposite sign that is caused by M, the combined strains wil not change their sign
By these basic kinematic conditions of equilibrium, It is important to note,
and E. P. Popov, "Unsymmetrical Elastic Limit," Proceedings, (Michigan: Edwards Bros.,

between surfaces
tensile

that

do not forces.

EXAMPLE

6-22

Consider capable
the part

stress distribution of the block

a "weightless" of transmit ing

lifts

rigid
in the off.

block tensile
foundation

any

resting' stresses,

when

on a linearly elastic foundation as shown in Fig. 6-46(a).

applied force

supplementing strain relations and or inelastic problems.

that

assumptions one can however,

First 1951),

solve that

with

the stresseither elastic superposition

P is so placed

 M. S. Aghbabian Beams Beyond the of Applied Mechanics

Bending of Rectangular U.S. National Congress 579-584.

334

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6.t3.
y

Inelastic

Bending

with

Axial

Loads

335

M 2

P2

Unit' 1
(a) Axial strain due to P

Jnilet ngth
M (c) Combined, strains due to P and

(a)

(b)

(c)

(b)

Bending

strains

due

to

Fig.

6-47

Superposition

of strains.

of stresses
small.

is applicable

only

in elastic

problems

where

deformations
P3

M 3

for

An

example a member
6-23-

fol ows il ustrating simultaneously

an elastic as well subjected to bending

as an inelastic and axial forces.

Section
(d)

EXAMPLE

Consider simultaneously
the axial

a rectangular subjected
forces and

elastic-plastic to an axial
moments associated

beam tensile

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

bent force. around the Determine
stress

Oyp

%
(f)

(e)

horizontal the

axis

Fig. 6-48
distribution, The

Combined

and

(e)

axial
and

(f)

and

ful y

bending

plastic

stresses:

stress

distribution. and

(a) elastic
(c) occurs M

stress
after

distribution,
yielding conditions

(b) and
has

(c) elastic-plastic

stress

with

the

distributions

shown

Figs.
Solution

6-48(a),

(b),

and

(e).

stress

distribution

shown

in Figs.

6-48(b)

taken
in Fig. 6-48(a) corresponds is at the point of impending to the limiting yielding.

ne can

place

determine

in the lower

directly

quarter

the

magnitudes

of the beam.
P and would

of P and

With

this

stress

from

distribution
the

given,
does stress
6-36 elastic

of

The case,

stress where

distribution the maximum

shown

stress

equilibrium. apply,
distribution.

If on the a cumbersome
the

other
given

hand, process
in Figs. must

M were given, be necessary

since superposition to determine

the
Eqs.

case,

the

stress-superposition

approach

can
P1

be used.
MlC

Hence,

For

6-37

developed
stress

stresses normal

for inelastic

bending
equal

6-48(b)

of beams,
axial

and

(c),

one

except

simply

that

applies that

in Eq.
crypy/(3h/8)

6-36,

the

crmax -' cryp = ' q'

Force P at yield can be deemed as Pyp = Acryp;

I
Eq. 6-21, the

of the

stresses

force

P.

Noting

in the

that
substituting the

in the plastic
=

the

can

zone
=

be expressed

cr = crvp, one has

1 -

algebraically

as cr = cryp/3

and

from

yield is myp = (I[c)O'yp. for Pyp and Myp, after

Dividing simplification,
P

Eq.

6-49
M

by cryp and

fA
3

cr dA

;+h/2 cr3yp( BE)

J -- h/4
--

b dy

q'

;--hi4
the force

J -- h/2 crypb

dy crypyb

CrYP -- 4
dy

bh

1.0 \

X _AtiriPE;ding

= M so that the maximum

cry dm=
the axial force

Jdh14
found exactly

1 -equals

yb dy --J-h2
acting

Pyp
This establishes a relationship between

Myp
P and

= 1'- crypbh2
Note

1.0

Pyp

just yield
interaction

equals cryp. is represented

curves

A plot of this by a straight

or diagrams.

equation corresponding line in Fig. 6-49.

Plots

to the case of of such relations

M v = crvobh2/4;

of the section.

that

Moment

just

see Eq. 6-38.

M2 is greater

than

Myp

= crypbh2/6

and less than

on the

plastic

Muir

Fig.

for P and

6-49

Interaction

rectangular

M for a

curves

member.

336

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6.t4.

Beams

with

Unsymmetric

Cross

Section

337

The

axial

force

and

moment

corresponding

to

the

ful y

plastic

case

Figs. 6-48(e) the axial force

and

(0 are is developed

simple

to determine. by cryp acting

As

on the
moment. 6-48(d),

may be seen om area 2yb. Because

Forces acting form a couple on with

Fig.
the to a me

these stresses make no contribution to the the bottom areas ab = [(h/2) - y]b, Fig. arm of h - a = h/2 + y. Therefore,

P3
and

= 2ylbCryp

or

y = P3/2bcryp
z 

M3

= abcryp(h 3myp
2

- a) = Crypb(h2/4 P3 
4bcryp

- y)

= Mp

- Crypby

fi

Then

dividing

by M s = 3Myp/2

= crvpbh2/4

and

simplifying,

one

obtains
(a) (b)

Fig. 6-50 unsymmetric

Bending cross

of section.

+
This achieve is a general the ful y equation plastic for
condition

= I
curve
member

(6,51 for P and M (see Fig. neces: 6-49).

in the positive
normal

the

the

equation

for

the

elastic

case,

*'266-14.

Bending
[Arbitrary]

of

Cross

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Beams with Unsymmet ric www.avs4you.com

the relation is nonlinear.
aere in the chosen coordinates,

interaction in a rectangular

r from this line. strain ex is assumed

quadrant

of the y and

Then analogous to be

z axes

is located
to

Eq.

6-3,

by the perpendicular
the

longitudinal

(6-52)
Positive curvature

Section

r =ycos[3

- zsin[3

(6-53)

A general equation for pure bending of elastic members of section whose reference axes are not the principal axes can using the same approach as for the symmetrical cross sections earlier. Again, it is assumed that any plane section through normal to its axis, remains plane after the beam is subjected Then two basic requirements for equilibrium are enforced: axial force on any cross section of a beam must be zero, external bending moment at a section must be developed stresses acting on the cross section. Hooke's law is
normal strain.

arbitrary be
a beam, to (1) the and (2) by the

cro .

the

cross

by analogy
section

is

to Eq.

6-4,
Crx

the
= Eex

longitudinal
= - EKr

elastic

stress

crx acting
(6-54)

on
x

(a)

and

using

Eq.

6-53,

this cr. =

relation -Ey

becomes
x

cos

[3 + E

sin

[3

(6-55)

In order to arbitrary cross of the y and subjected to Mz, respectively, According tion through

derive the required equation, consider a beam. having section such as that shown in Fig. 6-50. The z orthogonal axes is chosen arbitrarily. Let this beam a pure bending moment M having the components My around the y and z axes; see Fig. 6-50(a). to the fundamental hypothesis, during bending, a plane a beam would rotate and intersect the yz plane at an

where K cos [3 is the projected curvature Ky in the xy plane, as may be seen from the limiting case of setting [3 equal to zero. Similarly, K sin [3 the projected curvature z inthe xz plane. By adopting this notation,
Eq. 6-55 can be recast to read

Positive

curvature

Crx = --EKyy

+ EKzZ

(6-56)

z'
(b)

[3 with
26 This

the

z axis,
section

as shown
is of an advanced

in the

figure.
character

A generic
and can be

infinitesimal
omit ed.

area

The dif erence

equations
making matically

reference to Fig. 6-51. defined positive curvature,

arises

in signs in the two expressions

from the adopted

sign convention

on the right side of the Fig. 6-5t Relationships

and can be clarified
that a mathein the slope of

Here it can be noted causing an increase

between

and curvatures planes.

positive

in xy-and

moments

xz-

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Sec.

6-t4.

Beams

with

Unsymmetric

Cross

Section

339

to two

a bent

beam

dif erent

with

cases.

an increase'

In the
the same stresses

in the

xy plane,

distance

positive

from

curvature

the

origin,
is true curvatures the

and
in

substituting
stress
hal coordinate

the
can

bending moments have plane. Hence, the normal be of opposite sign. By having an analytic

sense. The opposite Crx due to these two for

these constants cry, for any

axes

beam
is

in Eq. cross

6-56, the section

expression with

for
arbitrarily

the

elastic directed

sum
be

of all forces
as

in the x direction

expression

must

or:,

Eq.

equal

6-56,

zero,

i.e.,

condition

 Fx

or:,= -

/yI-

y + /y/z-Iy2

(6-64)

writ en

f crxdA = -EKy f y
This equation is identically are taken with their origin at was anticipated and the arbitrary passing through the centraid By imposing the conditions moment component equations applied moment around either stresses. One of these equations axis; the other, around the y

+ EKz f z dA =O

is the generalized flexure formula If the principal axes for a cross are used, where Iyz is zero, this equation simplifies to Eq. 6-41. setting Eq. 6-64 equal to zero, the angle {3 for locating the neutral in the arbitrary coordinate system is obtained, giving

satisfied provided that the coordinate the centraid of the cross section. This orthogonal axes in Fig. 6-50 are C of the cross section. of moment equilibrium at a section. can be writ en requiring that axis is balanced by the internal pertains to the moments around axis. Hence, as previously defined,

tan {3
the
EXAMPLE

MIy + Mylyz
reverts to Eq. 6-43.

Mylz

+ Mzlyz

(6-65)

principal
6-24

axes,

this

equation

the

known lowing

known

applied moment two equations:

applied

moment

component

component

and

mz=f-*yaA=Eyfy2dA-EzfyzdA My=f+*zda=-Eyfyz+Ezfz2
constants are The meaning to Eq. 6-66,

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around

around

the

the

y axis,

z axis

one

and

has

My

the

is

Points
that

the

B and
Mz

general

F for the angle

are,
10 kN.m.

equation

for

of Example

elastic

bending

6-16

stress,

shown
and

verify

in mm

the

in Fig.

stresses

6-52.
The

found

Show

at

these

stresses
=

respectively,

the

minimum

the

maximum.

applied

Solution

where. the the right. According

taken outside the integrals in the expressions of these integrals is discussed in Section these integrals define the moments and
equations

Example 6-25, it is and Iyz = 5.14 x 10  Eq. 6-64, and defining, and (-743, 24.3),

found that Iz = 22.64 x 10 a n]1114, Iy = 3.84 x 10 a mm 4, mm 4. Substituting these values and Mz = +10 kN-m into respectively, the coordinates of points B and F as (125.7, one h/s
10 x 106
X

of inertia
casting
and

of the

for

a cross
last

two

sectional

area
EI% -

as

as I, Iy,
EIyKz

and

Iy,

permit ing

the

orb =
=

3.84 x 22.64 x 1012 - 5.142 X 1012 X 125.7

+

3.84
X

10 6
X

10

106

5.14
X

106

= M
(6-61

3.84
X

22.64
125.7 +

10 2 -0.8493

5.142
4.3 =

10 2
--76.1

4.3 MPa
125.7

--0.6345

-0.6345
To locate show the that neutral these

x
stresses using

(-74.3)
are the 6-65,

0.8943
minimum giving

x
and

24.3
the

=
maximum,

+67.8

MPa
respectively,
74.3

Solving

these

two

equations

simultaneously

gives

axis 10 x

Eq. X 5.14

Ey
and

tan {3 = 10 x 106 X 3.84 x 10 6

Iylz - Iy2z By sketching this line on the given cross

106

10 6

134

or

{3 = 53.3

section,

it is evident

by inspection

Fig. 6-52

340

Pure Bending
that the farthest

and Bending
distances

with Axial
measured

Forces
perpendicular to NA are associated

Sec. 6.t6.
occur
given

Principal

Axes of Inertia
respectively, Eq. the

points
Some
example

B and
minor
are

F. Therefore,
discrepancies
due to roundoff

the largest
among
errors.

stresses
the results

at these
in Example

points.
6-16 and ini

axes,
an.ces

A is the
from

fol owing

By

starting
for

the

and Iyacre, respect moment ivof elinyert ,around siathzeacnd&

area the considered,
axes

and

dz and

dy are,

C to the

z and

y.

same

with

procedure

definition

as before

for

the

for

product

I and

of inertia,

Iy, the

transfer-of-axis

6-66,

and

the

product

of inertia,

after

simplifications,

becomes

Iyc

is the
earlier,

'276=115.
Moments of

Area
inertia,

Moments
or second

and
moments

Products
of area

of Inertia
around the z axis

As

and and

noted

Zc axes.
for

Iyz= f (Y + d)(z +dy)dA=Iyczc +Adydz (6-68)

product of inertia of the area A around the centroidal
the respective expressions given by Eqs. 6-18, 6-67,

6-68

all parts

of a complex

area

should

be summed

to obtain

Iy,

already encountered in connection with symmetric cross sections. this concept is generalized for two orthogonal axes for any shape. With the yz coordinates chosen as shown in Fig. 6-53, b3 the moments and product of inertia of an area are given as

Iyz for

the whole

cross

section.

6-16.
(6:
were

Principal
chosen

Axes
discussion,

of Inertia
the yz centroidal axes for an area of a general
+y
z

Iz =
Note
area.

f
these
use

ya dA
axes
of such

Iy =
are
centroidal

f'

z a dA
to
axes

that
The

chosen

problems. It is also important to note that the product of inertia v; either for doubly or singly symmetric areas; see Fig. 6-54 This be seen by referring to Fig. 6-54(b), where, due to symmetry, for y(+z) dA, there is a y(-z) dA, and their sum vanishes. In Section 6-4, it was shown that in calculating moments of inertia symmetric cross sections having complex areas, it is subdivide such areas into simple parts for which the moments are available in formulas. Then by applying the parallel-axis each part and adding, Eq. 6-18a, the moment of inertia for the section is obtained. By making reference to the general case shown Fig. 6-55, it can be concluded that the previously developed formula,
6-18, for the transfer of a moment of inertia for an area from the

f NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

and Iyz =
the

yz dA

pass

through

centroid

C of

is essential

in the

solution

ofb

arbitrarily. Therefore, it is important to investigate the moments and product of inertia change if these orthogonal axes rotated. This is shown in Fig. 6-53, where the axes are rotated through an angle 0, forming a new set ofy'z' coordinates. Generally, the moments and product of inertia corresponding to these axes are dif erent from the
set of coordinates

the previous

(b)

of Iy,

I, and

to

Iy.

another,

In order

one

to transform
notes

that

these
O + zsin0 O -ysin0

quantities

from

one

Fig. singly
sections.

6-54

(a) symmetric

Doubly

cross

and

(b)

y' z'
Then, in Eqs. based 6-66, on the

= CP = NR
definitions

+ PS -RS
for

= y cos = z cos
moments

and

product

of inertia

given

zc to

z axis

similar

remains

formula
available

applicable.
Therefore,

applies
for the

for

Moreover,
the
moments

transferring
fol owing
of

except

a moment

for

a change

of inertia
for

in
the

from
transfer

the

to
Z 

the
are

y axis.

two
inertia:

formulas

= I cos 2 0 + Ix sin 2 0 + 2Iyz

f (y')2 dA =; (ycos 0 + Z sin 0)2dA = cos2 0 f y2 dA + sin2 0 f z2 dA + 2 sin O cos O f yz dO

sin 0 cos
20

dA

axes

= I
Hence, on

1 +

cos

20

+ 13,

1 -

cos

+ Iyz sin 20

and

using

trigonometric

identities,

Fig.
coordinate

6-53

Rotation
axe.

of

=
27 This is an optional part of the chapter.

cos

20

+ Iy sin

20

(6-69)

Fig.
axes.

6-55

Parallel

transfer

of

Pure Bending
Similarly,

and Bending
Iy, 2

with Axial
--

Forces
2

Problems
cos 20 - Iyz sin 20
MPLE 645

the

cross

section

shown

in mm

in Fig.

6-56,

find

the

principal

and
These equations

IY'' =
relate

Iz -2 Iy sin 20 + Iy cos 20

lies

arfd
ution

the

principal

moments

.of inertia.

the moments and the product of inertia of area (second moments) in the new y'z' coordinates to the initial ones the yz coordinates through the angle 0. Note that Iy, + I, I + I, the sum of the moments of inertia around two mutually axes remains the'same, i.e., invariant, regardless of the angle 0. As earlier, the product of inertia Iyz vanishes for doubly and singly s
sections.

can

be verified

by

the

procedure

discussed

earlier

that

the

centroid

of the

area

74.3
the

mm
of inertia symmetry

from

the
about of the

bottom
the two

and
y and rectangles

24.3
z axes

mm
can into

from
be which

the
calculated

left
the angle

side.

The
by

moments

and
the angle

into

two rectangles

and using

the transfer-of-axes

Eqs.

6-18,

6-67,

dividing

200

and 6-68.
there

Due
are

z
C

is divided,

no product

of inertia terms for these parts around their own centroidal around their centroidal axes, I = bh3/12, Eq. 6-19.

axes.

For

z'

entiating equal

A maximum

either to zero,

Eq. i.e.,

or a minimum
6-69

or 6-70

value
with

respect

of Iz, or Iy, can be found

to 0 and setting

by

Iz = 20 x 1803/12 + 20 X 180 X (125.7 -- 90) 2 + 100 x 203/12 + 100 X 20 X (--74.3 + 10) 2 = 22.64

x 106mm x 106mm x 106mm 4 4

4
Fig. 6-56

Iy = 180 x 203/12

+ 180 x 20 x (24.3

- 10) 2
2 = 3.84 = 5.14

d/z t

d- -

(I - Iy) sin 20 + 2Iy cos 20 = 0

Hence,

tan 20 -

This equation gives two roots within is for a double angle 20, 'the roots locates an axis around which the other locates the conjugate axis for two centroidal axes are known as noted from Eq. 6-71, the same angles

360 that for 01 are 90 moment of the minimum the principal define the

2Iy NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

By substituting these values into Eq. 6-73,

+ 20 x 1003/12 + 20 x 100 x (-50 + 24.3) Iyz = 0 + 20 x 180 x (125.7 - 90)(24.3 - 10) + 0 + 100 x 20(-74.3 + 10)(-50 + 24.3)

Imx

= I = 23.95
6-72,

10 6 mm

4 and

Imin

= 12 = 2.53

x 10 6 mm

are 180 apart. Since apart. One of these inertia is a maximum; moment of inertia. axes of inertia. As can axes for which the

Eq.

tan 20
From moment inspection of inertia.
conclusion.

(22.64 - 3.84) x 10 6
of Fig. 6-56, A substitution
In this case,

2 x

5.14

10 6

0.547
with the

hence, 0
z' axis

14.34
at 0 = 14.34 ,

of inertia
axes is zero.

is zero.
defining (see Fig. sines 8-5), expressions

This

means

that

the product
in terms these prbzcipal

of inertia

for

the

this
Imx

angle is seen of this value

is associated

to define an axis of 0 into Eq.

for the maximum 6-69 can confirm

By
6-72

simplifying,

and cosines substituting for the

of the double angle roots into Eq. 6-69, or Eq. 6-70, moments of inertia are

i.e.,

Imx

= It';

conversely,

Im

= Iy,.

Immix = 11 or I2 n
where, maximum by

/z +2 Iy +
and/2

+
axes for are defined which by Eq.

Sections
6-t
ities

6-3
6-4.
the around

through
Determine
horizontal axes

6-5
bending
for 165 the

50

72.
69,

By
one

directly
can

definition, and minimum

determine

substituting
of the

I = Imx, moments
whether
moment

one
of

of the
the
inertia.

= Imn- The of inertia apply

through
with the
elastic

moment
cross-sectional

capacThe
ksi. For 24

5O

150

roots

of this

equation

into

Eq,

areas
allowable

dimensions
stress is either

shown

in the
lV[Pa or

figures.

100

selected

root

gives

a maximum

minimum

value

properties Tables

of W steel shapes, 4, 5, and 7, respectively,

channels, in the

and angles, Appendix.

see
Fig. P6-t
Fig. P6-2

344

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

Problems
Determine
around the stress

345
moment around applied (a) find
the total

6"X4"X

angles

C 12

X 20.7

6-9
ment maximum

and

6-t0.
capacities elastic

elastic
horizontal in tension

positive
axes for Prob.

bendJ
for 6-9


43

]
w 8 x 50

having the cross sections shown in the figureS

ksi, and stresses

Centroid

of area

If a positive bending to such a beam acting

 x

"

plate

44"
4

for

in

compression, Prob. 6-10

are

15 ksi; 100 MPa

the

and

corres 150

of 2270 ft-lb is a horizontal axis, the stresses at the extreme fibers, (b) calculate compresslye force developed by the normal above the neutral axis because of the bending beam, and (c) find the total force due to the bending stresses at a section and compare it
result found in (b).

stresses
of the tensile with the

Fig.

P6-3

Fig.

P6-4
Fig. P6-12

*645. by the
shaded

By integration, bending stresses

area of the cross

determine the and its position

section of the

force
acting
beam

developed
on
shown

the
in

tables 6-6. elastic

ound

6-5.

used

for S 12 x 40.8, W 10 x 112, and C 12 x 20.7. the appHed moment is 40 k-, and the owable stress is 24 ksi, (a) what W section should be

Very

the section

modu

ven

in the Append

the figure moment

area A,

if the of 3500

beam N-m

is subjected acting around

100 mm

to a negative the horizontal

bending
axis.

y is the distance
the

centroid

from

of the

the neutral

axis

as shown

of the cross

in the

for bendg
the

veic

ound

is?

the

hofizont

is,

and

643.
Fig. P6-9 a solid shown moment axis. shaded Fig. P6-t0

B as shown in the fire. at is the magffitude unffory distributed load f a strain gage attached the top of the upper flange measures 0.0002 in the load is applied? E = 29 x 10  ksi.

6-7.

A W 16 x 100 steel

beam

is supposed

at A and

of the to when

itive

Determine tensile force

tde

64t. A beam having with the dimensions to a positive bending

around the horizontal force acting on the developed by the bending force acting on the cross-hatched
tion.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

30
120

rectangular cross in the figure is of 16 000 N.m (a) Find the area of the cross stresses. (b) Find the area of the cross

of this tensile force T equals C acting on the section, verify is equal to the applied moment.

moment

of 100 kN-m

the magnitude T acting on this

is applied.

and position section when

the compresslye that the T-C

Since

the mag-

of the a pos-

cou'6-t6. A beam has the

Fig.
cross

P6-15
section of an isosceles

triangle, negative

izontal
tion

axis.
ifb

as shown bending

(a) Show
the and
= 150

in the moment

by integration
and

figure, of 4000

and is subjected N-m around

that

Io = bh3/36.

the

to a hor-

(b) Determine suitant tensile

= h

location compresslye
mm.

magnitude forces acting

of the reon a sec-

Fig.

P6-7

6-8. A small steel T beam is used sition to span 400 mm. If, due to the three forces shown in the figure, the at A registers a compresslye strain
large are the applied
P

in an inverted poapplication of the longitudinal gage of 50 x 10 -3, how

GPa.
3P

k100 mm-
>25

.l
Fig. P6-13

30

forces?
P

E = 200

Fig.

P6-16

Fig.

P6-11

6-t4. together

Two

2 x 6 in ful -sized to form a T section,

wooden planks are glued as shown in the figure.

6-t7.

For

a linearly

elastic

material,

at the

same

max-

<too

ood

642. bending
which

Consider moment
the moment

a linearly elastic M around its

of inertia of the

beam principal
cross-sectio

subjected
axis
normal force

imum stress for a square member positions shown in the figure, the bending moments. Bending
horizontal axis.

in the two dif erent determine the ratio takes place around

of
the

z A

FigP. 6- geA

4

4
Beam section

is I.

Show

that

for

such

a beam,

the

acting
where

on any

part

of the

cross-sectional

area

F = MQ/I

Q=

y dA = yA

Fig.

P6-t4

Fig.

P6-17

346

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces
100

Problems
80 N/mm

347

*'6-18. Show that the elastic stress in a rectangular beam bent around its diagonal can be reduced by removing the small triangular areas, as shown in the figure. This is referred to as the Emerson paradox.* (Hint: Let the sides of the removed triangular areas be ka, where k is a constant. In calculating I for the section, treat it as consisting of two rectangles, the large one having sides (1 - k)a, and the small one having the width kava.)

6-20. A solid steel beam having the dimensions partial y shown in the figure the laboratory in pure bending. Bending

took 0.0003
measureme

showed gitudinally;
longitudinally.
time

around

a horizontal

that

the top fibers contracted the bottom fibers elongated

Determine the total
were

neutral

axis.

Strain

m/m
force

0.0006
normal

25 m-2[m, -m m22i
Fig. =

mm

80

acted

the
All

on the

strain

shaded

measurements

area
are

indicated
in mm.

in the

made.

figure

P6-24

GPa.

dimensions

ciently
trations

accurate.
at the

Do
supports.

not

consider

the

stress

concenthe dethe

Fig.

P6-22

termine
are

6-25. loading stresses

the

Considering conditions
the
same.

distances

the beam of a 160-mm given in the preceding

from the supports

such

span and problem,

that

at midspan

and

at the

depth

transition

points

beam Fig. P6-20

in

a downward

direction

as

well

as

in

an

Fig.

P6-t8

ure, acts as a horizontal beam in a machine. When vertical forces are applied to this member the distance AB increases by 0.0010 in and the distance CD decreases by 0.0090 in. What is the sense of the applied
moment, and what normal stresses occur in the ex-

649.

A channel-shaped

member,

as shown

in the fig-

6-2t. As the screw of a large steel C clamp, shown in the figure, is tightened upon an object, strain in the horizontal direction due to bending is being measured by a strain gage at point B. Ifa
of 900
screw

x 10 -6 in/in

corresponding

strain?

E = 30 x 106 psi.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

is noted,
to

direction. Base answers only of the maximum bending stresses A 150 x 300 mm rectangular

the caused section

on

considby F. is sub-

what

is the
of

force

on

the

value

the

to a positive bending the "strong" axis. The nonisotropic and is such that in tension is 1 times as great the figure. If the stresses do tional limit, find the maximum
stresses in the beam.

ected

moment of 240 000 N-m material of the beam is the modulus of elasticity as in compression; see not exceed the proportensile and compressive

-[4 160- 2a q

Fig. P6-25

Section

6.7
strain loaded energy beam due to bendof rectangular

treme

fibers?

E = 15 x 10 6 psi.

6-26. Show that the elastic ing for a simple uniformly

cross

section

is (cr2m=/2E)(-tL),

where

Crm=

is the
area,

maximum bending and L is the length

stress, A is the of the beam.

cross-sectional

6-27.
tilever
centrated

Show
load

that
P

Ube,di,g
cross
at the end.

= (cr2m/2E)(Vol/9)
section supporting

for a cana con-

of rectangular

l
Fig. ? In 1864, in Saint-Venant's P6-t9 additions to Navier's

5.16"

TSection 6-8

book,
failure

he,

as well
section

he calls
of these

as Emerson,
fibers

the

removed
does

recognized
not

fibers

useless.
indicate

that

that

the

However,
the

Section

a-a

elastic

Fig.

P6-23

6-28.
the 50 and the

A composite

beam

of two

dif erent

materials

has

trun-

Fig.

P6-21

cated complete
corners

members

K. Pearson, of the Strength Vol. I , Part

may

subjected

section.

possesses
be

However,

greater

A HistoL3, of the Theoo, of Elasticity of Materials (New York: Dover, I, p: 109.

advantageous.

to fatigue,

static strength than in machine design,

See

the

removal

I. Todhunter

of sharp

the for

6-22. terial
safety

A T beam the behavior

of 1 on the

shown in the figure is made of which may be idealized

limit

as

of a

Section
6-24. A small

6-6
beam, shown in the figure, is to carry

cross section shown in Fig. 6-7(a). x 80 mm bar, the elastic modulus for the lower 50 x 20 mm bar, E2 maximum bending stresses in

For the upper El = 15 GPa, = 40 GPa. Find both materials

and 1960),

and

a tensile proportional sive proportional

limit

of

of 20 MPa and 40 IV[Pa. With

acc a factor

initiation

of yielding,

find

the

nitude

of the

largest

force

F that

may

be

applied

a cyclically applied load of 80 N/mm. The 12-mm thick, and spans 160 mm. Determine imum stress at midspan and at depth transition Assume that the factors given in Fig. 6-15

beam is the maxpoints. are suffi-

caused by an applied ing around the z axis.

formed sections. tral axis and
and 6-20.)

positive Do not
Use Eq. procedure

moment use the

6-16

of 12 kN-m actmethod of transto locate the shown in Figs. neu6-7

the

(Hint: direct

Pure Bending
6-29.
is made

and Bending
bonded

with Axial
6-34.

Forces
thick concrete slab

is

Problems
1
bending moment causes this strain? Assume ideal elastic-plastic material behavior with E = 200 GPa and tryp = 240 MPa. (b) What residual strain would remain in the gage upon release of the applied load? (c) Draw
the residual stress pattern.

Consider

from

three

a composite
in Fig. modulus

dif erent

beam
E
and

materials

whose

cross

section

A 150-mm

to-

gether, as shown and has an elastic

x 40 mm with E2

6-20(a).
=

Bar

1 is 40 x 20 mm 15 GPa; bar 2 is 60
3 is 20 x 20 mm

reinforced
termine

10 GPai

bar

with E3 = 30 GPa. Determine stresses in each of the three applied moment of 10 kN.m
Do not use the method

the

maximum

materials caused acting around the of transformed sections;

bending by an z axis.
see

of this slab. Assume for steel and concrete respectively.

the

with

allowable

steel bars,
n =

bending

as shown

12 and the as 150 MN/m

moment

in t he figure,
allowable 2 and

per

6-46.
Fig. P6-39
Fig. P6-40

An I beam is made welded together as shown are o stronger steel than

moment would the section

from three steel plates in the figure. The flanges the web. (a) What bending
develop when the largest

up

the

mine the maximum bending stresses in each of the two materials for the composite beams shown in the figures when subjected to positive bending moments of 80 kN-m each. Est = 210 GPa and Eu = 70 GPa. (Hint for-Prob. 6-31: For an ellipse with semiaxes a and b,

6-30

hint

ond

in the

-31.

preceding

Using

transformed

problem.

sections,

deter-

10-mm
80 mm

 bars
on centers

25 mm
P6-34

W8 X 18
300

stresses strain shown

pattern.

in the flanges just reach properties 0f the two steels on the diagram. (b) Draw
20

yield? The stresscan be idealized as the residual stress

Fig.

I = 'rrab3/4

around

the major

centroidal

axis.)

6-35. ure, what

causes

A beam has and is subjected

a tensile

the

stress

cross section shown in the to a positive bending moment

in the steel of 20 ksi. If n

is the

value

of the

bending

moment?

1
Fig. P6-4t Fig. P6-42

I -- I

400

75

mm

'4o
Fig. P6-46

(flanges)

MPa

240 MPa

Steel

inside

core

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Fig. P6-43

E = 200 GPa

6-47. a beam

A small

sandwich

beam

spanning

400

mm

is

Fig.

P6-30

Fig.

P6-3t

6-32
ment beams tional
stresses

and

6-33.

Determine

the allowable

bending
the composite the cross-secMaterials
ksi.

moFig. P6-35
200

Find
the
MPa.

the
cross

ultimate
section

moment
shown for

capacity
Prob. 6-1.

for

around horizontal neutral axes for of wood and steel plates having dimensions shown in the figures.

Assume

made up by bonding two aluminum alloy strips to an alloy steel bar, as shown in the figure. The idealized stress-strain diagrams are shown in the figure. What is the magnitude of the applied bending moment if it
causes -7.5 x 10 -3 longitudinal strain in the gage

fastened and E,

so that they = 1.2 x

are trst =

act as a unit. 106 psi. The

20 ksi and trw =

are Est = 30 x 106 psi allowable bending

1.2

hat the material

yields
I beam

in tension

and
to pure

in compression
bending de-

glued

to the top
Gage

of the

aluminum
a [MPa]

alloy

strip?

Section

6.9

23(a), area

6-36. Rework Example 6-10 by changing h to 6-37. Derive Eq. 6-35. 6-38. What is the largest bending moment that be applied to a curved bar, such as shown in Fig.
with of 2-in ? = 3 in, diameter if it has a circular and the allowable cross-set stress
is 12

velops

-45.

A steel

flange

in the location

a longitudinal

strain

subjected

shown

of - 1.6 x 10 -3 in the top

on the figure. (a) What
AI --

Gage

20
St AI-

40


Beam section

350
0 5 X 10 -3 g

Section
beams Bending
Fig. P6-33

6.'10

6-39

through

Fig.

P6-32

having occurs

the

6-43.

cross around

Find

sections shown the horizontal

the

ratios

in the axes.

MuJMyp

Fig.
2O

P6-47

fi
Fig. P6-45

6-48.

idealized

elastic-plastic

behavior

as in Example

izontal

On applying
axis

to

the

a bending

T beam

moment
having

the

around

dimensions

the hor-

350
Gage A

Pure BendinandBendi g nwigthAxiaFl orces  5kN_

10"
A<

Problems

18

X 10 -3
Beam section

Fig.

P6-51

shown
stresses

in the
and

figure.
locate the

Determine
neutral axis.

the

largest

Fig.

P6-48

6-52.

A 10-ft

cantilever

made

up from

the
b{

steel shape as shown

S 12 x 50 has its web in the figure. Determine

in a vertical the maximum

the_ applied bending moment if the stress-strain for the material can be idealized as shown
gram.

shown at gage

in the figure, the measured A is -2 x 10 -3. Determine

longitudinal the magnitude

strain

relation on the dia-

of

plication
through ct be

ing

stresses

of

2 ft from
the

variously

the

support
section

inclined

caused
at the

force
free

by the
P
end
Fig. P6-54

Fig.

P6-57

the centroid 0 , 1 , and 5 .

of the

Section
6-58. AW

6-t2
10 x 49 beam 8 ft long is subjected to a

terial with the stress-strain characteristics shown in the figure. (a) Find the largest moment for which the entire cross section remains elastic. (b) Determine the ultimate moment capacity, and draw the resulting stress distribution. (c) What is the residual stress distribution

6-49.

A 100

x 180 mm

rectangular

beam

is of a ma-

200

mm
of

from
elastic
zero

the
stress

loaded
behavior
on

end
line

of the
material.
AB.

cantilever.
(b)

Assume
Locate a

of the

after Show

a release of the ultimate that the residual stresses

bending moment? are self-equilibrating.

(d)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

-55. the Determine cantilever
mm from the free end. Also locate
tral axis.

pull P of 100 k, as shown in the figure. At the ends, where the pin connections are made, the beam is reinforced with doubler plates. Determine the maximum flange stress in the middle of the member caused by the applied forces P. Qualitatively, briefly discuss the
load transfer at the ends. Most likely, where are the

the bending stresses at the coruers loaded, as shown in the figure, at a

the neu-

highest

stressed

regions

in this

member?

Fig.

P6-52

10kN

a (MPa
10(

6-53. A beam in mm, shown

moment of 500
0.001 e

having in the
N-m

the cross-sectional figure is subjected

around its horizontal

to a bend
axis.

Fig.

P6-58

180

termine

the

maximum

bending

stresses.

6-59. termine

For

the

the machine offset distance

link

shown e such

that

in the the

figure, tensile

deand

compressive
15 kN 00

stresses

in the T section

are equal.

100

mm

20
section

10

Beam

Fig.

P6-55
p P

Fig.

P6-49

6-56.
Section 6-11
vertical

Rework subjected
axis.

Example 6-16 by assuming to a 4-kN.m bending moment

the maximum stresses in the

that the around

Z sec-

6-50.
is

span

20 .

is 6000

Rework

mm,

Example

the

beam

6-15

is 150

by

assuming

x 200

mm,

that

and

the

Fig.

P6-53

6-57.

Determine

ct

6-51. A 150 x 200 mm 'beam spanning 6000 mm is loaded in the middle of the span with an inclined force of 5 kN along the diagonal of the cross section, as

6-54. trusion shown cantilever

end.

A biaxial y. symmetric cruciform aluminum exhas the cross-sectional dimensions, in in the figure. It is used in a tilted position as to carry an applied force P = 100 N at
(a) Determine the maximum flexural tensile stress

caused by a 2-N.m bending moment the z axis. As found in Prob. 6-83, the ments of inertia are I = Iz, = 753.9757

= Iy, = 96.0243
Locating
the

the neutral

x 103 mm 4, and 0 = 32.8862

axis gives an indication
occur.)

acting around principal mox 103 mm 4, as

Fig. P6-59
Link

7-m lO mm
section

where

largest

stresses

352

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces
1 F

6-60. A frame for a punch press has the proportions shown in the figure. What force P can be applied to this frame controlled by the stresses in the sections such as a-a, if the allowable stresses are 4,000 psi in tension and 12,000 psi in compression?

structure
tion a-a

shown
is that

in the
of a solid

figure.
circular

The

cross
bar of

section
2-in d

at S

6-63. Compute the ing normal to section

maximum a-a

for

compressive the structure

12 in cross

stress shown
2OO

the figure. Post AB has a 12 by Neglect the weight of the structure.

B
2

F ,I 13
Gage
500 A

D
mm

Top

view

Cable Cable

Fig.
'9k
Section a-a

P6-65

Fig.

P6-60

12'

6-61. shown
normal

A force in the
'to

section

of 169.8 k is applied to bar BC at C, as figure. Find the maximum stress acting

a-a. Member BC is made from

stresses on the extreme 200 mm apart are determined crt = 0; orb = -30 MPa; crc = = -6 IV[Pa. Determine the magnitude and horizontal components of force 6-66. A rectangular vertical member

longitudinal

fibers at two secexperimental y to -24 MPa; and crD of the vertical F. fixed at the base

is loaded

as shown

in the

figure.

Find

the

location

for
P

Fig.

P6-67

piece
bar.

of 6 by

6 in steel

bar.

Neglect

the

weight
169.8 k

of the
Fig. P6-63

'

C/

6-64. vertical
gages

In order force
are attached

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P? Assume elastic behavior. All

gage on member strain would occur = 6 kN. Does the given in mm.

face AB such that no longitudinal due to the application of force answer depend on the magnitude
dimensions

tudinal strain that the bar

let E = 70

of +20
behaves
GPa.

as a linearly

x 10 -6 in the gage elastic

bar is bonded a beam having

atA? Assume material and

to a steel the cross-secbar

to obtain the magnitude F on a tee-shaped steel

at A and B,

of an eccen column,
in the

are

as shown

fi

tional dimensions in mm application of an eccentric

longitudinal

6-68. of the

A magnesium same size

alloy
forming

a
Fig. P6-6t

Determine -100
sectional

the force 10 -6 in/in

area of the

F if the and atB

longitudinal is -800
is 24 in 2.

strain at A 10 -6 in/in.

= 30

x 106 psi

and

column

G = 12 x 106 psi.

The

GPa and to apply teresting this beam.)

Centroid

10 -3, what sume elastic

10 -3,

and
Est axial
to

gage

is the magnitude of applied behavior of the materials

= 200

the

measures

lower

in the figure. (a) If on axial force P, the upper a compressive strain of 2 one, a tensile strain of 2 x

shown

force

force
note that

GPa. (b) Where P to cause no

this locates

would bending?

with

EMg

the

neutral

one have (It is inaxis for

P? As= 45

6-62. Calculate ing on section

a-a

the maximum caused

707 lb

compressire by the applied

Fig. P6-62

load

stress

for

actthe

3"

Gage-
Fig. P6.66

' T PseVci "dt'na

that

Mg

20

Fig.

P6-64

minum
mm in cross section the figure.

6-67.

An inclined
alloy
(The

bar

tensile
such
of the

force
bar,

its line

F is applied

of action
is not

to an alugoes
in the
Gage

St

20

'6-65. subjected

A bar to

having a force

a 100 x 100 F, as shown

centroid

as shown

in mm

What

is the magnitude

detail

of the

of force

attachment

F if it causes

shown.)

a Iongi-

Fig.

P6-68

353

354
6-69. ure,
radius
the maximum

Pure

Bending

and

Bending

with

Axial

Forces

,
A-A over which a downward

Problems
block the
view of

355

A steel is subjected
of the

hook, to
centroidal
stress

having the a downward

curved
in this hook.

proportions force
axis

of

in the fig19 k. The

Determine

along

the

line

is 6 in.

force causing
the block.

could any
The

be applied tension
cross-sectional

to the top of the at the base. Neglect

area in plan

6-72.

3" Fig.

dius
P6-69

block figure.
force
the stress

is in the shape of an "arrow," Find the position of the

on the line of symmetry
zero. at A is just

as shown vertical
of this section so

in
Section

Fig. Fig. P6-75

P6-77

What
force

wil

be

the

reading

of the

gages

when

applied

P is released?

pressure

lb/ft

3 and

at A is just

concrete

zero?

150

Assume
lb/ft

3.

that

water

weighs

Section 6-78. Rework M_,. = 4 kN.m. 6-79. Using

644 Example 6-24 for an applied moment

6-70.

steel

bar

of

50-ram

diameter

is

bent

into

Fig. 6-73.
circular

P6-72 for a member having a

nearly
ameter, imum

complete

circular

ring

of 300-ram

outside
max10-kN of the maxcompres_sive the

diDetermine
cross section.

Section

6.t3
of perfectly elastic-plastic shown in the figure.
bottom of the

forces imum
stress

as shown in the stress in this ring at the open end. stress found in acting normal to

figure. (a) Calculate caused by applying Co) Find the ratio (a) to the largest the same section.

two

the

kern

6-74.

For

a small

approximately
the A-B
when

approximate using
the

elementary
water

cated.
linear

For
meter

the
of
shown

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

triangular dam

6-76. A T beam has the dimensions

strain

material (a) If the Ionis - eyp and

at the

flange

the generalized flexure formula, find the largest stresses in a beam with a Z cross section, having the dimensions shown in the figure for Prob. 6-57, due to a pure bending moment M: of 2 N.m. Also
cate area the neutral moments axis. of inertia See
for

2550

kg/m

3, as shown
dam

in the figure,
at
the level

f'm(

is known

to be zero

at the juncture

of the

web

and

the

normal

stress methods
the

distribution for prismatic

is at

behind

purpose

of calculation,

consider

flange, what axial force P and bending moment M act on the beam? (b) What would the strain reading be after the applied forces causing P and M in (a) are removed? Let tryp = 200 IV[Pa.
10 mm

answers to Prob. the cross section.

6-83

for

6-80.
moment Section

Rework
My

the

preceding

problem

for

an applied

= 6 kN.m. 6-t5

the

dam

in the

direction

to the
300

plane

of the
are

paper
in

as an
meters.

isolated

beam.

dimensions

6-8t. (a) Find the product of inertia for the triangular area shown in the figure with respect to the given axes. (b) For the same area, determine the product of inertia with respect to the vertical and horizontal axes through
50 mm

the

centroid.

Fig.

P6-70

10

mm

6-7t.

A short

block

has

cross-sectional

dimensions

in

-50 mm 
Fig. P6-76

y
dimensions of force

plan

view

as shown

in the figure.

Determine

the range

2.16 m---
Fig. P6-74

6-77. given

and the lower

h
so that the

the upper
Estimate

A magnesium in the figure

gage recorded
one,

alloy in mm.

casting During

6-75.

What
the cross-sectional

should

the

total
view

height
be

Fig.

P6-7t

in

tedfl.

Let tryp = 135 MPa

the magnitude e assuming

a compressive

a tensile

has the application

x
Fig. P6-8t

idealized

of applied force P and its behavior for the ma-

strain

strain

of 6 x 10 -3.

of 3 x 10 -3,
6-82,
ments of inertia

(a) Find
in the

for

the

the

principal
(b)

cross-sectional

axes
given

and

area

principal

of the

angie

mo-

and eyp = 3 x 10 -3. (b)

shown

figure.

The

dimensions

of the

Pure Bending

and Bending

with Axial
condition,
one can readily

Forces
Imi, + Ira=
solve for

= Ix'

Imx.)

+ Iy,

= Ix + Iy,

ter

6-83. determine obtain

moments

For

the Z cross section shown in the figure area moments of inertia Iy, I, and L the directions of the principal axes and
of inertia.

Fig.

P6-82

cross fil et,

section, correspond

except to the

for

small radii cross-sectional

at the ends dimensions

and of

an 8 Using principal sults and 7 for

x 6 x 1 in angle the information moments found in (a). Example 11-2, the z axis is

listed in Table 7 of the Appendix. given in that table, calculate the of inertia and compare with the re(Hint: Note that per Section 11-6 Imin = Ar2min. The r listed in Table rmin. Further, from the invariance

Fig.

P6-83

!-1.
This

Introduction
chapter a study is divided into two parts. Part A, the major part, is devoted shear stresses in beams caused by transverse shear. The problem of attaching separate longitudinal parts of a beam by of bolts, gluing, or welding is also considered. In Part B, superof direct shear stresses of the type discussed in Part A with those by torque, as in springs, is treated. This problem is analogous to encountered in the previous chapter in the study of beams simulsubjected to bending and axial forces. discussion in this chapter is largely limited to elastic analyses, the widely used approach in the solution of the type of problems conof

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

related means position caused that taneously The most
sidered.

?.2.

Preliminary

Remarks

In deriving the torsion and the flexure formulas, the same sequence of reasoning was employed. First, a strain distribution was assumed across the section; next, properties of the material were brought in to relate these strains to stresses; and, finally, the equations of equilibrium were used to establish the desired relations. However, the development of the expression linking the shear force and the cross-sectional area of a beam to the stress fol ows a dif erent path. The previous procedure cannot be
357

Shear

Stresses

in Beams

and

Related

Problems

Sec.

7-2. Prellminary

Remarks

employed, as no simple assumption for the strain distribution due to shear force can be made. Instead, an indirect approach is used. The distribution caused by flexure, as determined in the preceding cha is assumed, which, together with the equilibrium requirements, the problem of the shear stresses. First, it wil be necessary to recall that the shear force is inse linked with a change in the bending moment at adjoining sections a beam. Thus, if a shear and a bending moment are present at one through a beam, a dif erent bending moment wil exist at an ad

(a)

c D[P A B [P
p I I

dM=

dx

= P

dx
k

(c)

Moment
C D

diagram

section,

although

the

shear

may

remain

constant.

This

wil

lead

to

(d)
? ?

establishment through the equal shear

stresses whose

of the shear stresses on the imaginary members that are parallel to its axis. stresses exist on the mutually perpendicular
direction is coincident with the

longitudinal Then, since planes,

shear force at

(b)

at a the
a se

Shear

diagram

--

-P

Fig.

7-t

Shear

and

bending

moment

diagrams

for

the

loading

shown.

wil be determined. Initial y, only beams having symmetrical tions with applied forces acting in the plane of symmetry ered. The related problem of determining interconnection for fastening together several longitudinal elements of posite beams wil also be discussed. In order to gain some insight into the problem, recall
it in two alternative forms,

wil
req built-up Eq. 5-4.

cross be consi

or

on the right

of an I beam. stress distribution

In Fig.

is assumed

7-2(a), caused

to be larger

in addition by bending

than

to the moments

beam may

itself,

the one on the left.

blocks be seen.

The

This

simulating moment

system

dM = V dx
Equation 7-1 means that if shear

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION or dx - V (7-1 www.avs4you.com V is acting at a section, there wil

dM

change in the bending moment M on an adjoining section. The between the bending moments on the adjoining sections is equal to If no shear is acting, no change in the bending moment occurs. natively, the rate of change in moment along a beam is equal to Therefore, although shear is treated in this chapter as an action on a beam, it is inseparably linked with the change in the moment along the beam's length. As an example of the above, consider the shear and moment from Example 5-7, shown in Fig. 7-1. Here at any two sections A and B taken through the beam anywhere between applied forces P, bending moment is the same. No shear acts at these sections. On other hand, between any two sections such as C and D near the a change in the bending moment does take place. Shear forces act sections. These shears are shown acting on an element of the beam Fig. 7-1(d). Note that in this zone of the beam, the change in the moment in a distance dx is Pdx as shear V is equal to P. In subse discussion, the possibility of equal, as well as of dif erent, bending merits on two adjoining sections through a beam is of great Before a detailed analysis is given, a study of a model (Fig. 7-2) may prove helpful. The model represents a

of forces is in equilibrium providing vertical shears V (not seen in this view) also act on the beam segment. By separating the model along the neutral surface, one obtains two separate parts of the beam segment, as shown in Fig. 7-2(b). Again, either one of these parts alone must be in equilibrium. If the upper and the lower segments of Fig. 7-2(b) are connected by a dowel or a bolt in an actual beam, the axial forces on either the upper or the lower part caused by the bending moment stresses must be maintained in equilibrium by a force in the dowel. The force that must be resisted can be evaluated by summing the forces in the axial direction caused by bending stresses. In peffqrming such a calculation, either the upper or the lower part of the beam segment can be used. The horizontal force transmit ed by the dowel is the force needed to balance the net force caused by the bending stresses acting on the two adjoining sections. Alternatively, by subtracting the same bending stress on both ends of the segment, the same results can be obtained. This is shown schematically in Fig. 7-2(c), where assuming a zero bending moment on the left, only the normal stresses due to the increment in moment within the segment need be shown acting on the right. If, initial y, the I beam considered is one piece requiring no bolts or dowels, an imaginary longitudinal plane can be used to separate the beam segment into two parts; see Fig. 7-2(d). As before, the net force that must be developed across the cut area to maintain equilibrium can be determined. Dividing this force by the area of the imaginary horizontal cut gives average shear stresses acting in this plane. In the analysis, it is again expedient to work with the change in bending moment rather than with
the total moments on the end sections.

After

the

shear

stresses

on

one

of the

planes

are

found

(i.e.,

the

hor-

360

Shear

Stresses

in

Beams

and

Related

Problems

Sec.

7-3.

Shear

Flow

calculating a part

termining

Before

the shear stresses in the cut. The of the flange in Fig. 7-2(f). This lying in a vertical plane in the figure.

imaginary permits

vertical calculation

plane of

cuts shear

finally
the

shear

proceeding
of

stresses
note.

in connecting

with

the

development
bolts
a wooden

and

in beams,
plank

of equations
placed

an intuitive

for

denot
wil

another,

example

as shown
sliding

is worthy

in Fig.

7-3.

Consider

If these

planks

act

as a beam

and

on

are

top

of

(a)

be derived
ponent.parts
this

;rconnected, interconnection hake them act

equation

for determining
of a beam
wil be

at the surfaces of these planks as an integral beam.

the required
them

of with In the

interconnection
shear

their nails next

contact or glue section,

stresses

between

wil take is necessary an equation

place.
to

planks together.

Fig.

7-3

not

Sliding

fastened

between

the combeams.

specialized

to make

to yield

act as a unit.

In the fol owing

in solid

section,

-3.

Shear
nsider

Flow
an elastic

(c)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

!

beam essary.

planks

has

whose

a rectangular To make this

cross

section
beam

beam

made

cross

section, but act as an integral

h

is shown

from

in Fig.

several

such' a limitation is not member, it is assumed

A

7-4(a).

continuous

For

simplicity,

longitudinal

necthat

the

Neutral

axis

B h

Centroid

(d)
(a)
A

(e)

is needed. Horizontal
determining

Fig. 7-2 Shear flow Shear force transmit ed

the

model

(d) The longitudinal cut below the flange

shear stress.

of an I beam. through a dowel.

shear force for determining

(a) Beam (c) For

divided

segment determining

with

the

by the shear

area of the imaginary stress. (f) Vertical

the

bending force

stresses on a dowel

cut

cut yields through

simulated only

by blocks. (b) a change in moment

FA

A
h
B

the

shear

flange

stress.

for

(e)

izontal one in Fig. 7-2(d)), shear stresses on mutually perpendicular of an infinitesimal element also become known since they must be merically equal, Eq. 1-2. This approach establishes the shear stresses the plane of the beam section taken normal to its axis. The process discussed is quite general; two additional il ustrations separating the segment of the beam are in Figs. 7-2(e) and (f). In Fig. 2(e), the imaginary horizontal plane separates the beam just below

Neutral

(c)

(b)

flange.

Either

the

upper

or the

lower

part

of this

beam

can

be used

Fig.

7-4

Elements

for

deriving

shear

flow

in a beam.

362
Centroid of

Shear
A fghi

Stresses

in Beams

and

Related

Problems
On
dif erent

Sec.
the other hand, if MA is not equal shears are present at the adjoining to Ma, sections, which

7-3.

Shear

Flow

.ehntofroid
ole area

the planks are fastened at intervals by vertical bolts. An element of' beam isolated by two parallel sections, both of which are to the axis of the beam, is shown in Fig. 7~4(b). If the element shown in Fig. 7-4(b) is subjected to a bending +MA at end A and to +MB at end B, bending stresses that act to the sections are developed. These bending stresses vary linearly their respective neutral axes, and at any point at a distance y neutral axis are -MBy/I on the B end and --MAy/I on the A end. From the beam element, Fig. 7-4(b), isolate the top plank, as Fig. 7-4(c). The fibers of this plank nearest the neutral axis are by the distance y. Then, since stress times area is equal to force forces acting perpendicular to ends A and B of this plank may be mined. At end B, the force acting on an infinitesimal area dA at y from the neutral axis is (-My/I) dA. The total force acting on the

FA
from the

push  MB, only

(or pull)
normal

stresses

develops

act

on one
on

the

end

section

of a "plank" forces resisting

is always the case is not equal to Fa. than on the other,

two sides. Thus,

MA

> MA, then ] F ] > lEA I, and I FA I + R = I F [, Fig. 7-4(d). The I I - I Fa I ---- R tends to shear the bolt in the plane of the plank
.2 If the shear to be investigated, force acting across the two upper the bolt planks at level should km, Fig. be considered 7-4(a),
unit.

equilibrium by developing

of the horizontal a horizontal

in Fig. 7-4(c) may force R in the bolt.

be If

as

fghj, this
and the

Aighj, is the area. Denoting

remembering fol owing
relation:

sum, the
that,

or the integral, total force acting

at section B, M

of these normal
and I are

elementary to the
constants,

area

forces fghj
one

If MA  Ma and the element of the beam is only dx long, tents on the adjoining sections change by an infinitesimal if the bending moment at A is MA, the bending moment Ma + riM. Likewise, in the same distance dx, the longitudinal

the

By

and Fa change by an infinitesimal substituting these relations into

with areas ghj and abde
the dif erential longitudinal

taken

force dF, i.e., the expression

equal,
pull)

one

obtains

[ F I - I Fa I = dF. for Fa and FA found

an expression

bending amount. at B is MB forces

Fa=
where

ea

fghj

My I dA=
fghj

y dA

The
around

integral
the

deeming
neutral axis.

Q is the
By

first
definition,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION dF:lFzl -IFAl= (MA+ I dMt Q- (--) www.avs4you.com

ea

-I MsL ..

fghj

ydA=

MBQ I

push

(or

dF:

= AighjY

Q=

or the

statical

moment

of area
the

y is the

distance

from

axis
Q are
sectional

to the
in Fig.
area.

centroid
7-5.

of Afgh?
Equation

Il ustrations
7-2 provides

of the
a convenient

manner
means

th e longitudinal
Next the total

force
end acting

acting
A of the normal

normal
element to the

to any

selected
One

part
can

of the

expression for dF, the eliminated. Only the the sections remains Instead of working with a force it is more significant to obtain quantity is obtained by dividing
are adjoining
the dif erence between

the final

actual bending moments dif erence in the bending in the equation. dF,. which is developed a similar force per unit dF by dx. Physically,
FB and FA for an

at the adjoining moments dM

in a distance of beam length.

element

this
by
in

of the

quantity
wil

beam

consider force

in Fig. 7-4(c). area abde as

unit ounds,

length.
to

The
as the

quantity
shear flow.

dF/dx
Since

wil
force

be designated
is measured

q and
newtons

be
or

Shade areas are Afghi

Fig.

FA =
for

MA I far ea
&bde

y dA =

MAQ I
if
F,

shear recalling
flow

flow that
in

q has dM/dx
beams:

units of newtons = V, one obtains

per

meter or pounds per the fol owing expression

inch.

for

shear

determining

7-5

Procedure

Q [.

where the meaning of beams, an area such moments at A and B the bolt shown in the ing the planks together
tudinal forces.

Q is the same as that in Eq. 7-2 since for as fghj is equal to the area abde. Hence, were equal, it would fol ow that FA = figure would perform a nominal function and would not be needed to resist any also be used to find I Q I.

I dF dMlf VAigh.VQ1 Y
q - dx
from

dxI

ydA-

(7-5)

The
and its y may
are

Area

fgpn

forces ( I FB I-I is in equilibrium.

omit ed

the

Fz I) and R are not collinear, To avoid ambiguity, shear

diagram.

but forces

the element shown acting in the vertical

in

Shear

Stresses

in

Beams

and

Related

Problems

Sec.

7-3.

Shear

Flow

365

In this equation, ! is the moment of interia area around the neutral axis, just as it does which it came. The total shear force at the resented by V, and the integral of y dA for
over the cross-sectional area of the beam to

of the in the section determining.

one side

entire cross~st flexure formula investigated Q

of this area at,

is

-I
62.5
NA

I-;I-;1'-la

q is investigated.
In

for dM/dx,
7-5 the

the in in and

retrospect, note careful y that Eq. %5 was derived on the elastic flexure formula, but no term for a bending moment the final expressions. This resulted from the fact that only the the bending moments at the adjoining sections had to be the lat er quantity is linked with shear V. Shear V was

162.5

andthis

masks

the origin

of the established
necessary wil be

relations.

Ec
ution
instead made
uired.

(b)

Fig.

7-6

is very elements

useful in determining making up a beam.

the This

interconnection il ustrated

by

for

an

Alternative

Arrangement
planks Fig.

of Planks
of the nailing same schedule cross would section be

EXAMPLE

7-t

of using the two from five pieces,

as before, a beam 7-6(b), a dif erent

Two long wooden planks 6(a). If this beam transmits spacing of the nails between that the allowable shear
Solution

form a T section of a constant vertical the two planks to force per nail is 700

In

attacking

such

problems,
longitudinally two planks; do this, the

the

analyst

tendency to slide of contact of the in this plane. To

from the remainder? Here this Eq. 7-5 must be applied to determine neutral axis of the whole section

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION VQ 3000 113.5x 78.X1 106 x 103 = 2.06 q = I = www.avs4you.com

Q = AsgiUY = 25 x 50 x 62.5 = 78.1
must ask: What part of a beam
the its occurs in the shear

a beam, as shown in mm in shear of 3000 N, find the nec{ make the beam act as a unit. Asi N.

To

begin, procedure

the
the

shear
beam

flow same.

between
and

one
although

of the

outer
the contact

25 by 50 mm
surface

planks
a-a

and
is vertical,

the same

is found,

is the

The

push

or pull

on an element

is built

up in the

x 103 mm 3

N/mm

and

inertia

around

the
moment

neutral

axis

must

be found.
of the yc from upper the
150

Then
plank top
= 87.5

as Vis
around to the
mm

known
the neutral

and

the same mm piece, To determine of the

unbalanced

nails

they

as before may be

are used 700/2.06

to join the 25 by 50 mm piece to the 50 by = 340 mm apart. This nailing applies to both piece must area and either be used to that causes

as the statical may be determined.

of the area The distance

neutral axis is

50x200x25+50x200x

the shear flow between the 50 by 250 mm vertical 50 by 50 mm pieces, the whole 75 by 50 mm area Q. It is the dif erence of pushes (or pulls) on this whole
force that must be transferred at the surface

Yc=
I-

50 x 200 + 50 x 200
200 = 113.54 x 503
12

b-b:

+ 50

x 200

x 62.52

50

x 2003
12

+ 50

x 200

Q = AsghjY VQ
should in both be spaced sections
put on.

106mm

Q = AighjY

.---- 50 x 200

x (87.5
=

-- 25) = 625
16.5 N/mm

x 103 mm 3
eam
to nail

q - - -

= 75 X 50 X 62.5 3000 x 234 x 103

= 234

X 103 mm 3

113.4 X 106

= 6.19 N/mm
intervals be driven along the length in first, then the of the 25 by

q -

VQ _ 3000 x 625 x 103 I 113.54 X 106

at 700/6.19 b-b. These

= 113 mm, nails should

Thus, a force of 16.5 N/mm must the length of the beam. However, resisting a force of 700 N; hence, 700/16.5 = 42 mm of the beam utive sections of the beam, the
tervals.

be transferred from one plank from the data given, each one nail is adequate for transmit ing length. As shear remains constant nails should be spaced throughout

is ca
LE 7-2

at the at

)le beam
cross

on

a 6-m section

span carries a load is to be made from

of 3 kN/m including several wooden

pieces,

its own weight. as is shown

366
Lag screw

Shear

Stresses

in Beams

and

Related

Problems
it is proper
distance screws
A

Sec.
to specify one same practical pieces,
or

7-4.

The Shear-Stress
lag
and A greater

Formula
on be 120-mm desirable at section

for Beams
centers
of the in making

the

use

of 10-mm

screws may be used

for
same the

of 1.5 m nearest for the middle

both of the supports half of the beam.

240-mm spacing refinement

from The
:tion
9

spacing spacing

of fastenings of lag screws

to another should

b-b

in some as at

NA

500

9kNl
6m
9 kN

a-a.

In numerous Spacing procedures

rivets

(b)
4.5 kN

is discussed

applications, beams are made up by bolting or riveting as shown-in Fig. 7-8(a), or welding them, as shown in Fig. of selected bolts or rivets, as well as sizing of welds, is determined analogous to those described before. The strength of individual
in Section 1-13 and that of welds is treated in Section

(a)

.14.

Note

that
' act

the
in double

bolts
shear.

may

be staggered
The welds may

along
be either

the

length
continuous

of a beam,
or intermit ent.

and

that

5O[- 200---50(a) (c)

'-4.

The

Shear-Stress
formula

Formula
for beams analogous

for.Beams
may be obtained by to the earlier procedure, modifying the an element

(b)

Fig.

7-7

shear-stress ;ar flow formula.

shown t lag screw, i

in mm necessary determined parallel

mm

2.

in Fig. 7-7(a). Specify the spacing of the 10-mm to fasten this beam together. Assume that by laboratory tests, is good for 2 kN when to the grain of the wood. For the entire section,

Solution

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 'plank" used in the earlier derivations. A side www.avs4you.com

to 2.36 x

lag screws one 10-mm transmit ing I is equal

Thus, beam may be isolated to the axis of the section through element is obtained,

between two adjoining beam. Then by passing this element parallel which corresponds the axis.

sections taken another imaginal7 to the axis of the to the element

perpenIon-

Fig. 7-8 Composite sections: (a) plate (b) I beam reinforced plates.

beam girder,

with

beam, a of one

shown  distance
shown

in Fig. 7-9(a), y from the

7-9(c).

where neutral

imaginary longitudinal The cross-sectional

view

of such
area

cut

is made at of the beam

an element

in Fig.

To

find

the

spacing

of. the

lag

screws,
given the beam beam,

the

shear
is shown the shear

flow

at section
in Fig. diagram 7-7(b),
is

a-a
and to

determined. the variation

The loading of the shear

on the along

Fig;

7-7(c).

Next,

to apply

the

shear

flow

formula,

fea
fghj

Y dA

= Q must
A B

terrained. This a in Fig. 7-7(a). by multiplying

their centroids

is done by considering The statical moment the areas of the two

to the neutral axis

the hatched area to one side of the of this area is most conveniently 50 by 100 mm pieces by the distances
of the beam and adding to this product

Fa=

FA + dF

quantity

as the

largest

for the 50 by 200 mm

vertical shears

piece.

V of 9 kN

The

act

largest

there:

shear

flow

occurs

at the

dy  Imagi cut nary

Yl  dx
(b)

[-Centroid of fgh/

Q = AsghZY = 2Ay = 2 x 50 x 100

+ A2Y2 x 200 +

50

x 200

x 225

= 4.25

106
_] L--
 Cross
(c)

q =

VQ I

9 x2.36 4.25 x x109 109

the spacing

16.2 N/mm
must be 2 x 103/16.2 =

apart. This spacing of the lag screws applies only at a section where shear equal to 9 kN. Similar calculations for a section where V = 4.5 kN gives 8.1 N/mm; and the spacing of the lag screws becomes 2 x 103/8.1 = 246

At the supports,

of the lag screws

section

(a)

Fig.

7-9

Derivation

of shear

stresses

in a beam.

368

Shear

Stresses

in Beams

and Related

Problems

Sec. 7-4. The Shear-Stress

Formula

or Beams

If shear forces exist at the sections through the beam, a dif erent ing moment acts at section A than at B. Hence, more push or developed on one side of the partial area fghj than on the other, before, this longitudinal force in a distance dx is

the shear stresses at the longitudinal cut. As before, V is the total ' force at a section, and I is the moment of inertia of the whole cross,n.al area about the neutral axis. Both V and I are constant at a section h a beam. Here Q is the statical moment around the neutral axis

I
In a solid beam, the force

yghj

ea y dA
resisting dF

- AsghiY
may be developed

Q
only
'the

of the cross section to one side of the imaginary lon~ y is the distance from the neutral axis of the beam to centroid of the partial area Afghj. Finally, t is the width of the imlongitudinal cut, which is usually equal to the thickness or width
cut,

partial

area and

plane fore,

of the assuming

longitudinal.cut that the

shear

taken parallel to the stress, is uniformly

axis

of the distributed

beam. 3

member. assumes

The dif erent

shear

stress values

at dif erent as the values

longitudinal of Q and

cuts through the t for such sections

section of width t, the shear stress in the longitudinal plane may tained by dividing dF by the area t dx. This yields the horizontal stress ,. For an infinitesimal element, however, numerically equal stresses 4 act on the mutually perpendicular planes; see Fig. 7-9Co). the same relation gives simultaneously the longitudinal shear stress the shear stress in the plane of the vertical section at the Ion
cut. 5

Care

must be exercised in making the longitudinal cuts preparatory for in Eq. 7-6. The proper sectioning of some cross-sectional areas of is shown in Figs. 7-10(a), (b), (d), and (e). The use of inclined planes shotfid be avoided unless the section is made across a small
When is vertical are usually
simultaneous

the and made

axis of symmetry of the in the plane of the applied

cross-sectional forces,

horizontal y.
values of horizontal

In such
and

cases,
vertical

the The beam.

section,

the solution
shear

area of the longitudinal of Eq. 7~

stresses, as

dF
dx t

This and

equation by Eq.

may

%5,

be simplified, q = VQ/I. Hence,

since

I VAfghjyVQ _ q1
* It I- - t
the
where
shape

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

dx It

dM

Aehiy

planes the plane

stresses

are mutually of the transverse

resist

the

shear

perpendicular, section

Eq.
same

1-2. the

force

through

at the

lat er stresses Collectively,

thus

act these

satisfying

according

to Eq.

7-1,

dM/dx

relation

of statics,

Fy

= 0. The

validity

of this
to determine These shear see

statement
the stresses 7-10(c).

for
shear
act

case wil be proved in Example For thin members only, Eq. 7-6 may ;ses with a cut such as f-g of Fig.

7-3. be used 7-10(b).

a vertical

Matching

plane act

shear

and

stresses

are

directed

act

horizontal y;

perpendicularly directions

to the
Fig.

plane obtained

of the
These
these shear

Equation
and

7-6
procedure
away
see

is the
from
Section

important
suited
changes

formula
to situations
agrees

for
in the

shear
the
positive
at the
of

stresses
section
the cross

in
sides
for
section.

3 This

are

is best
sense
5-8.

significant
7-6.

are

horizontal cuts, such as -g stresses do not contribute directly their significance wil be discussed

stresses

in entirely

dif erent

in Figs. 7-10(a) to the resistance in Section 7-7.

than

those
and

(d). As of vertical

by

limitations

4 Note
adopted is present

that

the

of positive,
through

with
the moments

the

sense

V in

5 The

presence

in Section at a section

of y in this

relation

M and M + dM. The magnitude of M is irrelevant for determining the stresses. Hence, alternately, no moment need be considered at one section the adjoining section, a bending moment dM is assumed to act. Then on a area of the section, such as the shaded area in Fig. 7-9(c), this bendin dM wil cause an average normal stress (dM)y/I, as given by In the lat er relation, y locates the fiber that is at an average distance from neutral axis in the partial area of a section. Multiplying (dM)y/I by the

a beam,

may

be explained

dif erently.

adjoining

If the

NA

(c)
h

area

prompted bridges

6 This

of the

by between

formula

section

observing Moscow

was

leads

derived

to the

horizontal and

by
St.

same

D.

cracks Petersburg.

I. Jouravsky

expression

for

in wood

in 1855.
ties

dF

as before. several

(a)

(b)

Centroid

of

cross-hatched

area

on

Its

development

of the

(d)

(e)

Fig.

740

Sectioning

for

partial

areas

of cross

sections

for

computing

shear

stresses.

370

Shear

Stresses

in

Beams

and

Related

Problems

Sec.

7-4.

The

Shear-Stress

Formula
v

for

Beams

Procedure

Summary

The fore
ever,

same three basic concepts of engineering are used in developing the formula for
their use is less direct.

shear

mechanics stresses

of solids in beams.

1. Equilibrium conditions are used (a) for determining the shear at a section, (b) by using the relationship between the change in bending moment along a span, (c) by determining the force at a longitudinal
element for obtaining the average shear

shear and
stress.

and

the
NA

section
is assumed
linearly

of a
such

2.

Geometry

of deformation,
that Since,

as in pure

bending,

plane

clusion axis.

sections

normal due

remain

strains to shear,

plane

in a section the cross

after

deformation,
accurate magnitudes

vary sections

leading
do not

from

to
remain
, be conveniently ess is found stresses
(a) (b)

_J

(c)

(d)

but warp, However,

members,

this assumption for small and

this assumption constitutive

is less moderate
is satisfactory.

than

for pure of shear, and

for

Fig.

7-tl

3. Material
solutions.

extension

properties

to other

are

considered

trated

sumed

These

forces

geometry

conditions
and/or
the

of deformation
changes

treat

the

problem
in the

is insensitive

cross-sectional

fore again reliance is largely words, only at distances

bances are solutions

accurate.

placed beyond

Therefore

on Saint-Venant's the member

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION x - VQ It _ IV t f r  y dA = as one-dimensional, and www.avs4you.com to the

depth
areas

relations

to obey

is possible

Hooke's

law,

expressed as b dy. By applying at level y of the beam. At the same act in the plane of the cross section,

cut,

7-6, the numerically Eq. 1-2.

Eq.

horizontal equal

shear vertical

fyha by dy
(7-7)

effects

of beams.
best

of

fghj

solutions

principle. from
are

such

In

slender for wide

complex warpage of their cross sections near the sides. An application of Eq. 7-6 for determining shear stresses in a rectan beam is given next. Based on the results obtained in this general discussion fol ows of the effect of shear on warpage of plane sections in beams. Then two additional examples on
of Eq.
EXAMPLE

members; longitudinal

see

Section sections,

%5. Further, solutions

rigorous are somewhat

solutions inaccurate

izontal
shear

equation

and

the vertical
beam. At
to

shows

that

shear

in a beam

stresses

vary

of rectangular

parabolically.
to zero. represented
the neutral

cross In

The

section,

maximum
plane *tax
the

both

value
stresses

the

hor-

of

stress
Fig.

is obtained 7-11(b), this

increasing

When y is equal is diagrammatically

distances from

the by
axis,

of the cross at the neutral

shear

diminish.
cease exist

At of the
7-11(d).

the
as y

upper
=

and
+ h/2.

lower
These

boundaries
values of the

of the
shear

beam,
stresses

the

shear
at the

%6

are
7-3

provided.

il(c).
shown

An

levels

isometric

view

beam

of the

may

beam

be represented

with

horizontal

by

the

and

parabola

vertical

shown

shear

in Fig.

stresses

7-

Derive gular
Solution

an cross

expression section

for transmit ing

the

shear-stress a vertical

distribution shear

in a beam V.

of

solid

the vertical the vertical Over the whole

found

To satisfy

in Fig.

the condition
shear shear cross-sectional

stresses, V. That this

of statics,

times their is the case area A of the

 Fy = 0, at a section

respective areas dA must be equal may be shown by integrating, dA beam, using the general expression

of the beam,

the sum

before.

The cross-sectional through the beam fghj of the cross

area of the beam is shown in Fig. 7-11(a). at a distance y from the neutral axis isolates section. Here t = b and the infinitesimal area

A longitudinal the partial

372

Shear

Stresses

in

Beams

and

Related

Problems

Sec. proof showing that the shear

7-5.

Warpage

of Plane

Sections

Due

to Shear

373

As

the

derivation

of Eq.

7-6

was

indirect,

this

integrated

over

the

section

equal

the

vertical

shear

is reassuring.
direction of the stresses.

Moreover,
shear
beam

?rom

Eq.

1-5:

an agreement in signs is found, this result indicates that the stresses at the section through a beam is the same as that This fact may be used to determine the sense of the shear As noted before, the maximum shear stress in a rectangular the neutral axis, and for this case, the general expression for by setting y = 0. Vh 2
rmax --

c9O'x + &rxy = 0
Ox Oy

:But
Eq. 1-5 integrating,

trx =
becomes

MyI

hence, ?

Ocrx
Ox

aM
Ox

y
I

Vy
I

Vh 2 8bh3/12
A is the entire

3 V 2 bh
cross-sectional

3 V 2 A
area. The

81
and

where

V is the

total

shear,

Vy 2
21

C Vh -2
81

result

may

be obtained

more

directly

if it is noted

that

to make

VQ/It axis, the area

;ince

Q must

attain

its largest

value,

as in this

case

V, I, and

t are bonstants.

property of the statical value of Q is obtained the neutral axis of the

moments of areas around by considering one-half beam. Hence, alternately,

a centroidal the cross-sectional

,y(+h/2)

= 0

one

has

C 1 +

Tmax -- I- -

VQ .v(b) (h) - 23VA [bh3\

'rxy = 'ryx = 
(74
agrees with the result found earlier, since here

_ y2
y = Yl.

Since beams of rectangular cross-sectional area are used frequently in Eq. 7-8b is very useful. It is widely used in the design of wooden beams the shear strength of wood on planes parallel to the grain is small. Thus, equal shear stresses exist on mutually perpendicular planes, wooden beam: a tendency to split longitudinally along the neutral axis. Note that the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com 5. Warpage of Plane Sections Due

 solution based This can on the also mathematical from theory

to Shear
for a rectangular preceding

of elasticity Eq.

beam

shear

stress

is 1 times

as great

as the average

shear

stress

V/A.

Neverthei
1-8).

subjected simultaneously perpendicular to the

be coficluded
law, shear to Hooke's

to bending beam axis

warp,

and
7-7

shear shows that plane i.e., they do not remain

derived in the

in the analysis of bolts and rivets, it is customary to determine their shear by dividing the shear force V by the cross-sectional area A (see Section practice is considered justified since the allowable and ultimate strengths tial y determined in this manner from tests. For beams, on the other

7-6 is generally
**Alternative

applied.

Solution

From the point of view of elasticity, internal stresses and strains in statically indeterminate. However, in the engineering theory discussed here: introduction of a kinematic hypothesis that plane sections remain plane ing changes this situation. Here, in Eq. 6-11, it is asserted that in a beam, -My/I. Therefore, one part of Eq. 1-5--that giving the dif erential e equilibrium for a two-dimensional problem with a body force X =
solve for the unknown shear stress. From the conditions of no shear stress

to strain, = + h/2. This beam, as shown qualitatively assumption of the simplified based on rigorous analysis,

Therefore, According

the

shear strains must stresses given by this equation, the maximum occurs at y = 0; conversely, behavior warps the initial y

be associated with shear Eq. 7-7 give rise to shear shear stress, hence, no shear strain takes plane sections through in Fig. 7-12, and contradicts the fundabending theory for pure flexure. Howwarpage of the sections is known to be

Lmportant
studies

This can for rectangular

only

for very

be substantiated cantilevers

short

members

by the shown

and

two-dimensional in Figs.

is negligibly
7-13

finite-element and 7-14. In both

small

for slender

top
is

and
found.

the

bottom

boundaries,

,yx

= 0 at y =

+h/2,

the

constant

of

In the elasticity the right face

OM/Ox =

V.

sign convention of an element

used as shown

here, positive in Fig. 1-5.

shear stress By analogy

acts upward this requires

374

Shear

Stresses

in

Beams

and

Related

Problems

Sec.

7-4.

Warpage

of Plane

Sections

Due

to Shear

375

sections

Plane

MPLE
the

7-4
simplified elastic-plastic theory, zone determine the of a rectangular shear-stress beam. distribution due to shear

r in the
ution

the
Maximum distortion neutral

situation occurs, elastic-plastic

that

for example, zone, the

in a cantilever external bending

dif erentiating

loaded moment
the above

as shown M =
equations,

in Fig. 7-15(a). -Px, whereas,

one notes

to Eq.
equality:

[
at axis

yo varies

6-40,

with

the internal
x and

resisting

moment

M = M v - crypbyo/3.

Upon

the

Fig.
a beam.

7-t2

Shear

distortions

in

by dots

instances,

in the

the

beams

figures.

are

To avoid

fixed

along

local

lines

disturbances

AB

at the

nodal

of the

points

type

ind
relation wil

dM = _p = dx
consider
the
ference

2byoo'3yp

dyo dx

Fig.
a short finite

7-t3

Deformed
cantilever element from

mesh
a

for

solution.

earlier in Fig. 2-31, in each case, applied forces P are bolically per Eq. 7-7 to the nodal points along lines CD. The displacements of the nodal points of the elements for both shown in the figures are greatly exaggerated. For the numerical used, they are increased by a factor of 3000 compared with the dimensions of the members. Considerable warpage of the initial y sections can be clearly observed for the short cantilever in Fig. 7-13 contrast, for the longer member in Fig. 7-14, the warpage of the is imperceptible. This study together with an examination of results as well as experimental measurements on beams suggests assumption of "plane sections" is reasonable. It should also be that if shear force V along a beam is constant and the boundaries no restraint, the warping of all cross sections is the same. strain distribution caused by bending remains the same as in pure Based on these considerations, a far-reaching conclusion can be that the presence of shear at a section does not invalidate for bending stresses derived earlier. It is cautioned, however, that local disturbances of stresses the points of load applications and the use of the elementary elastic for short beams is questionable.
c

be needed later. First, however, proceeding as in the elastic the equilibrium of a beam element, as shown in Fig. 7-15(b). Larger forces act on the right side of this element than on the left. By sepbeam at the neutral axis and equating the force at the cut to the diflongitudinal force, one obtains

in the

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'ro dx b = 0'yp
the width hating of the beam. After substituting b, one finds the maximum 'to ...

dyo

b/2
dyo/dx horizontal from the shear relation stress found %: (7-9)

tryp 2

dyo dx
area of the elastic-plastic

3P 4byo
elastic

3 P 2 Ao
section. 7-15(c). Since

Ao opposite

is the cross-sectional distribution normal

for

the

tudinal

forces

occurs

stresses

and

occur no shear

stresses

part of the cross case is shown in Fig. case, shown in Fig. 7-15(d). in the plastic zones, no unbalance

are

developed.

The This equal in longi-

Oyp

A
x

Fig.
long

solution

'744
cantilever.

deformation

showing

Finite

element of'a moderately

B

Elastic-plastic boundary

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig.

745

Shear

stress

distribution

in a rectangular

elastic-plastic

beam.

376

Shear

Stresses

in Beams

and

Related

Problems

Sec.

7-4.

Warpage

of Plane

Sections

Due

to Shear

377

This
criterion
stresses.

elementary
8

solution
yielding caused

has
by

been
the

refined
simultaneous

by using

a more
action of

careful y
normal and

of

For
Level
1-1

use in Eq.

7-5,
Arab?

the ratio

V/I
?

= 50,000/254
Q = Afghi7
0

= 197 lb/in 4.
q = VQ/I
0 3400 6.0
6.0 0.5 570 6800

x (,psi)
'0

0 0.5 x 6 = 3.00

'6 5.75

EXAMPLE

7-5

2-2

17.25

An
weight
Solution

I beam

is loaded

as shown

in Fig.

7-16(a).

If it has

the

cross

section

in Fig.

7-16(c),
of the

determine
beam.

the

shear

stresses

at the

levels

indicated.

Neglect

3-3
4-4
"Aghj

I 0.5 [0.5 x I 0.5 [0.5 x

From

the

free-body

diagram

of the

beam

segment

in Fig.

7-16(b),

it is seen

into the computed stresses

beam.

the vertical

present problem. in the fol owing are obtained by

shear

at all sections

The table dividing

is 50 kips.
shear using the

flow Eq. shear

Bending

at the various levels of the beam 7-5. Since x = q/t, Eq. 7-6, the flows by the respective widths of

moments

d not

enter

0 y is distance

is the partial
positive
on
with

= 0.3.0205 x 6 3.00 5.5 = 2.75

0.5
from

x 6

5.75 5.25 5.75 2.75

the neutral

in mm

area of the cross

section
axis

17' 1.32 1 5}18.56 3650 0.5 7300 17' 7.52 6 5}24.81 4890 0.5 9780
to the centraid
section This
For this

above

a given

of the partial

level

in in2o

area.

The downward
dncides

signs of x show that, the right face of the

the
the

for the elements.

force V.

considered, the stresses act sense of the shear stresses

reason, a strict adherence to

sense

of
sense.

shear

the I =
Appl.

sign
V and

convention
has same

is often
2-2, in to results half the 7-16(e) the two the

unnecessary.
widths are used

It is always
to determine

true

that
the

fAx
shear

dA
stress--one

is equal

6 x

123/12

5.5

113/12

254

in 4

to

8 D. C. Drucker,
Mech.

23 (1956):509-514.

"The

Effect

of Shear

100k
V=50k

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

first case, and 0.5 next section. The cable to the lower method similar to the curves in Fig. The variation of

on the Plastic

Bending

of Beams.

Note

that

at level

just

above

the

line

2-2,

(a)

k
q = 4890 lb/in
r = 570 psi
(d) (c) Section A-A (e)
distribution

second. This transition point wil be discussed in the obtained, which by virtue of symmetry are also appliof the section, are plot ed in Figs. 7-16(d) and (e). By a one used in the preceding example, it may be shown that are parts of a second-degree parabola. shear stress indicated by Fig. 7-16(e) may be interpreted

and

one

just

below.

A width

of 6 in corresponds

to the

as is shown
and the vertical

in Fig.
shear

7-16(0.
stresses

The

maximum
throughout

shear
the web

stress

occurs
of the beam

at the
are

neutral
nearly

axis,
of the

rma x = 9780

psi

same magnitude. The small. For this reason, imated by dividing the the web height assumed
Hence,

vertical shear stresses occurring in the flanges are very the maximum shear stress in an I beam is often approxtotal shear V by the cross-sectional area of the web with equal to the beam overall height, area abcdin Fig. 7-16(0.
v

(b)

('rmax)apprx
In the example considered, this gives
50,000

-- Aweb

(7-10)

(g)

('rmax)apprx
This
For
Shear-stress

0.5 X 12
from
closer

8330 psi
found by the
to the true

stress
most

dif ers
cross

by about
sections,

15 percent
a much

the one

accurate
maximum

formula.
shear

approximation

Fig.

7-t6

stress may be obtained by dividing the shear only. For the above example, this procedure an error of only about 8 percent. It should

by the gives be clear

web area between a stress of 9091 from the above

the flanges psi, which that division

is

378

Shear Stresses
of V by the
not 3-3 faces
elements

in Beams
whole
of the

and Related
area
at the neutral

Problems
of the
axis

Sec. 7-6. Some

beam
is shown

Limitations

of the Shear-Stress

Formula

cross-sectional
beam

to obtain
in Fig.

the
7-16(g).

shear
At

An

permissible. and

element

2-2, of the
at

bending elements.
level 1-1.

stresses, No

in addition shear stresses

to the shear and only

stresses, bending

act on the stresses act

oni
(a)

The
ceding
section axis. always

sides
examples.

of cross

sections
If they
maximum Eq.

were
are
7-6,

assumed
parallel,

to be parallel
both Q and
occur

in all th e:
t vary
shear a
at the stres..
VO /
y

not

example for angular cross section such a maximum shear stress is midway the apex and the base. For such cross sections, the stresses a longitudinal section, and are particularly inaccurate near sides; see Fig. 7-18. Similar results may develop at longitudinal
taken at an angle with the axes.

level, and the However, using be found. For

shear stress may not the maximum average it can be shown that

vary the
1
(b)

The gitudinal

same

procedures shear stresses

as described in composite

*7-6.
The

Some'
shear-stress

Limitations
formula for

of
beams

the

Hence,
material

all

of the

limitations
to be elastic

imposed
with

is assumed

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Shear-Stress
is based

before beams

are used at bonded

for

determining or glued

Formula

Fig. 748

on

the

flexure

shear boundary

stresses

Modification
conditions.

to satisfy

of

the

on the

flexure

formula

apply,
in

the

same

elastic

modulus

or three-dimensional
solution.

finite-element

analysis

must

be used

to obtain

as in compression. Moreover, there

ure formula. Some

The theory are additional

of these wil

developed limitations
be discussed

applies only that are not

now.

to straight present in the

7-5. The
no

Fortunately,
stresses

The

Consider a section through of the results of this analysis stresses computed earlier for
a.
J2

the

are

I beam analyzed reproduced

level
is zero

1-1
for

apply
this

in Example in Fig. 7-17. to the infinitesimal

Likewise,

vertical shear stresses occur in the web and,

the above

defect

of the shear-stress

in the flanges for all practical

formula

are small. purposes,

for beams
The

large are cor-

is

given
for the

derived

by Eq.
stresses

The

vertical

shear

stress

element.

570

psi

stresses exist on the top plane of the beam. This is as it should be, the top surface of the beam is a free surface. In mathematical T this means that the conditions at the boundary are satisfied. For of rectangular cross section, the situation at the boundaries is
A

shear

belong

in this

7-6.
for

to this

chapter

No

appreciable
for

group.

a beam

Moreover,
with

thin-walled

error

a rectangular

as stated

members,

is involved
cross

earlier,

and

by using
section

the majority

the

the

solution

is cor-

In mechanical
These conditions

beams

the

dif erent I beam

condition at levels

2-2

is found when are scrutinized.

the

shear

stresses

The

shear

stresses

were

beams for

having

applications,
are circular

a solid
not

"thin-walled." members,

circular

circular
Fig.

cross

shafts

An examination 7-18(a), leads

section

frequently

form

act a beams.
of the boundto the conclusion

an important

i70

psi

conditions at the

Fig.

7-t7
levels

Boundary
are 2-2.

not

satisfied

to be 570 requires flanges. as they that cannot ids. The

psi for the elements such as b or c shown in the figure. matching horizontal shear stresses on the inner surfaces oft However, the lat er surfaces must be free of the shear stress{ are free boundaries of the beam. This leads to a be resolved by the methods of engineering mechanics more advanced techniques of the mathematical theory of

shear stresses are present, ,. As no matching shear stress shear stress component can to Eq. 7-6, vertical shear such as ac in Fig. 7-18(b). for elements a and c,

they must act parallel to the boundcan exist on the free surface of a beam, act normal to the boundary. However, stresses of equal intensity act at every This is incompatible with the boundary and the solution indicated by Eq. 7-6 is

380

Shear

Stresses

in

Beams

and

Related

Problems

Sec.

7-7.

Shear

Stresses

in Beam

Flanges
c

inconsistent.
neutral
of their

9 Fortunately,
axis
true

the
boundary
2o

maximum
conditions

shear
and

stresses
are within

occuzJng
about 5

satisfy
value.

the

C
c
h

f
rt dx J
F+dF

*7-7.

Shear

Stresses

in Beam

Flanges

  h/2

In an I beam, the existence of shear stresses acting in a vertical tudinal cut as c-c in Fig. 7-19(a) was indicated in Fig. 7-2(f) and 7-4. These shear stresses act perpendicular to the plane of the paper. magnitude may be found by applying Eq. 7-6, and their sense considering the bending moments at the adjoining sections throu beam. For example, if for the beam shown in Fig. 7-19Co), positive b moments increase toward the reader, larger normal forces act on then section. For the elements shown, ,t dx or q dx must aid the smaller acting on the partial area of the cross section. This fixes the sense shear stresses in the longitudinal cuts. However, numerically equal stresses act on the mutually perpendicular planes of an infinitesimal ment, and the shear stresses on such planes either meet or part with directional arrowheads at a corner. Hence, the sense of the shear st in the plane of the section becomes known also. The magnitude of the shear siresses varies for the dif erent cuts. For example, if cut c-c in Fig. 7-19(a) is at the edge of the the hatched area of the beam's cross section is zero. However, thickness of the flange is constant, and cut c-c is made closer to the web, this area increases from zero at a linear rate.

(a)

(b)

as y remains

constant

foi

any

such

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

area, Q also increases linearly
(c)

zero toward the web. Therefore, since through the beam, shear flow qc = the thickness of the flange remains It varies similarly. The same variation of the axis of symmetry of the cross from Fig. 7-19Co), these quantities in opposite directions on the two sides. or shear flows is represented in Fig.
assumed that the web has zero thickness.

V and I are constant at any VQ/I fol ows the same the same, the shear stress ,c = of q and , applies on both section. However, as may be the plane of the cross section The variation of these 7-19(c), where for simplicity,

Fig. 749
In common

Shear
with all

forces
stresses,

in the flanges
the shear

of an I beam
stresses

act perpendicularly
shown in Fig. 7-19(c),

to the axis

of symmetry.

integrated magnitude 19(d), is equal

area

over the area of the horizontal to the average

flange, i.e.,

on which force shear

they act, are equivalent to a force. F for one-half of the flange, Fig. stress multiplied by one-half of the

of the

However, a better approximation of the true stresses may be obtained simply. First, an assumption is made that the shear stress as found by gives a true component of the shear stress acting in the vertical direction. since at every level, the shear stresses at the boundary must act tangent boundary, the lines of action of these shear stresses intersect at some A in Fig. 7-18(b). Thus, a second assumption is made that all shear stresses

9 The

exact

elastic

solution

of this

problem

is beyond

the

scope

of this
I beam

F= (?:)(b_)
transmits a vertical shear,

or F]= (q:x)()
these horizontal forces act

(7-11)
in the

given level the shear

system

Dover,

z0 A.

found
1944),

act in a direction stress at any point

E.

H.

in the
348.

Love,

above

Mathematical

toward such manner

a single'point, as F becomes
is consistent.

as A in Fig. 7-18(b). equal to ?,/cos

(b. The

section, cause To

lower flanges. However, because these equal forces occur in pairs no apparent external effect. determine the shear flow at the juncture

of the symmetry and oppose each of the flange

of the other, and the

cross and web,

Theory

of Elasticity,

4th

ed.

(New

computing flange

in Fig.

7-19(a), the whole area of the flange times the value of Q. However, since in finding area times the same y has already been used,

y must be used qc-m, one-half the sum of the

382

Shear two

Stresses horizontal

in Beams shear flows

and

Related coming

Problems in from opposite sides gives the

found in the usual manner. Along the horizontal

Sec.
legs

7-8.

Shear

Center
channel,

383

of the

shear

flow

n at cut a-a.

Hence,

figuratively

speaking,

the horizontal

flows "turn through Thus, the shear flows be determined in the

over, as
shear

90 and merge at the various manner explained

to the vertical
flows in

to become horizontal in the

shear
the web

the vertical cuts through preceding

V in thin-walled

shear flo the web sections.

I

the
stresses

resistance

developed
the

mainly

in the
and shear

web,

it is so shown

in Fig.
coincides

7-19(d).
with

The
the

sen

quantities vary linearly from the free edge, just as they do for one of the flange in an I beam. The variation of q and, is parabolic along web. The variation of these quantities is shown in Fig. 7-20(b), where are plot ed along the center line of the channel's section. shear stress ,a/2 multiplied by the areas of the flange gives force Fz = ('d2)bt, and .the sum of the vertical shear stresses over the a of the web is the shear V = J--h/ r+h/22 'fl-  dy.2 These shear forces acting

of the shear V. Note that the vertical shear flow "splits" upon the lower flange. This is represented in Fig. 7-19(d) by the two that are the result of the horizontal shear flows in the flanges. The shear forces that act at a section of an I beam are shown in 7-19(d), and, for equilibrium, the applied vertical forces must act the centroid of the cross-sectional area to be coincident with V. If forces are so apphed, no torsion of the member wil occur. This is for all sections having cross-sectional areas with an axis of avoid torsion of such members, the applied forces must act in the of symmetry of the cross section and the axis of the beam. A beam an unsymmetrical section wil be discussed next.

the

V and a couple Fh are developed at the section through the Physically, there is a tendency for the channel to twist around longitudinal axis. To prevent twisting and thus maintain the appli' of the initial y assumed bending-stress distribution, the externally be applied in such a manner as to balance the internal le Fh. For example, consider the segment of a cantilever beam of weight, shown in Fig. 7-20(d), to which a vertical force P is

a force

plane

of the

cross

section

are

shown

in Fig.

7-20(c)

and

indicate

Shear

Center

Consider a beam having the cross section of a channel; see Fig. 7-201 The walls of this channel are assumed to be sufficiently thin that computations may be based on center line dimensions. Bending channel takes place around the horizontal axis and although this section does not have a vertical axis of symmetry, it wil be assumed
the bending further that stresses are this channel given resists by the usual a vertical flexure shear, formula. the bending

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

e ...

this applied force in equilibrium, an equal and opposite shear V must be developed in the web. Likewise, to cause no twisting of channel, couple Pe must equal couple Fh. At the same section the channel, bending moment PL is resisted by the usual flexural (these are not shown in the figure). expression for distance e, locating the plane in which force P must applied so as to cause no twist in the channel, may now be obtained: remembering that Fh = Pe and P = V,

parallel

to the web

at a distance

e from

the web's

center

line.

T9

F]h
P

(1/2),bth
P

bth VQ
2P It

bth Vbt(h/2)
2P It

b2h2t
41

(7-12)

wil

By

vary from one section taking an arbitrary

thickness

through vertical
cannot
may dif er
F1

cut
be made

the

beam as c-c
with
that

to another. in Fig. 7-20(a),

of the

q and
shear stressesi

Note
as well
section

that distance
as of its
and
force.

e is 'independent
location
measured

of the magnitude
the
from

of applied
e is a property
of the web to

force
of
the

along
outward

beam.
the

Distance
center

the
8

n The
r orq

same

of the

statement

flange

from

regard

web.

to the

is

A similar

investigation
for this

that
rf or qt

cross
center cross
]2 When
(b) (c)
(d)

section

may be made to locate the plane in which the must be applied so as to cause no twist in the channel. the channel considered, by virtue of symmetry, it may be plane coincides with the neutral plane of the former case. of these two mutually perpendicular planes with the plane

locates
lies

a point

that

is called

the shear

center.

J3 The

is designated section
the thickness

by the let er on a longitudinal

S in Fig. line

7-20(c). parallel

The shear to the axis

convenient

center of the
to find F]
q

. Since
1921.

V by using

the flanges Eggenschwyter

the

respective
are

of a channel
the

thin, and

vertical R. Mail art

shear

flows,

is variable,

shear force of Switzerland

i.e.,

F]

it is more
carried

= (qa/2)b

by them clarified this

and

is negligible. concept

J-hi2 2 V = c+h/

only

Fig.

7-20

Deriving

location

of shear

center

for

a channel.

384

Shear

Stresses

in Beams

and

Related

Problems

Sec.

7-8.

Shear

Center

385

beam. torsion when place shear For is always

Any transverse of the beam. a member of around the shear center is sometimes cross-sectional located on
area. section.

the shear center ca of this problem any cross-sectional area is twisted, the twist center, which remains fixed. For this reaso called the center of twist. areas having one axis of symmetry, the shear the axis of symmetry. For those that have
coincides for the with I beam the that centreid of the was considered

force applied through A detailed investigation

PLE

7-7

the approximate
n
>lution

shown

in Fig.

7-22(a).

location

Note

of the shear
that the

flanges

center

are unequal.

for the cross

section

of the I

is cross

of symmetry, sectional previous

the shear center This is the case

If the relatively center

the
rium.

of thick

The

exact

material

is thin, as has been assumed in the preceding simple procedures may always be devised to locate of the cross section. The usual procedure consists of
forces, as F and V before, at a section, and then

materials

location

' is dif icult

of the

shear

to obtain

center

and is known

for

unsymmetrical

only

in a few
the
findin

cross

bending and Web to the resistance Let the shear V2. section, from be determined
such

it; where

section

it is located
force

has a horizontal

shear

For 
to

shear

location

of the

external

force

necessary

to keep

these

forces

in

a beam is distributed parabolically, Fig. 7-22(b), and since the area of a is two-thirds of the base times the maximum altitude, V2 = b2(q2)max. since the total shear V = P, by Eq. 7-5, (q2)max = VQ[I = PQ[I, where is the statical moment of the upper half of the right-hand flange, and I is the
of inertia of the whole section. Hence,

actually

an ordinary

stresses only of applied force resisted by the equilibrium, V M, = 0, Pe = solve the problem.

remains

to be answered.

axis

of symmetry

rectangular

in the flanges, P is negligible. left flange + V2 = P. V2h (or Pf This may

Applied
of the

and the shear

and

the contribution
beam

force

center

P causes

is located

signif-

of the
(a)

beam.

The

be done

Likewise, = Vh).

shear

by noting

to have Thus, only

be V, and

stress

(or shear

that

no twist of V2 remains
the right

by the

flow)

Shear

flow

in

right

flange
(h)

EXAMPLE

7-6

Find the approxirfiate of the channel shown

Solution

location in Fig.

of the 7-21.

shear

2 Pe = V2h = b2(q2)m, , h - hb2PQ I NON-ACTIVATED VERSION e=- -Q= 31 2 7=7'12 www.avs4you.com

center for a beam with the cross

Fig.

7-22

2hb2_

2hb2

b2t2

b2

h t2b 3

hi2

(7-14)

Instead of using Eq. 7-12 directly, some further simplifications may be made. moment of inertia of a thin-walled channel around its neutral axis may with sufficient accuracy by neglecting the moment of inertia of the flanges their own axes (only!). This expression for I may then be substituted into Eq.
12 and; after simplifications, a formula for e of channels is obtained.

as is to be expected.

web

12 is the moment of inertia it may be shown that

of the beam is thin,

as originally

of the right-hand f = hI/I, where

assumed,

flange around the neutral axis. I applies to the left flange. If

I  I + 12, and e + = h,

I /web
b2h2t

+ (Ad2)nanges
b2h2t

= th3/12
+ th3/12)

+ 2bt(h/2)
b

2 = th3/12

+ bth2/2
(7-1

41
Equation its maximum
10"

4(bth2/2

2 + h/3b
the width h is very of flanges b is very large, e approaches
value between

of

zero.

Otherwise,

7-13 shows that when value of b/2. When

e assumes

an

intermediate

large, its minimum

these

two

For

the

numerical

data
e

given
=

in Fig.

7-21,
= 1.82 1.87 in from in the outside

analysis leads to the conclusion that the shear center for a angle is located at the intersection of the center lines of its legs, as shown in Figs. 7-23(a) and (b). This fol ows since the shear flow every section, as c-c, is directed along the center line of a leg. These shear flows yield two identical forces, F, in the legs. The vertical components of these forces equal the vertical shear applied through S. An
situation is also found for any angle or T section, as shown in

A similar

2 +
-

10/(3
0.05

x 5)
=

Figs.

particularly
4 For

7-24(a)
further

and (b). The

important
details,

in aircraft
York:

location

of the shear

applications.

center
and

14

for various
Design of Flight

members
Vehicle

Hence,

the
the channel.

shear

center

S is 1.87

Fig.

7.2t

of

Structures

(Cincinnati:

(New

Tri-State,

see E. F. Bruhn,

McGraw-Hil ,

1965).

See also

Analysis

1956).

P. Kuhn,

Stresses

in Aircraft

386

Shear

Stresses

in Beams

and Related

Problems
an be combined
.sses as well as the

Sec 7-9. Combined

vectorial y.5
maximum

Direct
the
shear

and Torsional
maximum
stress for beams

Shear
torsional

Stresses
shear
occur at

387

Generally,
direct

c

ihe boundaries
Stresses

of these

stresses of such
to

of cross

gives the members,

shear stresses

sections

combined a vectorial

and

are collinear.
shear
sum

stress at a point. However, of the direct and torsional

before,

Therefore,

an algebraic

In treating
addition

is necessary.

beam

the

problems,

as noted
act

discussed

earlier,

it must

be recognized
generally,

normal

that
dis-

{)

{)

(a)

{b)

;ses
the

Fig. 7-23 equal leg

P

Shear angle

center for is at S.

an

Fig.
sections

7-24

Shear
shown

center
is at S.

for

for

caused by bending combining such

in the next chapter.

also normal

on the stresses

elements considered. with shear stresses

are

Proce-

ssed

in order to prevent torsion of a. beam, the shear center. When such a force forms an: with the vertical, it is best to resolve it into components alo.g the axes of the cross section, as shown in Fig. 6-38. If force P is outside shear center S, as shown in Fig. 7-25, two equal but forces P can be introduced at S without changing the problem. addition to the stresses caused by P applied at S, the torsional caused by the torque equal to Pd must be considered, as Chapter 4.
force must act through the

As

remarked

earlier,

VIPLE

7-8

the maximum shear diameter high-strength

with

stress steel

due to the applied forces in plane shaft shown in Fig. 7-26(a).

A-B

of the

10-

25 The

Fig.

inverse
4-34.

problem

of resolving

a shear

stress

was

considered

in connection

It is to be noted
chapter,
Transformation

that

generally,
this

in addition
usually
of state

a channel.

Fig.

7-25

Torsion-bending

of

in this
ered.
is

bending
of

stresses
kind

8. In the
considered.

remainder

of this

chapter,

only

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

N

250

to the shear
act on
stress

stresses

discu

also
of

the

elements

con

is discussed

T=

20

N'm

20

N-m

superposition

of the

shear

V=250N M = 25 N-m

T=20

N-m

{a)

(b)

7-9.

Combined

Direct

and

Torsional

Shear

Stresses

The analysis for combined direct and torsional shear stresses consists two parts that are then superposed. In one of these parts, the direct stresses are determined using the procedures of Part A of this in the second, the shear stresses caused by torques susceptible methods of analysis treated in Chapter 4 are used. The two analyses for combined shear stresses must be determined the same elementary area regardless of cause. Multiplying these


(c) (d)
Fig. 7-26

B
iA
(e)
(f)

by the respective

area

gives

forces.

since

these

forces

can

torial y, on reversing the process, i.e., initial area, one obtains the combined the shear stresses acting on the same

on dividing the vector sum b shear stress. Such being the plane of an inf'mitesimal

Shear

Stresses

in

Beams

and

Related

Problems

Sec. (Tmax)torsio n -..

E= representation planes
it is located

7-10. -20

Stresses
X 103
982

in Closely
X 5

Coiled = 102 MPa 4 MPa

Helical

Springs

389

Solution

Tc
J

Since only the shaft need not in Fig. 7-26(b). in equilibrium

bending moment,

stresses due to the applied forces are required, be considered. The free-body of a segment The system of forces at the cut necessary consists of a torque, T = 20 N.m, a shear,
M = 25 N.m.

the of the shaft to keep this V = 250

is

(*m,,)aieot

VQ
It

4V
3A

4 x 250
3 x 78.5

102

4 =

106MPa matching stress stresses acts on on this

Due

the maximum at points

to torque T, the shaft and reach the

shear

shear stresses in cut A-B vary maximum value given by Eq.

agreeing E in Fig. in sense 7-26(c). with the

A,

B,

stresses, D, and

linearly from the 4-3, m, = Tc/J. resisting torque T, are

longitudinal

of.the is shown
on the neutral

shear stress at E with the in Fig. 7-26(0. No normal

axis.

Eq.

The

7-6,

direct

= VQ/[t.

shear

stresses

For

elements

caused

A and

by

shear

B, Fig.

force

7-26(d),

V may

Q = 0; hence,

be obtained

by

The shear stress reaches its maximum the cross-hatched area shown in Fig. centraid to the neutral axis. The lat er of the cross-sectional area; see Table

value at level ED. For this, Q is 7-26(d) multipqed by.the distance quantiW is y = 4c/3r, where c is the 2 in the Appendix. Hence,
rc 2 4c 2C 3

*a7-10.

Stresses

in Closely
one certain
be

Coiled
shown
limitations, similar limited

Helical

Springs

Q=
Moreover, since t = 2c, and

2 3,r
the

I = ,lrb4/4,

VQ _ V 2C 3 4
It 2c 3

where derived shear direction To

A is the entire in Example stress is shown agrees with find the maximum

7-3

cross-sectional for a beam acting down the direction combined

area of the of rectangular

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com This section is on a specialized topic, and

maximum direct shear stress
TfC 4

_ 4V
31rC

_ 4V
3A

spring's

springs, such as the of machines. With for stresses by a method The discussion wil or wires of circular cross wil be assumed to axis of the spring. This With this limitation,

7-27(a), are often used as these springs may be anato the one used in the preceding to springs manufactured from

in Fig.

section?

Moreover,

any

one

coil

of such
to toof

rod becomes

nearly

lie in a plane that is nearly requires that the adjoining a section taken perpendicular

vertical.

8 Hence,

to maintain

petI)endicular coils be close to the axis

equilibrium

a segment

quired

of the spring, at any section

discussion

only

a shear

through

force the rod;

see A.M.

V = F and a torque see Fig. 7-27(b). Note

Wahl, axial Mechanical force and
F

T = that
Springs

rod.

(A

similar

section.)
areas

on the elementary of shear V. shear stress in plane

expression 7-26(d), at E, C, and D.

In

Fig.

on

springs,

is optional.
an

Penton,

1944).

This

A-B,

the

stresses

eliminates at the section

the

necessity taken' through

of

considering the spring.

F

a bending

in Figs.
stress direction. torsional The

7-26(c)
is at E, There shear combined

and
since

(d) are

superposed.

Inspection

shows

that

the

maximum

in the two are no direct stress. The two shear stresses

diagrams, the shear stresses at E act in the shear stresses at A and B, while at C there shear stresses act in opposite directions at the five points, A, B, C, D, and E,

of the interior points, require magnitudes. Since the torsional than those at the boundary,
J .. I =

no
the

formal shear maximum

vectorial addition stresses at the interior combined shear

 x
32

for
points occurs are at E.

=2c

T=
V=F

F7

d 4
32
J

104

982

1111114
the

491

mm

4
F

A =  'rrd2 = 78.5 mm 2

Axiofs
spring

(a)

(b)

Fig. 7-27 Closely helical spring.

coiled

390
T = FT

Shear

Stresses

in Beams

and

Related

Problems

Sec.

7-tt.

Deflection
1.6

of Closely

Coiled

Helical

Springs

39'

F (up)

? is the
cross-sectional

distance it should

from
area.

the

axis that

of the in previous

spring

to the work,

centroid it has been

of the

Here

be noted

F (down)
FT

Fig.

7-28

that if a shear is present at a section, a change in the bending must take place along the member. Here a shear acts at every the rod, yet no bending moment nor a change in it appears to occur. is so only because the rod is curved. Such an element of the rod from the top is shown in Fig. 7-28. At both ends of the element, the ton are equal to by, and, using vectorial representation, act in the shown. The component of these vectors toward the axis of the spring resolved at the point of intersection of the vectors, 2by drb/2 = by opposes the couple developed by the vertical shears V = F, which
? d4) apart. The maximum

.4
.3
1.2

k
2 4 6

Springaxis---
8 10 12 14

1.1
1.0

factors

Fig.

7-29

for

Stress-concentration
helical

round-wire

Spring

index,

m = 

27

compression
springs.

or tension

shear

stress

at an arbitrary

section

through

the

rod

be
and

obtained
the direct

as in the
shearing

preceding
stresses.

example,
This maximum

by

superposing
shear stress

the
occurs

torsi
at'

o
hence,

iled

inside of the coil at point E, Fig. 7-27(b). springs, it has become customa,7 to assume by the direct shear force is uniformly distributed area of the rod. Hence, the nominal direct the cross section is, = F/A. Superposition torsional shear stress at E gives the maximum Thus, since T = by, d = 2c, and J = 'rrd4/32,

,m =
It is seen
small also in relation becomes

+-f
this
to the

= J
equation
coil On the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com + 1 ,rrd 3 + 1

and

However, in the that the shear stress over the shear stress for any of this nominal direct combined shear

K may be interpreted as a stress-concentration factor for closely helical springs made from circular rods. A plot of K vs. the spring shown TM in Fig. 7-29. For heavy springs, the spring index is small; the stress-concentration factor K becomes important. For all
factor K accounts for the correct amount of direct shear stress.

; high

stresses are used

are commonly in their fabrication.

allowed
For

in springs good-quality

because
spring

high-strength steel,

work-

ing

shear

stresses

range

anywhere of

from

200

to 700 Helical
coiled
confined

MPa

(30 to 100 ksi). Springs

Deflection

Closely

Coiled
be

completeness,

the

deflection

of closely
wil

helical
to closely

springs
coiled

wil
hel-

be

Ilscussed

in this

section.

Attention

from
small.

that
radius other

as the
?, the hand,

diameter
effect if the

of the
of the reverse direct

rod
is true,

d
shear the

term in the parentheses the results indicated

should not be used, as it is based on the torsion formula for straight As d becomes numerically comparable to ?, the length of the inside of the coil dif ers greatly from the length of the outside fibers, and

becomes by Eq. 7-16

important. However, in the lat er are considerably in error, and Eq.

assumptions The spring

mathematical theory of elasticity, and while these results for any one spring, they may be made to depend on a single m = 27/d, which is called the spring index. Thus, Eq. 7-16
writ en as

of strain problem

used in the torsion has been solved

formula exactly

are not applicable. m by the methods

a large spring index, i.e., the diameter of the wire wil in comparison with the radius of the coil. This permits of an element of a spring between two closely adjoining through the wire as a straight circular bar in torsion. The effect direct shear on the deflection of the spring wil be ignored. This is permissible as the lat er effect is small. Consider a helical spring such as shown in Fig. 7-30. A typical element of this spring is subjected throughout its length to a torque T = bY. torque causes a relative rotation between the two adjoining planes, and B, and with sufficient accuracy, the amount of this rotation may by using Eq. 4-14, d4) = T dx/JG, for straight circular bars. this equation, the applied torque T = bY, dx is the length of the
G is the shear
wire's

springs assumed treatment

with small

modulus
cross-sectional

of elasticity,
area.

and

J is the

polar

moment

may

be

inertia

of

the

If the
20 An true

plane
analytical value
-

A of the
expression is frequently

wire
that used.

is imagined
gives This

fixed,
the value expression

the

rotation

of the

plane
of rn is
for
D

'rmax
9 O. Goehner, "Die des Vereins deutscher Berechnung Ingenieure

= K 16by ,rd--
Schraubenfedern," 1932): 269.

(7-1

(4rn
for

Zylindrischer 76/1 (March

curvature

1)/(4rn of some

- 4) + 0.615/rn. It was simplifying assumptions

in helical springs.

derived by A.M. Wahl in the 1940s and is known as the Wahl correction

of K within 1 or 2 percent in terms of spring index

Fig.

a helical

7-30

Deriving

spring.

deflection

392

Shear

Stresses

In

Beams

and

Related

Problems

Problems

B is given by the foregoing to the movement of force angle d4, i.e., CD = BC

tance CD is also small, and

expression. The contribution F at C is equal to distance

BC

d4. However,
this distance

since
may

element
be considered

of this multiplied AB is
*EXAMPLE
the
outside
10 live

A - 6473
7-9

or

n

(although it is an arc) to line BC. Moreover, only the vertical of this deflection is significant, as in a spring consisting of many for any element on one side of the spring, there is a coxes alent element on the other. The diametrically opposite elements spring balance out the horizontal component of the deflection and only the vertical deflection of force F. Therefore, by finding the
increment ED of the deflection and summing such increments of the whole spring is obtained.
From similar triangles
ED

maximum stress in the 15-mm diameter steel a 3-kg mass freely'fal ing through 0.5 m. The diameter inserted into the system is made
coils. Let E = 200 GPa and G = 80 GPa.

rod shown in Fig. 7-31 steel helical spring of 35 of 5-mm round wire and

for

of force F due all elements

CBH,

to an element of the spring,

of s

static

CDE
HB

and

deflection is computed

of the 3-kg first. It consists

mass

exerting of two parts:

a force of 3g the deflection

29.4 of the

N on the rod given

.125m
Fig. 7-3t

Eq.

2-9,

and
15 mm. is found.

the

deflection
Then, This
area A

of the
from force
= r x 152/4

spring
=

given
177 mm

by
2.

Eq.
force stress

7-18b.
acting in the

For

use

in Eq.

CD = B-

or

ED =-HB
may be denoted of the spring by dA,

CD

18b,

? = the rod
cross-sectional

Eq. 2-28, the dynamic is used for finding the

on the spring rod. Here the

However, CD = BC d4, HB = ?, and ED represents an infinitesimal vertical deflection of an element AB. Thus, dA = ? dqb and

A =

dA =

However, T = F, and for a closely coiled spring, the length L of  wire may be taken with sufficient accuracy as 2,rN, where N is the ber of live or active coils of the spring. Hence, the deflection A spring is

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION ?dqb = ? JG JG www.avs4you.com = W (1 + 1 + 2tt)=29.4 (1 + /1 + 2x 500h

29.4 x 750 x 177 x 200 103
+

--- A ro d q- A spr = 

PL

q-  Gd
64 x 80

64F?3N

29.4

153 x

10

103

54

1.27

mm

Pdyn A

855 177

4.8 MPa

A - 2F3N JG
or if the value of J for the wire
A

(7-1

a free fal of the mass of 0.5 m without the 210 MPa. For the system with the spring, to Asp r.

spring, most

an elastic'rod of the reduction

stress would in stress

is

is substituted,
---

'robiems
7-3
4

64F3N
Gd

The

Equations 7-18a and 7-18b give the deflection of a closely coiled spring along its axis when such a spring is subjected to either a or compressive force F. In these formulas, the effect of the direct stress on the deflection is neglected, .i.e., they give only the effect
torsional deformations.

shown

cross section x 6 in member in the figure.

of a beam reinforced What forces

made

with

up of a ful a 2 x 6 in plank are exerted on 20d

(20-penny) common nails, spaced 6 in apart and staggered, when force P = 500 lb is applied to the middle of the span? Calculate the shear flow two ways: using the cross section of the plank and then using the cross section of the larger member.

The constant
from

behavior k. From
a wire with

of a spring Eq. 7-18b,

a circular

may be the spring

cross section

conveniently constant
is

for

def'med a helical

by spring

its
Fig. P74

394
7-2. The a uniformly imated for figure. If penny) box in the cross along the
lb in shear. 900
...

Shear

Stresses

in

Beams

and

Related

Problems

Problems

395
5O

shear

for the box beam supporting distributed load is conservatively approxdesign by the stepped diagram shown in the the beam is nailed together with 16d (16nails from four ful -sized pieces, as shown section, what nail spacing should be used span? Assume that each nail is good for 75

diagram

shown, gion

determine of the span.

the The

bolt bolts

spacing for are arranged

the in

a total the

vertical spacing

shear of 150 k is transmit ed, of rivets A and B? For

the

what girder

the
kN.

allowable
A wooden has the
transmits

shear

force

per

high-strength
made shown

bolt
up from 2-in  the figure.

is

und

the

neutral

axis,
rivet

I is .14,560
is good shear, and

in 4. Assume
for 6.63 k in single 11.3 k in beating

a-in

7-5. boards,
beam

box beam, dimensions

a vertical shear

s and note that one 13.25 k in double a -in plate.

of 760

lb,

what

A simply
of a C

supported
12 x 20.7

beam
and

has
a W

a cross
18 x

section
50 fastened

con6
If this
force

be
lb
1 600
I

the

longitudinal

spacing

of

the

nails

(a)

2" 
lb
I

necting necting

board board

A with D with

boards boards

B and C, and B and C?

(b)

apart
is

' 4a-in-diameter in each row,

loaded with

bolts as shown
a downward

spaced longitudinally in the figure.

concentrated

00 mrn_.
Fig. sectional view. If the P7-t0 22-mm-diameter rivets are

112
moment

k in the
in the bolts?
of

middle
Neglect
inertia

of the
the
the I of

span,
weight
whole

what
of
member

is the
the

shear
beam.
around

I I
L ..

neutral

axis

is 1120

in 4.

Shear

diagram

spaced

125

mm

apart

longitudinally,

what

shear

stress

wil
Fig. P7-2

be developed

in the rivets

by the

applied

loading?

The
6.78"

axis

moment

is approximately

of inertia
7.4 and
a solid

4300

of the girder
7-5

x 106 mm 4.

around

;the neutral

7-3. A- 10-in square box beam 2-in thick wood pieces. Two sidered, as shown in the figure. shown in (a) can be turned Select the design requiting nailing for transmit ing shear. transmit ed by this member spacing for the best design? with 16d (16-penny) box nails
each in shear.

is to be possible Moreover, 90 in the the minimum (b) If is 620 lb, The nailing that are

made designs
application.

from four are conthe design

(a)

Fig.

P7-5
11.50"

amount of the shear to be what is the nail is to be done good for 50 lb

7-6. Two'W 8 x 67 beams are arranged as the figure. Determine the bending and shear of this member if the allowable bending stress and the shear capacity of each bolt is 20 k. The are arranged in pairs and are spaced 6 in on

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Fig. P7-8

Sections
beams is *max

7-tt.

Show

having = V/A.

that

a formula,

circular

analogous

cross

section

to Eq.

of area

7-8a,

for

Machined channel-like form the beam The interconnecting

' 80

caps cross section 10-mm-diameter

mm on center.

are
shown

attached
in the rivets
allowable

to
figare
al-

cross-sectional 743. A T beam figure. Calculate

six horizontal

742. Show thin-walled

that a formula, circular tubes

area has the
sections

A is *mx = 2V/A. the cross section shear stresses for

when the beam

analogous to Eq. 7-8a, for acting as beams having a net

shown in the the indicated
transmits a ver-

If the

tical

shear

of 240 kN.

Plot

the results

as in Fig.

7-16(e).

stress Fig.
(a)
(b)

for
shear for

the
this

rivets
section?

is 50

MPa,

what

is the

P7-6

Fig.

P7-3

7-4. varies,

A beam is loaded as shown in the

so that figure.

the For

moment the cross

diagram section

7-7. plates,
plate,

A plate girder is made up from two 14 x four 6 x 4 x in angles, and a 39 x as shown in the figure. If at the section

3
A T-flange girder

1 2-3

--150--[
',50
4--

150

plat
fig. P?.9
7-'14. A box beam

50

mm

Fig.
has the

P7-t3
cross section shown in the

10ad in the
Fig. P7-7

ions of the girder

middle

of a 7-m

is used

are given

simple

to

support

in the figure

span.

The

a 900-kN

in a cross-

dimen-

figure. sections along results

Calculate shear stresses when the beam bending the beam at the rate of 500 as in Fig. 7-16(e).

at

several moment kN.m/m

horizontal changes and plot the

Fig.

P7-4

396
25

Shear

Stresses

in Beams

and

Related

Problems

Problems

397
40

6 in, and Tmax vertical shear 7-17. A beam

300

is limited to 100 psi, what is the V that this section may carry? has a rhombic cross section,

tension,
is the
as

30 ksi
maximum

in compression,
allowable

and
shear

8 ksi
and

in shear,
the maxi-

in the

figure.

Assume

that

this

beam
with

transmits
the shear the apex. sl

a 

tical shear of 5000 N, at levels 50 mm apart,

and investigate beginning

um allowable bending onl the vertical

s for shear

moment for this loading of the beam

to sections a-a

and

beam? Conand confine

b-b.

25- 200 mm

--- 25
Fig. P7-t4
has a cross section. in

the

7-16(e).

results

on a plot

similar

to the

one

shown

in

wooden

I beam

is made

up

with

a narrow

of space

limitations,

as shown

in

the figure. The lower flange spaced longitudinally boards in the lower flange

is f istened 6 in apart, are glued

to the web with and the vertical in place. Deter500

shear

Typ.

nailing

745.

thin-walled

extrusion

the

form

of an

isosceles

triangle,

as shown

in the

fig-

ure. Using Eq. 7-6, determine the shear midheight and centroidal levels of the co?responding to the vertical shear V = culate the approximate section properties ber using the centerline dimensions shown
tail. (Hint: For a thin inclined rectangular

stresses at the cross section 100 kN. Calfor the memon the dearea, I =

e the stress in the glued joints and the force carried ' each nail in the nailed joint if the beam is subjected to a vertical shear of 400 lb. The moment of inertia for whole section around the neutral axis is 2640 in 4.

Fig.

P7-22

N,
for

determine
this member.

the

maximum

allowable

vertical

I'
Fig.
748. A beam is loaded such

14"---

2"
16"

7-23. A wooden mensions, in mm, from Douglas Fir

P747
that the moment

plywood is 2 MPa,
interfaces
anced design

bLh2/12,
vertical

where
height.

b is its
Justify

width,
before

L its
using.)

length,

and

h its

joist having the cross-sectional dishown in the figure is to be made lumber flanges and structural-grade web. If the allowable shear stress on plywood what strength glue must be specified for the between the flanges and the web for a balin shear?

varies longitudinal

as shown

shear

bolts spaced the glued joint.

120 
(a) (b) Approximation detail
(a) Moment

k-ft

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 2"822"2" www.avs4you.com

shear stress
Fig. P7-20
Glued

in the force 12 in apart.

figure. (a) Find acting on-the (b) Find the

the

'
two

-,*-

160

240

7-21.

A steel

cantilever

beam

is fabricated

from

joint

carry
Fig.
746. A beam has a cross-sectional

structural Determine

if the allowable
100 MPa;
weight of the
mm

tees welded the allowable

together

and
beam.
P

along

stress

force the

in. bending
weld,

as shown P that

2 MN/m.

is 150 MPa;

in the figure. the beam can

Neglect

in
Fig. P7-23

P745
diagram

(b)

Section


area

in the

form

of 749. A beam has the

an isosceles triangle for which the base b is equal to one-half its height h. (a) Using calculus and the conventional stress-analysis formula, determine the location of the maximum shear stress caused by a vertical shear V. Draw the manner in which the shear

Fig.

P7-t8
cross-sectional

500--

7-24. A beam is made sized Douglas Fir pieces mm Douglas Fir plywood
Determine the maximum

up of four 50 x 100 mm ful that are glued to a 25 x 450 web, as shown in the figure.
allowable shear and the max-

shown

in the

figure.

If the

allowable

imum

allowable

bending

moment

that

this

section

can

stress

varies

across

the

section.

(b)

If b =

3 in,

h =
-*'25 mm 450

Fig,

P7-2

7-22,
Fig. P746
Fig. P7-t9 2-in diameter holes

A box
MPa and

beam
the

is fabricated
allowable

by
shear strength

nailing
per

plywood
nail

to two longitudinal the figure. If the allowable

1.5

wooden shear

pieces, as shown stress for plywood

in is
is

Fig.

P7-24

398

Shear

Stresses

in

Beams

and

Related

Problems

Problems

399

allowable
allowable
kN/m

carry

if the
2. All

shear

allowable

sheafing
dimensions

stress
the

stress

in plywood
in the

bending

stress
figure

in the
and the

is 600 kN/m
glued
are

is 10 MPa;
joints
stresses
in ram.

2 and the
is 300
due

the

and
shear weight
*7-28.

sense

of all resultant
stresses of the
Two

forces
on
bars are

due
segment.
bonded

to the

bendin

acting beam.
steel

this

;-30.
. the

An aluminum
cross-sectional

alloy
dimensions

extrusion
shear

for use as a beam

in mm shown in the

to

an

alu

7-25.

Calculate

bending

shear

to the
tilever acting

applied force P acting shown in the figure, on an isolated sketch

P = 10'kN 

on element A for and show these of the element.

the canstresses

alloy cross
so that

core, section
the

making shown
bending

up a sandwich in the figure.

moment changes

beam
If this beam at the is rate

hear stresses the horizontal

Due

to a vertical

in the section

vertical passing

V =

walls of the member through the section

10 kN,

determine

"-200200--
a ,

.-.,t

400

kN.m/m, member?

what For

maximum steel,

Est

shear stress = 210 GPa;

develops for

alloy,
tern only along 7-2(d).
Plan view

E^

= 70 GPa.

(Hint:

The

stress

distribution
in Fig. 6-7(c) per as shown in section,

20'
Fig. P7-32

200

can be established, as shown the change in bending moment the beam need be considered, Alternatively, a transformed
6-8, can be used.) '
10

--T
Fig. P7-30

7-33. A metal beam mm angles attached

to a 100 x 4 mm figure. Determine
Let VII = 0.01 N/mm

is made up of four 30 x 24 x 4 with an adequate number of bolts

web the
4.

in Section

plate, shear

as shown stresses

in mm at section

in the a-a.

Fig.

P7-25

7-26. A W 14 x 90 tributed load of 4 ldft, shown in the figure. shear stresses acting magnitude and sense
infinitesimal elements.

a uniformly including its own weight, Determine the bending and on elements A and B. Show of the computed quantities
4 k/ft

beam

supports

disas the the

T
'-3'1. The cross-sectional

on

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

are given

dimensions

of a beam in mm

of a in the

figure.

[mm

10

Calculate

The

member

the

Fig.

P7-28
of

Use

centerline
a-a,

moment area around dimensions

material

of

is 3 mm
inertia
the

thick

I for

throughout.

horizontal

the entire centroidal

as shown

in Prob.

7shear

'7-29.
materials elastic

The
has

cross
the

section
dimensions for the

a beam
shown

of
members

two
=

(b) Determine
10kN.

the

magnitudes

of the

shear

stresses

b-b,

and

c-c

due

to the

vertical

modulus

vertical

web

7"i

30
imum
shear

x 103 ksi
shear
stress

and by this
stress
between

that

for member
the

the
web?
webs

five
(b)
and

pieces

for

transmit ed
Fig.
7-27. Isolate the 50 x 150

material

is E.r = 15 x 103 ksi.

in the

is 4 k, (a) what
What
the ran

If the

vertical

is

P7-26
x 200 mm shaded element

is the

Fig.

P7-33

(See mm
On a

the

hint

in preceding

problem.)
100

from
cross

the
section

rectangular
and loaded

beam

having
as shown

a 200
in the

x
figure.

300

7-34. steel them

A beam is fabricated pipes longitudinally to a 23 x fl in web

by
and plate,

slot ing 4-in standard then securely welding as shown in the figure.

free-body

diagram,
1800 mm

indicate

the

location,

magnitude,

2 TM

____ 100kN R-5o

50 3000 mm

300
mm

Fig.
NA

P7-3t

A metal

box

beam

has
a-a

the
and

cross

section

in mm

in the
occur

figure.
at sections

If V/I

is 0.006
Use

N/mm
b-b?

4, what
The centtold

shear
dimen-

200

the

cross

section advantage

is given.

centerline

for
Fig. P7-29

Fig.

P7-27

Take

calculating

area

of symmetry.)

properties

(see

Prob.

7-15).
Fig. P7-34

400
I of the
1018 in 4. If at a certain

'Shear
composite section
plate
section,

Stresses
the
beam

in Beams
transmits

and
is
a
mine

Related
the

Problems
through
stresses

the
at sections

Problems
(a)
b-b,
r.4t. Show that for the Z cross section shown in

around

this

neutral

axis

V = 7 k applied
shear

shear
is 35.7
(b) centerline

center.
a-a,

a unit
AM,

span
calculate

distance
the

be
stresses

Vy

x
along

1 =
the

10 lb-in.
centerline

Using

this
of the

vertical pipe
neutral

shear

of 40 k, determine

and
axis.

in the

web

the shear stress in the at a level 10 in above the

c. I around the neutral axis of the material is in throughout. stress distribution along the

in n. The Sketch

(a) of the
the

figure,

the

shear

center
section's

lies
centroid.

on

the

verDem-

istratin
of 

that

the

force

resultant

due

to the

internal

7-37
Sections 7-7 and 7.8

through
for shown
the

7-40.
the

Determine
beams in the having figures.

the
the

location
members

7-35. A sions in there is (a) Calculate sections

larger
drav

beam having a cross section with the dimenmm shown in the figure is in a region where a constant, positive vertical shear of 100 kN. the shear flow q acting at each of the four indicated in the figure. (b) Assuming a posi-

be considered
based on

shear center dimensions

flow is zero in each flange constitutes Apply vertical shear force Vy shown Since the position of the shear center

thin-walled,

and

calculations

All

should

are Fig.

of the
7-2(d),

magnitude
Likewise,

of sheat

Vy,

it can

a proof. in the figis indepenbe chosen

in M, as is of imAM in
NA

centerline

dimensions.

rather Therefore,

it is the rate of change than its magnitude that let the change in moment

Z section using the generalized 6-64. Such calculations should distribution shown in part (b) grating these stresses along the in Fig. 7-20(b), the shear flow in is found, part (c) of the figure. based on these shears vanish

flexure formula, Eq. verify the normal stress of the figure. By intesection centerline, as the plane of the section The force resultants in both flanges.) Note

that for in 4, and

-21.40 psi

the given section, Iyz = 0.800 in 4.

It = 2.133

in 4, Iy = 0.533

2o-q
a
-- <--2 50 mm 1.07 1.07 0.357

tive

bending

moment

moment

at the
sketches

of 27 kN.m
adjoining
of each

section

at one

10 mm
of the

section

away,
beam

and

isometric

segment

isolated by the sections 10 mm apart tions shown in the figure, and on the . all forces acting on the segments. shear stresses in the flanges.

and the sketches Neglect

four secindicate vertical

--

3.21

r-

Fig.

P7-37

b120-n
cross section transmits with a vertical the shear di-

'<----40

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

(a)
10 mm

21.40

psi
(b)

2psi
P7-41
centerline is useful

0.357

Shear

flow
(c)

(lb/in)

Fig.

Show

that

for

the

Z cross

section
on

in the
horizontal

pro-

in

the

solution.

Note

that

the

re-

the
line
80 rnm

shear

center

lies

the

sultant
7-43 and

shear
7-44.
for the

force
beams

in the
Determine
with

web
the

is zero.)
location
cross

between
2

that

through an applied

the

the

two

section's horizontal

flange

constitutes
the

centroid. Demonforce is equally

of

the
sections

shear

a solution
Vz,
and
stresses

di-

center

idealized

)roblem.

(Hint:
through
roblem,

Apply
the
calculate

a horizontal
section's centroid,
normal

force
cross
the

say
as

Fig.

P7-35

I
Fig. P7-38

to

10 lb,

7-36. mensions

A beam shown

having in the

the figure

 10 turn
Fig. P7-39

shear

stresses

in the
shear

plane
stresses

of the
along

section.
section

shown in the figures. Neglect the areas of connecting the longitudinal stringers, each which has an effective area A concentrated for resisting longitudinal forces. There are areas in Fig. P7-43 and eight in Fig. P7-44. of idealization is often used in aircraft design.)

plates one of at a point two such (This kind

the

60

60
40

Fig.

P7-36

Fig.

P7-40

Fig.

P7-43

(are)

Fig.

P7-44

402
Section 7-9

Shear

Stresses

in Beams

and

Related

Problems

actions
isolated

at points
infinitesimal

A and
elements.

B, elements
for the 7-45.

and

show
Elements

the
A

7-45 through 7-47. Cantilevers of the kind shown the figure for Prob. 7-45 are subjected to horizontal forces P, causing bending, direct shear, and torsion.
Determine the stresses at the surfaces due to these

in

viewed
centerline torsional

from
forces

the
dimensions stresses

top,
not
P=10N

and
in Prob.

B from
box The in

the
for

left.

details

ing

P are

shown.

20

Fig.

P7-45

Sections
steel

7-t0
wire

and
has

FiP7-46 g.
74t
spring force what is made
diameter

P =20

Introduction

kmmq
20

7-48.

A helical the

and

valve

an outside

of -in-diameter
of 2 in.

elastic-plastic x' 103 ksi.

In
If there

Neglect
direct

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Fig. P7-47 www.avs4you.com

or strain
material
the

the first two parts of this chapter, a formal treatment for changing components of the state of stress or strain given in one set of coordinate to any other set of rotated axes is discussed. This transformation

the of
a

with *vp = 50 ksi, effects of stress

on deflection.

and

G =

op-

and

of

the

shear

(Hint:

See

eration,
varies

from

20 lb minimum

compressive

to 70 lb maximum.

applied

to this lift
in the

spring
spring

amples

4-13

and

4-14.)

are

and

eight

what

active

is the

coils,

maximum

is the
shear

valve

stress

(or travel),

when
7-49.
coils

in operation?
If a helical
of 6-mm steel

G = 11.6
tension
wire and

x 10 6 psi.
consisting
outside

spring
of another steel wire

of 12 live
diameter

of 30 mm

is attached of 18 live

to the end coils of 8-mm

helical tension and of 40 mm

spring outside

between any two dif erent sets of coordinate axes is process and does not necessarily require the use of formulas earlier. The connection between the established stress-analysis formulas and stress transformation is considered in the next chapter. of stress is discussed in Part A of this chapter; strain in Part B. In both instances, the discussion is largely conto problems in two dimensions. The possibility of .transforming involving both normal and shear stresses to any other of rotated coordinate axes permits an examination of the effect of such stresses on a material. In this manner, criteria for the onset of yield occurrence of fracture can be hypothesized. This important topic
in Part C.

a
or is

diameter, spring applied

stress

of 480

what is the spring constant for this twosystem? What is the largest force that may be to these springs without exceeding a shear
MPa?
rod

G = 82 GN/m
has

2.

7-50.

1-in-diameter

heavy

helical

and

steel

an

outside

spring

diameter

is made

from

of 9 in.

a
Plastic

The

Basic

Problem

As originally see t.he figure.

rod's -in

thick

manufactured, If a force
outer

annulus

it has the pitch P, of such magnitude

becomes

plastic,

p = 3 in; that the

is apFig. P7-50

several
either

of the

plied to this of the spring

spring, estimate the reduction of the pitch on removal of the load. Assume linearly

preceding normal and/or stresses occur simultaneously,

chapters, shear
acting

stresses caused by separate actions stresses were considered. The superon the same element, when axial forces was discussed in Chapter 6. Similarly,
403

4O4

Transformation

of

Stress
Oy

o x D
c

ox

ox
A

z

o x

(a)

(c)

Fig.

8-2

Representations

of stresses

acting

on an element.

given
Fig. 84 State of stress at a point on dif erent planes.

the superposition
considered demonstrated
alent state

in Chapter 7. Moreover, that a state of pure

of normal stresses

of shear stresses
(Fig.

caused
shear 3-11).

in Chapter 3, Section can be transformed

Often in stress

by torque

and direct
into analysis,

3-7,

shear
an
a

are
it

state of stress. The methods used in these derivations do not properties of a material. Therefore, provided the initial stresses given, the derived relations are applicable whether the material beelastically or plastically or even if it is not a solid. However, the
on which the normal or the shear stresses reach their maximum

general case, bending,

combined bination treatment.

problem element and

normal stress of the normal Essential y,

arises, such A is subjected simultaneously

rrx fol ows by superposition. stress rr with the shear stress this requires a consideration

as shown to a normal experiences

inclined plane, such as shown in Fig. 8-1(b). Since be chosen arbitrarily, the state of stress at a point infinite number of ways, which are all equivalent. Stress has a magnitude and a sense, and is also
over which it acts. Such mathematical These entities the

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However, x requires of stresses s
sible to outside select face a critical of such element an element,

in Fig. 8-1(a). In the il u. stress rrx due to axial pull a direct shear stress

The in deriving dimensional

have general

a particularly state of stress the laws of stress stress problem applications, this is

significant effect on materials. shown in Fig. 8-2(a) wil not be considered transformation at a point. Instead, the twoindicated in Fig. 8-2(b) wil be studied. In a particularly important case as it is usually
at an outer as ABCD boundary in the figure, of a member. is generally

on

an inclined plane can be described

tensors can
vectors

of significant surface stresses, acting parallel to it are usually as shown in Fig. 8-2(c),

whereas the the largest. wil be used

stresses right at the Planar representation in most derivations

surand

of

xamples. are

associated

and

with
superpos

are

higher
Therefore

same

order

area
the

than

are

vectors.
vectors.

 However,
can be

stress

the

components
as

components
stress

of the
be
or

stress

LE

8-t

state

of stress

for

an element

by vector

addition.

stresses

As noted

earlier,

referred

this
the
direct

to

was

used

in Chapter

6
of the
is

the

of unit thickness state of stress

at the

be as shown same point

in Fig. 8-3(a). may be given

an infinitesimal

provided
the
as

orientation
the

they
discussion

act on the same

of an area
that

displays

surface

non-vectorial
use

in or on a body.
of stress

character

Only

t must

wedge with an angle of ot = 22 , as in Fig. act on plane AB of the wedge to keep the element

8-3(b). Find in equilibrium.

the

a whole.

In

fol ows,

vectors

by multiplying
are

force

components
This

vectors,

components

on an inclined
by

and

stresses

then

adding

by their

the

plane

them

respective

inclined

the process
area

vectorial y.

areas
to obtain

is reversed

On

to obtain
the

obtaining

forces,


the

t l MPa 5 /
c=22 . _

o=

r

A 2 MPa
3MPa

stresses

by dividing

F 1

on

s)

planes.

for

the

a stress
 Scalars

procedure developed

transformation
strains

wil approach

be first il ustrated wil be generalized

for finding
of rank zero, vectors

stresses

by a numerical to obtain
on any
are tensors

inclined
1-4.

example. algebraic
first rank

- /[ 2MPa
/

II MPa

stresses

and

are

tensors

are

second-rank

tensors.

See

Section

of the

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig.

8-:3

405

406

Transformation

of

Stress

Sec.

8-3.

Transformation

of

Stresses

in

Two-Dimensional

Problems

407

Solution

3.
the stresses Their area stresses on acting on sense is a of the face.

Transformation
Problems

of

Stresses

in Two-Dimensional
as in the last example, on an inclined plane are called stress-transformation on the initial y given equations can be for derived the in

Wedge ABC is part of the element in Fig. 8-3(a); therefore, AC and BC are known. The unknown normal and shear AB are designated in the figure by crc and *c, respectively. arbitrarily. To determine crc and 'rc, for convenience only, let the

fol bwing

by line AB to 1 x cos
rigorously,

be unity such as m 2. Then the area corresponding to line AC is ot = 0.924 m 2 and that to BC is equal to 1 x sin ot = 0.383 m 2.
the area corresponding to line AB should be taken as dA,

element
'plane

same procedure stresses acting form. Such expressions These equations are based and

the shear

equa-

of known
to it.

orieniation

and

the plane
using

being

investigated
the

stresses
inclination

acting

defined

on
of

a normal

The

dependence

of the

stresses

on

quantity

cancels

out

in the

subsequent

algebraic

expressions.)

Forces
by their

F,

and F4, Fig. 8-3(c), can be obtained by areas. The unknown equilibrant forces tangential to plane AB. Then applying forces acting on the wedge gives forces

multiplying the stresses N and S act, respectively, the equations of static N and S.

eq

F F3

= =

3 x 2 x

0.924 0.383

= =

Fv

= 0

=
=
+
=

2.78 MN 0.766MN F cos ot-

F2 F4 F2

= 2 x = 1 x sin ot-

0.924 0.383 F3

= =

cos

1.85 MN 0.383 ot + F4

equations are developed Fig. 8-4(a) in a state of two-dimensional axes. If normal stresses trx and try positive, and are negative if compresslye. ed as acting upward in the positive ositive)face DE of the element. This introduced in Chapter 1 (see Fig.
mechanics conventional 7. Here the to the x'y' measured the (elasticity,
stress

is clearly

apparent.

an element of stress initial y are tensile stresses, Positive shear direction of the y-axis sign convention for 1-3) and is generally

unit thickness referred to the they are taken stress is deon the right shear stresses used in con5

2.78(0.924)
0.383(0.383)
1.29 MN

1.85(0.383)

0.766(0.924)

Fs

= 0

= F =
=

sin

o + F2 +

2.78(0.383) - 0.383(0.924)
2.12 MN

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cos o F3 sin o F4 1.85(0.924) 0.766(0.383)

axes. from

plasticity, rheology). However it dif ers beam shear sign convention used in Chapters transformation is sought from the xy coordinate The angle 0, which locates the x' axis, is positive the x axis toward the y axis in a counterclockwise

an

The outward area of the the faces

to be 1 m 2. Their
correctly. acting
act

Forces

N and By plane
direction

positive
dividing AB

S act

on

signs

the

plane forces

indicate

defined by

that

their

by

A_B,

assumed

which

directions
they
and

was

initial y

were

on in the

these are obtained.

shown

in Fig.

Thus, 8-3(b).

the area on which crc = 1.29 MPa

act, the *c = 2.12

Stresses

equations

trx,,

normal to the section forms an angle 0 with the x-axis. If wedge isolated by this section is dA, the areas associated AC and AB are dA cos 0 and dA sin 0, respectively. By the stresses by their respective areas, a diagram with the on the wedge is constructed, Fig. 8-4(c). Then, by applying of static equilibrium to the forces acting on the wedge,

and

*x,y,

are Obtained:
Oy

c dA

The formed another. describes The librium

foregoing procedure accomplished something remarkable. the description of the state of stress from one set Either system of stresses pertaining to an infinitesimal the state of stress at the same point of a body. procedure of isolating a wedge and using the equations of forces to determine stresses on inclined planes is

It
of
x  A
+0

o x dA cos 0

dA

rx dA cos O'

B
B

of the

ec

Ordinary
reader garding chapter.

sign
is urged the more

conventions
to return advanced

of statics
to this approach procedures

Suffice
developed

to solve
whenever in the

any

problem.
arise
(a)

questions remainder

ry dA sin 0
(c)

 rxydAsin0

Fig.

8-4

Derivation

of stress

transformation

on an inclined

plane.

408

Transformation

of Stress
cry, dA = cr dA + y cos 0 cos 0 + try dA dA cos 0 sin 0 + y
cos

Sec. 8-4. Principal

sin dA 0 sin 0 sin 0 cos

Stresses
From
+ %)

in Two. Dimensional
Eq. 3-14c, this

Problems
stress
(8-5)

409
is

given

0, a normal as

stress

Crx can

also

develop.

cry,, = cr cos 2 0 + try sin 2 0 + 2,r

sin
20

0 cos

0
: forces

=cr

1 +

20

+try

1 -

cos

+Xy

"

Crz = v(Cr

virtue

crY' Similarly, from  Fy,

2
= O,

cos 20 + ry sin 20

;-4.

resulting from this stress do not enter used in deriving .stress-transformation of Eq. 8-4, the Cr + Cry term in Eq. of 0. Therefore, the derived equations

applicable

for

problems

of plane

stress

the relevant equilibrium expressions. Moreover, 8-5 remains constant for stress transformation as well as plane strain.

re-

Principal
often centers

Stresses
on the

in Two-Dimensional
determination of the largest

Problems
possible stress,

I
Equations
for transformation

*x'y'

=
8-2 are
of stress

cr - trysin20+ycos201
2
the
from

given found
zero,

by Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2, and first. To find the plane Eq. 8-1 is dif erential with
i.e.,

the planes on which such stresses occur for a maximum or a minimum normal respect to 0 and the derivative set equal

8-1 and

general
one

the shear stress, caused by a known

respectively, system

on any of stresses.

Note

particularly that crx, Cry, and ,y are initial y known stresses. Replacing 0 in Eq. 8-1 by 0 + 90 gives the normal stress in the of the y' axis. This stress can be designated as Cry,; see Fig. 1-3(b). on noting that cos (20 + 180 ) = - cos 20, and sin (20 + 180 ) = has

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com tan 20 - (Crx _ %)/2

plane These located relations by the angle
to

expressions
of

for

the

normal

dCr---2' = dO

Cr -2 Cry 2 sin 20 + 2Xy cos 20 = 0

(8-6)

are

the

set

coordinate

axes

one

defines

CrY'By adding Eqs. 8-1 and

2
8-3,

--

cos

20 - ,y sin 20

the subscript of the angle the plane of the maximum has two roots, since the value opposite quadrant is the are 180 apart, and, as

0 is used to designate the angle that or mini_mum normal stress. Equation of the tangent of an angle in the diasame, as may be seen from Fig. 8-5. Eq. 8-6 is for a double angle, the roots

meaning

that

the

sum

of

the

normal

stresses

on

any

two

OA = OB =

pendicular
angle 0. Mathematically nection with

planes

remains
analogous moments cases that

the

same,

2 i.e.,
were

invariant,
found of inertia.

regardless
in Section The where 6-16

sin 20' = - sin 20';

area equations in both It is to be noted

equations and products are alike. in plane strain

cos 20' = - cos 20';

problems,

e = y
Fig. 8-5 Angle functions for principal stresses.

2 A similar
cry + crz-

relation

for

three-dimensional

problems

is crx, + cry. + crz' =

Transformation

of Stress
shear

Sec. 8-5. Maximum

Shear

Stresses

in Two-Dimensional
Eq.

Problems
the two

of 0 are 90 apart. One of these roots locates a plane on which the rna imum normal stress acts; the other locates the corresponding plane the minimum normal stress. To distinguish between these two roots prime and double prime notation is used. Before evaluating these stresses, careful y observe that if the of planes on which no shear stresses act is wanted, Eq. 8-2 must be equal to zero. This yields the same relation as that in Eq. 8-6. an important conclusion is reached: on planes on which maximum,
minimum normal stresses occur, there are no shear stresses. These

the subscript 2 is attached to 0 to designate stress is a maximum or a minimum. Like

the

prime notation. perpendicular. negative reciprocal :the double angles

8-6.

.which

again

may

are called the principal planes--the maximum cipal stresses.

planes of stress, and the stresses and minimum normal stresses--are

acting called

on the

minimum ses.

This means shear stress A substitution

shear

The two planes defined by this equation are muMoreover, the value of tan 202 given by Eq. 8-8 is of the value of tan 20 in Eq. 8-6. Hence, the roots of Eq. 8-8 are 90 away from the corresponding roots
that the angles form angles into Eq. 8-2 that locate the planes of maximum of 45 with the planes of the principal of the sine and cosine functions cor-

be distinguished

by attaching

plane on which 8-6, Eq. 8-8 has

to 02 a prime

or a

onding

The magnitudes

of the principal
8-1.

stresses

can be obtained
are

by
to the
by cry)

of the

to the double analogous to that

stresses.

angle in Fig.

These,

given by Eq. 8-8 8-5 gives the maximum

after simplifications,

and

determined in a and the minimum

are

the values of the sine and cosine angle given by Eq. 8-6 into Eq. the expression for the maximum minimum normal stress (denoted

functions corresponding Then the results normal stress (denoted by cr2) becomes

,rma x = -+m,

q- ,r2xy

(8-9)

(crx')max

mi_ =

crl or2

--

where cr and

the the

positive negative

sign sign

in front to obtain

of the square root cr2. The planes

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION was repeatedly used after being established www.avs4you.com

--

+ *

Thus,

only

stresses

in sign. Moreover, apart, this result

on the

the

maximum

shear

mutually

also

since

perpendicular

the two roots means that the

stress

dif ers

from

planes

given by Eq. 8-8 locate planes numerical values of the shear

the

minimum

shear

stress

must be used on which these

to

stre.,

act can substituted the same

be

determined by using Eq. 8-6. A particular into Eq. 8-1 wil check the result found from time wil locate the plane on which this principal Shear Stresses in Two-Dimensional

root Eq.

of Eq. 8-4 stress act:

vation, convention
shear

the

The

stress. definite

dif erence for locating point of view, shear stress

sense indicates The
further

in sign of the two shear stresses arises from the the planes on which these stresses act. From the these signs have no meaning, and for this reason, regardless of sign wil often be called the maximum
shear stress can always be determined by

in Section

are

the

same.

1-4. In this

This

concept

deri-

of the

Maximum
Problems

shear and

stress vice
discussed

substitution
versa.

of the

If crx, Cry, and ,y are known for an element, the shear stress defined by an angle 0 is given by Eq. 8-2, and a study similar made before for the normal stresses may be made for the Thus, similarly, to locate the planes on which the maximum imum shear stresses act, Eq. 8-2 must be dif erentiated with and the derivative set equal to zero. When this is carried results are simplified,

on any to the shear or the res out and

be

that it acts in the direction assumed in Fig. 8-4(b), determination of the maximum shear stress is of materials that are weak in shear strength. This wil in the Part C of this chapter.

particular

root

of 02 into

Eq.

8-2.

A positive

Unlike the principal stresses principal planes, the maximum ally not free of normal stresses.
8-1 shows that the normal
stresses are

stresses

for which no shear stresses occur on the shear stresses act on planes that are usuSubstitution of 02 from Eq. 8-8 into Eq.
that act on the planes of the maximum

(8-1o)

4t2

Transformation

of

Stress

1 MPa
/

22030
2 MPa

'

Therefore, stress

unless If crx and cry in Eq. simplifies to

a normal stress acts crx + cry vanishes.

simultaneously

with

the

maximum

8-9

are

the

principal

stress,

,y is zero

and

E(

, 1Pa

2.MPa Y' 
X t

(a)

'rmax
F

--

(a)

(b)
x t
x 

(c)

= I r, I

02=
(b)

Here principal sults that I rx, I ically from rection

it is useful to recall a relationship between pure shear andi stresses discussed earlier in connection with Fig. 3-11. of this analysis are displayed in Fig. 8-6. Equation in the absence of normal stresses, the principal stresses are equal to the shear stress. The sense of the normal stresses Eq. 8-6. The shear stresses act toward the diagonal DF in thl of the principal tensile stresses; see Fig. 8-6(a).

2 MPa
VlPa

3143

'

0.24MPa
(e)

2.24

MPa

2 MPa

214;'

2.24

MPa

(g)

4.24

MPa

2 MPa

(i)

EXAMPLE

8-2

Iraqi

For the state of-stress in Example 8-1, reproduced in Fig. 8-7(a), (a) previous problem for 0 = - 2OlO., using the general equations for the mation of stress; (b) fmd the principal stresses and show their sense on a oriented element; and (c) find the maximum shear stresses with the normal stresses and show the results on a properly oriented element.
(c)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

0.24 MPa

2.24

MPa

(f)

(h)

Fig.

8-7

Fig. 8-6 representations

shear

Equivalent
stress.

for

pure

Solution

(a) By directly = + 1 MPa,

applying and x,

=
3+1
2

Eqs. 8-1 +2 MPa,

and one

8-2 for has

0 =

- 222,  with

'crx

+ 3

crl or2 -2 cr = +4.24

3 + 1 +

MPa

+ 22 = 2 + 2.24
(tension) cr2 = -0.24 MPa
'
'

(compression)

crY' =

2
+ 1

+ 
x

3-1
-

cs(-45)
2 x 0.707

+ 2 sin(-45
= +1.29MPa

tan 20 20

0.707

(cr - cry)/2 = 63o26 ' or

31043

'r

(3 - 1)/2 63o26 ' + 180 = 243o26

' and 0K = 121o43

= 2

3-1

,r,y,
The positive dicates that
These results

=
= +1

--

2
x 0.707

sin(+

45 ) +
2 x 0.707

2 cos(=

45 )
+2.12MPa

sign of crx, indicates tension; whereas the the shear stress acts in the +y' direction, are shown in Fig. 8-7(b) as .well as in Fig. stresses stresses act are are obtained found by means by using Eq. of Eq. 8-6.

positive as shown 8-7(c). 8-7. The

sign in Fig. planes

this

the two principal planes, and {r2 act. On which one of these Eq. 8-1 is solved by using, for
calculation is the stress that
3+1 3-1

acts

AB and CD, Figs. 8-7(d) and (e), on which planes the principal stresses act is unknown. example, 0[ = 31o43 '. The stress found by
on plane AB. Then, since 20[ = 6326 ',

(b) the

The principal principal

--

 cos 6326 ' + 2 sin 63o26 ' = +4.24 MPa = cr

4'!3

Transformation
This result, maximum the besides principal satisfy

of Stress
giving stress Eq. 8-4. a check acts on on plane the AB. previous The calculations, complete state shows of stress

Sec. 8-6. Mohr's

;s-transformation ;ed in the
Errst rewriting fol owing

Circle

of Stress

for Two-Dimensional

Problems
be dis-

given

results

point

in terms

of the principal

stresses

is shown

in Fig.

8-7(f).

Note

c .areful study in parametric

(c) The maximum shear stress is found by using Eq. 8-9. The planes on these stresses act are defined by Eq. 8-8. The sense of the shear Stresses termined by substituting one of the roots of Eq. 8-8 into Eq. 8-2. Normal

problems can often be obtained. This wil section. of Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2 shows that they represent form. That they do represent a circle is made them as

a circle clearer

associated

with

the

maximum

shear

stress

are

determined

by

using

Eq.
Tx'y'

crx +2 cry _ crx -2 try cos 20 + *.y sin 20

=

(8-12)
(8-13)

Tma x - 'V/[(3
tan 202 202 = 153o26

-- 1)/2] 2 + 22 = X/
(3 2

= 2.24
' + 180 =

MPa
333o26 '

1)/2
' or

cr. -2 try sin 20 + %:5 cos 20

these equations, adding, and simplifying,

0.500 153026

by

squaring

both

Hence,
These
Eq. 8-2,
3-1 --

0 = 76043
planes are shown in Figs.

'
8-7(g)

and
and (h).

0[
Then,

166043
by using

'
20 =

( cry,
a given problem, and ,,y, are the
form as

2
cry, %, variables. and

+ 'r},y, =

( cr - try
= b2

+ 

(8-14)

,y are the three known constants, Hence, Eq. 8-14 may be writ en

and in more
(8-15)

sin15326

which y' axis.

means From

that Eq.

the 8-7,

shear

along

plane

or'

3+1
2

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(fix, - a) 2 + }'y'
EF has an opposite sense to that

2 cos

15326

' =

-2.24MPa

a = (cr. + cry)/2,

and

b 2 = [(fix

- cry)/2]

2 + '2xy are constants.

(x Hence, values of
is so

2 MPa

Point

equation is the familiar expression q_ y2 = b 2, for a circle of radius b with circle satisfying this equation is plot ed,

The

complete results are shown in Fig. 8-7(i). Note again that Eq. 8-4 The description of the state of stress can now be exhibited in three forms: as the originally given data, and in terms of the stresses found in and (c) of this problem. All these descriptions of the state of stress at the point are equivalent. In matrix representation, this yields

shear

of an inclined plane. The ordinate of a point on the circle stress ,,y,; the abscissa is the normal stress cry,. The circle is called a circle of stress or Mohr' s circle of stress. 3 using the previous interpretation, a Mohr's circle for the stresses in Fig. 8-8(a) is plot ed in Fig. 8-8(c) with cr and, as the coordinate
The center C is at (a,0), and the circle radius R = b. Hence,

(x,y)

on this

circle

correspond

to crx, and

of analytical geometry, its center at (+a,0). the simultaneous

,,y,

for

a particular

(32 21) or .(4'024 _00.24) or (_22.24-224)

g.6. Mohr's Circle
the

a = OC - cr +2 cry
b =R =

(8-16)
try

of

Stress

for

Two-Dimensional

basic Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2 for the stress reexamined in order to interpret them doing this, two objectives wil be pursued. First, by graphically preting these equations, a greater insight into the general pr transformation wil be achieved. This is the main purpose of this Second, with the aid of graphical construction, a quicker

In this section, at a point wil

4(
Mohr

crx-

+
correspond For this
who

(8-17)

be

coordinates for point A on the circle 8-8(a) on the right face of the element.
It is so named stress-analysis in honor problems. of Otto

face

to the stresses of the element,

in 1895 suggested

in
its

of Germany,

4'6

Transformation

of

Stress

Sec.

8-7.

Mohr's

Circles

for

Stress

Transformation

Ifcr

of the cr, coordinates, The sum of the normal

+ cry = 0, the center

is invariant,
crx + cry

and the stresses

of Mohr's

state on

of pure any two

circle

coincides

shear mutually

exists.

with

the

origin

perpendicular

, +'r m,

planes
A(o,. r.,)

i.e.,
= oh + cr2 = o'x, + cry, = constant

(a)

1-7.

Construction
Transformation transformation of

of

Mohr's

Circles
state

for
of

Stress
stress from one set of

two-dimensional

B(%,

-r,,)
0 x + Oy
2

(b)

Fig.

8-8

Mohr's

circle

of

stress.

0 = 0 , y. The directions Eq. 8-6, point B element.

The

for cry' from

same

i.e., the xy and the x'y' axes coincide, and crx, = cry,, and ; positive directions for these stresses coincide with the of the axes. Since AD/CD = ,y/[(cr - cry)/2], the angle ACD is equal to 20. The coordinates for the correspond to the stresses in Fig. 8-8(a) on the upper face This fol ows from Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2 with 0 = 90 or

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(c)

to another can always be made by direct application of statics in Example 8-1, or, using the derived equations in Sections 8-3, 8-4, 1 8-5. The lat er equations can readily be programmed for a computer. the graphical display of stress transformations using a Mohr's offers a comprehensive view of a solution and is useful in some Two alternative techniques for achieving such solutions are in what fol ows. The physical planes on which the transformed :sses act are clearly displayed in the Errst method; in the second, the stress transformation is simpler, although determining the
of the transformed is a matter stress of preference. is a lit le less convenient. The choice

'method

basic

state of stress stresses on

problem consists cry, cry, and ,, such

Eq.

8-3 with

0 = 0 .

According
the

equations

reasoning

apphes

to any

other

orientation

of an element

as shown in Fig. 8-8(b). A pair of conjugate be found on the circle to give the corresponding infinity of possible states of stress dependent by the stress circle. Therefore, the fol owing garding the state of stress at a point can
circle.

J and K can stresses, Fig. 8-8(c). on the angle 0 are important be made based on the
cr2. No

points

cr axis at a distance (cr + cry)/2 from the origin. Point A on the has the coordinates (cr,,y) corresponding to the stresses acting on right-hand face of the element in the positive direction of the cooraxes, Fig. 8-9(a). Point A wil be referred to as the origin of planes.
information is sufficient to draw a circle of stress, Fig. 8-9(b).

to Eq.

derived

any

on an arbitrary inclined

of constructing the circle of stress for given as shown in Fig. 8-9(a), and then determining
plane a-a.

8-16

in gection

plane

the center

8-3.

requires

A procedure justification

for on

determining the basis

of

C ofa

Mohr's

circle

of stress

is located

The
this

next
line

1. The largest possible normal stress is cr; the smallest is stresses exist together with either one of these principal 2. The largest shear stress m,, is numerically equal to the circle, also to (cr - cr2)/2. A' normal stress equal 2 acts on each of the planes of maximum shear stress. 3. If cr = cr2, Mohr's circle degenerates into a point, stresses at all develop in the xy plane.

at J with

step consists plane a-a

the
must

of drawing in the physical

stress
be

circle

on the circle plane of Fig.

gives the

stresses

of stress a line through 8-9(a). The intersection

acting on

plane

This
According

the to (cr + and no

construction

requires

some

justification.

reviewed

For

in detail.

this

purpose,

the indicated

geoACF JCF
of

line is 0 - a = 20 - 20, and Joint J define the stresses

to the previous derivation shown in Fig. 8-8(c), angle 8-9(b) is equal to 20. Further, since line CH is drawn perpendicular A J, angle ACJ is bisected, and a = 20 - 0. Hence, angle
it remains to be shown acting on inclined plane that a-a.

the coordinates For this purpose,

48

Transformation

of Stress
8-9(a). However, since

Sec.
Eq.
to.be introduced.

8.7.

Mohr's

Circles

for Stress
to that of

Transformation
in the basic shear stress

0.y
0.x

Origin of planes

8-2,

the sign of ,j is opposite a special rule for the direction

(a)

Radius

CA

o*x q- 0.y

this purpose, consider the in/tial data for the element shown in Fig. where all stresses are shown with positive sense. By isolating the :ar stresses acting on the vertical faces, Fig. 8-9(c), it can be seen that ese stresses alone cause a countercloclavise couple. By considering emanating from the origin of planes A, for the first case, Fig. 8-9(c), circle is intersected at E, whereas for the second case, Fig. 8-9(d), it intersected at G. This can be generalized into a rule: if the point of ;ction of a line emanating from the origin of planes A intersects the ircle above the cr axis, the shear stresses on the opposite sides of an cause a clockwise couple. Conversely, if the point of intersection below the cr axis, the shear stresses on the opposite sides cause a terclockwise couple. According to this rule, the shear stresses at J Fig. 8-9(b) act with a clockwise sense. This general procedure is il ustrated for two particularly important For the data given in Fig. 8-10(a), the principal stresses are found in Fig. 8-10(b), and the maximum shear stresses are found in Fig. 8-10(c).
0.y
Coordinates
OC =

For

(c)

(d)

Fig. 8-9 Construction

one

of Mohr's
notes from

circle
Fig.

for determining
8-9(b)
at J based

stresses
that

if R is the

(crx
and

- cry)/2
shear

and
stresses

R sin 20
use

 ,y.
on

Then,
the

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(b)

for

on an arbitrary
radius

plane.

O' x + O'y
2

of a circle,
of the

R cos

20

forming

expressions

for

the

construction

circle

in

Fi

9(b)

and

making
crj --

of trigonometric

identities

for

double

angles,

one

(a)

crx +2 cry + R cos (20 - 202) cr +2 cry + R (cos 20 cos 202 + sin 20 sin 200

0' 2

cr +2 cry + cr -2 cry cos 20 + %:y sin 20

and
l'ma x

*s

= R sin(20

20)

= R sin

20 cos

20

R cos

20

sin

20
(8
B

= + cr -2 cry sin 20 - y cos 20

Except for the sign of ,j, the last eXPressions are identical to E
element of this to line 1 and 8-2, and, therefore, in the upper right quadrant is parallel to line AJ on define the stresses acting on the of Fig. 8-9(b). The hatched side the stress circle, which is parallel

ax +o r
2 'Fmi n

'rxy

[ 'rmin

{ = '/'max

 Tmax

(b)

(c)

Fig.

840

Determining

principal

normal

and

maximal

shear

stresses.

42O

Transformation

of

Stress

Sec.

8-7.

Mohr's

Circles

for

Stress

Transformation

42'!

For

the first case, it is known that the extreme values on the abs, cq and or2, give the principal stresses. Connecting these points origin of planes A locates the planes on which these stresses act. 0 can be determined by trigonometry. Either one of the two solu sufficient to obtain the complete solution shown on the element right. The magnitudes of the maximum absolute shear stresses are be given by the radius of the Mohr's circle. As shown in Fig. these stresses are located above and below C. Connecting these with the origin of planes A determines the planes on which these act. The corresponding elements are shown in the upper two the elements, where the associated mean normal stresses are also cated. Either one of these solutions with the aid of equilibrium is sufficient for the complete solution shown on the bottom the figure.
2
Oy,

+o

o x

(c)

X t

Train

Method

The state of stress in the xy coordinate system is shown in Fig. The origin for these coordinates is arbitrarily chosen at the center infinitesimal element. The objective is to transform the given stress those in the rotated set ofx'y' axes as shown in Figs. 8-11(a) and using Mohr's circle. As before, the center C of the Mohr's circle is located at (crx +

Again a point if , if ,

the

right on the

hand circle.

face of the HOWever, downwards upwards

element

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def'mes crx and , used
(b)

Fig.

84t

Alternative
of
Stresses

construction of stress.
Tmax

Mohr's
on

circle

> 0, it is plot ed < 0, it is plot ed

at cry,
at

and

arbitrary normal
shown

and principal and shear planes in (c) and (d),

are

(d)

respectively.

This in effect amounts to directing the positive axis downward, shown in Fig. 8-1 l(c). The coordinates of cr and ** locate the point Ac on the circle. This point corresponds to point A in the construction; see Fig. 8-8. However, because of the opposite of the positive axes, whereas points A and Ac are related, they the same. Point B, conjugate to point A, can be located on the as shown in Fig. 8-11(c). The double angle 20, fol ows from Next the diameter AB is rotated through an angle 20 in the same sero that the x' axis is rotated through the angle 0 with respect to the x Then the new point A determines the stresses cry, and ,x,y, on hand face of the element in Fig. 8-11(b). Note that for the case the shear stress ,r,y, is negative, since at r, it is above the cr axis. considerations apply to the conjugate.point B defining the stresses the plane normal to the y' axis. The expressions for cry, and ,,y, can be formulated from the tion of the Mohr's circle shown in Fig. 8-11(c) using Eqs. 8-16 After simplfications, these relations, except for the sign of to the basic stress transformation relations, Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2.

of the Mohr'
8-19.

circle

is justified.

For

proof

modify

Eqs.

8-18

for determining the principal After drawing a Mohr's circle The required rotation 0 of is obtained by calculating the the principal shear stresses on a circle at their extreme 02 of these axes is obtained the diagram. 1 is used in the two examples
8-3

normal stress is shown in Fig. the principal stresses cq and or2 are the axes in the direction of these double angle 20 from the diagram. are given by the coordinates of the values on the, axis. The required by calculating the double angle 202
that fol ow.

the

state
and (b)

of stress
into the

shown
maximum

in Fig.
for both

8-12(a),
shear stresses

transform
and

it (a)
the

into
associated

the
elements.

principal
normal

Show
1.

the

results

cases

on

properly

oriented

Use

Transformation
4 MPa

of

Stress
4 ksi

Sec.

8-7.

Mohr's

Circles

for

Stress

Transformation
Max -o

423

01

MPai
/
/

F(1,

5)

-- 2 ksi
si X,
ksi
x,

4 ksi
(a)
1 MPa

1%

I > Iax
(c)

I
(d)

(b)

E
'rm x = 5 MPa

C
LE 8-4

Fig.

843

Qualitative

estimates

of directions

for

principal

stresses.

MPa

45
4 MPa

Mohr's
(-2, -4)

circle,
the plane

transform
at an angle

the

stresses
the

shown
vertical

in Fig.
axis.

8-14(a)
Use

into
Method

stresses
1.

on
(1, -5)

of 22 with

,lufion
this case,

6 MPa

Fig.

8-t2
Solution

(b)

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these data, t 22.5 locating

of planes

the

center

a stress circle is plot ed point J is drawn.

A is at (3,3),

of the

circle

and the radius

is at (1

+ 3)/2

in Fig.

R = 
8-14(b)

+ 2 MPa

on which

+ 32 = 3.16 MPa.
an inclined

on

the

cr axis.

line

By

.'22.5

To

construct
1. Center

Mohr's
of circle

circle
on the

of stress,
cr axis: (-2

the

fol owing
+ 4)/2 =

quantities
+ 1 MPa.

are

required.

3.16

3 is 71.57 , since tan 13 = AD/CD = 3. A normal to AJ forms an angle with the cr axis. Therefore, ot = 71.57 - 22.5 = 49.07 , and angle is ot22.5 = 26.57., This locates J on the circle. Hence, crj = 2 R cos(-26.57 ) = 2 + 3.16(0.894) = 4.83 MPa, and xj = R sin(-26.57 )
(-0.447) = -1.41 MPa.
1 MPa

2. Origin 3. Radius After

5 MPa.

of planes of circle: the

on the

A from data CA = X/CD circle,

stress

on the right face of element: 2 + DA 2 = 5 mPa. cr = +6

the principal

(-2, MPa,
cr = 6

-4)

drawing
Line AB

one
circle

obtains
locates

MPa,

or2 = -4
plane for

angle

or2 = -4 MPa, acts at right angle to the above plane. These results are on a properly oriented element. Line AG on the circle at 45 with the principal planes determines the for maximum shear, Xm = 5 MPa, and the associated mean normal stress 1 MPa. The lat er stress corresponds to cr at the circle center. Complete
are
and

0 is 2634

', since

tan 01 = AD/DB

= 4/8 = 0.5.

The

other

principal

I
(a)

3 MPa
; 3

MPa

shown

on
be used

a properly

oriented

element.
as a check.

It is worthy
can

to note
8-13.

in calculations

that

th e directions
with,

of the principal
that
result

A suitable

stresses
tensile

inspection

can be
of ec
must

1.41

MPa

nitude to the the maximum

shown
shown
ilarly,

in Fig.
in Fig.

shear stress develop tensile stress cry,

To begin

along which

it is known

a diagonal is the

as shown in Fig. of all stresses,

stresses

4.83

MPa

8-13(b).

Situations

with

compressive

stresses

can

be

(b) (c)

t\J(4.-1. 83,41)
Fig. 8-t4

Fig.

8-13(d).

4[24[

Transformation

of Stress
element in Fig. counterclockwise. for stress
circle can

Sec,
8-14(c).

8-8. Principal
direction cosines

Stresses
of these

for a General
l, m, and n, where

State
cos

of Stress
a =

425

These results are shown on a properly oriented ?j is negative, the shear stresses are shown acting Again it should be remarked that the equations
of inertia

is identified

by

its

identical

in form to the equations

of areas (Section

6-12).

Therefore,

for determining

Mohr's

the principal

axes and
be con

Fig.

 = m, and
and

8-14(b).

d2 + m 2 =

From

cos

/=

the same
1,

n. The

figure,

meaning

it can

be noted

quantities

that

since

is il ustrated

l 2 q- n 2

finding

these

equations.

**$8-8.

Principal

Stresses

for a General

State

of
three
7

I2 + m2+ n2= 1)
if the inf'mitesimal area ABC is defined as dAc =- dA,

(8-20)

Traditionally, in an introductory text on solid mechanics, largely confined to stresses in two dimensions. Since, however, the ical elements studied are always three-dimensional, for corn is desirable to consider the consequences of three-dimensionality transformations. The concepts developed in this section have an on the discussion that fol ows in this chapter, as well as on some considered in the next chapter. Consider a general state of stress and define an infinitesimal hedron 6 as shown in Fig. 8-15(a). Instead of considering an inclined

then

areas subscripts,

of the

tetrahedron are dABoc

along the dA l, dAAoc

coordinate = dA

axes, m, and

identified dAAoB

= by es-

are sought on an arbitrary oblique plane ABC in the three xyz coordinate system. A set of known stresses on the other three of the mutually perpendicular planes of the tetrahedron is given. stresses are the same as shown earlier in Fig. 1-3(a). A unit normal n to the oblique plane defines its orientation. This
4 See
1986).

in the xy coordinate

system,

as before

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

 Fx = 0 Fy = 0 F = 0
changing signs, and regrouping
Statics, 2nd
omit ed.

for a wedge,

the unknown

luilibrium equations for the tetrahedron the stresses given in Fig. 8-15(a) by For simplicity, it wil be assumed that a principal stress, is acting on face ABC. normal force (rndA) are obtained axes using the direction cosines, Fig.

can now be writ en the respective areas only a normal stress The components;. of by resolving it along 8-15(b). On this basis,

the the

( r adA ) l - rx dA l - , y dA m - z dA n = 0 (r, dA)m - ry dam - ,zdAn - ,dAl = 0 (rndA)n - rdAn - ,dAl - ,ydAm = 0
terms,

(8-21)

J. L.
section

Meriam,
is more

and was first

L.
advanced

G.

Kraige,
and can

ed.

(New

York:

5 This

be

a A tetrahedron

introduced

in the

study

of stress

the

gre.at

French

mathematician

A. L.
rl

Cauchy

in the

1820s.

(r - r,)l I + (ry ,I +',m

+ ,ym + ,n crn)m + ,yn + (r - r,)n

= 0 = 0 = 0

(8-22)

: system only

virtue

of Eq.

of linear homogeneous if the determinant

8-20,

all three

direction
of the

equations coefficients

cosines

has

cannot

a nontrivial of l, m, and

be zero.

solution n vanishes.

However,

if

rxy

'rxy
l

ry

-'ryz

r n
Crz

'ryz
-Crn

(8-23)

'rxz

!These
the

consider
the

areas
two

are the projection

the

'ry z

lb}

corrresponding
other

two-dimensional dif erent paths.

if the

of dA on the respective
height
wedge Let the
the

shown
CB

in Fig.

coordinate
8-A with

hand,

wedge

area

for

be AB.
side

area

Then

associated the

is Ac,

wedge

and

the

volume

and side
wedge

compare the AC be AAC,

planes.

To

is AAcAB/
height

is
A
B

0
x

Fig.

8d5

Tetrahedron

for

deriving an oblique

a principal plane.

stress

on

{a)

0 = ABI, the volume is AcABI/2. AAC = Acl. By carrying out this given above can be justified.

By equating the procedure in three

volumes dimensions,

and

simplithe re-

Fig.

8-A

Transformation

of

Stress

For

1-3

plane
'Fma x

Expansion

of this

determinant

gives

 I.cr2. + I rcr. HI. 0)

where
3

0 3

Here

f the

initial

coordinate

system

is changed,

thereby

three mutually perpendicular planes of the tetrahedron, the crn inclined plane must remain the same. Therefore the constants I I in Eq. 8-24 must also remain the same, and hence they are Moreover, since the matrix of Eq. 8-23 is symmetric, and all of

Assume
(c)

o* 3

ments
8-24
minental The

has

are
three

three
Eq.

real,

real
8-23 roots

according

root.
are

8 These
the the

to the

Descartes
roots

are
stresses stresses

the

rule

eigenvalues

of signs.,

in general
from

o 2

17 2

of the

and giving

principal principal

of the problem. can be found

24 using

synthetic

division

or Newton's

method

of tangents.

9 It

o 3

O 1

tomary to order the principal stress such that these roots cart_ be substituted into any two with Eq. 8-20 form a set of three simultaneous these equations gives the direction cosines stress. The three principal directions for the thogonal. The planes normal to the principal planes of stress. If two or three of the principal are an infinite number of principal directions. upon in the next section.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

cr > cr2 > cr3. Any of Eqs. 8-22, and equations. A for the selected principal stresses directions are the stresses are equal, This is further
Views of element on dif erent
(b)

principal

axes

Fig.
stress.

846

Triaxial

state

of

are

as a cylindrical

triad

are

are equal,
axes

or axisymmetric
the
this

the

principal

directions.

For the general

for

state

-9.'
In the there  cr2 lems stresses stresses special If stress
McGraw-Hil ,
1965).

Mohr's

Circle

for a General

State

of Stress

ordered

an appropriate
;ponding

principal

case,

preceding section, it was shown that for a general state of are three orthogonal principal stresses, cry, cr2, and cr3,  cr3. These stresses act along the principal axes. Plane stress fal within the scope of the general theory when one of the is zero. So do the plane strain problems when one of the is given by Eq. 8-5. However, degenerate cases arise rec treatment. only two of the principal stresses are equal, the remaining has a unique direction. Any other two orthogonal directions
1956), 47.

principal diagrams, one

stress

stresses

cobsider

case

of stress
gives

state

transformation,
stresses shown draw

are

the il ustration
are in Fig. a Mohr's

the

is said

of stress.

This

principal

to be spherical.

o If all three

case

may

be referred Any

principal
triad

cr > cr2 > cr3. Suppose

oriented

given

axes.

of

in Fig.

principal

as shown

axes

1, 2, and

further

8-16,

where

on an element

3 and

that,

8-16(a).
these diagrams,

By viewing
can

this

element

along

8-16(b), circle

the three
are

obtained. of stress. This

principal

For each is shown

axes,

Fig.

8-16(c)
are

8 I. S. Sokolnikoff,
M. G.

Mathematical
Course
and M.

Theory
in Numerical
L. Baron,

of Elasticity,
Analysis
Numerical

2nd
(New
Method

ed.
in

(New
En

the minimum ones, it is of interest Fig. 8-16(c), the stresses on all arbitrary is designated by K in Fig. 8-16(a). The stresses in three dimensions, show 
O. Hoffman
(New
13.

and

concerned, by definition

with

a cluster
the

outer (Section

of three

circle 8-4),

circles.

is the most the principal

As far as the stress

important stresses one.

mag-

as to where on a plot, such oblique planes lie. Such a results of this study, conthat the coordinate points
of Plasticity for En-

are the max-

9 A. Ralston,

Salvadori,

A First
NJ:

York:

(Englewood

Clif s,

Prentice-Hall,

1952).

York:

and G. Sachs,
McGraw-Hil ,

Introduction

1953).

to the Theory

427

-L PMPa
428
Transformation of Stress

for all possible

between them, shown hatched in Fig. 8-16(c). A series of circles is within this area having their centers on the cr axis by holding any the direction cosines constant. Therefore, it is conven/ent to refer three circles drawn as the principal stress circles. The largest of
the major Inasmuch principal as all stress stresses circle. in their

planes

lie either

on one of the three

circles

or in an

,F
(a) (-4
6 MPa 4 mPa

role in causing either yield or breakdown of a material, it is often' tive to plot all three principal circles of stress, as shown in Fig. 8-16 Two examples of this kind fol ow. In making such plots, the de cases, when two or all principal stresses are equal, must be kept
For such cases,
8-5

various

transformations

may

26034

'

(6, O)
(g)
6 MPa --c

a Mohr's

circle

becomes

a point.

(b)

EXAMPLE

principal
Assume
Solution

For

the data
that

circles

of Example
this

of stress

is a plane

by viewing
stress

8-3,

repeated

problem.

an element

in Fig.

8-17(a),

from

three

constrUct

principal

three

MPa

6 MPa

4 MPa

4MPa

The principal

termined in Example 8-3. The results are repeated in Fig. 8-17(b). Since thiSi plane stress problem, the stress in the direction normal to the paper is complete state of stress showing all principal stresses is in Fig. 8-17(c).
two-dimensional

stresses

for this problem

in two

Figs.

8-17(d)-(f).

diagrams

The cluster

of:the

of three

element

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dimensions have already
(c)

4 MPa

MPa

(d)

(e)

(f)

Mohr's

viewed

principal

from

dif erent

circles

is shown

directions

6 MPa

Fig.

8-t7

in
MPa

8-17(g).

If the given stresses were for aplane strain problem, the middle principal instead of being zero, per Eq. 8-5, would be or2 = v(6 - 4) = + 2v, where
ratio.
(a)
hear

Poisson's

EXAMPLE

8-6

For the plane

diagrams
Solution

and determine

stress

shown

the state

in Fig. 8-18(a),

of stress

draw

for maximum

the three

shear.

Mohr's

principal

planes

MPa

Two

problem.
imum

of the principal
shear

The three principal

stress

stresses

are given;
in the

sociated

with

point
8-18(d).

occurs

stress circles
planes

the third
shown

are shown
circle,

is zero,

D on the major
shear

principal
may

in Fig.

in Fig. 8-18(b):-The
8-18(c).

as this is a plane
in physical
This stress

(c)
5 MPa 5 MPa

and

is given

to recognize

This

type

in Fig.

of problem
that

large

occurs

stresses

in pressure-vessel

arise.

analyses,

where

it is

(d)

Fig. 8-t8

429

430

Transformation

of Strain

Sec.

8-tt.

Transformation

of Strain

in Two

Dimensions

431

Deformed element
8=10. Strains in Two Dimensions
\
F
inal element

Y

(a)

In the fol owing four sections, study is directed toward strain tram marion in two dimensions. This includes consideration of plane stress , plain strain problems. It wil be shown that the transformation of and shear strains from one set of rotated axes to another is completel analogous to the transformation of normal and shear stresses t earlier. Therefore/after establishing the strain transformation it is possible to introduce Mohr's circle of strain. A procedure for surface strain measurements made by means of strain gages into stresses completes this part of the chapter. In studying the strains at a point, only the relative displacement of adjoining points is of importance. Translation and rotation of an elem as a whole are of no consequence since these displacements are body displacements. For example, if the extensional strain of a ds of the original element in Fig. 8-19(a) is being studied, the element its deformed condition can be brought back for comparison purposes, shown in Fig. 8-!9(c). It is immaterial whether the horizontal (dashed) the vertical (dotted) sides of the deformed and the undeformed
are matched to determine dA. For the small strains and rotations

I
I

%dy'

- % Original j
element

sidered, the relevant agonal, is essential y employed. In treating have relevance. The problem.

quantity, the Same strains mechanical

elongation dA in the direction regardless of the method of in this manner, only kinematic properties of material do not

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(a)

(b)

of the

Fig.

8-20

Exaggerated

deformations

of elements

for

deriving

strains

along

new

axes.

q enter

(b)

8-11.
dA

Transformation

of

Strain
the is necessary.
for the

in Two
transformation The
stresses in

Dimensions
sign
Section

By considering point O Lxed, one can point A caused by the imposed strains coordinate systems. The displacement in in the y direction, A'A" =' ey dy. For the the horizontal displacement shown in Fig.

compute the displacements on a dif erent basis in the x direction is AA' shear strain, assuming 8-20(a), A"A"' = ?y

of

the two = e, dx; it causes dy. The

In establishing the equations herence to a sign convention

is related to the one chosen

for

of strain, convention
8-3. The

strict used

(c)

determined deformations.

Fig.

8t9

Strains

from

are

relative

strains e, and ey corresponding to elongations in the x and respectively, are taken positive. The shear strain is considered if the 90 angle between the x- and the y-axes becomes smaller. venience in deriving the strain transformation equations, the torted by positive shear strain wil be taken as that shown in Next, suppose that the strains e,, ey, and %:y associated axes are known and extensional strain along some new x' axis The new x'y' system of axes is related to the xy axes as in In these new coordinates, a length OA, which is dx' long, may of as being a diagonal of a rectangular dif erential element
the initial coordinates.

y directions ]; For element Fig. with the is Fig.

dx by dy

in which these displacements occur is arbitrary. In Fig. 8-20(b), displacement AA' is shown first, then A 'A", and finally A"A'". By projecting these displacements onto the x' axis, one finds the displacement of point A along the x' axis. Then, recognizing that by definition, e., dx' in the x'y' coordinate system is also the elongation of OA, one has the following equality:
e,, dx' = AA' cos O + A'A" sin O + A"A'" cos O

By substituting dividing through

the by

appropriate dx', one

expressions
has

for

the

displacements

and

dx 7 cos 0 + ey dx---dy 7 sin 0 + ,, y dx---dy 7 cos 0 e,, = e, dx----

432

Transformation
Since, however,

of Strain
dxldx' = cos 0 and dyldx' = sin 0,

Sec. 8.t2.
analogous reasoning,

Derivation

for Strain

Transformation

in Two-Dimensions

433

ex,= excos20 + eysin20 +xysin0cos0)

Equation 8-28 is the basic expression for normal strain transfor

[3 '' --(1 x -- y) sin 0 cos

,' axes since the shear strain is [3 + o, one has ?x'y'

0 + yxy cos 2 0
included between the

of an angle

in a plane apply this identities

be rewrit en

in an arbitrary direction defined by the x' axis. 2 In equation, e,, ey, and yxy must be known. By use oftri already encountered in deriving Eq. 8-1, the last equation
also as

,y,

= -2(e

- y) sin 0 cos

0 + y(COS

2 0 - sin 2 0)

( ,y,= -(e- ey)sin20+ xyCOS20)

Note The the that basic second when fundamental 0 = 0 , the expression shear strain for the associated transformation with the xy Eqs. 8-29 and 8-30 for strain transformation in to Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2 for stress transformation in two y, this is because both stresses and strains are and mathematically obey the same laws of transformation. wil be emphasized in discussing Mohr's circle of a plane dimensions. second-rank strain.

(8-30)
of strain. axes are is
This

cos 20 +
To complete the study of strain transformation

sin 20
at a point,

transformation

must

also

be established.

For

this

purpose,

consider

element OACB with sides OA and OB directed along the x' and the axes, as shown in Fig. 8-20(b). By definition, the shear strain for element is the change in angle AOB. From the figure, the change angle is o + [3. For small deformations, the small angle o can be determined by ing the displacements AA', A'A", and A"A"' onto a normal to OA dividing this quantity by dx'. In applying this approach, the the angle is assumed equal to the angle itself. This is acceptable as
strains are small.
tan o

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*'8-12. Alternative
in

Derivation

for

Strain

Transformation

Two.

Dimensions

An

approach

Thus,
=

Consider

more is presented element this element

suitable

for

in this AB initial y displaces

deriving strain transformation in three section. ds long, as shown in Fig. 8-21. After to the position A'B' and becomes ds*

-AA'

sin

A'A" dx'

cos

A"A"'

sin

0 +

The
dv.

initial is (ds*)

length is ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 and the strained length 2 = (dx*) 2 + (dy*) 2, with dx* = dx + du and
u +du

of the dy* =

= -x'Sin
= -(2 Using
as

dx

+ yCOSy) sincos - %ysin

Section 8-8), Eq.

dy

x,

8-28

dy

Sin
can be:

direction

cosines

l, m, and n (see

v +

dv

gx' = gxl 2 + gym 2 + l. Im

As
normal

is shown

strain

in books

transformation

on

the

in

theory

three

of elasticity
dimensions

becomes

or continuum

mechanics,

8x' = 8xl 2 + 8ym 2 + ezn 2 + llm

Therefore,
sions.

+ ?yzmn
transformation

+ ?zln
in two
o

Eq.

8-28

can

be

applied

only

for

strain

1A

d u

dx

B
x Fig, 8-2'1

434

Transformation
The infinitesimal

of Strain
increments of strain, du i.e.,
and

Sec.
and dv for the absolute

8-t3.

Mohr's

Circle

for Two-Dimensional Strain

of strains in two

Strain

435

placements
dif erentiation

u and
to

v; can
obtain

be found
total dif erentials,

formally

by applying

the

chain

-13.
two

Mohr's
basic equations

Circle
for

for
the
of

Two-Dimensional
transformations

dimen-

derived

in the
the transformation

preceding
the 8-30

section
stresses

mathematically
derived in Section

resemble
8-3. To

the

equaachieve

du = __ OU dx + ox
By using dif erence
bodies.

Ou

dy

dv = _OV dx + Ox

Ov
Oy

; for

these between

relations, (ds*)

the strain is most conveniently 2 and ds 2. This dif erence is zero

can
theory, in the expression be neglected in comparison some algebraic manipulations

defined for

as

the Eq.

earlier 8-34.

ones,

between Eq.

appearances after division

of the new throughout

equations by

and those 2 is rewrit en

e,, 2

2
2

cos 2t3 +

sin 213

(8-29)

tities fications,

For squares

the

themselves.

small-deformation of small quantities

Thus,

after

for (ds*) 2, with the, and

Since

(ds*) 2 = 1 + OxJ dx2

Hence,

+ 2dxdy + (l + Oy/ dy2 + 20dx

ox
and, by recalling
one

Eqs.
has

3-7 and 39,

displacements,

dy2 + 2 + ax dy NON-ACTIVATED VERSION which define strains as derivative s www.avs4you.com

dy dx
one has

these strain-transformation equations with the shear strains di2 are mathematically identical to the stress transformation Eqs. and 8-2, Mohr's circle of strain can be constructed. In this construcevery point on the circle gives two values: one for the normal strain, other for the shear strain divided by 2. (For further reasons, see SecStrains corresponding to elongation are positive; for contraction, are negative. For positive shear strains the angle between the x- and the y-axes becomes smaller; see Fig. 8-20(a). In plot ing the circle, the itive axes are taken in accordance with the sign convention for Method Mohr's circle of stress, upward and to the right. The vertical axis measured in terms of-/ 2.

-/,_y, e, - eysin20+ cos20I

(8-34)

by

(ds*)
For small deformations,

2 - ds 2 = 2e, dx 2 + 2ey dy 2 + 2'yxy

to a high degree of accuracy,

+-/.y

As

an il ustration

are

given.

Then

of Mohr's

on the

e --//2

circle

of strain,

axes

in Fig.

consider

8-22

the

that

center

e,, y,

of the

and

(ds*) 2 - ds 2 = (ds* +
where tion
that

ds)(,ds* dsz ds) ds

- ds)/ds from dif ers very lit le

ds'the classical from ds,

(8,3

the normal of small strain,

strain and,

e0 = since

(ds* ds*

ds*

By equating
cos

Eqs.

8-31
and

and
sin

8-32,

dividing
one

through
obtains

by ds 2, and recol 0

0 = dx/ds

0 = dy/ds,

;0 = ;x COS2 0 q- [2y sin 2 0 + 3'-y sin 0 cos

This By

equation for normal strain is essential y identical to Eq. 8-28. taking two initial y mutually perpendicular sides of an element then forming the scalar product for the same two sides in the state, Eq. 8-30 for the shear strain can be reproduced. Extension of this procedure to a three dimensional case is direct,
is left for the reader to complete.
2

Fig. 8-22 Mohr's circle of strain using sign convention of Method 1, Section 8-7.

436

Transformation

of

Strain

Deformed
from the given An examination reached before
is e; the
coincide

')' X106
2

circle C is at [(ex + ey)/2,0] and, A on the circle is at (ex,-y./2). conclusions analogous to those
1. The maximum normal strain

the origin of of this circle for the circle of

is e2. These are
(a)
\

data,

minimum

principal
directions

strains,
of the

and
normal

no shear
strains

strains
is

are
from

associated
with the

with
directions

them.
the

C(-lOO,

o)

18o25 ,

principal expression

stresses. for

the

As can principal

be deduced strains

the

circle,

gx'

'

E1

or2

--

--

--

= -600

m/m

A(-500,

-300)

400

#m/m
(c)

where the positive sign in front of the square root is to be us{ e, the maximum principal strain in the algebraic sense. sign is to be used for e2, the minimum principal strain. The on which the principal strains act can be defined analytically: Eq. 8-34 by setting it equal to zero. Thus,

(b)

Method

Fig.

8-23

1, Section

(Sign

convention

8-7.)

of

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION o-z = (1 + v)(1 - 2v)[(1 - v)e www.avs4you.com

it is completely
manner.

an inverse of the first to express stresses this gives

three

of Eqs. 3-14, in terms of strain.

i.e.,
For

to solve them the stress

simul~ in the

+ v(e + ey)]

(8-37)

Since
8-6 and

this
can

equation
be treated

has

two
in the

roots,
same

since

for

plane

stress

cr = 0,

The circle.
directions

largest Normal
are

shear
strains
associated

strain

ymax of (e
with

is equal + e2)/2
the

to two in two
maximum

times mutually
shear

the
strain.

radius

of t

The sum rections properties

circle further.

of normal is invariant, of strains

strains in any two mutually i.e., e + e2 - gx -I- gy at a point can be established

perpendicular --- constant. by

is

di (e + ey)
fundamental

'= '(e + e) 1

1 --u

(8-38)

Mathematically, in every respect, strain transformation stress transformation. Therefore, in a general three-dimensional problem, there are three principal directions in which strains develop. For plane strain, when ez = x = zy two principal strains e and e2, another principal strain identifying the lat er principal strain by a point on the possible to draw a cluster of three principal strain circles for the stress circles (Figs. 8-17 and 8-18). This procedure in the next example. Mohr's strain circles degenerate to or three principal strains are equal.

is invariant, e remains constant for Hence, at a point, either the Mohr's equivalent of algebraic transformations problem, is applicable.
8-7

any

planar circle

coordinate of strain, for the two-di-

or

principal = 0, e3 = ez e - /2 just as is a point

EXAMPLE

0:

is observed along

angle

3 of 600

that an element the x axis, elongates

p. rad,

as shown

of a body 300 p.m/m

in Fig.

8-23(a).

in a state of plane in the y direction,

Using

Mohr's

strain contracts 500 and distorts through

circle,

determine

This measurement the body, and

For

determining

strain

in the

z direction

for

plane

stress,

one

must

this

purpose.

enlargements

then

may be made by scribing measuring the change of grids, or photogrammetric

a small in angle

square that procedures,

takes

on a body, strainplace. Photohave been used

437

438

Transformation

of

Strain

Sec.

8-t4.

Strain

Rosettes

439 of

the in-plane
they
Solution

occur.

On the same

principal

strains

diagram,

for the given

draw

the remaining

data

and show

two

principal

the directions

strain

in

rosette, As strain .already ,d for either

the

The given data are e, = -500 Im/m, e>. = + 300 Im/m, and o. = -600 Hence, on the e - //2 system of axes, the center C is at (e + )/2 = Im/m from O, Fig. 8-23(b). The origin of planes A is at (-500,300). radius AC is 500 Im/m. Hence, e = +400 Im/m acts in the direction

measuring

)er.

An

information is sufficient at a point. noted in Section 2-2, measuring strain employs of fine wire or foil glued the change in electrical

to determine

the

complete

state

appropriate

calibration

a particularly versatile and accurate electric strain gages. These gages, to a member, are very sensitive for resistance due to deformation in a

TM relates

gage

resistance

to strain.

the line
Since
are

dicular

to line

origin

shown

this is a plane O of the coordinate

on the

Ae3

(not

Ae

shown).
figure

and

e3 =

strain

problem, another principal Therefore, the two small to complete the problem.

From

-600

geometry,

im/m

acts

0 = tan - 300/900

in the

direction

axes.

strain, dashed-line

= 18o25

e2 = 0, is

'.

rosettes

of this

of rosettes are gages grouped

type

are

available

in general together,

in a wide

use. These as shown

range

usually in Fig.

of sizes,

consist 8-25.

with

of three Metal-foil

(a)

active

lengths If angles and eo3,

varying from 0.8 to 12 mm. 0, 02, and 03, together with are known from measurements,

the
three

corresponding simultaneous ex' = eo,,

strains equations ex,, = eo2,

Patterned
E;O 3

after

to employ

Eq.

8-28

the

can

fol owing

be writ en.

notation:

In writing

these

equations,

and

it is

'8-14.

Strain

Rosettes
strain are particularly simple to make, been developed for this purpose. In such along several closely clustered gage (such as x and the initial distance

Measurements of normal reliable techniques have these strains are measured

grammatically gage lines

gage points with the distance in the stressed member, the the gage length is obtained. Dividing the elongation by the gage gives the strain in the 0 direction, which wil be designated eo,. By forming the same operation with the other gage lines, o2 and eo3
obtained. If the distances between the gage points are small,

some coordinate axes and 03. By comparing

indicated may be located

in Fig. 8-24(a) by lines a-a, on the member investigated

y) by the between

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b-b,
respective any two

E;0, = E;x COS 2 01 "1- E;y sin 2 01 --I- 'xy sin 0 cos 0 E;02 = E;x COS 2 02 "1- E;y sin 2 02 --I- 'xy sin 02 COS 02 e03 = ex COS 2 03 + ey sin 2 03 + ' sin 0 cos 03
can be solved for e, ey,
gages
gage

(8-39)
(b)

with

and

angles corres

c-c. reference:

set

of equations

and

y.y,
in a rosette

and

the
are

problem
usually
as

Fig.

metal-foil

8-25

Three-element
electrical-

0

reverts

To

to the minimize

cases already computational

considered. work,

the

arranged

in an orderly
03 = or the
for that

manner.
rosette

For

example,
By

in Fig.
lines substitution

8-24(b),
is known into

0 = 0% 02
Eq.
the 8-39,

45 , and ular

90 . This 45 strain
this

arrangement rosette.

of direct

it is found

resistance (Courtesy Measurements Measurements Raleigh, U.S.A.).

strain gages of MicroNorth

Division, Group, Carolina,

Inc.,

ments approximating Arrangements

24, are called strain

of gage

the

strains at a point are obtained. lines at a point in a cluster,

If three strain measurements

gx = E;O

gy = 90

245 = x + y + 'Yxy
(8-40)

as shown
are

in

rosettes.

c oil o2
b

Y b

C 'y.ry= 245 -- (g0+ g90  )

Fhus, ex,
as

ey,

and

-/y become

known.

Variations
shown or the

of this

arrangement
This Again,

are
is by

 445 , ,
X

60

in Fig.

Another

8-25. arrangement of gage lines is the equiangular, or the delta, into Eq. 8-39 and simplifying,

in Fig. 8-24(c). 60 rosette.

(8-41a)
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.
rosette.

8-24

(a) General

strain

rosette;

(b) rectangular

or 45 strain

rosette;

(c) equiangular

or delta

See

Society

Experimental

for

Experimental

Mechanics

Mechanics

(Englewood

(SEM),

Clif s,

A.

NJ:

S. Kobayashi
1987).

(ed.),

44O

Transformation

of

Strain

Sec.

8-t5.

Introductory

Remarks

and
Sometimes rosettes

(%,0,= 2(60 - 120o)/)X/

The
with more than three lines are used. An

principal tm/m

and
200

strains e2 =
x

for this data -600 im/m.

103

were determined Hence, using

Eqs.

in Example 8-43,

8-7,

and

are

el =

Other types of rosettes are occasionally used in experiments. from all rosettes can be analyzed by applying Eq. 8-39, solving ey, and yy, and then either applying the or constructing Mohr's circle for finding the principal strains.

0- - 1 - 0.3 2 [400 + 0.3 x (-600)]

0-2200

x 10 -6 = +48.4 MPa
Fig. 8-23. The compressive stress

1 - 0.32 (-600
. acts
direction

10 

+ 0.3 x 400) x 10 -6 = 105MPa

direction of el; see

gage these
directions

line measurement rosettes, the

can be

provides
invariance
used to check

a check of the strains

the data.

on the experimental in the mutually technique in

work.

stress
acts in the

in the
of e2.

The application of the experimental rosette problems of stress analysis is almost indispensable. In most problems where strain rosettes are determine the principal stresses at the point this problem, the surface where the strains are of significant normal surface stresses, i.e. 0.z plane stress problem. Hence, the relevant Eqs. principal stresses, 0. and 0-2, become

used, it is necess of strain measurement! measured is = 0. Therefore, this 3-14 writ en in

0-2 0- !

;-15.
rom the

Introductory

Remarks

e = E
Solving obtains these equations the required
E

0-.1 _

v'

0-2

and

simultaneously
relations:

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 2 = E V E www.avs4you.com

for the principal stresses,

preceding study of the text, it should be apparent that in nutechnical problems, the state of stress and strain at critical points / be very complex. Idealized mathematical procedures for determining
states, as well their precise

 - 1 - v 2(e! + re2)
The elastic constants E and v must be

0-2 = 1 - v 2(e2 + ue2)

determined from some

experiments. problems
EXAMPLE

can
8-8

With the be solved

aid

of such successful y.

experimental

work,

very

At a certain point on tangular rosette indicate + 300 Im/m. Assuming

at the
Solution

a steel machine part, measurements with an that Coo = -500 Im/m, e45. = + 200 Im/m, that E = 200 GPa and v = 0.3, find the

and

point

investigated.

From

Eq.

8-40,

'Yxy

= 245 -- (G0 + 90 ) ---- 2 x 200

(-500

+ 300)

= 600

transformations to dif erent coordinates, are response of real materials to such stresses formulations. A number of questions remain of an active area of materials research. As yet no can provide accurate predictions of material beof static, dynamic, impact, and cyclic loading, effects. Only the classical idealizations of yield materials are discussed here. Of necessity, they of structural and machine design. These strength to apply to particular classes of materials. The for the onset of inelastic behavior (yield) for ductile materials under combined stresses are discussed first. This is by presentation of a fracture criterion for brit le materials. It be emphasized that, in classifying materials in this manner, strictly one refers to the brit le or ductile state of the material, as this stic is greatly affected by temperature as well as by the state self. For example, some low-carbon steels below their transition )eratures of about 10C ( + 50F) become brit le, losing their excellent properties, and behave like dif erent materials; see Fig. 8-26. More discussion of such issues are beyond the scope of this text. Most of the information on yielding and fracture of materials under the of biaxial stresses comes from experiments on thin-walled cylinA typical arrangement for such an experiment is shown in Fig. 8The ends of a thin-walled cylinder of the material being investigated

as the strains defies accurate and are part theory havior under the multitud.e well as temperature fracture criteria for used in the majority are structured

oor

Ductile

Brit le

Fig. 8.26 Typical transition curve for stress or energy fracture vs. temperature
carbon steel.

to for

Yield

and

Fracture

Criteria
{7 2

Sec.

8-t6.

Maximum

Shear-Stress

Theory

443

Connection
high-pressure
pump

to

are closed by substantial caps. This forms the hollow interior of a drical pressure vessel. By pressurizing the available space until the ing or bursting occurs, the elements of the wall are subjected to stresses of a constant ratio 00/002 = 2. By applying an additional force P to the caps, the 02 stress is increased to any predetermined 002 + 00". By applying a compresslye force, the 002 stress can be or eliminated. Actual compressive stress in the longitudinal direl undesirable, as the tube may buckle. By maintaining a fixed ratio the principal stresses until the failure point is reached, the desired on a material are obtained. Analogous experiments with tubes taneously subjected to torque, axial force, and pressure are also An interpretation of these data, together with all other related mental evidence, including the simple tension tests, permits of theories of failure for various materials subjected to combined stre

'/'max = -

0 2

Slip

plane

(/1

(/1

45
'o 2

Slip
(a)

planes
(b)
(c)

g-](.
for

Maximum
maximum
from the

Shear-Stress
shear-stress
observation

Theory
or simply
in a ductile

Fig.

8-27

Arrangement

controlled
stresses.

ratios

of principal

The
results

theory,5
that

the maximum
material slip

shear
occurs

t
(/2

0 2

Slip

plane

yielding

along

critically

oriented

planes.

shear stress plays the key role, and it is assumed material depends only on the maximum shear stress an element. Therefore, whenever a certain critical

yielding
usually is compression. Ty = O,

in an
set

element
equal Hence,

commences.
to the according shear

stress at yield in simple to Eq. 8-9, if 00x = +00  0, and

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that yielding that is attained value *or is


This

suggests

that

(/1

01

 For

a given

material,

this

0 2

Slip

planes

Tmax Tcr= I q-

00YP
2

{d)

(e)

(f)

Fig.

8-28
stress.

Planes

of Tma x for

which means that if 00yp is the yield-point stress found, for example; simple tension test, the corresponding maximum shear stress is large. This conclusion also fol ows easily from Mohr's circle of In applying this criterion to a biaxial plane stress problem, two cases arise. In one case, the signs of the principal stresses 00 and the same. Taking them, for example, to be tensile, Fig. 8-28(a), and 003 = 0, the resulting Mohr's principal stress circles are as shown
1773. under
name.

in a simple uniaxial stress, Figs. 8-28(a) and (c). Therefore, if l 00 [ I 002 I, according to Eq. 8-44, 100 I must not exceed 00yp. Similarly, if 1 0021 > 100'1, 10021 must not be greater than 00yp. Therefore, the criteria
Corresponding to this case are

occur

Here

the

maximum

shear

stress

is of the

same

magnitude

as would

biaxial

5 This

In 1868, H. great pressures

theory

appears

Tresca

to have
to

presented the French

been

the

results Academy.

originally

of his Now

proposed

work this

on the flow theory often

by C. A.

(,00011<:00yp,a)nd 10021<:00y
of

(8-45)

The

second

case

is considered

in Figs.

8-28(d)-(f),

where

the

signs

of

directions. stress of the erties,

6 In single

In studies of this phenomenon, the effective component of the causing slip must be careful y determined. Here it is assumed random orientation of numerous crystals, the material has isotropic and so by determining ?m, one finds the critical shear stress.

crystals,

slip

occurs

along

preferential

planes

and

in

and

002 are opposite, and 003 = 0. The largest Mohr's circle passes h 00 and 002, and the maximum shear stress ?m = (I 00 I + 1002 I)/2. alternative possible slip planes are identified in Fig. 8-28(d) and (f).
maximum tension, shear stress cannot i.e., *m --< 00yp/2. exceed Hence, the shear yield criterion

in

444
0 2

Yield

and

Fracture

Criteria

Sec.

8-t7.

Maximum

Distortion-Energy

Theory

445

Oyp

In order
A(1, 1)

to derive the expression giving the yield condition the procedure of resolving the general state of stress This is based on the concept of superposition. For
to consider the stress tensor of the three principal

for combined must be emexample, it is

stresses--0',

ssible
or, for impending yield,
0-1 0'2

a2, and 0'3--to

' one
01

component

consist

tensor

of two
are

defined

additive

as the

component

mean

tensors.

"hydrostatic"

The

elements

stress:

Oyp

=+1

0'yp
B(-1, -1) -1

0'yp

(8-47)
in as Eq. -I 1, lines. this
stress criteria violated.

Fig.
based
stress.

8.29
on

Yield
maximum

criterion
shear

A plot of this .equation gives the two sloping lines shown Dividing Eqs. 8-45 by 0'yp puts them into the same form These modified equations, 0'1/0'yp   l, and 0'2/0'yp spectively, in Fig. 8-29 as two vertical and two horizontal by treating 0'1/0'yp and 0'2/0'yp as coordinates of a point 'in stress space, some important conclusions can be reached. If a point defmed by 0'1/0'yp and 0'2/0'yp fal s on the hexagon Fig. 8-29, a material begins and continues to yield. No such can lie outside the hexagon because one of the three yield tions given before for perfectly plastic material would be stress points fal ing within the hexagon indicate that a material
elastically.

elements this

of the in matrix

other tensor representation,

are

(0'] one

has

),

(0'2

),

and

(0'3

).

0
0

0'2
0

000)
0'3


0

0
0

0'2 - 
0

0 0)
0
0'3 -

(8-48)


Note

that,

according

to the maximum

or compressive 0', no change merely shifts

the same. Also

stresses are added, i.e., stresses in the material response is predicted. the Mohr's Circles of stress along the
note that since the maximum

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shear theory, if hydrostatic
that

ten

such Adding 0' axis

0' these and ?max

For

resolution of the general state of stress is shown schematically 8-30. The special case of resolving the uniaxial state of the has been carried a step further. The sum of the stresses nd (g) corresponds to the last tensor of Eq. 8-48.
the three-dimensional state of stress, the Mohr's circle
02 -

in stress in in Figs.
the first
o 

for

stres

shear

stresses

are

on planes irrespective of material the material is isotropic. The derived yield criterion for to as the Tresca yield condition plasticity.

directional perfectly and

properties, plastic is one of material the widely

it is implicit is often used

law

o3

03 - 

(a)

(b)
General state of stress

(c)

'8-17.
Another

Maximum
is based
is

Distortion-Energy
on energy
accepted criterion

Theory
of yielding

terials

widely

concepts.7

In this

approach,

for

ductile
with distortions. simple

the
the

isotropic

total
B'

under
Ilshod.

energy changes ing the

combined

divided into of the material, shear distortion

stress,

two parts: one associated and the other causing shear energy at yield point in

the yield

criterion

for combined

tension

stress

is

to

by E. Beltrami of Italy in 1885. M. T. Huber of Poland in 1904 von Mises (1913) and H. Hencky

]7 The

first

attempt

to use the total

In its present form, the and was further developed (1925), both of Germany

energy

as the criterion

theory
and

of 
and
the

(d)
was

(e)
Uniaxial state of stress

(f)

(g)

Fig. 8-30 Resolution

stresses.

of principal

stresses

into spherical

(dilatational)

and deviatoric

(distortional)

446

Yield

and

Fracture

Criteria

Sec.

8-t7.

Maximum

Distortion-Energy

Theory

447

tensor component the 0. axis. Therefore, in every possible ical stress tensor. tation of an elastic

of Eq. 8-48 degenerates into a point located at the stresses associated with this tensor are the direction. For this reason, this tensor is called the. Alternatively, from Eq. 3-21, which states that body is proportional to 5, this tensor is also calle,

strain
astic

in simple stresses

energy

tension. reaches

for
one

this

The the

is 20.2yp/12G.
the

lat er yield

condition point, 0.yp, basic

Equating
law

occurs of the for

this
yielding

when material.

one

to Eq.

8-52,

The

of the dis-

after

simplifications, material:

obtains

of an ideally

The last tensor of Eq. 8-48 is called the deviatoric or distortional tensor. A good reason for the choice of these terms may be seen Figs. 8-30(f) and (g). The state of stress consisting of tension and sion on the mutually perpendicular planes is equivalent to pure stress. The lat er system of stresses is known to cause no changes in isotropic materials, but instead, distorts or deviates ment from its initial cubic shape. Having established the basis for resolving or decomposing the

dilatational

stress

tensor.

(0.1-- 0.22) q-(0.2-- 0.32) q-(0.3-- 0.12) = 20.2)yp (8-53)

lane stress, 0.3 = 0, and
-0.1

Oyp

Eq.
0.1 0.2

8-53
+

in dimensionless
0.2

form
= 1

becomes
(8-54)
Fig.
based

-1

(-1,

-1)

8-3t

on

Yield

maximum

criterion

stress

into

dilatational

and
to distortion. i.e., strain Since this it is convenient generalizing has

distortional
For this density, quantity for

components,

One

may

distortion

energy.

strain energy due per unit volume, must be found. coordinate axes, and strains. Thus, perposition, one

purpose, first the strain a three-dimensional state of does not depend on the to express it in terms of principal Eq. 2-21 for three-dimensions usin
1 1 1

is an equation of an ellipse, a plot of which is shown in Fig. 8-31. stress fal ing within the ellipse indicates that the material behaves Points on the ellipse indicate that the material is yielding. This ;ame interpretation as that given earlier for Fig. 8-29. On unloading,
material behaves elastically. This theory does not predict changes drostatic tensile or compressive stresses of the stresses are involved in Eq. each does not alter the yield condition. stress space, the yield surface

go = W,o,a, =
where, cipal by substituting stresses, after for strains, simplifications,
1

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION + 0.22 + 5 0.33 www.avs4you.com having all three direction cosines equal
Eqs. 3-14, expressed in terms of

in the material response when are added. Since only dif er8-53, adding a constant stress For this reason in the threebecomes a cylinder with an

to 1/X/.

Such

a cylinder
that

is

in Fig. 8-32. The ellipse in Fig. 8-31 is simply cylinder with the 0.,-0.2 plane. It can be shown
for tube, Fig. the maximum 8-31. shear stress
Center line

the also

intersection that the

fits

of yield
into

U,oa, =
The strain determined

+
per this unit volume equation
2E

+
by
due first

--

(0.,0.2 + 0.-0.3 +
to the setting

criterion
of

is a hexagon

then

replacing

energy from

p by 5 = (0. + 0.2 + 0.3)/3.

-3(1 2v)

Thus,
2v

dilatational 0. =

0-2

stresses = 0.3

cylinder hexagon

and

= p,
o 2

Udilatation
By subtracting Eq. 3-19 that G = E/2(1
bined stress:

P'

-- --(0.1

1 6E

q- 0.2 q- 0.3) 2
and strain noting energy from l

o,

8-51 from Eq. 8-50, + v), one finds the

1

simplifying, distortion

Udistortion

-- --[(0.1
12G

-- 0.2) 2 q- (0.2 assumption

must be equated

-- 0.3) 2 q- (0.3 distortion-energy

maximum

-- 0.1) 2 ]

// 03 /

/ /1/'

X

Circle

03

of Mises

Hexagon of

Tresca

According
expression

to the
of Eq. 8-52

basic

of the
to the

'"--/
elastic
(a)

(b) View along the axis of the cylinder

Fig.
triaxial

8-32
state

Yield
of

surfaces
stress.

for

448

Yield

and

Fracture

Criteria

Sec.

8-20.

Comparison

of Yield

and

Fracture

Criteria
(/2

The fundamental relation given by Eq. 8-53 may also be formulating the second invariant, Eq. 8-26, of the deviatoric stresses by the last matrix in Eq. 8-48. Such an approach is generally the mathematical theory of plasticity. The derivation given before
greater of Eq. function, emphasis 8-53 and making to physical the accompanying it attractive behavior. As

are equal i is assumed

.in the than that

to those that these

second and for uniaxial

corresponding basic stresses

fourth stresses.

quadrant The

to simple tension or compression. are of equal magnitude. The

indicate smaller
largest discrepancy

strengths occurs

yield
when

at

,A{1,

1)

Figs. in analytical

can 8-31

be noted from the and 8-32, it is and numerical

principal stresses are equal but of opposite sign. This for example, in torsion of thin-walled tubes. According
shear-stress theory, when +0-! = -T-0-2, these stresses

condition to the
at yield
o

yield

This often

ditions combined is also

condition. Both the

widely referred

shear stress and the distortion energy have been used in the study of viscoelastic phenomena stress. Extension of these ideas to strain hardening materit possible. Such topics, however, are beyond the scope of this

8 maximum

used constitutive equation to as the Huber-Hencky-Mises

for

perfectly plastic mateft or simply the van

tress

reach

to 0-yp// 3

only

_0.yp/2.

g. 8-33.

= 0.5770-yp.

The

maximum

These

values

Points

of yield

corresponding

distortion-energy
in shear

to these
stress

theory

are frequently

stresses

limits

this

Oult

are
B(-1, -1)
(a)

in design

applications.

-1

[9.

Maximum
maximum
asserts

Normal
normal
that failure

Stress
stress
or

Theory
or
of

theory
fracture

simply
a material

the

maximum
occurs when

stress
the

o 2

8-18.
largely

Comparison
Energy
stress
emphasized

Theories
in this

of Maximum-Shear
for
occur
most
text.

Plane
Therefore,

Stress
frequently
used yield

and
it is useful

Distorti
in practice
to make

Plane

problems
the

especial y
widely

and
a

parison
terials tention

between
for this case. to the aximum

two
The

maximum shear stress

criterion does this in three dimensions the stresses are the main tween the two is not is shown in Fig. 8-33. stress theory and the
o 2

a more comprehensive manner by considerin energy caused by shear deformations. Since parameters in both approaches, the dif erence' large. A comparison between them for plane Here the Tresca hexagon for the maximum van Mises ellipse for the maximum

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shear-stress in an element. criterion The directs distortion-e

criteria

for

ductil

normal stress at a point reaches a critical value regardless of stresses. Only the largest principal stress must be determined this criterion. The critical value of stress 0-ut is usually determined a tensile experiment, where the failure of a specimen is defined to be excessively large elongation or fracture. Usually, the lat er is imother ranges of stresses, providing Failure is characterized by the separation, This mechanism of failure dif ers drastically which is accompanied by large deformations
of maximum shear stress.

Experimental

in all

evidence

indicates

that

this

theory

a tensile principal stress or the cleavage, fraefrom the ductile fraedue to slip along the

applies

well

to brit le

o3

(b)

Fig.

0p/2
--Oyp
Tosion

theory have the meanings already described. Either one of the lines a criterion for yield for a perfectly plastic material. Yield of a said to begin whenever either uniaxial or biaxial stresses reach the ing lines. If a stress point for the principal stresses 0. and 0-2 fal s these curves, a material behaves elastically. Since no strain behavior (see Fig. 2-13) is included in these mathematical stress points can lie outside the curves, as yielding continued at level given by the curves. More advanced theories are not
this text. 9

maximum This Unlike

of the

stress theory can be interpreted on graphs as the other is done in Fig. 8-34. Failure occurs if points fal on the the previous theories, this stress criterion gives a bounded
stress space.

based criterion.

8-34

on

Fracture

maximum

envelope
stress

Comprison
good experimental
This

of Yield
of some

and
experimental

Fracture
in Fig.
results

Criteria
distortion-energy However,

criteria

It can be seen from Fig. 8-33 that the discrepancy theories is not very large, the maximum shear-stress eral more conservative. As to be expected, the uniaxial

theory

between
stresses

being

'

agreement results

presented

classical

between the maximum for ductile materials.

before

is shown

8-35.

with

2] Note
the

the

yield

theory maximum

the par-

and

Tresca
criteria.

Fig.

8-33

and

Comparison

van

Mises

of

yield

9 K. Washizu, York: Pergamon,

tinuous Mediutn

8 In the past, this condition has been also referred to as the stress theoo,. See A. Nadai, Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solids McGraw-Hil , 1950), 104, or A. P. Boresi and O.M. Sidebottom, chanics of Materials, 4th ed. (New York: Wiley, 1985), 18.
(New

theory is generally credited to W. J. M. Rankine, an eminent (1820-1872). An analogous theory based on the maximum strain, stress, being the basic criterion of failure was proposed by the great B. de Saint-Venant (1797-1886). Experimental evidence does
the lat er approach.

not

British rather French

car-

Variational Methods 1975). L. E. Malvern,

York:

Prentice-Hall,

in Elasticirv Introduction

1969).

and Plasticity, 2nd ed. to the Mechanics of a

experimental points shown by several investigators. The G. Murphy, Advanced Mechanics

83.

The

on this figure are based on classical experfigure is adapted from a compilation made of Materials (New York: McGraw-Hil ,

45O

Yield

and

Fracture

Criteria

Sec.
-ut

8.20.

Comparison

of Yield

and
02/0

Fracture
c

Criteria

451

Maximum normal

02

stress

distortion

Maximum

energy
Grif ith

t"
o I

; 01[0C

,o

Z/3. shear Maximum / stress

I
!

Duguet

-1

/-1.0
\

./ 1.0
Fig. 8-36 Plausible criteria for brit le materials. fracture Fig. 8-37 Dashed shows analytical
three
concretes.

I %

dif erent

curve fit for strength

Fig. yield
with

8-35 and
test

Comparison fracture
data.

criteria

of

Cast iron
Steel

Copper
Aluminum

normal
unsafe

stress
for ductile

theory
materials.

appears

to be

best

for

brit le

materials

and

All the theories for uniaxial stress agree since the simple tension is the standard of comparison. Therefore, if one of the principal at a point is large in comparison with the other, all theories give the same results. The discrepancy between the criteria is greatest second and fourth quadrants, when both princil;
equal.

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i
on concrete

,n for the previous observations by introducing the idea of surenergy at microscopic cracks and showing the greater seriousness tensile stresses compared with compressive ones with espect to failtre. According to this theory, an existing crack wil rapidly propagate if available elastic strain energy release rate is greater than the increase i n the surface energy of the crack. The original Grif ith concept has been

expanded Fig.

specimens

by G. R. Irwin. 25 This
and has

of dif erent

24 Careful
implemented

strengths

recent

strongly for

experimental
use

corroborates with

re-

approach,
26

hardening

effects,

8-37.

work

been

now

has

been
fracture

extended

to include

a com-

depending on applying the in their mechanical to adopt the experiments

In the development of the theories discussed sumed that the properties of material in tension alike--the plots shown in several of the preceding of symmetry. On the other hand, it is known that rocks, cast iron, concrete, and soils have drastically

before, and figures

some

it has

Another
two

have
materials

approach,
flaw:
and

properties
shear

important

ognizes the higher strengths of brit le materials than in tension. Therefore, the region in biaxial stress space is made smaller than it is for biaxial 8-36. In the second and fourth quadrant, a linear of the above regions is assumed. A. A. Grif ith,
1950).

dif erent the sense of the applied stress. This is the greatest classical idealizations to materials having large behavior in tension and compression. An early maximum shear theory to achieve better agreement was made by Duguet in 1885. 22 The improved
in biaxial tension in the compression; change between 23 in a sense,

several dif erent experiments For example, if the results

are available, the

in tension

attempt

for rationalizing

and

compression

must be conducted of experiments in tension,

can be represented

is due

of materials

to Mohr.

on the same compreson the same

27 In this

having

results

8-38(a).
define

using
the
G.

The

their
state

respective largest points of contact

of stress
"Fracture Mechanics

at a fracture.

principal of the

stress envelopes
For
Proceedings, NY:

example,

circles, with

if such
First

as shown the stress

a point

in Fig. circles

is A
on

see

Society

A Symposium on Fracture Toughness for Testing and Materials Special PA: American Society for Testing
eronautics and Space Administration,

R. Irwin, Structural

Mechanics," (Long Island

Testing and Its Applications, American Technical Publication No. 381 (Philaand Materials and Washington, DC: "Behavior of Concrete 99 (1973): EM4, 863. of NLFEA to Concrete
Z. P. Bag-ant, Wiley, responsible ed., 1985). for 1965).

City,

Pergamon,

Symposium 1958), 557.

Also

22 A. Nadai,
23 A. A. Grif ith,
Transactions

Theory

of Flow
"The
of the

and Fractu're
Royal SocieO,

of Solids
of Rupture
of London,

(New
and
Series

York:
of Sohds,"
A, 1920,

2 Adapted from H. Kupfer, and K. Gerstle, Stresses," J. Eng. Mech. Div. ASCE, 26 C. Bedard, and M.D. Kotsovos, "Application
C Geomaterials: As noted

Under
Mechanics the

sophical
163-198.

Phenomena

Flow

J. Struct.

Div. Rocks,

earlier,
stress

ASCE, 111 (ST12) (1985). Concrete, Soils (Chinchester: Otto Mohr was also principally
beating his name.

Strucdevel-

circle

452

Yield

and

Fracture

Criteria
O.

Problems

453

Failure
plane

nterpolation along the failure tress circles is justified, and between them. When traight-line envelopes
The use of straight lines for
0 2

envelopes between these two a stress circle for other conditions more extensive data are lacking

partial
can conserva-

end be

can

be used.
asymptotes

(b)

At

A (or

A')

has a rational basis and has particularly advantageous in soil mechanics. For a loose gransuch as sand, the straight-line Mohr envelopes correspond to the condition of dry friction, p. = tan (b, Fig. 8-39. Any circle to the envelope, as at B, gives the state of critical stress. If some i can be developed by the media, the origin O is moved to the such that at zero stress, the ? intercept is equal to the cohesion. As basically cannot transmit tensile stresses, in specialized literature it customary to direct the compression axis to the right. Unlike the maximum distortion-energy theory, the fracture theory based on Mohr envelopes, using the largest principal stress circles, neg-

een

found media limiting

Fig. 8-39 Mohr for cohesionless

media.

envelopes granular

(a)

 plane
0 3

Failure
planes

lects

dependence

on the intermediate

principal

stress.

-- O c

(d)

(c)

At

B (or

B')

' Fig. 8-38 solution

(a) Mohr in principal

envelopes, stress

space.

(b)

failure

planes

at A and

A',

(c)

failure

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

at B and B', (d) Mohr 8-2
Infinitesimal elements A B, C, D, and

yield and fracture criteria discussed before are inconto apply. In such cases, interaction curves such as in Fig. 7-6 can be used to advantage. Experimental y determined curves of this type, complicated by a local or buckling phenomenon, are equivalent to strength criteria discussed here. In the design of members in the next chapter, departures wil be made strict adherence to the yield and fracture criteria established here, unquestionably, these theories provide the rational basis for

Sometimes

the

(or ,4'), the stresses and the plane(s) on which they act can be found the established procedure for Mohr's circle of stress (Section 8-7). corresponding planes for points ,4 or ,4' are shown in Fig. 8-38(b), material such as duraluminum does fracture in tension at a flat angk shown. Similarly, by relating the fracture planes to either point B the fracture occurs at a steep angle characteristic of concrete c tested in compression, Fig. 8-38(c). Such agreements with
support the assumed approach.

are

the element

figures separately,

for

two dif erent and on the

members. isolated

Draw element,

indicate show formula weight

its

the stress acting on it. For each direction and sense by arrows, one would use in its calculation. of the members.

stress, clearly and state the Neglect the

The data from Fig. 8-38(a) can be replot ed in the principal stress as in Fig. 8-38(d). Since in the first quadrant, the minimum principal 0'3 = 0, and in the third quadrant, 0-3 = 0 is the maximum principal per Figs. 8-28(a)-(c), in these quadrants, the fracture lines in the
stress strengths to that space
shown

P1

I-]A

[P2
/ B
(a)

are similar to those in tension and compression

in Fig. 8-29

of Fig.

is obtained.

8~29. the However,

are

Moreover, if the same, a hexagon

whereas the materials. the range

Fig.

text,

it defines Extrapolation

8-29

gives

a yield

a fracture of Mohr

condition

criterion envelopes

for

for

ductile

brit le beyond

materials,

in the

present

advisable. circles

for

In many tension

applications, and compression

this

may should

mean that be taken

of test data parts of the as envelope

Fig.

P8-t

(b)

454

Transformation

of

Stress

Problems

455

8-2
shown acting
8-1.

through 8-5. For in the figures, find on the indicated

the
the

infinitesimal
and shear planes.

normal inclined

elements stresses Use the

8-6.

The on

magnitudes the vertical

and

sense horizontal

of the

stre

30

point
acting

are as shown

in the figure.
and

Determine
planes.

the

8.21. ( 0 -30) ksi

-30 -40

"wedge"

method

of analysis
30

discussed
MPa

in Example
Sections 8-6 and 8-7

30
20 MPa 20 MPa

x,/p
Fig. P8-9

8-22
states

through
of stress

8-25.
shown

Draw
in the

Mohr's
figures.

circles
(a) Determine

for
on properly
maximum normal

the
the

principal
oriented (principal)

stresses
isolated shear

and
elements. stresses

show
with

their
(b) Find

sense
the

30

2p

be

essential y

two-dimensional

and

as

shown

in

stresses
ments.
normal

and
For
stresses.

show
both

the
cases,

results
check

the associated on properly oriented

the invariance

eleof the

Fig. Fig. P8-2 8-7. The infinitesimal element

P8-6 shown in the

figure.
stress

If the
permissible?

rock
of rock

is stratified, vertical,
Assume

strata is the anticipated

that the static

the

making state
coeffi-

of friction and
of stratification,

on rock
cohesion

is 0.50,

and

along
2.

the

30. Pa
20

in
stresses
MPa

equilibrium.
acting

Determine
on the vertical

the
plane.

normal

is 85 kN/m

10 MPa
10 MPa  10 MPa

20

MPa

Fig.

P8-3
10 ksi

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com 6psi 

5 psi
l psi

3 psi

6psi
_

;ections
840. Derive
Using Using Using Using

8-3
Eq.
Eqs. Eqs. Eqs. Eqs.

through
8-2.
8-1 and 8-1 and 8-1 and 8-1 and 8-2, 8-2, 8-2, 8-2,

8-5
rework rework rework rework Prob. Prob. Prob. Prob. 8-2. 8-3. 8-4. 8-5.
Fig. P8-22

Fig.

P8-23

5 psi

Fig.

P8-7

If at a point trx = + 8 ksi, +4 ksi, what are the principal

and sense on a properly

%. = stresses?

+ 2 ksi, Show

and 'r their shear

10 ksi
6 ksi

ksi

4 ksi

oriented

element.
for the last

2 ksi

8-8.
20 ksi

At grain
x axis.

a particular in the
The

point
is as shown

in a wooden
in the figure.

member!
The

8-t6.

Determine
the

the
associated

maximum
normal

(principal)
stresses

state

of stress

of the
the

wood
allowable

makes
shear

an angle
stress

of + 30
parallel

Show

the

results

on a properly

oriented

ele-

Flg.

P8-24

Fig.

P8-25

grain is 150 permissible?

Fig. P8-4
8 ksi

psi for Verify

this your

wood. answer

Is this state by calculations.

of

through transformation
show (b) find
associated

8-20.
the

For the equations,

their sense maximum
normal

fol owing
(a) find
on properly (principal)
stresses and

data, the
show

using the principal

the re-

8-26
Mohr's
oriented (principal)

.psi
mvariance
10 ksi
ksi

oriented eleshear stresses and (c) solutions check the in (a)

principal
stresses
ments.
mat

through 8-32. circles of stress stresses and

isolated shear
each

For

on properly of the
(b).

oriented normal

elements; stresses

elements; stresses

the fol owing trigonometry, show their sense

and
(b) find with
the

the

data, using (a) find the on properly

maximum normal

the

associated

for

and
In
stresses.

show
case,

the

results
check

on properly
invariance

oriented
of the

elenor-

1oopsi
Fig. P8-8

-17.

trx = -30
trx = 0, try

ksi,
=

try = +10
+20 ksi,

ksi,
and.r

and
=

'r = -20
+10 ksi.

ksi.

8-26.
MPa.

trx = + 50 MPa,

try = + 30 MPa,

and

'r = + 20

19.

trx = -40

MPa,

try = +10

MPa,

and,

= +20

8-9.
Fig. P8-5
timated

After
that

the erection
the state of

of a heavy
stress in the

structure,
rock

it i s

(_00 -g) MPa

8-27. 8-28. 8-29.

MPa.

tr = +80 psi, try = +20 psi, and.r = +40 psi. trx = - 30 ksi, try = + 10 ksi, and 'r = - 20 ksi. tr = -40 MPa, try = -30 MPa, and 'r = +25

456
8-30.
MPa.

Transformation

of

Stress

Problems
-43. For the fol owing stress tensor, determine (a) stress invariants, (b) the principal stresses, and (c) direction of the largest principal stress. The direccosines for this principal stress should be nor-

457

= -15MPa,

0.y = +35MPa,

and,=

+60

Section 8-53.
attached

8-14 The
to

Mohr's

8-31. 8-32. 8-33

0. = +20 ksi, 0.y = 0, and, = -15 ksi. 0. = 0, 0.y = -20 ksi, and, = -10 ksi. through 8-36. For the fol owing data, using
circles of stress, determine the normal

measured
a stressed

strains
steel

for
member,

a rectangular
are e0o =

rosette,
-220

Im/m, What

845*
are the

+ 120 principal

Im/m, stresses

and

eoo = +220 Im/m. and in which directions

and

shear
angle

stresses
0. Show

acting
the
Prob.

on the planes
results
8-4

defined
elements.

by the given

on
with

isolated
0 =

8-33.
*8-34.

0.. =if,
Rework

= 0,0.
Prob.

= 0.2 = -20ksi,
+30

for0
.

= +30 .

(_46
-44.
tress.

10

- 6 -
8

14'

MPa
determine principal determine principal the circles the circles prinof prinof

do they

act?

E = 30 x 106 psi

and

v = 0.3.

*8-35.

Rework

8-2

for

0 =

+45

For stresses For stresses

the

data and data and

in Prob. draw the in Prob. draw the

8-26, three 8-28, three

8-36.
8-37.

0.x = 0.>. = 0, 'r =

For the data shown

-20
for

ksi,
Prob.

for
8-6,

0 = 20 .
using Mohr's

the

circle of stress, the results on

find the a properly

principal oriented

stresses element.

and

show
Fig.

P8-40

8-38.

For the data

shown

for Prob.

8-7, using

Mohr's

circle of stress, find the principal stresses and the orientation of the planes on which these act. *8-39. Using Mohr's circle, determine the angle between the right-hand face of the element shownin the figure and the plane or planes where the normal stress is zero. Check the result using the "wedge" method. Show 'the stresses with proper sense on the rotated
element(s).

8-4t. body,
the

At
x-y

point oriented
state

axes,

A on an unloaded as shown in the

the maximum

edge

of an

figure
shear

with

stress

respect!
is

;ections
-46. direction, Rederive

8-11
Eq.
occurs

and
8-28
first,

8-t2
by
then

assuming
the deformation

that in the

the

shear
in the

8-54. The measured strains for an equiangular rosette, attached to a stressed aluminum alloy member, are = +400 im/m, e6oo = +400 Im/m, and e2oo = -600 Im/m. What are the principal stresses and in which directions do they act? E = 70 GPa and v = 0.25. 8-55. The data for a strain rosette with four gage lines attached to a stressed aluminum alloy member are = - 120 im/m, 845 = +400 m/m, 890 = + 1120 Im/ m, and e35o = + 600 Im/m. Check the consistency of the data. Then determine the principal stresses and the directions in which they act. Use the values of E and v given in Prob. 8-54. 8-56. At a point in a stressed elastic plate, the fol ow-

kN/m
mine

2. (a) Find
the of

the
stress

principal
on an

stresses,
element

and
oriented

(b)
result i
8-47.

its edges a drawing

parallel of the

_2ksi
-6 ksi

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to the element
y

and
the

finally

the

deformation
8-20,

x direc-

x-y

axes. at A.

Show

the

ing information = 500 Im/m, two perpendicular

27.5
200

With

aid

of Fig.

show

that

MPa.
GPa, G

The
=

is known: maximum shear strain m and the sum of the normal stresses on planes passing through the point is elastic properties of the plate are E =
80 GPa, and v = 0.25. Calculate the

13 = -(ex
If the Im/m,
s.

- ey) sin 0 cos 0 + , cos 2 0

-120 what

magnitude

of the

principal

stresses

at the

point.

4 3

unit

~ 1120

strains
8-35

strains are e = and 3' = - 200 Im/m, and in which directions

and 8-36.

Im/m, ey = are the printhey occur?

Section 8-57. Recast the spherical Section

847 the and 8-18 experiments on plasticity, a two-difield is often obtained by subjecting simultaneously to an axial force and of such experiments are reported only 0.x and 'r, stresses are studied,
curves based on the Tresca

do

stress tensor the deviatoric

given in Prob. stress tensors.

8-43

into

3 ksi
Fig. P8-39

8-49.
..

If the
im/m, strains

unit

strains

are

e = -800
what do they

im/m,
are the occur?
using

ey =
prinUse
the for

Fig.

P8-4t

Eqs.

8-35

and

and 3' = + 800 Im/m, and in which direction

8-36.

8-40.

clevice

transmits

a force

F to

a bracket,

as

shown gives ment force,

in the figure. Stress analysis the fol owing stress components A: 1000 psi due to bending, 1500 and 600 psi due to shear. (Note
their inspection.) on a drawing circle for the principal only; directions

of

this bracket acting on elepsi due to axial that these are

Sections 8-42. rections

8-8 Determine for the

and the fol owing

8-9 principal
stress
2 2 ksi

stresses tensor:

and

For the fol owing strain analogous to that described transformation, determine and (b) the directions of the principal strains.

tensor, in Section (a) the maximum

8-8 principal and min-

8-58. In classical mensional stress a thin-walled tube a torque. The results on 0.x-'r, plots. If
how would the

theoretical

stress magnitudes must be determined resultant stresses A. (b) Using Mohr's in (a), determine
mum shear stresses

by

and senses (a) Indicate the of the isolated element the state of stress found stresses and the maxithe associated normal

- 10V
0

5
0 -20

[m/m

Use the procedure

rection can also formation

discussed

in Section
(This

8-8. The
for stress 8-7.)

843

with

stresses.
ments.

Show

the

results

on

properly

oriented

ele-

cosines should be normalized. be solved using the equations discussed in Sections 8-4

and

-51. -52.

Rework ReworkProb.

Prob.

8-48 8-49

using Mohr's usingMohr's

circle circle

of strain. of strain.

and on the yon Mises yield criteria Derive the two required equations sults on a diagram. 8-59. Ordinarily the Tresca stresses are made to coincide gives rise to a discrepancy for the yield condition is assumed what discrepancy wil result for
0.1  0'2?

look and

on such sketch

a plot? the re-

and yon Mises yield in simple tension. This pure shear. If, instead, to be the same in shear, simple tension and for

458
8-60.
stresses, stresses Such

Yield

and

Fracture

Criteria

A
loadings

critical
tr, tr2, are 5p,

element
and tr3, 2p, and are called

develops

the

principal

8-6t.

A metal

bar

is being

compressed

alon

in the ratio 5:2: -1, i.e., the -p, where p is a parameter. radial. If this element is sub-

between two This process

stresses. the material Determine

rigid walls such causes an axial

in

that e3 = 0 and or2 stress tr and no

yield compression value of test
yon

jected
according material

to this

loading

condition,
the stresses to the Tresca

determine

the
and
that

maxiyield-

the apparent a conventional

mum magnitudes ing (a) according

to the yon Mises yields in tension

may reach before yield criterion, criterion. Assume at 60 ksi.

hibits
(b)
the sume yield Tresca

a yield
that the condition. condition

strength

trvp

and

Poisson's
by the expression

ratio

material is governed Find an alternative is postulated.

Introduction
for determining the state of stress in elastic members tradi-

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materials,
1. Normal stresses

in an introductory been derived in previous chapters. shear stress caused by a single For linearly elastic

considered

text

Usually, force component

on mechanics they give

the

of solids have either a normal or acting at a section of main formulas are sum-

(a)

due

to

an

axial

force

(1-13)

(b)

due

to bending

straight
o symmetrical

members

cr =

---

My
I

(6-11)

curved

bars
shaft
shaft
thin-

2. Shear
(a) due

stresses
to torque circular
rectangular
closed

cr = Ae(R
* = --

My

y)

(6-32)

J T

(4-4)

Tma x --

otbt 2

(4-30)

walled
(b) due to shear force

tube
in a beam

? = --

2(t
VQ

(4-34, 4-35)
(7-6)

? = It

superposition
the

y using superposition

of normal stresses these formulas of shear stresses

caused by axial forces and bending was discussed in Chapter 6. Likecaused by torque and direct shear
459

Elastic

Stress

Analysis

and

Design

Sec.

9-2.

State

of

Stress

for

Some

Basic

Cases

461

acting simultaneously consequences

stresses are examined

of
shafts.

the

was considered simultaneous

with the aid of the

in Chapter occurrence
stress-transformation

7. In this of normal

and

principles

are developed

in this chapter.

However,

some

simple

developed
transmission

in Chapter

8. This

condition

commonly

occurs

in beaml

In applying the above formulas, particularly in the analysis or of mechanical equipment, stress-concentration factors must be intro( (see Sections 2-10, 4-7, and 6-6). Because of the problem of fati monly occurring in such cases, reduced stresses are employed. consideration must also be given to dynamic loading (see Section: 4-11, and 6-7). For such loadings, if occurring in mil iseconds, able stresses may be significantly increased. This chapter is entirely devoted to elastic problems, an approach commonly used at usual working loads. In Part A, the state some basic cases is discussed from the point of view of stress
mations.

procedures for prismatic beams are given. is essential to recognize that in all elastic stress-analysis and design the material is assumed to be initial y stress free. In many materials, significant residual stresses may be present. These be caused by the manufacturing processes employed: rolling, weld-

ing,

forging,
some formidable

it is the engineering

temperature

combination that cause applications,

or hydration
of the

the initial

residual yield estimates

shrinkage,

stresses with those due and/or fracture of a member. of residual stresses present

etc.

(see

Fig.

1-12).

In

to

problem.

The elastic design of members is considered in Part B. stress-analysis formulas listed before are applicable to both terminate and indeterminate problems, discussion wil be limited to ically determinate cases. There are at least two reasons for this. the more frequently occurring statically indeterminate problems beams; these are treated beginning with the next chapter. Second,

L2.
state

State

of Stress

for

Some

Basic

Cases

significantly,

he design

of statically

their stress analysis is necessarily elastic bar of variable cross section, an axial force P, as shown in Fig.

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indeterminate systems in
complex. As an example, fixed at both ends, and 9-1. If the cross-sectional areas

upper found reaction stresses

indeterminate

and lower parts of the bar are given, reactions R and R2 routinely using the procedures discussed in Chapter 2. After is known, the problem becomes statically determine, and can be found in. the usual manner. However, if this

can
the

of stress for four basic cases in the form of examples is conin this section. By means of Mohr's principal circles of stress, states of stress at a point are exhibited graphically. From such repthe critical stresses can be seen readily and related to the ,r fracture criteria discussed in the preceding chapter. The four cases pertain to the uniaxial stress, biaxial stress such as occurs in pressure vessels, torsional stresses in circular tubes, and beam caused by bending and shear. Because of the greater complexity last problem, some aspects of the solution accuracy are discussed
next section.

system

were

to be designed,

even

this

smple

become P and sectional Additional erally

here.

the

involved. Generally, in a design problem, boundary conditions would be known. areas of the bar, an infinite number constraints in the realm of structural enter the problem. Such problems are,

only the applied By varying the of solutions is or machine design therefore, not

EXAMPLE

94

2onsider

a state of stress.

of stress Relate

in an axial y the critical

loaded stresses

bar and to yield

construct and fracture

the

three criteria.

principal

It is to be emphasized that only the problem of elastic stresses sidered in this chapter. Some elastic designs may be governed the stif ness or the possible instability of a system. The commonly arises in deflection control and vibration problems; the
in lateral instability of members.

is
1-8.

maximum principal The remaining two The basic infinitesimal is shown in Fig.

stress principal

trt in an axial y loaded bar can be found using Eq. stresses are each equal to zero, i.e., tr2 = tr3 = element for this case, together with its three planar 9-2(a). The principal circles of stress are drawn in Fig.

indeterminate

Fig.

94

A statically

problem.

The meaning traordinarily ' gineering

main

purpose of stress many mechanics

chapter is to provide greater analysis by solving additional problems. cases where applications of the basic of solids listed before lead to useful

of this

insight There formulas results.

9-2(b).
For

a point.
diameter.

Since
case,

For

th and
the is at.

clarity,

tr2__e
maximum Therefore,

however,

equal,
shear the

it is shown
stress manner

Mohr's

circle

in the

for these
diagram

stresses
by

a small
the

degenerates

circle

of on

No

this

stress

is equal to tr/2, whereas in which a material

fails

maximum depends

1/2
iC

Sec.
o 1

9-2.

State

of

Stress

for

Some

Basic

Cases

463

p0

A--

O2 0 3

01

iC

p0

Omin

(a)

Rg.
uniaxial

9-2

ohr's
state of

circles
stress.

for

O1O2=O3=0
(b)

its relative 2-3 and

fracture.

strengths il ustrated
This is so

in

in these two properties. Fig. 2-7, a brit le

it is weaker

As material
in tension

already (cast
than

pointed iron)
in shear.

fails

out by
The

in a
01

O  0 2  0 3

0 2=a/2;
(a)

0 30
(b)

because

true for a ductile material. The cup and aluminum occur approximately axis of the specimen. These planes on the right in Fig. 9-2(a). Greater possible by considering the behavior

and cone fractures shown in Fig. 2-7 along the planes forming a 45 angle are identified by dashed lines in the refinements on the mechanism of of single crystals within a material.

Fig. 9-3 stresses

VlPLE 9-3

of a pressure

Mohr's circles in a cylindrical

vessel.

for wall

EXAMPLE

9-2

Consider the three

Solution

a state principal

of stress circles

in a'thin-walled of stress.

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Examine
;olution

the state

of stress
circles

in a circular

tube

subjected
results

to a torque
to yield and

by constructing
fracture criteria.

principal

of stress.

Relate

the

Relate

cylindrical the

results

pressure vessel to a yield

and

The

shear

stresses of the

for

tube

this case and three

can be found planar views

using are

Eq. shown

4-4.

A typical infinitesimal in Fig. 9-4(a). Here

the

According to Eqs. 3-24 and 3-25, the ratio of the hoop stress q to the Ion stress tr2 is approximately 2. These are the principal stresses as no shear act on the corresponding planes. The third principal stress tr3 equals the or internal pressure p, which may be taken as zero since it is small in tr and tr2. A typical infinitesimal element for the vessel and three planar are shown in Fig. 9-3(a). The principal stress circles are shown in Fig. maximum shear stress is found on the major stress circle passing origin O and tr. Its magnitude is th/2. The planes on which the maximum stresses act are identified by dashed lines in the lower right element. if only the principal stresses cr and or2 were considered, would only be half as large. In design, the yield criterion based on the distortion theory (see Section 8-18) can also be used. Construction of pressure vessels from brit le materials is generally such materials provide no accommodation nor warning of failure through
before fracture.

Tmax
c

= TO

It is interesting to note that for or2, and the corresponding principal theless, the maximum shear stress

a thin-walled stress circle is cry/2 since

spherical degenerates the third

pressure into principal

vessel, a point. stress

--.,t. --.-

is

(a)
Fig. 9-4 Mohr's circles for stresses in a circular tube

01 = i'ma x = TO; 0 2 = O; 0 3 = --01

(b)

01  0 2  0 3

462

subjected

to torque.

464

Elastic

Stress

Analysis

and

Design

stress circle constructing cr3, as shown in justifying the drawing of the For ductile materials, the shown earlier in Fig. 4-9, at If, alternatively, the material teristic fracture along a helix,
for

major principal 8-7 for rules are cr and

has

a radius equal Mohr's circle). Fig. 9-4(b). The

to the Hence, middle

shear stress xo (see the two principal principal stress cr2 is

K i 10 r 1P ---250J
(a)

-500

[*-4o

lO

two small circles shown. strength in shear is smaller than in tension, failure, a square fracture occurs across is stronger in shear than it is in tension, shown in Fig. 4-10, is observed.

a me a
K

(b)
I

E 40 kN

EXAMPLE

9-4

A 40 x 300 mm rectangular
9-5(a). stresses vertical condition,
element

elastic

beam

spans

1000

mm,

as shown

in mm in
A

This

beam is braced at points K, L, M, force P = 80 kN find the stresses

Z'.

to prevent lateral buckling. (a) Determine the L', and K' caused by the application of a conce at midspan to the top of the beam. (b) For the on an inclined plane defined by 0 = +30
(d)

40

kN

--

16.67

MPa

Solution

Mohr's

circle

of stress
(i)

for

point

(a) At section K-K', the shear is 40 kN and the bending moment acting in the directions shown in Fig. 9-5(c). No shear stresses act on elements K and K' as they are at the beam Therefore, the principal stresses at these points fol ow directly by
6-21.

O'KrK'

= '' I = -T- = -T-

stresses 9-5(d) stresses

Mc

6M

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 6 MPa MPa   www.avs4you.com = -T- 40 X 3002 = -T-16.67

bou
+0.03
(e)

is 10

MPa,

-15.59

MPa

;2'37
45

6 x

10

106

The principal shown in Figs. The normal

by reducing
by

them

by a ratio

acting in the vertical and (h). acting on elements

direction

are

zero.

These

(f)
Eq. 7-6 in Fig.
(g)

t __ 5 MPa
5 MPa

5 MPa

1..11MPa
06 MPa
(i)

of the distances
Afghj
140

L and

from

L' fol ow

the neutral

from

axis

the

to the ele
15.56 0.644 MPa

previous

i.e., which 5(b).

140/150. The the cross-hatched Hence,

corresponding area

shear stresses are and the corresponding

obtained

using y are shown


MPa

cr.or ., = -T-l-  x cry:, = -T-15.56 MPa

TL orL' --

VAfghjY -It are shown of stress the results

is used to

_ 40 X 103 X 40 X 10 X 145
40 x 3003/12 x 40 in Figs. 9-5(e) and (g). is employed for obtaining are shown on a rotated
obtain the results. Note

0.644

MPa

(h)

--

16.67

MPa

Fig.

9-5

These Mohr's

results

Point
the

Fig.
1 of

9-5(i),
Section

circle and
8-7

element
the

principal in Fig.
invariance

stresses 9-5(e).
of the

the right face of the element at M acts in the same direction as the internal at section KK'. Its magnitude can be obtained by applying Eq. 7-6, or
+

corresponding

M lies on the neutral

element
Eq. 7-8a,

shown
i.e.,

axis of the beam;

in the Errst sketch

hence,

of Fig. 9-5(0.

no flexural

The shear

stress

acts on
stress

the normal A similar

on the rotated

stresses, solution
element

i.e.,
for

crx + cry = cr! + cr2 or -15.56 the principal stresses at point L'
in Fig. 9-5(g).

+ 0 = -15.59 yields the results

by using

Tmax = 2 A

3 V

1.5

40 x 300

40

103

= 5 MPa
465

466

Elastic

Stress

Analysis
71 =0

and

Design

Sec. are the obtained results

9-3. with

Comparative a more accurate

Accuracy solution.

of

Beam Such

Solutions a com-

467

87.63
r 0.03 MPa

16.67
15.59 MPa

_
Fig. major
Behavior

2.37
MPa ~

 5 MPa
i K'

2.37

:5 MPa

9-6

(a) principal
of

Behavior

stress
the minor

of the oh. (b)

6.67

87.63-
(b)

 0.03

MPa

of the symmetry of the problem, only one-half of the beam was using 450 finite elements. Z The contour lines for the principal stresses are shown in Fig. 9-7(a). point lying on a stress contour has a principal stress of the same and sign, with tensile stresses being positive. In this diagram, the major principal stresses are shown by black lines, and the minor prinal stresses are shown in color. Comparisons between the elementary
finite-element solutions of the normal stress distribution across sec-

Because

parison

is made

here

with

a finite-element

solution,

shown

in Fig.

9-7.

a 2 =0
(a)

principal

stress

2.

The

pure

shear

stress

transformed

into

the

principal

stresses'according

It is significant to further examine qualitatively the results obtained. For purpose, the computed principal stresses actbzg on the corresponding 1 shown in Figs. 9-6(a) and (b). In Fig. 9-6(a), the characteristic behavior of major (tensile) principal stress at a section of a rectangular beam can be This stress progressively diminishes in magnitude from a maximum value to zero at K. At the same time, the corresponding directions of el through 90 . A similar observation can be made regarding the minor (com principal stress _ shown in Fig. 9-6(b).
(b) To application find the stresses of Eqs. 8-1 acting on a plane of 0 = and 8-2 using the stresses +30 through point L', shown on the left ele:

6 is shown

on a rotated

element

in Fig.

9-5(f).

are shown The agreement between ed reaction R,. At

K-K'

in Fig. 9-7(b) and that for the shear stress in Fig. is seen to be excellent. However, section K-K' is the applied concentrated force P and the concenthese points, locally large perturbations in stresses

Fig.

9-5(g)

and 20 = 60 is made.
+ 15.56

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

 This
L. Taylor

resembling those shown earlier in Figs. 2-30 and 2-31. However, to the Saint-Venant principle, local stresses rapidly diminish a regular statically equivalent stress pattern sets in. In practice, large ;ses at concentrated forces are reduced by applying them over an to obtain an acceptable bearing pressure. Theoretically, in an elastic the stress at a concentrated force is infinite. In reality, some plastic solution
employing isoparametric technique enables the use where the stresses vary in the FEAP program through stresses. the thickness, the plate

was

obtained

using

the

forces,

Since

in a two-dimensional
across

plate

or0TO -These

2
-results
8-7 can

+ -sin
are
be

+ 15.56

2
60 +

cos (-0.644)

60 + cos
9-50). The
same

(-0.644) 60 =
sense
results.

sin -7.06
of the

60 = MPa

+11.11

stresses plane

in the thickness

of finite

four-node of graduated more rapidly were used FEAP are

FEAP

computer

thickness,

elements. An automatic meshsmaller elements at concenthan elsewhere. Conventional in the previous solutions cited.

program

developed

by

formulation, used. Such

abt.
P

the

the stresses

in-plane

average are

stresses

values called

vary
gen-

of

15.56

Symm.
K -25

15.3

MPa

(16.67)

shown

in Fig.

sheafing

stress

'r0 '

-25

posite "wedge
Section

to that shown technique"

used

in Fig. explained
to

8-4(b),
obtain

since in Example
the

the computed 8-1 or the

quantity Mohr's

is negative. circle
300 -10i
-15 i -5

-15

-5 , Finite
solution

5.0

MPa

-251

+5
+25
;

9-3.

Comparative

Accuracy

of Beam

Solutions

'N

The solution in the previous example for a beam considering flexure shear is based on stresses initial y obtained using the conventional mulas of engineering mechanics of solids. These formulas are sential y assuming that plane sections in a beam remain ing. Since this basic assumption is not entirely true in all cases, solutions can be referred to as elementary. Therefore, it is

-16.6

<
Fig. 9-7 (a) Principal stress

500 mm
(a)

(-16.67)

element I /  (5.0)
J

L'
MPa

/J

,Elementary

solution

Shear

stress

(c)

(b)

)aftsons

between elementary

elementary

contours
solutions

and

finite in (b)

for

Example

element and (c)

9-4 beam

solutions are given

determined

for normal in parentheses).

by finite
and

shear

elements.

stresses

(b) and

at section

(c)

K-K'.

Symm.

Sec. 94. Experimental

Experimental
In

Methods
Analysis

of Stress

Analysis

469

-5
-+2

-10

-25

Methods
procedures

of Stress
method are

contours

Fig.

9-8

Principal
for

left

half

stress

300
of a
1250 mm

the past, when mathematical )ossible to apply, the photoelastic .y used to solve practical tration factors cited in this text
ental work. Accurate stresses

problems. either in an entire

became too cumbersome of stress analysis was Many of the stress-concendrawn or verified by such
specimen can be found

or exexan

rectangular beam loaded

simply supported in the middle.

Using
yielding,
force.

this
'over

method.
by the modem two

3 This

traditional
numerical

area
techniques.

ofphotoelasticity
An preceding il ustration

has been

largely

of such

reducing

the

stress,

takes

place

in the

proximity
+5

of the
MPa correst

approach

using

finite

solutions

elements

cited

has been
in the

shown

a few

section.

times

Nevertheless,

in this

text,

precisely stress

the principal
percent

It is interesting coincide for more

coincides with at point N at the

stresses

to note from Fig. 9-7(a) that the than half of the span. This condition

photoelastic

remain hic,

for the middle

solution.

The beam is relatively short, having a length to depth ratio of 3.1 is instructive to compare this solution with that for the somewhat similar beam having a length to depth ratio of 8.33, which is shown Fig. 9-8. For this beam of 2500~mm span, the applied concentrated P = 32 kN. One--half of this beam was analyzed using 900 finite According to elementary solutions, the maximum bending stress at N is the same as in the previous case. However, here the shear stres the neutral axis is 2 MPa. In the figure, the principal stresses of magnitude define the neutral axis in the elementary solution. In to the earlier case, it is seen that the neutral plane extends across the entire length of the beam. The stress disturbances caused
the concentrated force as well as reactions are much more

of the elementary

the neutral axis in the elementary bottom of the beam below force

element

M in Fig.

9~5(0,

solution. P is

and

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

with the x axis can be connected. Moreover,

some y In the magnitude which the

useful in special applications. Moreover, several additional procedures became available. Among these, the Moir, holand laser speckle interferometries are playing an increasingly role. These methods are discussed in specialized texts. 4 Howterminology developed primarily in two-dimensional photois in general use and is given for reference. preceding section, the principal stresses of the same algebraic provided a "map" of stress contours. Similarly, the points at directions of the minor principal stresses form a constant angle
since the principal stresses

techniques

augmented

with

computers

have

now

advanced

stresses x axis. The stresses arallel directions. This line is called an isoclinic line. The adjective 'linic is derived from two Greek words, isos, meaning equal, and klino, slope or incline. Three isoclinic lines can be found by inspection in a rectangular prismatic beam subjected to transverse load acting normal to its axis. The lines corresponding to the upper and lower boundaries of

mutually

perpendicular, the direction of the major principal the same points also forms a constant angle with the so connected is a locus of points along which the principal

Further,

the

maximum

bending

stress

at point

is within

less

percent

from the applied force P, this solution again provides an example Venant's principle, and the elementary formula is sufficiently For beams carrying distributed loads, stress perturbations
marily at the supports.

of the

elementary

solution.

Since

point

N is a beam

depth
occur

For the previous reasons, the elementary formulas of the mechanics are generally considered to be sufficiently accurate usual design. They are also indispensable for the preliminary complex members, where subsequently a member is analyzed by
method such as by finite elements. analytical
that

for

analytical solution shows that it approaches lution with an increasing ratio of the beam Photoelasticity, Vol. I (New York: Wiley, 468

short

2 The Wilson-Stokes 1890s show that

beams

the maximum is smaller than

bending

and
given

photoelastic stregs caused

by the

asymptotic_ally length to depth. 1948), 116.

elementary

solutions developed by a concentrated

flexure

in
theory.

3 Figure
4 See

9-A shows regularly spaced and perturbed fringes at concentrated load These photoelastic fringes provide a map for the dif erence in principal rhey do not directly give contours for selected stresses as does the finitemethod.

of a rectangular hotograph Clough.)

Fig.

9-A

Fringe

beam. by R. W.

photograph

the See

M.

M.

Clif s,

A.

S. Kobayashi
NJ:

Prentice-Hall,

(ed.),

1987).

Handbook

on Experimental

Mechanics

(Engle-

Sec.

9-6.

Design

of Torsion

Members

47i

tional
Fig. 9-9 trajectories
beam.

area,

where

the

stress

is a maximum.

This

requires

the

use

of net,

Principal

for

stress a rectangular

a beam

form

two

isoclinic

lines
neutral

as,
axis,

at the
where

boundary,

the
pure

flexural
stresses

are

stress

the

is zero

principal

at the

stresses

and

act parallel

to the
only

boundaries.

shear

The

rather than gross, cross-sectional areas. If an cross-.sectional area is imposed by the design Eq. 2-19, Crm = KP/A, is appropriate. The necessary in the design of machine parts to concentrations where fatigue failure may occur. tures, such as buildings, stress concentration
(see Fig. 2-35). Besides the normal stresses, given by the stresses act on inclined planes. Therefore, if strength in comparison to its strength in tension along planes approximating the planes of as discussed in Section 8-20. However, regardless may actually take place, the allowable loaded members is customadhly based on the ered

abrupt discontinuity in the requirements, the use of use of the lat er formula is account for the local stress In design of static strucfactors are seldom considprevious equations, shear a material is weak in shear or compression, it wil the maximum shear stress of the type of fracture stress for design of axial y normal stress. This design
ultimate occur

These pure shear stresses transform into principal stresses, all of act at an angle of 45 with the axis of the beam. Hence, another iso. line (the 45 isoclinic) is located on the axis of the beam. The other i
lines are curved and are more dif icult to determine.

Another

set

of curves

can

be drawn

for

a stressedbody

for

which

magnitude and the sense of the principal stresses many points. A curve whose tangent is changing
with the direction of the principal stresses

is called

are known in direction

a principal

to

at a

procedure
withstand

trajectory or isostatic line. Like the isoclinic lines, the principal trajectories do not connect the points of equal stresses the directions of the principal stresses. Since the principal stresses at point are mutually perpendicular, the principal stress trajectories for two principal stresses form a family of orthogonal (mutually ular) curves. 5 An example of idealized stress trajectories for a rectan
beam loaded with a concentrated force at the midspan is shown in

the
some

maximum

at failure rienee, although

is consistent.

normal

is directly the

The

maximum
actual

related

stress

can be considered
to consider use of Eqs.
govern the

to the break may

normal

stress

as the ultimate

strength of the maon an inclined plane,

that

a matedhal

can

strength.

9-9. The principal stress are shown in the figure

are shown dashed. turbed at the supports
surmised from Fig.

The

trajectory and at the

trajectories by solid

corresponding lines; those for

pattern

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION )-6. Design of Torsion Members www.avs4you.com

situations, these criteria

If in the design axial y loaded

it is necessary member, the

the
2-7 selection

deflection ae..'t 2-9

or stif ness is appropriate.

of In

of members.

point

(not of application

to the tensile the compressive

shown)

is severely of load P as can

9-7(a).

Explicit formulas for elastic design of circular tubular and solid shafts are provided in Section 4-6. Some stress concentration factors essential in design of such members subjected to cyclic loading are given in Section 4-7. Large local shear stresses can develop at changes in the cross-see-

walled

area.

sections, the these members these formulas

tubular

Stress-analysi

corresponding are also

are suitable

members

are given
provided.
for

formulas

formulas

in Sections
for
for
by

for some

noncircular

Except the design

of

calculating stress-concentration

4-14

and 4-16.
the
members

solid

and

stif nesses

In these

thin-

of

of torsion

factors, for many

9-5. Axial y signed

for

an axial y

Design of Axial y Loaded Members loaded tnsile members and short compression for strength using Eq. 1-16, i.e., A = P/cruow.
loaded member occurs at a section
analogous situation is found in fluid fluid flow problems, the streamlines and system of curves, the flow net.

of minimum

The

members

critical
where

5 A somewhat dimensional" an orthogonal

mechanics, the equit

in

torsion members are designed This amounts to a direct use ) failure. However, it is well to bear stress, which occurs in torsion, can stresses, and, in brit le matedhals, tensile tensile principal stress. A similar approach is used in the mechanical equipment. However, in to carrying a torque, also act as beams.
until Section 9-10.

types

Most

of cross

sections.

selecting an allowable shear maximum shear theory of in mind that a state of pure shear be transformed into the principal fractures may be caused by the
the

design of shafts such cases, the Therefore, this

for gear trains shafts, in addition topic is postponed

in

6 Slender

compression

members

are discussed

in Chapter

11.

470

472

Elastic

Stress

Analysis

and

Design

Sec.

9.7.

Design

Criteria

for

Prismatic

Beams

473

9-'7

Design

Criteria

for

Prismatic

Beams

If a beam is subjected to pure bending, its fibers are assumed to be state of uniaxial stress. If, further, a beam is prismatic, i.e., of a cross-sectional area and shape, the critical section occurs at the
M/m. After the required section modulus is known, a beam of, proportions can be selected. However, if a beam resists shear in to bending, its design becomes more involved. Consider the prismatic rectangular beam of Example 9-4 at a 250 mm from the left support, where the beam transmits a bendin and a shear; see Fig. 9-10(a). The principal stresses at points K, L L', and K' at this section were found before and are reproduced in 9-10(b). If this section were the critical section, it is seen that the of this beam, based on the maximum normal stress theory, governed by the stresses at the extreme fibers as no other stresses, these stresses. For a prismatic beam, these stresses depend only on magnitude of the bending moment and are largest at a section where maximum bending moment occurs. Therefore, in ordinary design it is necessary to perform the combined stress analysis for interior  the example considered, the maximum bending moment is at the

For made
of

compre.

cross from

tst be examined.

ssion,

sections material
may
to the

the largest
Under The

without that

two

moments
some

has

axes dif erent

critical

circumstances,

of both
the

of symmetry, properties

senses

a smaller

(positive

such as T beams, in tension than in

bending

or negative)
moment

of the section

greatest modulus

bending of such

moment. a beam

can

By

assigning be determined

an allowable using

Eq.

stress 6-21,

one
relation

sense

sense.

cause

section

a more

at which

extreme

stress

than

fiber

a larger
stress

of either

moment

sign

of

respective

allowable

stress

is highest

is the

critical

sec-

as may

tent.

The previous criterion attention was specifically

In some cases,

the

for the design directed

shear

stresses

of prismatic to the stresses

caused

by the

beams is incomplete, caused by the

shear

at a section

mo-

nitude of the shear remains At a small distance a from 40 kN, whereas the bending shear stress at the neutral

control

the

design.

In the

constant at every section through the beam. the fight support, the maximum shear is stil moment, 40a kN.m, is small. The maximum axis corresponding to V = 40 kN is the same
for any prismatic this criterion,

example

considered,

Fig.

9-10,

the

mag-

point M' the bending

the shear directly

of the

span.

Th

foregoing

may

be generalized

design transverse
ment

of prismatic forces
reaches its

beams: acting
absolute

a critical section normal to its axis

maximum.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

into a basic rule for
for a l occurs where
the bendin

and another is a maximum.

as it is at point M. 7 Therefore, stresses may be small, they

critical section In applying

may

since in a general problem, not control the selection

beam occurs it is customary

where to work

of

with the maximum shear stress that may be obtained from Eq. = VQ/It, and not transform *m SO found into the principal stresses. For rectangular and I beams, the maximum shear stress given by Eq. 76 reduces to Eqs. 7-8a and 7-10, *m = (3/2)V/A and (Tmax)appro x =
Whether section
respectively. the section where the shear

260
(a)
,0 kN

where the is a maximum than the

bending

moment

governs
allowable

the
bending

is a maximum or the selection of a prismatic stress.

beam
able

shear

depends

stress

on the loading
is less

and

the material

used.

Generally

For

the allowexample,

10kN'm
40 kN 80 kN

for steel, the ratio betweefi these allowable stresses is about 1/2, whereas for some woods, it may be as low as 1/15. 8 Regardless of these ratios of stresses, the bending stresses usually control the selection of a beam. Only in beams spanning a short distance does shear control the design. small lengths of beams, the applied forces and reactions have small and the required resisting bending moments are small. On the other hand, the shear forces may be large if the applied forces are

..
(b)
5

16.67 MPa
15.59

large.

The

two
are

criteria
in dif erent

for

the

design
locations.

of beams
However,

are

accurate
in some

if the
instances

two
the

critical
max-

sections

imum through
"'"*'"'K'
16.67
L = 1000 mm

than O'm and *m, points. For example,

stresses.

bending moment and the maximum shear the beam. In such situations, sometimes
as given consider by Eqs. 6-21 an I beam
parallel

and 7-6, may of negligible

occur higher

at the same combined

exist weight

at the interior that carries

section stresses

? At point
8 Wood

M, the shear
is weak in shear

stresses
strength

are shown

transformed
to its grain.

into

the principal

Fig.

940

474

Elastic Stress Analysis

and Design
;ses increase linearly with the span

Sec. 9-8. Design

length, whereas

of Prismatic
the shear

Beams
stresses

475

.__10,,4 P=18.44k
1'
20" (a)
0.51
2

:emain come
ments.

constant. Hence, in most cases, the bending stresses d. ominant. Therefore, generally, it is necessary to perform stress analysis only for very short beams or in unusual

rapidly bethe comarrangeDesign shear

9.22

From beams, design critical from

(b)

diagrams.

the previous discussion, it is seen that, for the design of prismatic the critical sections must be determined in every problem, as the is entirely based on the stresses developed at these sections. The sections are best located with the aid of shear and bending-moment such
5.

(a)

The

diagrams.

required

The

values

construction

of Mm

and Vmx can be determined

of these diagrams

is discussed

easily

in

2.50

ksi

. .-r

.81

, 1.84
 _ 2.81

2.50

2.81

ksi

9-8.
prismatic
sections

Design
noted
;ctions.

of Prismatic
is controlled
section,

Beams
section usually occurs where the bending moother where the shear is a maximum. These determined with the aid of shear and moment

in the preceding


0.5'

.50
(c) (d)

One such critical is a maximum; the are conveniently

beams

by the maximum

the

customary

stresses

approach

at the

for

design

critical

of

Fig.

9-11

a force moment

P at the occurs

middle of the span, at midspan. Except

the left of shear occur responding

this section,

either

side

the

of the

applied force, simultaneously. system of forces

it can be shown

applied

force.

the

At

maximum

positive or negative, is used for selecting a member. NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Fig. for 9-11(a). sign, The
the

diagrams.

9 In most

cases,

 the absolute

maximum

moment,

maximum shear is the

maximum beam with

shear is critical a concentrated

for the design. force, as shown

For example, in Fig. 9-12.

Likewise,

i.e.,

consider The shear

the above
a simple diagram,
(b)

whether

Design

shear

same

a section
just it,

A section acting
that the

on

moment and the to the left of P, with the is shown in Fig. 9-11(b).
at the extreme

just

to the

right

or

stresses

constructed 9-12(b), actions, in either

The authorities. material
the

2.50
the ksi,

ki,

whereas

the

principal

stresses

at the

juncturd

of the

web
+0

allowable
location and

weight of the beam, is shown in Fig. 9-12(a) as it is ordinarily by assuming the applied force concentrated at a point. In Fig. an allowance is made for the width of the applied force and reassuming them uniformly distributed along the beam. Note that case, the design shears are less than the applied force.
stresses

;the

Fig.

9-12

Design

shear.

flanges, neglecting stress concentrations, are +2.81 ksi and acting as shown in Figs. 9-11(c) and (d). It is customary not to consider directly the effect of the local on longitudinal stresses in the neighborhood of an applied corn

In most
the
and

cases,

of the same
the

to be used in design are prescribed by various the designer must fol ow a code, depending instal ation. In dif erent codes, even for the same use, the allowable stresses dif er.

In
= M/S

elastic

design,

allowable

after

the
Then

stresses

critical
the

values
are

selected,

of moment

the

beam

and

is usually

shear

are
As

force. Instead, as indicated is resolved by requiring force so as to obtain an such as wood, this may spread the effect of the
From always
normal

this occur
stresses

example, at the
and

in Section 9-4, the problem of local a sufficiently large contact area for the acceptable bearing stress. For some require the use of steel bearing plates in concentrated force. it is seen that the maximum normal stress does extreme fibers. Nevertheless, only the
maximum shear stress at the neutral axis

designed

or rrm

to resist

= Mc/I).

a maximum

moment
beam

is checked

using

Eq.

for

6-13

shear

or 6-21

stress.

(O'm

most ient.

beams are governed However, in some shear stress frequently

by flexural stresses, this cases, particularly in timber controls the dimensions

procedure is convenand concrete design, of the cross section.

After is deterdirectly give
in tension

the

investigated

in ordinary

design.
higher same

In design
low

codes,

the

allowable

are presumably set sufficiently remains, even though the increasing a span for the

so that an adequate factor of combined stresses are disregarded. applied concentrated force, the

9 With experience, reactions are computed mined, the maximum by using the method
for the

maximum

construction of complete and a section where moment corresponding of sections. For simple
shear and moment.

diagrams may be avoided. V = 0 or a change of sign to this section may be found loadings, various handbooks
have dif erent properties

0 This
and compression.

is not always

true

for materials

that

476

Elastic
beam
total

Stress Analysis
method cross
allowable

and Design
stress
the
area

Sec. 9-8. Design

depends on the maximum shear flange and I beamsi
of the web

of Prismatic
times

Beams
greater

477

The

used section.

is 1.5 times
VQ/It,

the

vertical

in computing the shear For rectangular sections, average stress, Eq. 7-8. For
shear ig taken

By arbitrarily
its

width

b, from

assutning

Eq.

that

6-22,

the depth
bh 2
6

h of the beam
h 3
12

is to be two

as the

wide

by an allowable

is used.

shear

stress,

Eq.

%10.

For

other

cases,

Eq.

7~6,
a staraced 106 mm 3, be used Let
the required h = 247

=--=

1.25

106

Usually, there are several types or sizes of commercial y members that may be used for a given beam. Unless specific size tations are placed on the beam, the lightest member is used for ect The procedure of selecting a member is a trial-and-error process.
For beams with statically applied there is an increasing trend to design behavior. This approach is considered
EXAMPLE 9-5

beam 140 by 240 mm, to fulfil this requirement.

3V

mm

and

b = 123

having

mm.

For
103

a section modulus this beam, from

= 0.357 MPa

Eq.

S = 1.34 7-8a,

of allowable

It should

also

defldctions.

be noted

This

that

topic

some

loads, such as occur in buil them on the basis of inelastic in Chapter 13.

is treated

beams

must

in the next

be

selected

chapter.

on

the

*m
stress is well within

- 2A
the

3 X 8 X

2 x 140
allowable limit.

x 240
Hence,

the

beam

is satisfactory.

Note
:ssed

that

is to find a beam of size corresponding from a table similar to Table 10,

in the U.S. conventional

other

proportions

of the beam

can be used,
which
units.

to the gives

and a more
wanted properties

section

direct

modulus of standard

method

sections

Select forces, shear,

Solution

a Douglas as shown 0.7 MPa;

fir beam of rectangular in Fig. 9-13(a). The and in bearing perpendicular

cross allowable

Mm

Shear shown,

and moment respectively,

10 kN.m.

From
S =

diagrams in Figs:
M allow

Eq.
-

6-21,

for the 9-13(b)

10 x 8

applied and (c).

106

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

This uniformly
forces From are Fig. prepared 9-13(c), first it is and i

section to carry two stress in bending is 8 to the grain of the wood, 1.4

of the beam at the outset.) that wood weighs 6.5 kN/m

tial y

The

analysis is unknown.

was

made without regard (Experienced designers

0.681

that .68 kN.m.

kN-m moment

in Fig. 9-13(d),
the

distributed

(see Fig. 5-24). diagram caused

maximum Hence, the

where

for the beam's own weight, which inioften make an allowance for the weight However, this may be accounted for now. Assuming 3, the beam selected weighs 0.218 kN per linear meter. load causes a parabolic bending-moment diagram, This bending-moment by the applied
moment section x

the maximum

ordinate
forces.

bending required

due modulus

to both causes actually is

diagram Inspection

is woL2[8

should be added of these diagrams

is 0.681 +

= 0.218

x 52/8 =
10 =

to

1.25

10 amm
+10

3
kN 'm

S surfaced

.10.68

106

O'al o w

= 1.34
selected

x 106 mm 3
provides the required
at applied

8 kN

8 kN

 '25m--I ' 2m

I
kN

o
kN

(c)
+0.681 kN-m

forces, ing the weight

1-13, should

In order

to avoid
be

140 by 240 mm
the

adequate bearing areas for these forces of the beam, such areas A at the four
P
tralo,

crushing

beam

of wood

already

at the

supports

must be provided. locations, according

and

Neglectto Eq.

coneen-

S.

(d) Bearing plates

8 x
1.4

103

5710

mm

--

-B

(b)
minimum

These areas can be provided by conservatively specifying on at least 50 by 140 mm (7000 mm 2) supports, whereas 80 by 80 mm (6400 mm 2) steel washers be used.
...... ,--=

that the beam's at the concentrated

ends

Fig.

9-'13

(e)

478

Elastic

Stress

Analysis
2 k/ft

and

Design

Sec.

9-8.

Design

of Prismatic

Beams

479

the

direct

stress

on

area,

(a

+ k)t

at the

ends

and

(a

+ 2k)t

at the

interior

must not exceed 0.750'yp. s of beating of the applied

In these expressions, forces at exterior

a and or interior
values

a are the respective portions of a beam,

Fig.
+10.24 k-ft

9-1](b),
manufacturers'

of a flange

t is the thickness
to the
rule,

toe

of the

of the web,
web

Eftlet.

and k is the distance

The

of k and

from

t are

the outer
tabulated

catalogues.

6.4

25.6

For
support

this

example,
to the

assuming
are

gyp
as fol ows:

= 36 ksi,

the minimum

widths

of the

supports,

(a)

A: 27(a + k)t
= 0.09 in

+6,4

+12.0

6.4

or

27(a

+ 7/8)

x 0.245

6.4

-36

(c)
-13,6 k

support 27(al
al

B: + 2k)t = 25.6 = 2.12 in or

27(a

+ 2 x 7/8)

x 0.245

= 25.6

Fig.

9-14

(b)

EXAMPLE

9-6

requirements
or a wide-flange
beam, creator,

can

easily

be met

in an actual

case.

Select
9-14(a).
Solution
k

an I beam
For the

steel
= 24 ksi' and

The Figs.
6-21,

shear 9-14(b)

and
and

the
(c),

bending-moment respectively.
36

diagrams The maximum

x 24 12

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

*uo, = 14.5 ksi.

beam

to support

the

load

shown

in

The

preceding
have

for

the

loaded moment

beam are shown is 36 k-ft. From

which

two axes the design,

members

two

examples
are

of symmetry. and, since

efficient

il ustrate

in flexure.

In both cases, the bending moments this is usually true, it is significant

A concentration

the design

of beams

whose

cross
to

of as much

18.0

in 3

(a)

in3). However, a lighter 8-in in 3) also is adequate. Therefore,

section wil be used. The loads and wil be neglected From Fig. 9-14(b), Vm

Examination a section

modulus

of Tables 3 and 4 in the Appendix is met by a 10-in S section

shows
weighing

wide-flange for

W section weighing reasons of economy,

is small Hence,
13.6

that 24.7

24 lb/ft the lighter

with 7-10,

this lb/ft

requirement (S = I/c
the

f
=

material as possible away from the neutral axis results in the best sections resisting flexure, Fig. 9-16(a). Material concentrated near the outside works at a high stress. For this reason, I-type sections, which approximate this requirement, are widely used in practice. The previous statements apply for materials having nearly equal propin tension and compiession. If this is not the case, a deliberate shift
neutral
wide
6-5).

axis
use oft

from
and

the
channel

midheight
sections

position
for

is desirable.
such materials

This
(see

accounts
Example

(S = W8

beam weight in calculations. = 13.6 kips.

in comparison from Eq.

Finally, two other items warrant particular attention in the design beams. In many cases, the loads for which abeam is designed are transient character. They may be placed on the beam all at once, piecemeal,
locations.
structure itself,

of

(Tmax)approx
This

..

The loads, are called

which live

are loads.

not

a part

They

or of the "dead weight" must be so placed as to

()

A,eb

0.245

7.93

7.00

ksi

(b)

Fig.

9-t5

stress is below the allowable value, and the selected beam is At the supports or concentrated forces, S and wide-flange beams checked for crippling of the webs. This phenomenon is il ustrated at the of Fig. 9-15(a). Crippling of the webs is more critical for members with thin than direct bearing of the flanges, which may be investigated as in the example. To preclude crippling, a design rule is specified by the AISC. It

the highest possible stresses in a beam. In many cases, the placement may be determined by inspection. For example, in a simple beam a single moving load, the placement of the load at midspan causes largest bending moment, whereas placing the same load very near to causes the greatest shear. For most building work, the live load, supposedly provides for the most severe expected loading condiis specified in building codes on the basis of a load per unit floor Multiplying this live load by the spacing of parallel beams gives the

(a)

(b)

Fig.
inefficient flexure.

9-t6

(a)

Efficient
sections for

and

(b)

48O

Elastic

Stress

Analysis

and

Design

Sec.

9-9.

Design

of Nonprismatic

Beams

uniformly purposes, where

are discussed

the

distributed this load applied

in

live load per unit length is added to the dead weight force is delivered to a beam
Section 10-11.

of the beam. of construction. with a shock

For or

the
by

bending
Eq. 6-21:

moment,

the

required

section

modulus

at an

arbitrary

section

is

Px
CTallow

The flanges, a beam problem

second item pertains if not held laterally, may buckle sideways is given in Section

to lateral instability of beams. The may be so narrow in relation to the and collapse. Special consideration, 11-14.

O'al ow

great
The

many
that

the

cross-sectional
beam

wil

be of rectangular

areas

satisfy
is given

this

cross

requirement;
section

and

so, first,

of constant

it wil

height

be

section

modulus

for

this

beam

by Eq.

6-22

as bh2/6

= S; hence,

9-9.
It should

Design

of Nonprismatic
from the preceding

Beams
discussion that the sole.
the is not: of Since shown, to resist constant where the the stroh the b
the

be apparent

----expression = L, the
width

or
like the wedge
b of the
-Crylow or

b =
u shown
beam

2nan
in Fig.
strength

x =-x
to bo/L, a constant

(9-1)
so that depth

a prismatic beam is based only on the stresses at the all other sections through the beam, the stresses wil able level. Therefore, the potential capacity of a given utilized. This situation may be improved by designing cross section, i.e., by making the beam nonprismatic. stresses control the design of most beams, as has been sections may everywhere be made just strong enough responding moment. Such beams are called beams of Shear governs the design at sections through these beams ing moment is .small.
EXAMPLE 9-7

critical be below material a beam

in parentheses is a constant is bo. A beam of constant

to be of adequate

and is set equal strength with

a plan
wedge
m P.

view
must

looks
or breadth
-

9-17(c).
to resist

Near
the

the free
shear

end,
force

be modified

If the

width

is constant,
h = h o (9-2)

Design
at the
Solution

a cantilever
end. Neglect

of constant
the beam's

strength
own weight.

bh2 Px f 6Px  NON-ACTIVATED VERSION This expression indicates that a cantilever of constant width loaded www.avs4you.com
6 bg'al ow

also

of constant

strength

f its height

varies

parabolically

from

the

free

at the end is
end, Fig.
in many to a diagram
in Fig. middle near

for resisting

Beams
beam
the -18(b).

of approximately parts that are of constant strength

beam By loaded selecting 'the beam beam formula

cast

constant or forged. is frequently

strength are used in leaf springs and In structural work, an approximation made. For example, the moment

A cantilever the corresponding

with

a concentrated moment

force

diagram

applied is plot ed

at the end is shown in Fig. in Fig. 9-17(b). Basing the

as shown a beam is overstressed.

in Fig. 9-18(a) is given by lines AB and BC of flexural capacity equal only to M, the However, cover plates can be provided

(x/L)

is not of constant cross-sectional area, the use of the eleis not entirely correct. When the angle included by the of the wedge is small, lit le error is involved. As this angle becomes large, error may be considerable. An exact solution shows that when the total inangie is 40 , the solution is in error by nearly 10 percent.
height
view

Since

this flexure

(a)

Beam

of constant
(c) Plan

(a)

-PL
(b)

L
Beam of constant width b

D--

I B
Fig. 948 Coverplated I beam.

(b)

Fig.

9-17

(d)

Side

view

482

Elastic Stress Analysis

and Design
1g-tooth sprocket 13-tooth sprocket

Sec. 9-t0. Design

20-hp speed

of Complex
reducer

Members
7.313" pitch diameter

P2

(b)

(c) pitch
0

diameter (b)

(c)

-3.13

k-in

Fig.

9-t9

Leaf

spring.

-6.27

k-in

the
the

required

middle

of the
value

beam

of the

to boost
maximum

the length

moment.

flexural DE

For

capacity

the

case

of the and

shown,

composite

Moment

diagram

for

P1

the

cover

made somewhat as in Fig. 9-17(c),

must

extend

at least

longer. A leaf spring, approximating is shown in Fig. 9-19.

over

the

of the

beam,

a beam

in practice

of constant
-4.55 k-in

in a routine manner times the size of a ysis performed at this type may require creasing frequency experimental methods
not be sufficiently

9-10. In many

Design instances,

of Complex the design

as was done in the preceding simple examples. member must be assumed and a complete stress sections where the stresses appear critical. Desi several revisions. Finite-element analyses are used in such cases for final design. are also resorted to since elementai3
accurate.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Members of complex members www.avs4you.com cannot be carried

-9.10 k-in

Moment

diagram
20

forP

Y
-6.27 k-in
Moment diagrams

(d) ov
x

k-in

10

k-in

Torque

diagra

.m

for
(e)

P1 and

P2

Fig.

9-20

As a last example in this chapter, lyzed. A direct analytical procedure of great importance in the design
F. XAM PLE 9-8

a transmission shaft problem is possible in this problem, of power equipment.

'
to Eq.
= (63,000)20/63

4-11, are and T/2 (c),

k-in.

the
= 20,000

torque
lb-in Similarly,

delivered
= 20 k-in.

to shaft
Hence,

segment
torques

CD

is T = 63,000(hp/
T and k. The T2 delivered pull P on

the sprockets Figs. 9-20(b)

=

= 10 k-in each. the pull in the

P2

Since chain
=

chains at sprocket
10/(7.313/2)

the

are arranged as shown B is P = T/(D1/2) =

= 2.73

1.88

Select the size of a solid steel shaft to drive the two sprockets shown in 20(a). These sprockets drive l{-in pitch roller chains, 2 as shown in Figs. and (c). Pitch diameters of the sprockets shown in the figures are from ufacturer's catalogue. A 20-hp speed-reducer unit is coupled directly to and drives it at 63 rpm. At each sprocket, 10 hp is taken off. Assume the
shear theory of failure, and let xatow = 6 ksi.

is equivalent to a torque At C, force P2 acts horizontal y diagram for shaft AD is shown

It is seen from the free-body diagram,

T and

a vertical and exerts in Fig. 9-20(d).

that this shaft

force a torque

at B, as shown T2. A complete

in Fig. freesubjected

is simultaneously

and appropriate bending

be used

torque. diagrams, takes

in the flexure

These which place

effects are in two

formula,

on the shown planes,

since the

member in Figs. a vectorial

beam

are best studied with the aid 9~20(e)-(g). Next, note that resultant of the moments
has a circular cross section.

2 Similar

sprockets

and

roller

chains

are commonly

used

on bicycles.

484

Elastic

Stress

Analysis

and

Design

Problems

485
0=?

By
imum

keeping shear

the stress,

last statement in mind, reduces in this problem

the general of bending

Eq. and

8-9, torsion

giving
to

the

be ding

q_ Ttrsin 2
o=
Mc

57
However, 4-2, and since for a circular cross c = d/2, the last expression section, reduces

+
J = 21, to Eq. 6-20, J = 'rrdn/3Z

Fig.

9-2t

Analysis
stress

of a

shaft with concentrations.

used

in practice,

the

reader

is cautioned

in applying

them.

4 In

_ __
By
is

16

rd 3

X/M
to *m,

2 +

T 2
a design formula, based ont

maximum

assigning

shear
as

the

theory

allowable

n of failure,

shear

stress

for

a shaft

subjected

to bending

and

obtained

machines, shaft diameters change abruptly, giving rise to stress :entrations. In stress analysis, this requires the use of stress~concenfactors in bending, which are usually dif erent from those in torTherefore, the problem should be analyzed by considering the actual .,sses at the critical section. (See Fig. 9-21.) Then an appropriate pro:edure, such as Mohr's circle of stress, should be used to determine the ant stress, depending on the selected fracture criteria.

I 16 d = ' owVU2
This jected

convince
section

formula may to bending

is at C.

the reader
Thus,

be used to select the diameter and torque. In the example

that the 

+ T 2 is largest
2 + (Mhoriz) 2 + 9.102

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

+
of a shaft investigated,

T2

roblems

at sprocket

C; hence,

simultaneously a few trials

0-2. Miscellaneous Problems

Stress

the

A concrete cylinder tested at a compressive stress Occurred on a plane of 30 with

show the normal and

M.

shear

in a vertical of 30 MPa. the vertical.

stresses

position The failure On a clear

that acted

9-3. A cylindrical thin-walled tank weighing 100 lb/ft is supported as shown in the figure. If, in addition, it is subjected to an internal pressure of 200 psi, what state of stress would develop at points A and B? Show
the the results tank is on isolated-elements. 10 in and its thickness The mean is 0.20 in. radius Comment of

M 2 + T 2 = (Mvert) = (6.27/2)

2 q- T 2 + 202 = 492.k2~in

the

plane

of failure.

on
the

the
total

importance
stresses.

of the

dead

weight

of the

tank

on

9-2.

In a research necessary
of a tube.

investigation to control
In one such

the

on the creep state of stress

case, a long

of lead, for the

cylindrical

d = 16 - X/q = 2.66 in.

A 2-in diameter shaft, which is a commercial size, should be used.

tsly

subjected

closed ends was pressurized

to a torque.
the outside

The

tube
What
of

was

and simultane100 mm
of

in
the

20"

with
at

4-mm was

walls.
surface

were
the wall

the to 1.5

prinMPa

if the

chamber

pressurized

I'*jA 8'-3'
Fig. P9-3

the

externally

applied

torque

was

200

N-m?.

The effect of shock load on the shaft has been neglected analysis. For some equipment, where its operation is jerky, requires special consideration. The initial y assumed allowabie sumably allows for keyways and fatigue of the material. Although Eq. 9-3 and similar ones based on other failure
3 See Prob. 9-50 for the formula based on the maximum

this stress

and Design (New York: Elsevier, C. E. Wilson, Machine Design, J. E. Shigley, Mechanical McGraw-Hil , 1977). M. F. Spotts,
relevant References

4 For further

details

on mechanical

design

Clif s,

on steel,

NJ:

Prentice

sections for design

aluminum

Hall,

of Chapter in reinforced

alloys,

1985).

1982). Theory Engineering Design

design,

A. D. Deutschman, W. J. Michaels, and Practice (New York: Macmil an, Design, 3rd ed. (New York: of Machine Elements, 6th ed. (Enwood
are

see A. H. Burr,

Mechanical

Anal-

11.

and
concrete

structures,
given after

see
Example

the

references
6-14.

486

Elastic

Stress

Analysis

and

Design
4kN

Problems
10"
100 50 150
mm

487

9-4. A cylindrical pressure vessel and its contents are lifted by cables, as shown in the figure. The mean diameter of the cylinder is 600 mm and its wall thickness is 6 mm. Determine the state of stress at.points A and
B and show the calculated results on isolated elements

when
vessel's

the

vessel
mass

is pressurized
is 102 kg/m.
4kN

to 0.50

MPa

and

the
90
View a-a

Fig.
2 300 600
mm

P9-8

2000 mm

element.

(b)

What

maximum

shear

stress

de-

s in the
circles

element?

of stress

should

(Caution:

be examined.)

All

three

principal

L1000-10C )4
Fig. P9-4

2000mm diamMPa inon a 30

ooo
mm

lOOO
mm

A cylindrical thin-walled pressure vessel rigidly a wall, as shown in the figure, is subjected an internal pressure of p and an externally applied
T. Due a-a
T. The

Fig.

P9-10

Fig.

P9-6

to these combined are or., = 0, and

x. vy,
of the

causes, the = 10 MPa.

stresses Deter-

9-1t.
mm

9-5. A cylindrical pressure vessel of 2500-mm eter with walls 12 mm thick operates at 1.5 ternal pressure. If the plates are butt-welded helical spiral (see figure), determine the stresses
norma[ and tangential to the weld.

the
ae

internal
mean
thickness

pressure
diameter
is

p and
6 mm.

the

magnitude
vessel is 400

of the

_acting

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com4y, =10MPa

40'

stresses E at the

cluding

supports

A simple

and their directions at points section shown in the figure.

80
A
C-

its

a uniformly

beam

50 x 120 mm

own

weight.

distributed

Determine

load

spans

of 80 kN/m,

1500

mm

and

A, B, C, D, and

the

principal

in-

kN/m

-B

40 lb/h:

45'

(a)

(b)

Fig.

P9-9

-<--500

mm--

'

"O-o
Fig.

1000 mm
in the

__

wooden
figure.

I 120

-7--

P941

Fig.

P9-5

9-6.
mean

A
radius

cylindrical
r = 300

thin-walled
mm and

pressure
thickness

vessel
t = 6 mm

with
is

assembly of seamless stainless steel tubing part of a piping system is arranged as shown figure. A flexible expansion joint is inserted at which is capable of resisting hoop stresses but transno longitudinal force. The tubing is 60 mm in outFig. P9-7

An

ports

9-12.

of the

a 40-kN
wood

A 100

x 400 mm
makes

load,

an angle

as shown

rectangular

beam
the axis

of 20 with

The

of the

grain

sup-

hoisted by two cables into the position shown in the figure. If the vessel is pressurized to 0.50 MPa gage pressure and the vessel weighs 102 kg/m, determine the state of stress at point A. Show the results on a
properly oriented 9-7. A fractionating 12-in-inside-diameter isolated element.

diameter and is 2 mm to 2 MPa, determine

A? Clearly
element

what
your

is the
calculated

state need
of

of stress
stresses on

at point
an isolated

B.

Show

from

the

the results outside.

thick. If the pipe the state of stress

on No infinitesimal distinction between

elements

is presat points
the

force.

beam. Find the the grain of the

shear wood

stresses at points due to the applied

A and B along concentrated

cipal

stresses

not

be found.

inside
made
in

and
in the
are
15

outside
calculations.
in mm. No

dimensions
All
stress

of the
dimensions
transformations

tube
shown

need
are

be
on the
re-

40

kN

9-8.
ft long, is made of a steel pipe weighing Appendix.) This pipe as indicated on the pressurized to 600 psi
mean

A cylindrical
diameter 20

thin-wailed
in and thickness

pressure
of

vessel
0.25

column, 45 standard 49.56 lb/ft. (See Table 8 of the is operating in a vertical position, sketch. If this pipe is internally

idly

attached

to.a

wall,

forming

a cantilever,

as

in the applied
= 31.4 caused

figure. and,
k acts at point

If an internal in addition, an
on the A? Show assembly, the results

(a)

pressure
what on a

of 250

Data in the problem are fictitious; or failure occurred at a petrochemical

of I. Finnie.)

of this

system

however, plant due

of piping.

to

r600 600' 2400mm 

rnrn_ I mm

and

is subjected

to a wind

load

of 40 lb/ft

of height,

Fig.

P9-12

Elastic
943. A short I beam cantilever is loaded

Stress
as

Analysis
shown in

and

Design

Problems

489

945.
application

The

principal
of force

shear

stress
psi;

at point
see the

A
figure.

the figure. Find tions at points

the juncture beam and
Use
stresses.

the A,

principal B, and
formula

stresses C. Point
Neglect of stress
to

their B is in the
the weight concentrations.
the

and

direcweb at
of the
shear

P is 120

is the

magnitude

of P?

with ignore
accurate

the flange. the effect

the

determine

9.22

k
A

P
Fig. P9-15
Fig. P9-18

Section

a-a

1 c/

water

946.

At point
pressure

A on the
is -40

kPa,

upstream

and

a measured

face

of a
is 20

shown

By applying

in the

figure,

a vertical
The

exerts

force

a force

P, the toggle
slides

of 1000

lb on

clamp,

9-2t.

A -in-diameter

dril

bit

is inserted

into

a chuck

stress Calculate
them on

in the dam stresses

an isolated

parallel to this surface trx, try, and ** at that 

element.

object.
prevents

movable

jaw

in a guide

as shown
an axial
k-in act on

in the
force
the

figure.
P = 3.92
bit. If

Duri
k and
a horizontal

ng the
a torque

dril ing
force of

operation,
T =
35.7

its upward of the applied

the stresses bending

Fig.

P943

and

movement. vertical developed due to axial moment acting

(a) Determine the force P and the at hinge A; (b) thrust, transverse on an element at

10r/128
lb is

accidental y the magnitude

velops at the

applied to the plate being of the largest principal

top of the dril bit? Determine

dril ed, stress

what is that dethe criti-

944.

'The

cantilever

shown
P acting (a) What an axial

in the figure

is Ioafied

by

A? E = 30 x 106 psi.
cipal strain at A?

an inclined force the cross section. force P if it causes

(b) What

in the plane of symmetry of is the magnitude of applied strain of 200 p,m/m at point

is the

maximum

prin-

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 43 www.avs4you.com

'with and
A

C of section sides parallel

and

a-a;

(c) draw perpendicular

stresses

an element at point to the axis of

acting on the ele-

cally

stressed

point

on the
P

dril
T

by inspection.

show

the

and principal

(d) using stress

Mohr's and the

circle, maximum

determine

shear

the largstress at subsection by the the

Deter-

Fig.

P9-t6

A 2~in-diameter shaft is simultaneously to a torque and pure bending. At every the largest principal stress caused loading is +24 ksi and, simultaneously,
longitudinal tensile stress is + 18

ksi.

947.
cipal

A special
as shown

hoist
at point

supports
in the figure.

a 15-k
Determine

load
load.

by
the

the

applied

bending

moment

and

torque.

of a cable,

stresses

A due

to this

<6
the

x in steel
acts least

Compare

the

angle

moment-carrying

in the two

dif erent

capacity

positions

of a 6
6 in

the figure. In both cases, the applied through the shear center. (Hint: Table radius of gyration, r, for the cross

vertical 6 gives section. the angle

9-22. figure. A solid circular At section ACBD
Fig. P9-2t

Section

can consist

per

be calculated of two

Eq.

11-19a,
plates.)

directly

Imin

by considering

= Ar2mi,.

Alternatively,

shaft

2"

10"

10"

the

is loaded stresses

as shown due to the

in the 10-kN

force

and

the

weight

of the

shaft

and

round

drum

are

Section

a-a

FIg.'P9-t4

Fig.

P9-17

Fig.

P9-20

found to be as fol ows: maximum bending stress MN/m 2, maximum torsional stress is 30 MN/m 2, maximum shear stress due to V is 6 MN/m 2. (a) up elements at points A, B, C, and D and indicate magnitudes and directions of the stresses acting
them. In each case, state from which direction the

is 40 and Set the on

ele-

490

Elastic

Stress

Analysis

and

Design
200 mm 6 min.

Problems

100

mm

100

mm
i i
i

1?

Fig.

P9-22

ment

is observed.

(b) shear

Using

Mohr's

circle,

find

direc-

tions
the
9-23.

and
maximum
A

magnitudes
circular bar

of the
stress
of 2-in

principal
at point
diameter

stresses
A.
with

and
a rectan-

of

'1212 mm
 F = 4.45 N

mmk

30
400 lb

Fig. Fig. P9-24

P9-26

gular block attached at its free end is suspended as shqwn in the figure. Also a horizontal force is applied eccentrically to the block as shown. Analysis of the stresses at section ABCD gives the fol owing results: maximum bending stress is 1000 psi, maximum torsional stress is 300 psi, maximum shear stress due to V is 400 psi, and direct axial stress is 200 psi. (a) Set

(The
x axis.)
the

force
stresses

F in plan
Determine
due

view
the
the

acts
magnitudes
elements

in the
and

direction
direct
B at A and

stress Neglect elements

to F on

up an element and directions

of the element

at point A and indicate of the stresses acting

to coincide with

the magnitudes on it (the top edge

section ABCD). (b)

a-a. Show the points quired.

the results .on the rod.

Using

Mohr's

circle,
maximum normal

find

the

direction

and

the

inagand

nitude of the the associated

(principal) stresses
Fixed end

shear stresses at point A.

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the crank.
500 mm
P acts

on elements Principal

clearly stresses

are

at points A and B caused by the applied force stress concentrations. Show the results on viewed from the top. Stress transforto obtain principal stresses are optional. A 2 x 2 in square bar is attached to a rigid supas shown in the figure. Determine the principal at point A caused by force P = 50 lb applied
at these outside points. the pipe. These

Fig.

P9-28

elements

are

to be viewed

from

upwards

250
mm

1000

lb

l[z'
x

= efFor igure, rmi tthhepnree-hi pralesses m m 501 i'n9th-29. thdet ceiercul arienrcist arch rin75 bsged hown
above the centroid of the cross section at section a-

a due structure.

to the

applied Because

ve.rtical of the

load large

on the curvature,

left

half the

of the rib at

thseectiniovest n can igbatetreeat das east draibar. ght

t t t 't
20 kN/m
mm

14/=

640

lb

Fig.

P9-23

Plan

view

End

view

9-24. clined
cross force maximum

A bent rectangular force of 3000

section of the bar

N,
results stress.

bar is subjected as shown in the

is 12 on x 12 mm. an element. (a)

to figure.
Determine (b)

an

inThe
the

Fig.

P9-25

the

state

and

of stress
show principal inclined

the

at point

A caused

by

the

Find

applied

9-25.
end

A 50-mm-diameter
to an force F

rod

is subjected

at its
figure.

free

= 225r

N as in the

9-26. A horizontal 12 mm long is attached at of the bar's sides form as shown in the figure. shown), a vertical force through a coruer of the

x 12 mm one end to an angle of By means F = 4.45 bar. (See

rectangular a rigid support. 30 with of an attachment N is applied the figure.)

A 400-lb sign is supported by a 2-in standardsteel pipe, as shown in the figure. The maxihorizontal
to be 90

Fig.

P9-29

wind
lb.

force
Determine

acting
the

on

this
state

sign
of

is esstress

by this loading at points Principal stresses are on sketches of elements

A and B at the builtnot required. Indicate cut out from the pipe

9-30. shown stress

in mm.

Find the largest bending stress in the figure due to the applied concentrations. All dimensions

for loads.
in the

the

beam Neglect
are

figure

492
2kN

Elastic

Stress

Analysis

and

Design
Section 9-34.
section

Problems
9-8 A Douglas
is loaded
w kN/m

493
20 x 60 intermitw. The ways, as are 4 MPa kPa shear be used,

fir
as

wood
shown

beam
in the

of rectan
figure. What

Side

view

required what
the

are

standard the minimum

dressed
sizes
forces

size for the of the bearing

and the minimum

concentrated

Fig.

P9-36

.k  00

ooJooJ:ool
Fig. P9-30

opvlew

4kN

lengths at the supports? In the calculations, the weight of the beam. The allowable stress in i is 1250 psi; in shear, 95 psi; and in pendicular to the grain, 625 psi. Use Table 10 for lumber sectional properties.

9-39. A plastic beam is to be made from two mm pieces to span 600 mm and to carry an tently applied, uniformly distributed load pieces can be arranged in two alternative shown in the figure. The allowable stresses in flexure, 600 kPa shear in plastic, and 400 in glue. Which arrangement of pieces should and what load w can be applied?
wooden beam is to be

A 4 x

6 in (actual

size)

symmetrically
,ads

in the figure. Determine the position and their magnitudes when a bending psi and a shearing stress of 100 psi Neglect the weight of the beam.

loaded

with

two

equal

loads

of these stress of are just

P,

as
Glue

Fig.

P9-39

-'9-31.

In

a mechanical

device,

a horizontal

rectan-

gular

bar

of length-L

is fixed

at the

rotating

end
Find

and

is loaded
P at the

by a strap
free end,

through
as shown

a bolt
in the

with

a vertical
figures.

force
the
Fig. P9-34

9-40. ning

Consider 24 ft to

two support

1 k/ft.
beams able

Both

beams

alternative a uniformly are simply

beam

designs distributed

for
load

spanof 14.4 1250 beam

supported.

One
The

of the
allow-

angle c for which the normal stress at A is maximum and locate the neutral axis for the beam in this position. Neglect stress concentration, which would have to be considered in an actual problem.

9-35.
device
lbs. What

A standard-size
shown
size

stresses the weight

\b = 1.5

are
use

'width;

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

wood beam
be

is to be used
a force
fithe

in the
member

figure

to transmit

Fig.

P9-37

should

used

as given in the preceding  of the beam. Select a beam of 3-in

Table 10.

pieces of a-in plywood ze wood-pieces to form

figure.

A 12-in

deep

box

Centrated
tp

If the beam force in the middle

to two 3 x 8 in nominalcross section shown in is to be used to carry a con-

beam

i?. fbricated

by gluing

ksi psi based on the given sive design, beam termined.) Consider tions; see Tables percentage of the
beam in each

is to be of steel, stresses for steel in shear; and those and 95 psi. (a) Find

the other of wood. are 24 ksi in bending for wood, respectively, the size required for

and are each

strength deflections
the beam

criteria. are
weights

(In also Appendix.

to the

a comprehengenerally
in the calcula-

deWhat
of the

4 and
total

10 in the
load is due

(b)
weight

the

case?

of a span

(see

the

figure),

24" 112"112"1 24"

Fig. P9-3t

(a) based on the shear capacity of the section, what be the magnitude of the applied force P, (b) how may the span be, and (c) what bearing areas be provided under the concentrated forces? Neglect the weight of the beam. Use Table 10 in the
dressed sizes of wooden pieces. The alstresses are 1200 psi in bending, 120 psi in plywood, 60 psi in shear for glued j0ints, and in compression perpendicular to the grain.

9-4t. Select either an S or a W lightest section for a beam with overhangs for carrying an applied uniformly distributed load of 2 k/ft, as shown in the figure. The specified load includes the beam weight. The allowable
stresses are 24 ksi in bending
2 k/ft

and

14.4

ksi

in shear.

Sections
'9-32. Select

9.5
the 4 kN.m MPa.

and
diameter

9-6.
for the maximum a solid circular steel

Fig.

P9-35

psi

shaft
moment stress

to transmit
is

a torque
if

of 6 kN.m

and
allowable

a bending
shear

Fig.

P9-4t

of 80

'9-33. shear
the the
is 0.80.

For stress
diameter ratio

the given
of

loading in the

condition preceding
to

and problem,
steel the

the

allowable determine
such diameter that

9-36. A standard-size wood beam 16 ft long a uniformly distributed load of 2 k/if, weight, as shown in the figure. (a) I a such that the maximum bending moment

9-42. building

A portion is shown

of the floor-framing in the figure.

plan Wooden joists

for

an office spanning

the
lowable

supports
stresses

is numerically
(b) Select minimum the length
given

equal
beam of the
in Prob.

to that
size required supports.
9-34.

over
Use

thei

of the

a hollow circular inside diameter

shaft outside

support. late the

"*----L/2 a ,
Fig. P9-38

Section

a-a

12 ft are spaced 16 in apart and support a wooden floor above and a plastered ceiling below. Assume that the floor may be loaded by the occupants everywhere by as much as 75 lb per square foot of floor area (live load). Assume further that floor, joists, and ceiling

494
20'

Elastic


Stress

Analysis

and

Design

Problems

495

lb/ft
placement

being

2 of

selected,

floor

etc.,

area

also

(dead

amounts

load).

to approximatel

Use

the

20

kN

(total

per

side)

Direction

 / woodenjoists

for

of

stresses 9-44.
in light

given in part (b) of Prob. A four-wheel car running industrial service. When

9-42. on rails loaded,

is to be a force

j/Seel beamA / Column 6"carriedbyonejoist

Fig. P9-42

kN is applied cated with

size round

to each
respect
axle should

beating. to the rails

be used?

If the bearings as in the figure,

Assume the allow

Section

bending
stress to

stress
be 40

to be
MPa.

80 MPa

and

the

allowable

9000mm
Fig. P9-46


30'

mm board laminates. : the maximum bending

the cart to cause

(a)
the

Locate moment
maximum

the cart so as to in the beam. (b)

shear in the

(c)

Determine

the

number

of

board

laminates

foot of the floor area (dead depth required for standard commercial joists nominally 2 in wide. For wood, the allowable bending stress is 1200 psi and the shear stress is 100 psi. (b) Select the size required for steel beam A. Since the joists delivering the load to this beam are spaced closely, assume that the beam is loaded'by a uniformly distributed load. The allowable

weigh load).

25 lb per (a) Determine

square

the

.. 4

I- . .
'the

The 1 MPa
beam.

allowable in shear.
(Hint:

stresses In calculations,
Locate the

are
left

14 MPa neglect
wheel

in bending the weight

of the cart

Fig.

P9-48

a distance
mm-Fig. P9-44

x from
bending
cart for the

the
equal

left

support
beam

and
Setting determines

write
the
moment.)

an expresderivative the position of

stresses .and shear,

for

steel respectively.

are

24

ksi Use

and 14.4 ksi for a W or an S beam,

bending which-

ever is lighter. Neglect the depth of the column. 9-43. A bay of an apartment house floor is framed as shown in the figure. Determine the required size of minimum weight for steel beam A. Assume that the

for

9-45.

an overhead
figure.
the
so as

A standard

the
and
crane

Determine
maximum
to

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

'the maximum

for the his expression

moment. to zero

traveling

steel

beam

crane
on

(S shape)

of 4-ton
hanger.

serves

capacity;

as

9-49. A W 14 x in plates, 20 ft, (a) what the beam, and

Neglect the

x 38 beam is coverplated as shown in Fig. 9-18(a). concentrated force P can

where can of the

with two 5 If the span is be applied to

the

required

size

for

the

9-9

beam
connected.
for

section

force
cause maximum

the

Locate
for each

stresses

Determine
flexural

the
stress

elevation
and

and
circular

plan
cross

of a cantilever
section

the coverplates be cut off?. beam and assume that the and the coverplates are properly interNote that coverplates are usually extended
weight

floor may be loaded everywhere of floor area (live load). Assume

of the plastered hardwood ceiling flooring, below, the

structural weight

as much as 75 lb/ft further that the weight

concrete of the steel

dition. neglect allowable

is 9.6 ksi.

Assume a pinned connection at the wall, the weight of the beam in calculations. stress in bending is 16 ki and that in

a concentrated
the weight of the

force
member.

P applied

at the

end.

a few inches beyond the theoretical Obtain a revised solution if, instead distributed load were applied. Assume
able bending stress is 24 ksi in both

cut-off points. (b) of P, a uniformly that the allowcases.

slab, beam

In many
determine

engineering
the

design
magnitudes

problems,
of the

k is very
loads that

act

--Columns

Wall
8' 

1 Hanger
 6' 

its centroid was 10 ft above size of pipe be fithe sign

greater in the along height original the length other.
some thought

on a structure or a machine part. Satisfactory an existing instal ation may provide the xtrapolation. With this in mind, suppose that sign, such as shown in the figure, has persatisfactorily on a 4-in standard steel pipe when

Section

9-t0

9-50.
circular a bending

(a)
shaft

Show
moment

that
simultaneously is

the

larger

principal
subjected

stress
to a torque

for
and

the ground. were raised

What should to 30 ft above

Fig.

P9-45

in fabrication,

the successive
In arranging
to

that the wind pressure on the sign wil be 50 percent greater than it instal ation. Vary the size of the as required; however, for ease

ch = (c/J)(M
(b) Show that the design basis of the maximum-stress

+ 
formula theory,

+ T 2)
for is shafts, on the

pipe

segments

must

fit

Fig.

P9-43

**9-46. A glued-laminated rail and is loaded by one shown in the figure. The

wooden beam side of a four-wheel beam is made up

the
aesthetic

pipe
considerations.

segments, the weight of

also
For

in

calculations,

neglect

the

and

the

wind

pressure

on the

pipes

themselves.

d = /'rrtr,ow (M + V- + T 2)

/

16

496
9-5. At a critical
Determine
maximum shear

Elastic

Stress

Analysis

and

Design

Problems
Two pulleys
solid is limited
the

497
for shafts with loads by keyways. a shock Since factor the

section,

a solid

circular
shaft
not

shaft

trans-

mits
kN-m.
the

a torque

of 40 kN-m
the size
stress

and
would

a bending
exceed

moment
required
50

of 10
so that
MPa.

in-diameter

9-55.

shaft,

of 4r in radius
which

is supported what

are

attached

9-57.
by largest
direct

A drive
in the figure. the required

shaft

for
The size

two
belt

pulleys

is arranged
Dethat

as

of the

ings,

shear

as shown
stress
that

in the
forces

figure.

to 6 ksi,
F can

If the
assume.

maximum

tensions are known. of the shaft. Assume

X,o load,

6000

psi the

shaft

wil

multiply

operate

under

given

conditions

of suddenly

applied

of 1.

is the
9 The

9-52. Rework the preceding problem assuming Cryp = 100 MPa and the safety factor is 2 on the Mises yield criterion given by Eq. 8-54.
9-53. The head shaft of an inclined bucket elevator

that von
is

nitude

stress

caused

by

V need

not

be considered.

450

lb 50 lb

arranged rpm and

that
that

one-half

as shown reqQires
maximum

of the

in the figure. 60 hp for steady

delivered
shear stress

each
psi.

the

sprocket,

determine

the

It is driven operation. horsepower size of shaft

would not

is used
exceed

at A at 11 Assuming
at
6000

Bearing
8" diam

required

so

The

assigned
Sprockets

stress

allows

for

keyways.

Bearings

8"L 24"J 8"

Fig. P9-53

9-56. trically
between
of force

A low-speed applied
the
P on

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

load

Fig.

P9-55

1001b
Fig. P9-57

600 lb

shaft is acted upon by P caused by a force

of the maximum

an

gears.

Determine

the

basis

9-54. figure.
not

introduce

A shaft is fit ed The end bearings

moment

into

with pulleys are self-aligning,

the

shaft

as shown i.e.,
at the

supports.

in the they do

theory overhung
be
3P

if Xow shaft
the
and T =

= 6500 is 3 in.
shaft
6P in-lb.

psi. The Consider

diameter,
Note

small the
that since

diameter
and
the

where
in-lb

changes

that

Pulley driven torque, pulley of the

would

B is the driving pulley. Pulleys. A and C pulleys and take off 9000 in-lb and 3000 respectively. The resultant of the pulls is 400 lb acting downward. Determine shaft required so that the principal shear
not exceed 6000 psi.

are the in-lb of at each the size stress

size
tion and

changes
factors K2 =

abruptly,
must

the

fol owing
K

stress
= 1.6 in

1.2

be considered: in torsion.

Bearing Critical sectin I

Fig.

P9-56

Sec.

10-2.

Moment-Curvature

Relation

499

chapter

of only a few points on a beam or a frame are required. it can be used to advantage in the solution of statically problems and for deflection check. An excellent insight into kinematics of deformations is obtained by using this method. deflection analysis of slender beams in the presence of axial comsive forces in some instances may cause a profound increase in decausing member instability. This topic is considered in the next

deflection this reason,

[0-2.
Introduction
The axis of a beam deflects from its initial forces. Accurate values for these 'beam practical cases: elements of machines must misalignment and to maintain dimensional ings, floor beams cannot deflect excessively chological effect of flexible floors on occupants distress in brit le-finish materials; likewise, characteristics of members is essential in chines as well as of stationary and flight used in analyses of statically indeterminate position under deflections are sought in be sufficiently rigid to accuracy under lead; to av. oid the undesirable and to minimize or information on the study of vibrations of structures. Deflections are problems.

Moment-Ourvature
deflections along due

Relation
to bending These are are determined based on the from kinematic deformations hypothesis taking

a span.

during

bending,
was

plane

sections
cross present, the 10-1,

through

a beam

remain

plane.

This

that hy-

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

beams to beams the

first introduced having symmetric of arbitrary axes. For the only about one of is il ustrated in Fig. p of the elastic slightly greater generality,

in Section 6-2 in deriving the flexure formula cross sections, and extended in Section 6section for bending about either or both it wil be assumed that bending takes principal axes of the cross section. Such a where it is further assumed that the radius curve can change along the span. Except for the derivation that fol ows leads to the same
o

deflection of ary conditions ferent kinds indeterminate matical approach. provided for tinuous loading superposition ing are also An energy impact loads
of the inelastic

This.chapter

beams is derived in Part A, and are identified. Several il ustrative of loading and boundary conditions. beams, presenting no special A section on the application symbolic solutions for dif erential functions along a span. Methods as well as calculation of deflections presented. method for calculating beam are briefly introduced. Part A
deflection of beams. These results

has

two

parts.

The

governing

dif erential

dif erent examples This

dif iculties of singularity equations for solving for uns'

deflections concludes
are

types fol ow includes using this having

equation

for:
Centroid

A 

a 

Elastic

curve

and with
essential

the a

(a)

Principal
(b)

axes
(d)

the

plastic

Part determinate moment

collapse limit states consideied B is devoted to the discussion of beams using the moment-area method. This specialized procedure

in Chapter 13. statically determinate method, also called is particularly c

andi
the
Fig. 104 Deformation of a beam
Ic)

in bending.

5OO

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.

t0.3.

Governing

Dif erential

Equation
Pulley

results as found earlier in Section considered in this development; given in Section 10-11, Example
The center of curvature

O for

the

6-2. some 10-12. view

Deflections consideration
curve for

due

to shear of this
element

are
can'

important 10-5,

elastic

any

this For

to note that as no material properties were used in deriving relation can be used for inelastic as well as for elastic the elastic case, since e = e, = cr,/E and cry, = -My/1,

found A'B'

strained fibers the deformation

adjoining

l(d),

it can be seen
sections

by and

extending D'C'.

to intersection In the enlarged

any

is measured Au of any

is A0.

that

in a bent
in the fiber

If distance

beam,

two adjoining of element A'B'C'D'

sections

usual can
=

manner be expressed
--y A0

y from

the included
the

as being as

neutral

angie'between
[

in Fig.

(10-6)

surface

to
This beam equation relates bending having a moment of inertia 1/p of the elastic curve. moment I around M at a given the neutral section of an elastic axis to the curvature

Au

For
formation

negative
shown

y's,

this
in the

yields
figure.

elongation,

which

is consistent

with

the

The fibers lying in the curved neutral surface of the deformed characterized in Fig. 10-1(d) by fiber ab, are not strained at all. arc length A s corresponds to the initial length of all fibers between  A'B' and D'C'. Bearing this in mind, upon dividing Eq. 10-1 by As, can form the fol owing relations:
lira a. o -A u

EXAM P L E t 0d
cutting metal, a band saw 15 mm wide and 0.60 mm thick runs over two
Fig. t0-2

stress

,s of 400-mm is developed

diameter, in the

saw

as shown as it goes

in Fig. 10-2. over a pulley?

What Let

maximum E = 200

bending
GPa.

AS

-y

lim a-, o ss

A 0

One can distance

recognize y from

the

that du/ds is the normal neutral axis. Hence,

du

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION ds ss www.avs4you.com

or --=
du

-y

dO

this

apphcation,

the

material

must

behave

elastically.

As

the

thin

saw

blade

strain

in a beam

fiber

By

using

pulley, Eq. 6-11,

a generally

it conforms cr = -My/1,
useful

to the radius of the together with Eq.

fol ows:

pulley; 10-6,

hence, p - 200 after some minor

mm. sim-

relation

cr =
y = +--c, the maximum bending

stress

--

(10-7)
in the saw
=

is determined:
300MPa

The
aid

term of Fig.

dO/ds 10-1(c),

in Eq. 10-2 has it is seen that,

a.o
hm A0

a clear since
dO

As
=-=

geometrical = p A0,
1

meaning.

Ec

200

103

0.30

p
high stress developed in the band saw

200
necessitates

As

ds

superior

materials

for

this

application.

which
6-1.

is the

definition

of curvature

 K (kappa)

introduced

before

in

On this
may
curve

basis,
the
the normal

upon
fundamental

substituting
relation
strain as

Eqs.

10~3
between

and

10-4
curvature

into

Eq.
of the

express
and

10-3.
texts
curvature

Governing
on analytic
of a line

Dif erential
geometry,
is defined as

Equation
it is shown
d2v

that

in Cartesian

coordinates,

1
Note that both 0 and s must increase in the same direction.

dx 2

v"

P --= [ 1+ (__)2]3/2= [1 + (V,)213/2

(10-8)

502

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.

t0.3.

Governing

Dif erential
y

Equation

503
Elastic curve with I > 0
P

where

x and

v are

the

coordinates

of a point

on

a curve.

For

the

at hand, distance x locates beam, and v gives the deflection If Eq. 10-8 were substituted for the elastic curve would

a point on the elastic curve of a of the same point from its initial into Eq. 10-6 the exact dif erential ec result. In general, the solution of such

equation

erated in the vast majority dv/dx of the elastic curve v' is a negligible quantity
to

is very

dif icult

of engineering is also very in comparison

1

to achieve.

structures small. Therefore, with unity,

d2v

However,

since
and

are

the
the

very

deflections
sq

small,
Curvature for M > 0

+ dv

xx = 0
x

Eq.
(a)

(b)

p
This lem, beams simplification eliminates and the governing dif erential 2 using Eq. 10-6 is the

dx 2
geometric equation nonlinearity for small deflections from the of 

Fig.

10-3

Moment

and

its

relation

to

curvature.

CUrve
This

Fig.

of the
sense
sides

becomes

10-3.

positive
Note,

I d2v =I NON-ACTIVATED VERSION

of Eq. 10-10. 3
dx 2

of curvature positive moments

larger

especial y,

y axis

and
agrees M.

as x increases,

that

the

if the

positive

with the induced For this reason,

curvature

positive

direction

curvature the signs

1/p - d2v/dx

slope

of the
dv/dx

of the

applied

caused by the are positive on

2 is positive.

elastic

load

(10-]

where

it is understood

that

= Mz,

and

I = Iz.

Note that in Eq. 10-10, the xyz coordinate system is employed to the material points in a'beam for calculating the moment of inertia I. the other hand, in the planar problem, it is the xv system of axes used to locate points on the elastic curve. The positive direction of the v axis is taken to have the same sense
the x axis curvature

www.avs4you.com ds = X/dx
Thus, in the

Generally, only Eq. 10-10 is used in this text, and if biaxial bending occurs, the deflection directions are determined by inspection. It is important to note that for the elastic curve, at the level of accuracy of Eq. 10-10, one has ds = dx. This fol ows from the fact that, as before, the square of the slope dv/dx is negligibly small compared with unity, and

2 + dv 2 = X/1
of

+ (v') 2 dx = dx
axis and

(10-11)
is said
of the

2 In some

positive moments bent beam is concave

curve,

directed is concave

texts,

the positive
is retained, upwards.

to the right. downwards,

direction
For
Fig.

such

for deflection
6-51(b).

a choice

moments

one

M is opposite
has

to that

associated

Fig. 6-51(a), Therefore,

since with the pc

M EI

the

corresponding the curvature

of coordinates, Whereas, if the

v is taken

downward
usual

the

small-deflection
initial

length

theory,

the

beam

no dif erence

in length
the

arc

to exist
elastic

the

curvature induced

sense

of

The

beam

Stated lying

alternatively, on the neutral

theory

discussed

there surface,

here

is limited

is no horizontal i.e., at y = 0.

displacement
that are

of the
small

to deflections

relation

d2v dx 2

1-percent
problems in the xz plane, as

to span length. However, it is remarkably accurate when to exact solutions based on Eq. 10-8. An idea of the accuracy may be gained by noting, for example, that there is approximately

com-

in-

to one-tenth
w as positive. In this setting,

the order

error

of the span length,

deflection, members of the theory

of one-twentieth

from

the exact

governing

in Fig.

Some

6-51(b),

texts

analyze equation

and

define
also

basic has

downward

beam

deflection

a negative
d2w

deflection
sign:

flections
of plates and shells.

stif flexural limitation

equation

of beams

wil

be shown

the error is raised to approximately 4 percent. are required in most engineering applications, is not serious. For clarity, however, the de-

which

of its length.

solution

if deflections

ordinarily

By increasing

of a simple

would

be considered

the deflection

span

an

greatly

exaggerated

on all diagrams.
Bernoulli, extended

dx 2

E1

The

This

notation

is particularly

favored

in the

treatment

of the in 1694.

elastic curve Leonhard

was Euler

formulated (1707-1783)

by James greatly

a Swiss its appli-

504

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.

10-6.

Boundary

Conditions

505

*'4[{-4.

Alternative
Equation

Derivation

of the Governing

-5.

Alternative

Forms
relations among 5-4, can be combined of equations:
v = deflections
dv

of the
the

Governing
applied

Equation
loads, 10-10
curve

In the classical theories of plates and shells that deal with small tions, equations analogous to Eq. 10-10 are established. The characted approach can be il ustrated on the beam problem. ,. In a deformed condition, point A' on the axis of an unloaded Fig. 10-4, according to Eq. 10-11 is directly above its initial The tangent to the elastic curve at the same point rotates through an dv/dx. A plane section with the centroid at A' also rotates same angle dv/dx since during bending sections remain normal to the axis of a beam. Therefore, the displacement u of a material point

dif erential s. 53 and sequence

with
of the elastic

Eq.

shear, to yield

and the

moment, fol owing

= --

dx

= v'
d2v

slope

of the

elastic

curve
(10-13)

m = EI. q-

=EIv" =(EIv")"
shown flexural equations

distance

s y from

the

elastic

curve

is

V- dM_ d EI  =(EIv")'
dx - dx EI  dV d22 (d2v)
these relations, the adhered to strictly. For beams simplifies into three alternative sign convention with constant governing in Fig. 10-3 must rigidity El, Eq. for determining

where the negative sign shows that for positive y and u is toward the origin. For y = 0, there is no displacement by Eq. 10-11. Next, recall Eq. 2-6, which states that e = du/dx.

v', u, as Therefore, Eqs. from

10-12,
The yielding e and

e =

-y

d2v/dx

2 since

v is a function

same normal strain also can e = -My/E1. On equating eliminating y from both sides
d2v
dx 2

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 'EId2v= M(x) www.avs4you.com

ofx only.
be found from the two alternative of the equation,
M
E1

deflection

of

a loaded

beam:

3-14 and expressions

(10-14a)

d3v

= V(x)

(10-4b)

which Optional Since

is the angle
dx

previously section. dv/dx

derived is small,
Initial

Eq. its cosine

plane

10-10.
(10-14c)

can

be taken

as unity.

d_v .ofsection
u = -y -

choice
with

of one

of these

equations

for

determining

v depends

on the

which Fewer Equation a solution

an expression for load, shear, or moment can be forconstants of integration are needed in the lower-order 10-14b is seldom used, since it is more convenient either with the load function q(x) or the moment func-

m(x).

+d_v

.0-6.
the

Boundary
solution equations,

Conditions
boundary
of beam-deflection boundary conditions

Fig.
section.

t0-4

Longitudinal

displacements to rotation

in a beam of a plane

due
Deflected segment beam

'homogeneous

conditions

problems, must

are

as fol ows:

in addition be prescribed.

to the Several

dif ertypes

506
Beam

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.

t0-7.

Direct

Integration

Solutions

507

1. Clamped slope
a,

dv/dx

orfixed must

support: vanish.

In this case, Hence, at the

the end

displacement considered,

v and

v(a)

v'(a)

8(a):
(a)

v(a) = 0
Clamped

v'(a) = 0
support

2. Roller moment

orpinned M can

support: exist.
v(a)

At
Hence, = 0

the

end

considered,

no deflection

M(a)

= EIv"(a)

RAx
to the Hence,

(a)
(b)

M,
C RAx  0

(i r

If it is assumed

'
IRc
(c)

Here

the end:

physically

evident

condition

for

M and

is related shear.
it

ative
3. Free

of v with
Such

respect
an end

to x from
is free

Eq.
of moment

10-14.
Fig. t0-6 The beam in (a) is indeterminate to the f"u:st deree. that the horizontal

M(a)
(b)

v(a) = 0
Simple

M(a)

= EIv"(a)

= 0

V(a)

=(EIv

)x=,

= 0 is [ is not

(10-1:

reaction
second

component
degree.

is negligible,

the

beam

in (b)

is determinate

and

in (c)

indeterminate

to the

= EIv"(a)
support

=0

4.

Guided support: but the rotation of resisting any

In this case, free vertical of the end is prevented. shear. Therefore, v'(a) = 0
conditions

V(a)
for

The

same

boundary

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

no horizontal reactions need be

The

movement support

loaded
OhS in beams
10-6(c).

beams.
with
Therefore,

6 Therefore,
immovable
the beam

the
supports
shown

horizontal
are
considered

components
negligible.
for the beam

of the
On
to the

resame
in

the
shown

is indeterminate

second

=(EIv

tt

)=

= 0

In

this

beam

beams

with

constant

EI

are

In

M (a) = EIv"(a) = 0
V(a) = EIv'"(a)
(c) Free end

=0

/. Roller

V(a) : EIv"'(a)
(d) Guided

0(a)

v'(a) = 0
support

: 0

Fig. t0-5 boundary

beams

with

Homogeneous conditions
conditi6ns

constant

for
EI.

In

(a)
conditions

both

are
mixed.

marized in Fig. 10-5. Note the two basically dif erent types conditions. Some pertain to the force quantities and are said to be boundary conditions. Others describe geometrical or deformational havior of an end; these are kinematic boundary conditions. Nonhomogeneous boundary conditions, where a given shear, rotation, or displacement is prescribed at the boundary, also occur applications. In such cases, the zeros in the appropriate Eqs. through 10-15d are replaced by the specified quantity. These boundary conditions apply both to statically determinate indeterminate beams. As examples of statically indeterminate sin beams, consider the three cases shown in Fig. 10-6. The beam in Fig. 6(a) is indeterminate to the first degree, as any one of the reactions be removed and the beam wil remain stable. In this example, there no horizontal forces. The boundary conditions shown in Fig. 10-5(a) for end A, and those in Fig. 10-5(b), for end B. The vertical reactions for the beam in Fig. 10-6(b) can be found from statics. Since the pinned supports' cannot move horizontal y, is a tendency for developing horizontal .reactions at the supports the beam deflection. However, for small beam deflections, according Eq. 10-11, ds  dx and no significant axial strain can develop in

would some load

case, any two reactive forces can be removed and the remain in equilibrium. problems, discontinuities in the mathematical functions for or member stif ness arise along a given span length. Such for example, occur at concentrated forces or moments

and aat brupt changes incross-sect areas iaf onal fectEIinI.ngsuch cases, vL
ments

ometry

boundary conditions must be supplemented by the physical requireof continuity of the elastic cure. This means that at any juncture the two zones of a beam where a discontinuity occurs, the deflection the tangent to the elastic curve must be the same regardless of the from which the common point is approached. Unacceptable ge-

of elastic
the

curves

is il ustrated
functions

in Fig.

10-7.

(al

By

using

singularity

discussed

in Section

10-8,

the

con-

As

tinui condi ty oftihoens lacurve sticare identsat icalislyfied."1 Zang

Direct Integration
By

Solutions

a general
EIv
iv

= q(x).
solution

example

successively becomes

of calculating
v is obtained. Theory

integrating

beam

deflection,
this

expression

consider

four

Eq.

times,

10- o

the

formal

for

Thus,

(b)

and S. Woinowsky-Krieger, McGraw-Hil , 1959),

6 The

horizontal

force
6.

important

of Plates

in thin
and

Shells,

plates.

2nd

See

ed.

S. Timoshenko
(New

York:

geometric continuous

Fig. t0-7

Unacceptable
conditions elastic curve.

in a

kinematic; static;

in (b)

are

in (c) and

both (d),

are

508

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.

10-7.

Direct

Integration

Solutions

509

both

equations,

constants

C,

C2,

C3,

and

C4

must

be

determined

the conditions xre incorporated

/Er,

respectively,

at the boundaries. into the expression

are usually

7 the
are

In Eq. 10-19, of M. Constants

initial
the

values

of V, M,

constants C, C2,

0, and
of

C and C2 C3/EI, and

v at
re-

The first
Spective

origin.

term
dif erential

one

on the fight
in Eq.

10-19

hand
The

of the last part

particular

of Eq.
solutions

10-16

and the
the

meaning. into the

In these

equations
Since, second

per Eq. of Eqs.

the constants

10-14b, 10-16,

C, C2, C3, and C4 have a special

EIv'"= V, by and simplifying, substituting Eq: 5-6
is

this

V = fo' q dx + C
By substituting
5-7

as it depends only on the loading condition of the beam. This term remains the same regardless of the prescribed boundary conditions, the constants are determined from the boundary conditions. If the loading, shear, and moment functions are continuous and the t rigidity EI is constant, the evaluation of the particular integrals very direct. When discontinuities occur, solutions can be found for segment of a beam in which the functions are continuous; the comsolution is then achieved by enforcing continuity conditions at the boundaries of the beam segments. Alternatively, graphical or

equations.

one

in Eq.

10-16

is especial y

inter-

procedures,

8 of successive

integrations

can

be used
beam amount

very

ef-

this
is obtained.

relation

into

Eq.

5-7,

and

integrating,

a dif eren'

of Eq.

M=
The
These

right

side
results

of this
unequivocally

equation

necessary VERSION for solving a problem. If one begins NON-ACTIVATED f f:dXfo":qdx + Cix + C2 www.avs4you.com
integrations moment function
two.

in the solution of practical Any one of Eqs. 10-14 or 10-16 Fhe choice depends entirely on

problems. can be used for finding the initial data and the

must be performed. is writ en, the number

On

the other of required

with

hand, integrations

the applied

deflection. of work

if the

bendingis reduced

load,

all

is identical
show

to the

third

of Eqs.

10-16.
C2

that

the

constants

C and

Summary

part of the equilibrium equations and are the static boundary At this point, no kinematics nor material properties enter the However, next, by dividing M by E1 for substitution into Eq. 10-10, properties are brought in, limiting the solutions to the elastic behavior
prismatic
forms,

three basic concepts of engineering mechanics applied before are used in developing the elastic of beams. These may be summarized as fol ows:

same

of solids deflection
element to

rethees-

beams.

Thus,

rewriting

Eq.

10-10,

for

clarity,

in several

1. Equilibrium

conditions

(statics)

are

used

for

a beam

dx 2

dx

dx

E1

tablish the relationships between the applied load and 3, as well as between the shear and bending moment, 2. Geometry of deformation (kinematics) is used by assuming sections through a beam element remain plane after
Such planes intersect and define beam strains and the

shear, Eq. 5Eq. 5-4. that plane deformation.

radius of cur-

Then, using Eq. 10-17, and integrating twice, 10-16 are reproduced. These two equations, stants of integration C3 and C4, define slope curve, i.e., they describe the kinematics of a constants are the kinematic boundary conditions. If, instead of Eq. 10-14c, one starts with Eq. two integrations the solution is

the last two relations and the associated new and deflection of the laterally loaded beam.

vature for an element. Although for curvature, Eq. 10-4, is exact, flections, since sin 0 is approximated
due to shear of sections

is accounted

in the above sense the expression the theory is limited to small deby 0, Eq. 10-9. No warpage
for in the formulation.

10-14a,

EIv"=

M(x),

not

7 In certain have this

cases meaning.
must

where transcendental Basically, the whole

satisfy

EIv= fodXfoMdx+

C3x + C4

M. Newmark, Buckling Loads,"

are

8 Such

procedures

"Numerical Trans.
widely

are useful
used

the

conditions

functions function,
at the

Procedure for ASCE 108 (1943):

in practice.

in complicated

Computing 1161.

problems.

boundary.

are used, these which includes

constants the constants

do

Deflections, Finite element

For

example,

Moments, solutions

and of such

see N.

now

y,v I
Deflection of Beams

11/I 1

3. Properties

of

materials

(constitutive

relations)

in

the
0(0):

(d)
0

Hooke's normal

law, stresses

Eq.

2-3, are and strains.

assumed Poisson's

to apply only to effect is neglected.

v(O) = 0
0
M1

f M(L) = +M 1
V(L) = 0

A solution of any one of Eqs. 10-14a, 10-14b, or 10-14c, 9 subject prescribed boundary conditions, constitutes a solution of a given versely loaded elastic beam problem. These equations are equally cable to statically determinate and statically indeterminate beam are continuous occur, continuity If I is constant,
local

M 1
(b)

(e)

+M

1 L/EI

lems.

m However,

fectively used. It is to be noted

across a span. When of the elastic curve singularity functions

that
to

the solutions

are simpler

discontinuities at such points for describing

and

if the functions

in either q(x) must be the loads can

beam
and
(c)

q(x)

although

at load

cross-section
the
are determined function. determinate

large

are less tegration, Several

sensitive

perturbations

a process il ustrative

these effects. Deflections tending to smooth out examples of statically

in strain

and

stresses

develop,

+Mi

(f)

us

v[
.

ol

"'"' +M1L2/2EI
x

Fig.

t0-8

indeterminate tions for

beam
elastic

problems beam deflections

fol ow.

EXAMPLE

'10-2

A bending
of constant
Solution

moment
flexural

rigidity

M is applied
EI,

Fig.

EIv=  Mix 2 + C4 NON-ACTIVATED VERSION at the free end of a cant ilever of length www.avs4you.com
But v(0) = 0; hence, EIv(O) = C4 = 0 and

The is given

applications in the

next

of sin section.

EI- = Mix
1

10-8(a).

Find

the

equation

of the,

v -

Mix

2EI

(10-20) due
elastic

moment
for

The boundary conditions are recorded ditions at the ends. At x = L, M(L) From a free-body diagram of Fig.

cessively,
v:

is +M
and

making

throughout

use

of the

the beam.

near the figure from inspection = +M, a nonhomogeneous 10-8Co), it can be observed that

of the
the

The rhe

positive largest
is +ML/EI

sign value
10-20

of the result of v occurs

radians.

indicates at x = L.
the elastic

that The
curve

the slope

deflection of the
is a parabola.

to M curve
However,

is upward. at the free

every

Equation

shows

that

boundary

By applying

conditions,

Eq.

one

10-14a,

obtains

integrating

element

the

error

of the beam experiences equal moments elastic curve should be a part of a circle. The of an approximate relation for the curvature

commit ed

is in the

ratio

of (9 - v) 3 to 93. As
successive
This is shown moment

and deforms inconsistency 1/9. It can

the

deflection

alike. Therefore, results from be shown that procedure

v is much
with

the the

EI 5 = M = M

d2u

than is important
solution

9, the
(f).

error is very small. to associate the above

or First, interpretation. the conventional

integration
in the diagram

EI- = Mx + C3
But 0(0) = 0; hence, at x = 0, one has EIv'(O) = C3 = 0 and

through

sequence is shown.

of Figs. 10Then using

10-9
10-8(d).

and

10-10,
the

1/p  d2v/dx

2 = M/EI,

the

curvature

diagram

is plot ed

in

For diagram, is obtained.

0(0) =

elastic case, this is simply a plot one obtains the 0 diagram. In the In this example, since the beam
0 and
EI.

of M/EI. By integrating the next integration, the elastic is fixed at the origin, the
the diagrams. This

10-13
19.

9 The

o This

and

adopted

is analogous

10-14

having

sign

convention to the axial y

positive

signs,

for applied loaded

an advantage

loads

and

bar problems

in hand

shear

discussed

calculations.

results in

in

v(0)

0 are

used

in

constructing

approach
with variable

or its numerical

equivalents

are

very

useful

in the

solution

of

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.
EXAMPLE '10-3

t0-7.

Direct

Integration

Solutions

5'f3

A simple

beam
second-order solution

supports

a uniformly
dif erential

distributed
equation

downward
to obtain

load
the deflection

Wo.

The

M = woLx _ WoX 2
2 2

rigidity
Use graphical
Solution

the

EI is constant.
the fourth-order
of the

Find

the elastic

curve

by the fol owing

one

three
(a). (c)

metho,

of the

(b)

Use

problem.

equation

instead

of the

in part

conditions,

this relation
one

finds

into

the

Eq.

equation

10-14a,

of the

integrating

elastic

it twice,
curve:

and using

the bound-

d2v
A diagram
10-9(a). has

in Fig. equation

(a)

of the
The

beam
found

expression

together
in Example

for

with

been

M for use 5-8. From

the given

in the second-order Fig. 5-24,

boundary

conditions

is

= M
. worx
worx

woLx

Wo x2

EI xx = EIv=
V(0) = 0; hence, EIv(O)
=

dv

4 1---

2
3

wox

+ C3

y, v
q =-w o lb/in

WoX 4

2- q- C3X q- C4
since
and

= 0 = C4; and,

v(L)
C3

= 0,
= ---

woL 3

EIv(L)

=

.J viol =o
(M(O)

=o
woe

.f vlt. I =o
LM(L)

24

EI

wL4 24
WoX 3

C3L

wL3 24
(10-21)

=o

(b)
x

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Because of symmetry, the largest deflection occurs www.avs4you.com

v

v =

2--I (L - 2Lx 2 + x 3)
10-21, one obtains

(f)

I V Imax

value

ofx

into

Eq.

at x = L/2.

On substituting

I v Jmax
M
+--

= 5wL4 384EI
has

(10-22)
used to determine constant C3.

Wo L2
8

+--

WO La
24EI

condition

it is known

of symmetry
that

v'(L/2)

could

= 0, one

also have

been

(c)

(g)

EIv'(L/2)
as before, C3 =

= wL(L/24 )2
- woL3/24.

w(L/26)3
conditions.

+ C3 =.0
problem is direct. The con-

Application
+--

woL 2
EI

I v Imax
(h)
o

are

found

of Eq.
from

the

10-14c

boundary

to the solution

of this

(d)

El x 4 = q(x)
0o

d4v

= -Wo
+ C
WoX 2

EI d3 v dx 3
d2v

-WoX

Fig.

10-9

El dx 2 = - 

+ Cx + C2

v
Deflection of Beams

WoL
2

But

M(O)

= O; hence,

EIv"(O)

= 0 = C2;

and,

since

M(L)

= O,

(b)

0
x

EIv"(L)

= 0 =

--

woL
2

+ C]L

or

C1

= --

woL
2

hence,

EI--

dev
dx 2

woLx
2

WoX 2
2

, vT
(c)

woL 2
24

The remainder preliminary advantageous

(c) The 10-9(b)
Fig.

of the calculation in some

needed (0. for

problem is the same as in part (a). In this of reactions is required. As wil be shown statically indeterminate problems.
solution and (c), of the complete the convention.al problem shear

later,
are and ] in

13L

woL 2
12

steps through
10-9(d).

a graphical In Figs. 10-9(b)

diagrams

are
by

shown.

The

curvature

diagram
the slope the construction the right
and vice versa.

is obtained
to the ordinate
By

by plot ing

M/E1,

Since, horizontal, from the

the shaded

virtue of symmetry, 0(L/2) = 0. Therefore, center. In this procedure,

area of Fig. 10-4(d),

elastic curve at x = of the 0 diagram can be in Fig. 10-9(e) must

summing the 0

v(O) = 0 v'(O) = 0

f v(L) = 0 L'(L) = 0

(d)
x

finds the elastic deflection v. The shaded area of Fig. 10-9(e) is equal to the maximum deflection. In the above, the condition of symmetry ployed. A gener.al y applicable procedure fol ows.
After the curvature diagram is established as in Fig. 10-9(d), be constructed with an assumed initial value of 0 at the origin. 0(0) = 0 and sum the curvature diagram to obtain the 0 diagram, Note that the shape of the. curve so found is identical to that Summing the area of the 0 diagram gives the elastic curve. In curve extends from 0 to A. This violates the boundary condition deflection must be zero. Correct deflections are given, however, them vertically from a straight line passing through 0 and A. corrects the deflection ordinates caused by the incorrectly assumed

Fig.

t0-10

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

was
the 0 For rhe solution is obtained
10-16.

by four
the

successive

integrations

of Eq.
are found

10-14c
from

in a manner
the bound-

ts.

Then

constants

of integration

Fig. of Fig.

conditions.

Fig.

at A, by This

El 
In
EI--=

d4u

= q(x) = -Wo
+ C]
2
+ C]x + C2 --

EI ' i = -WoX
d2v
dx 2

d3u

after

onstructing
this
10-9(e)

Fig.

10-9(h),
Fig.

one

knows

that

0(0)
with

-d/L

=
have

-w
In

0(0).

WoX 2

When
Figs.

value
and

of 0(0)
(f). In

is used,
10-9(h),

the

problem
inclined

reverts
measurements

to the
overhangs.

preceding
no

The

procedure

described

is applicable

for

beams

x 2 E1 dv = WoX 3 --- 6 + C]  + C2x + C3 dx

EIv=

the
EXAMPLE

base

line
'i0-4

for

measuring

deflections

must

pass

through

the

support

__ -- 24

Wo x4

q- C 1 - q- C2- - q- C3x q- C 4
are available for determining the constants

X 3

,X 2

kinematic at both ends supports a uniformly distributed downward

boundary

conditions

A beam

fixed

Fig. elastic
the
Solution

10-10(a). curve
results found

The using

EI
the
using

for

the beam fourth-order

the second-order

is constant. governing
dif erential

(a) Find dif erential

equation.

the

expression equation.

(b)

EIv(O) EIv'(O)

= EIvA = EIv.

= 0 = = 0 =

Ca C3

EIv(L) As discussed
to the second

= EIva = EIv

= =

0 = 0 =

woL
24

4 3
6

+ G'g-

L 3 L 2

+ + C2L

L 2

(a)
minate

in connection
degree since

with

Fig.
horizontal

10-6(c),
reactions

this

beam
are

is statically
assumed to be

EIv'(L)

-- 

woL

+ C'-

5t5

5i6

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.
enter the last simultaneously, two equations since they are

10-7.

Direct

Integration

Solutions

5'i7

Constants solving

the

C3 and C4 do not last two equations

1olving

the

last

two

equations

simultaneously, woZ

C

woL
2

and

C2

woL
12

2
elastic curve,

RA = 2
Substituting
Eq. 10-23

and
into the equation

M,a =
for

w oZ 2

12

By substituting gebraic simplifications,

these

constants

into

the

equation

for

the

these

is again

expressions

obtained.

deflection

with

C3 = C4 =

WoX2 2- ( .z. - x) 2

According of the deflection
define the

PLE

t0-5

to Eqs. v(x)
reactions

10-14a gives,
at A.

and 10-14b, respectively,

Hence, C is the

EI
M(x)

times
and
vertical

the

second
V(x). reaction

third At x = 0,
and C2 is the

and

shown

the

equation in Fig.

of the elastic curve for the 10-11(a). Use the second-order

uniformly dif erential

loaded

equation.

continuous

E1 is

at this

support.

In this

case,

because
moment
diagrams

of symmetry,
this is not and for

the vertical

reactions
from

cani

SOlution !or either

1
)ort,

found directly from of a boundary-value same expressions Shear, moment,

statics. However, problem. The at x = L. and deflection

necessary in this typical shear at B can be found this beam are shown

:cause

of symmetry, span. Also,

not only is the

because

the

solution

of symmetry,
zero,

can

be confined it can
but since

be concluded
the elastic

to determining
curve

that

the deflection at the middle

cannot rotate

in Fig.

deflection

10. The

absolute

maximum

deflection

[ V [max -- 384EI wL4

(b) This solution
determined

is found

using
directly

Eq.
from

10-14a,

at A can be On this basis,

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With known boundary conditions.

occurring

in the

middle

of the

span

is

in

either
By using
for

to the one-degree
M(x)

direction,
Eq.

its slope

statically

is also

indeterminate

zero.

In this

problem

manner,

shown

the problem
First,

in Fig.

10-1 l(b)
dif erential

can

be

is formulated

10-14a,

the solution
Boundary

and

two

proceeds

successive

in the usual and

integrations

manner.

of the

an expres-.

and,

although

the

vertical

statics,

it wil

be

treated

as an

for

Second-order

determining

are

performed. the

dif erential-equation

constants

conditions of integration

solution:

provide the an unknown

necessary reaction

information RA.

EI 5 = M(x)
Integrating twice,

der

= MA + RAx -- 
X2 23
MA

Wo x2

EI 5 = M(x)
EI 
dv '
EIv= RA

dev

RA 2
6

x2

= RAx - 
WoX 3

Wo x2

+ C3
+ C3x + C4

EI x = MAx EIv=
Constants boundary C3 and conditions: C4 as

did

+ RA 2
22
as RA and

t] o x3

23

Wo x4
24

+ C3 + C3x + C4
from the four found

MA
well

+ RA 6

Wo x4

24

are

y,vj q=-w
(b)

EIv(O) EIv'(O)

= =

EIVA EIv

= =

0 = 0 =

C4 C3

EIid(L) = EIvB = 0 = MA_ + RA 6

EIv'(L) = Elvb = 0 = MAL + RA

L 2

L 3

woL woL
6

L 2
2

24
3

Fig.

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.

'10-7.

Direct

Integration
M

Solutions

Boundary

conditions:

EIv(O) EIv' EIv(L) By solving the last two

= (L ) = =

EIvA Elvb EIvB

= = =

0 = 0 = 0 = simultaneously,

C4 Ra RA

L 2
2

woL
6

-Z- (L -x)
+c3 + C3L
(b)

L 3
6

Wo L4
24

equations

RA

--

3woL
8

and

C3

woL
48

O) = 0

10)

= 0

v(L) M(L)

=0 = 0
x

which,

upon

substitution

into

the

equation

for

the

elastic

curve,

leads

to
Fig. t042

v'(a)
(c)

V =
From
reaction

-- --(L

WoX

48EI

3 - 3Lx 2 + 2x 3)
C are
5woL

symmetry,
at B is

the

reactions

at A and

equal,

and,

by

using

statics

RB--

This
EXAMPLE

reaction
'i0-6

is also

numeric.

ally

equal

to 2VB.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

AD:
4

. determine tinuity conditions For segment

the

four must

constants be used.

A,

A2,

B,

and

B2,

two

boundary

and

two

con-

v(O)

0 = A2

segment

DB:

v(L)

=
both

0 =- -segments

PaL
3EI

BL
a:

B2

A simple the left

tion
Solution

beam support,
elastic

supports a concentrated Fig. 10-12(a). The

curve by successive

flexural

downward rigidity
integration.

force P at a distance EI is constant. Find

a the e

deflections

for

at x =

of the

vz>
wil be boundary obtained conditions using the second-order noted in Fig. dif erential equation. moment slopes

v(a)
for

both

pa3b
6EIL

+ Aa

pa 3
2EI

pa 4
6EIL

Bia

B2

The solution reactions and

are

10-12(a).

The independently

segments

at x = a:

plot ed

in Fig.

10-12(b)

clearly
At AD
Pb

shows
first, the

a discontinuity
solution proceeds

in M(x)

at x = a, re
for DB
Pa

two dif erent functions. segment of the beam. For

d2v M

Oz> = v(a) = 2EIL

solving the four equations
Pb
6EIL

pa2b

+ Ai = E1
simultaneously,

pa 2

--+B 2EI L

pa

segment

For
d2v M Pa

segment

one

finds

Ix 2
dv

E1
Pb Pb --

EIL
x 2 x 3
6

dx 2
dv
+ A2

EI
Pa Pax
EI

E1
Pax 2
2

EIL
2 Pax 

x
A1
B1

dx-EIL
v -

2 + A
+ Ax

dxv -

EI x

EIL 2 + B]
EIL 6

=
=

---

(L 2 -

b 2)

A2
B2

= 0
=
Pa 3
6EI

Pa
6EIL

ElL

+ Bix

(2L 2 + a 2)

520

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.

10-7.

Direct

Integration

Solutions

52t

With after

these algebraic

constants, for simplification,

example,
becomes
Pbx

the

elastic

curve

for

segment

AD

of the

B(AMPLE

'i0-7

simply

v =
Deflection vB at applied force vB

-- --(Z
6EIL

2 -- b 2 - x 2)

supported 4 m from the

beam left support,

curve.

5 m long Fig.

is loaded 10-13(a).

with The

a 20-N moment

downward of inertia

force of the

at a cross

section

Determine

of the

the

beam

elastic

is 413 for

segment

AB

and

I for
12o

the
N

remainder

of the

beam.

P is = v(a) = pa2b
3EIL

The

point of maximum deflection the expression for the slope

largest

deflection

occurs

is at x = X/a(a + 2b)/3, which fol ows from equal to zero. The deflection at-this point is

in the

longer

segment

of the

beam.

If a > b

4N

x

4m
(a)

--x,

'16N

[max =
Usually,
merically
recommends = L/2,

Pb(L

9X/g ElL

2 - b2)3/2

the deflection
largest
by direct

its use. If force _substitution

deflection.

at the center
Such

P is applied at the middle into Eq. 10-28 or 10-29,

pL 3

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION I 7-1Imax -- 48E1T www.avs4you.com

of the span, when
(b)'

a deflection

of the span is very

is much

simpler

nearly

to determine.

equal

to th e

[ v Irna x

-0B V B' --

Here

it is well

to

recall

the

definition

of

the

spring

constant,

or

st

given
distance

by Eq.
a from

2-11.

In the
a support,

present

context,
P

for
3EIL

a force

P placed

at an

vB For a particular case, when a = b = L/2,

a2b 2 this
48EI

(c)

equation

reduces

to
+16 N .m

koThis
sential

L3
Eq.

(1(

(f)

The
The

expression

previous
solution

in vibration

equations with

also

fol ows

analysis.

are useful
problems

directly

in static

from

and dynamic functions

discontinuous

10-30.

(d),

analyses discussed
load

and i
4
EI 1

greatly
tion.

facilitated

of deflection

the use of singularity

having

EI
16 - 16x

Fig.
X 1
re)

t043

522

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.

t0-8.

Singularity

Functions

for

Beams

523
At

Solution

the
= 1: v(1)

boundary
= vc = 0;

condition
therefore,

at C is applied

to determine

the

value

of 0.

A similar problem was solved in the preceding example. wil be il ustrated here that is convenient in some complicated dif erent M/E1 expressions are applicable to several segments

problems

method

Due

segment.
carded

successive

consists

to continuity
out

The values
for the

integrations

of selecting
conditions,
next

of 0 and v are then

segment.

until

an origin
expressions

at one end of the beam

for 0 and v are

of the beam. for

these

beam is reached; then the remaining unknown constants. ments, and all x's are taken
For segment AB,
M

boundary conditions are imposed to determine A new origin is used at every juncture of the to be positive in the same direction.
= 4x and

This

become

determined
process

the initial

at the end of the first

constants
until

obtained

and carrying(

EIt
the
of

3EI +  + 0A + 3-- + 40A

this uantities value

32

and
Upon
9.4/EI.

0A =
for 0 and example,

EI
(a)
+16 N.m

4.8

is repeated

in the inte

se

the far end

the slope
to

in segment

of 0A into can be obtained

the
3.1

AB

is 0 = x2/2EI
be m.

respective for either

The

- 24/5EI.
maximum

expressions segment.

For

setting

this
occurs

v, equations the equation

at

quantity
this

zero,

x is found

to

deflection

of x, and
span

I v Im

- 9.95/EI.
m) is nearly

Characteristically,
the same, being

the deflection

at the center

0
(b)
16

(at x = 2.5

0 < x < 4:
d2v M x

self-explanatory

in I cause in complex -14 to simplify the

graphical virtually problems. numerical

procedure is shown in Figs. 10-13(d) through (g). no complications in the graphical solution, a great Multiple origins can be used as shown in Fig. work as in the present example.

 I

lO

EI

dx 2
0 ..

E1
dv
dx -6EI x 3

Ell
x 2
2EI +'Atx
+A

Singularity
A2

Functions
writing symbolic of lead, shear,
was introduced

for

Beams
expressions for disalong a beam using
5-16. These functions can

Xl
(c)

T
Multiple origins of

X3

At x = 0: v(0)
At the end

= vA = 0, and
of segment AB:

0(0)

= 0A. Hence,

0(4) = OB =  + OA
For segment BC, 0 < x < 1:

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

+

possibility

for

functions

mathematical and moment

Section

Fig.
X.

10-14

A = 0 and

A2

= 0.

functions

in

very

effectively

and
= 16 -

v(4) = vB = 3EI + 40A

16x and

32

beam to prismatic
arise.

used deflection

the solution problems. beams of constant

for

of statically determinate However, it is best to limit EI. Otherwise, considerable singularity applied functions beams upon

and their of

Besides spans, acting

the

In either
on

convenience these functions

case,

a ingle
together

of solving with can also be

symbolic
with

mathematical
10-14c,

for

function 2

on

beams several

for

the
in-

M
d2v

= 4(4
16

+ x)
16x

- 20x

a beam,

Eq.

successive

gives
il ustrative

the

solution
examples

for
fol ow.

a deflection

in a problem.

dx
0 =

Ell dv
dx
-EI1

--

Ell 16xt
EI
+

8x 2
EI
A3Xl

A3

'EXAMPLE

t0-8

v --

3EI

A4

Rework
olutions

Example

10-6

using

singularity

functions.

At x = 0: v(0) = vB and O(0) = 0B. Hence from the solution = 32/3EI + 40,t, and A3 = 0 = 8/EI + O,t. The expressions
segment BC are then obtained as

before, for

A4

the

singularity function of Eq. 10-16. of integrations section

This

the concerned downward is fol owed by successive as convenient.

for

force integrations

P is writ en determining

for

0 - Ell

16x

EI-- +  + OA

8x2

This

Singularity
Popov,

v - EI,

8X

3EI'-' +  + OAx, + 3- + 40.

8X]

8Xl

32

beams.

Introduction

functions The

is optional.

required

can

to Mechanics

also be special

used functions

for

of Solids

constructing for such

(Englewood

problems

influence
Clif s,

are

NJ:

lines given

for
1968)

in

524

Deflection

of Beams
d4v

Sec. t0-9.
= q(x) =
d2v

Deflections

by Superposition

525

-P(x

- a) -

: and kinematic
constants

conditions
= = = = 0: 0: 0: 0:

at A, B, and C provide

information

fo determining
C2=0 C4=0

of integration.

-P(x-

a) + C

-P(x= 0 = C2;

a)  + Cx
and also

+ C2
since M(L) = 0,

EIv"O) EIv(O) EIv(L)

---

woL
24

Cs 4L 3

C3L

But

M(L)

0; hence,

EIv"(O)

EIv"(L)

-Pb

+ CL

= 0

or

C

= Pb/L
the

EIv(2L)

2woL

--

+ Re--2woL

L 3

+ Ci  + 2C3L
2 + ReL + 2CL

= 0
= 0

EI.= dv

EIv=
But v(0) = 0; hence, EIv(O) ' 2Pb 3

-- P (x -- a) 2 + Pb - x2 + C3 P (x- a)  + Pb x + Cx + C4

= 0 = PbL 2 C4. Similarly, from v(L) Pb = 0,

EIv"(2L)
last three

0:
equations simultaneously,

Cs =  woL

C3 =
into the

woL

48

and
for beam

Re =  woL
deflection,

EIv(L)=Ov = 6-
This omit ed. equation This

-++C3L

or C3=-6-

(L2-

b2)

these

constants

equation

x3 - (L2 - b2)x - -(x - a) 3

applies reduced to the expression entire agrees span. For with

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

0 < x < a, the Eq. 10-27 found earlier. first three terms in the parentheses The last term in this equation applies L) 3. agree only function.

-- --

Wo

48E/

(2X 4 -- 3Lx

3 + L3x

10L

(x

- L) 3)
in Example it becomes 10-

with those found for x > L when

10L(x

**EXAMPLE

'i0-9

Rework
Solution

Example

10-5

using

a singularity

Deflections

by

Superposition

integration
of loaded
applying
this beam

procedure
are
simple subjected For

discussed
are

before
Nearly

for
all the

obtaining
The

the
reader loadings

elastic

deare

In
for

Eq.

10-14c

using
The

a singularity
unknown

function,
reaction RB

the

whole

continuous
as

however,
be

is considered.

is treated

upward
that the problem
d4v

force.
deflection is not

Here,
utilized.

besides
at B is zero.

the

four
This

boundary
is a general

conditions,
approach

it should
as symmetry

and

readily
loading

that

beams numerous

available.3

generally problems

applicable. with dif erent

tabulated

solutions

must rehave been

beams synthesized dif erent

EI x 4 = q(x) = -Wo + Re (x - L) -s

E1
d3v dx 3 d2v dx 2

gives

conditions. Therefore, to several or complicated from the simpler loadings, example, the problem in Fig. cases as shown. The algebraic the total deflection.

in practice, the deflections loading conditions are usuusing the principle of super10-15 can be separated into sum of the three separate

-WoX
Wo x2
2

+Re(x-L)
+Re(x-

+ C
L) s + Csx + C2

3 See
P1

any

civil
P2

or mechanical
/
}

engineering

handbook.
w

WoX Ei dxdv = _ __ 6
Ely -

+Re

(X -- L) 2
2

Cs

.2

C2x

C3

Wo x4

24 +Re

(X -- L) 3

+ C- + C2 + C3x +

X3

X2

Fig.

t0-t5

Resolution

of a complex

problem

into

several

simpler

problems.

BJ M 

L
w

Sec.

t0-9.

Deflections

by

Superposition

527

P
MI=
(b)

C
D

OB
A

Pa
(c)
v, y

B,?/ , /9/ /.

 x 

 anal Fig.y10-t 7 Adefmet hood ofof an zi n g l e ct i ns overhang.

Fig.

1046

A method

of analyzing

deflections

of frames.

The superposition procedure for determining elastic deflection of b can be extended to structural systems consisting of several flexural: bers. For example, consider the simple flame shown in Fig. 10-16( which the deflection of point C due to applied force P is sought. deflection of vertical leg BC alone can be found by.treating it as tilever fixed at B. However, due to the applied load, joint B deflect: rotates. This is determined by studying the behavior of member A flee-body diagram for member AB is shown in Fig. 10-16(b).
member is seen to resist axial force P and a moment M = Pa.

P
!R
(a)

'

(b)

:1A k

the effect of axial force P on deflections due to bending can be The axial elongation of a member usually is also very small in with the bending deflections. Therefore, the problem here can be to that of det.ermining the deflection and rotation of B caused by moment M. This solution was obtained in Example 10-2, giving 0B shown in Fig. 10-16(c). By multiplying angle 0B by length a oft vertical member, the deflection of point C due to rotation of
determined. Then the cantilever deflection of member BC treated

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION the usual manner. However, since the ordinates, www.avs4you.com
(c)

Fig. t0.18 composite

Deflections structure.

in a

an elastic
make

beam,

the elastic
angle

curve

between
nearly

A and
Ox

is increased by deflection of point In interpreting 10-16(c), it must exaggerated. In of all small angles
and the rotations

0a.

The

vertical

deflection

of C is equal

to the as shown
here,

ve

B. the shape of deformed structures, such be kept clearly in mind that the deformations the small deformation theory discussed such as 0 are taken to equal unity.
of the elastic curve are small.

in situations where ,. For these, the

across a hinge.

of a point

a very

small

such

hinges tangent
for

as b is very

0 with

the

vertical,

are introduced, to the adjoining

Fig.

+ cb.

ab  cb.

such

B' may

as ab, Fig.
Deflections

be found

Hence,

the

10of

10-18(c), are treated elastic curves is not

beams.

are the

method
support

or reactions

of superposition
R, the

statically

can beam

be effectively
indeterminate

used
at the

for

As

determining
an

il us-

consider 10-19(a).

the continuous

Beams concept portion

isolated 5 and rotation of the tangent at B is found. The remainder problem is analogous to the case discussed before. Approximations similar to those just discussed are also made posite structures. In Fig. 10-18(a), for example, a simple beam a rigid support at one end and on a yielding support with a spring k at the other end. If Rs is the reaction at B, support B settles A = Fig. 10-18(b). A rigid beam would assume the alignment of making an angle 0 = tan- (A/L)  A/L radians with the
4 See Section 11-9 on beam-columns.

overhangs can also be analyzed conveniently of superposition in the manner just described. For of a beam between the supports, as AB in Fig.

with

By applying force RB in an upward direction, the required displacement at B can be restored. The respective expres:se deflections are given by Eqs. 10-22 and 10-30. By equating R is found to be 5woL/4, agreeing with the previous result (see
10-5).

beam

would

deflect

analyzed

in Example

middle,

as shown

10-5.

By re-

in

R=/2

526

ducing

5 The

bending

effect

of the
moment

overhang

-Pa

at support

on beam

segment
B.

AB

must

be.

>%L

vB

wolf

VB 1

(a)

(b)

Fig. two
reactions.

10-19 solutions

Superposition for

determining

of

528

Deflection
EXAMPLE

of Beams
t0-t0
7J D --

Sec. 1040.
flexural rigidity E1 = 24 -x 1012 Nby a taut steel rod DC (E = 200 section of 300 mm 2. Find the
applied at F.
...

Deflections
109
1012

in Unsymmetrical
1.11 x 10-4Xmm

Bending

Xa

s
x

X
3 x 10-4X

2s x
24 x mm

Two cantilever beams AD and BF of equal shown in Fig. 10-20(a), are interconnected Rod DC is 5000 mm long and has a cross
of cantilever
Solution

7JCduetoX
7JCduetoP

3EI + 1.11

AD

at D due

to a force

P = 50 kN

-6i[2(2a)S - 3(2a)2a + as] = -13.9 mm

XLcz> X x 5000

using

Eq. A rod --

2-9,
= 0.833 x 10-4X mm

By separating
and (a at is of

(c) are obtained. In both condition of statics). The D or the top of rod DC is caused by X. Deflection beam BF caused by forces
From statics:

the structure

diagrams, deflection considered. A2 of point P and X

at D, the two

the same unknown force X is of point D is the same, whether Deflection A  of point D in Fig. D on the rod is equal to the less the elastic stretch of rod DC.
-1.11

free-body

diagrams

in Figs.

Acz>E
deflections

300
and = -13.9
X

x 200
treating +
= 45.5

x
the 1.11
x

l0 s

equating x

downward x
103N

deflections + 0.833 x

as negative, 10-4X

10-4X

10-4X

XpullonAD
From geometry:

= XpullonDC

--- X
vz>
Note by particularly superposing

-1.11
that the

x
in these effects

10 -4

X 45.5

x
the force

10 3 =

--5.05
end

mm
of point C is deterof the cantilever

ter.

Beam deflections Alternatively,

one has

can be found using the methods from Table 11 of the Appendix,

problem,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

discussed in terms earlier of the in this
and the unknown force X at C.

calculations, of applied

deflection P at the

Deflections

in Unsymmetrical

Bending
that


D

(b)
x
De

by

metrical

n the preceding a beam bending

bending

discussion, around

takes

place,

it was assumed one of the principal

deflections

are

calculated

deflections axes. However

were

in each

caused if unsym-

of the

Steel

rod 5000 A = 300

mm long mm 2

planes and the deflections so found are added vectorial y. An is shown in Fig. 10-21 for a Z section. Here the y and z axes are principal axes passing through the centreid as well as the shear center the cross section. A positive deflection vl is shown for the beam detaking place in the xy plane, and, similarly, Wl corresponds to the in the xz plane. Their vectorial sum, AA', is the total beam
vc

2000mm -. a=2000mm ,(a)

ti =50kN
(c)

order
center

to prevent
for the cross

torsion,
section.

the

applied
If not,

forces
torsional

must
stresses

act

through
and defer-

the

Beams the-two

treated having

applied
stresses).

in Chapter 4, must also be considered. significantly dif erent magnitudes of moments of inertia principal axes of a cross section are very sensitive to lead As is shown in the next example, even a small inclination of force from the vertical causes large lateral displacements (and

Fig.

10-20

Fig. t0.21 Deflection beam subjected to unsymmetrical bending.

of a

530

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.

t0-11.
10-22(d).

Energy

Method

for

Deflections

and

Impact

*EXAMPLE

to.t

These

A C 15 x 33.9

force

Determine
Solution

P of 2 kips

steel

the tip deflection

through

channel

the shear

cantilever

at the applied

center,

100

force.

as shown

in long

is subjected

Let E = 29 x 106 psi:

in Figs.

10-22(a)

to

the

horizontal,

deflections

are

and

shown

their

in Fig.

vector

sum

of 0.279

in, making

an angle

of 16.5 with

and

The properties for this channel in n and Iy = 8.13 in 4. Maximum

principal

identifying tip deflection

axis is given

by subscripts H the horizontal, and by V the vertical A and. applied force P, one has

in Table

are given deflection

11 of the Appendix:

in Table 5 in the Appendix: It = of a cantilever bent around

a stress analysis above A and Alternatively,

'n the cirection

It is instructive

and finding the points of zero stress. One such point is 10.16 the other is 3.00 in to the right of A, as shown in Fig. 10-22(c). the neutral axis can be located using Eq. 6-43. Using this approach,

normal

to note

to the neutral

that,

as to be expected,

axis. This axis may be located

the

maximum

deflection

by performing

occurs
in

Vm = PL3/3EI.

coral;
(The

tan [3 =  tan a = 8'-i tan

small
90 - 13 = 16.4 compares well discrepancy can be attributed

Iz

315

50

= 3.39
with the to roundoff angle

and shown

[3 = 73.6 in Fig.

10-22(d).

AHAv-

PHL_ 3 _ (2000 sin 5 ) x 1003 = 0.246 in 3EIy 3 X 29 X 106 X 8.13 PvL 3 _ (2000 cos 5 ) X 1003 = 0.0727 in 3EIz 3 x 29 x 106 x 315

error.)

Energy
comprehensive ections is given rem, it is possible
special
the

Method
treatment in Chapter to solve

for

Deflections

and
for

Impact
finding beam dethe necessary theoof problems. Unless
based action useful
P

100"

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com and 6. In beams, one can go a step further

conditions principle force

such as symmetry are at hand, of conservation of energy must or moment. This limited approach

of the energy method 12. Without establishing only a very limited class

v=P

direct solutions be limited to the has been found

in

the

axial

force,

torsion,

and

pure

bending

the bending

2k

ing the internal

such

and the shear

strain

energy
where

strain

U to the external
in the solution,

energies.

The procedure
work

and include,

problems

in Chapters

We remains

based

if needed,

the same.
by bending is concerned
the

on equat-

both

2, 4,

(a)

This method permits relation to that caused

a problem,

an assessment by shear.

The

of deflections fol owing

it is assumed

caused example
example,

that

force

gradually

center%

>'1' Shear
I

0.896"

caused

applied.

deformation
10-t2

by a fal ing

By

contrast,
mass

is neglected.

is considered;

in the

second

in this

example,

an impact
the

effect

on
(a)

Centreid

7.50"

--0.246" >

J,
the
a rectangular
shear

maximum
deformations.

deflection
cross section,

due

to force
Fig. 10~23.

P applied
Consider

at the
the

end
effect

of a cantilever
of the flexural

7.50"

--2.613"
0.787" (c) (b)

axis
Fig. t0-22

(d)

is gradually

applied

to the

beam,

the

external

work

We

= PA,

where

L
Shear deflection

two

the total
parts.

deflection
One

part

These

is due to the strain energies

of the end

of the beam.
bending may

stresses; be directly

The

internal

the other superposed.

strain

is caused

energy

consists

by the
Fig.

(b)

t0-23

532

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec..t0-1t.

Energy

Method

for

Deflections

and

Impact

533

f M 2 dx/2EI, by noting that M = -Px. The strain energy in shear is found Eq. 3-5, Ush = f (x2/2G) dV. In this particular case, the shear at every is equal to applied force P, and the shear stress , according to Eq. 7-7,
tributed parabolically as

The

strain

energy

in pure

bending

is obtained

from

Eq.

6-24,

the

deflection

due

to

shear

is less

than

1 percent.

Small

deflections

due

to

shear

typical

for
uation

ordinary
for

slender

beams.

This

fact
due

can
to bending quickly deflection

be noted

further

from
as the

the
cube For

of the span length,

whereas

A. There,

the deflection

the

deflection

due to shear
the

increases

increases

directly.

Hence,

: P[(hh
At any
to the L of the

2does
volume

s beam length increases, this reason, it is usually

the bending deflection possible to neglect

becomes due

dominant. to shear.

one

beam.

level

Therefore, work,

y, this
the

shear
the total

infinitesimal deflection

stress

not

vary

dV

across
two

in the

breadth
'

h and

*EXAMPLE
the

t0-t3
instantaneous maximum deflections and bending stresses for the 50 x

sion

is taken

external

as Lbdy.

By equating

the

sum

is obtained:

of these

Sheriding

J0

2EI

fo(_ex)2x2EI
240G [,bh ]
beam.

- 6-

e2L3
Lb

mm a height
300

steel beam shown in Fig. 10-24 75 mm above the top of the (b) the beam is supported at each
N/min. Let E = 200 GPa.

when beam, end

struck by a 15.3-kg mass fal ing from if (a) the beam is on rigid supports, on springs. Constant k for each spring

Ushear =
where A = bh

- 8GF
is the

el ' dg = ' hi2  _ y2 p2Lb h s _ P2LbhS (12 5 3p2L

30 5AG
cross section of the Then

Solution

}.81

deflection = 150

We

S =
5AG

Sheriding

pA
2

---+--

p2L3
6EI

. 3P2L

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

+ Sshear
the beam force each. deflections

of the system due to a statically applied force of 15.3 g = 15.3 x N is computed first. In the first case, this deflection is that of the see Table 11 of the Appendix. In the second case, the static deflection is augmented by the deflection of the springs subjected to a 75-N

The impact and stresses

factors are are multiplied

3

then

computed by the impact

150 x 10003 103

from factors

Eq.

2-27 to obtain
=

or 2-28. Static the answers.

0.030 mm

or

A=--+--

PL 3
3EI

6PL

PL

5AG

48E1

48

200

504/12

The first term in this answer, PL3/3EI, is the deflection of the bean The second term is the deflection due to shear, assuming no warping the built-in end. The factor at = 6/5 varies for dif erent shapes of the

impact
cross

factor

= 1+
= 1 +

+ A st

:h

since

It is instructive

it depends

on the

to recast

nature

the

of the

expression

shear-stress

for

the

distribution.
total

deflection

a as
(b)

 1 + 2x75 0.030
+ Ap = 0.030

= 71.7 + 30---
75 = 0.280 mm

-where, as before, To gain further ratio E/G by 2.5, the last insight a typical

1+---

lOG

3Eh2)l
5

Ast = Ab impact factor = 1 +

/ 1 + 20.2x8----- 75 = 24.2
75 ---,_.. '"''
5O

term gives the deflection due to shear. into this problem, in the last expression, value for steels. Then

500

A = (1 + 0.75h2/L2)Abending
From this equation, L = h), the total deflection is very it can deflection important be seen that is 1.75 times in comparable for a short beam (for example, that due to bending alone. Hence cases. On the other hand, if L

rn =
mm

15.3

kg

k = 1000

Fig.

10-24

534

Deflection
For plication either

of Beams
case, of P is the maximum bending stress in the beam due to a static i

Sec.

10-12.

Inelastic

Deflection

of

Beams

535

statically
he

O-max)st
Multiplying the the
required

-static results.

PL

150

1000

as long deflections
LE

determinate as at least remain

t0-t4

elastic-plastic a part bounded,

beam. of a beam's i.e., finite,

The cross and

solution section can be

demonstrates remains elastic, calculated.

S deflections

4S and

4 x stress

503/6 by the

1.800
respective

MPa
impact
rectangular

gives

and

plot
beam.

the

moment-curvature

relationship

for

an elastic-ideally

plas-

Static

Dynamic

olution
No S
129

With
Amax, Crmax, mm MPa

Springs
0.280 1.80

No

Springs
0.030 1.80

With

Springs
6.78 43.6.

a rectangular elastic-plastic zones occurs, the to Eq. 10-5, with

beam linear strain the curvature

at Yo, where e; = +gyp; 1/p = K,

the juncture see Fig.

6-30. gyp

of the elastic There_fore,

and ac-

It is apparent a dynamically ticularly large;

from applied however,

this table that large deflections and stresses are caused lead. The stress for the condition with no springs owing to the flexibility of the beam, it is not exces:

1 - = K = p
When

---

gyp

yo
curvature
yo

and
of the
Kyp

Kyp

=
member

h/2
at impending yielding

the last expression yo = hi2. From

gives
these

the relations,

*610-12.

Inelastic

Deflection
for beam limitation relation, 10-6. The

All the preceding solutions behaves elastically. This law into the strain-curvature curvature equation, Eq.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

of Beams
h/2 K

mating

the curvature

as cFv/dx
not

2 and

the integration

deflections apply only is the result of introducing Eq. 10-5, to yield subsequent procedures

if the
the for

By

substituting

this

expression

into

Eq.

6-40,

one

obtains

the

required

mome..n.t-.

relationship:

schemes

do not
since
function

on

are not linearly

the material Superposition

properties. does

M = M v [ 1 - 51 , -/ J = Myp (yoh2] 3 [ 1 - 51 ()

is plot ed

2]
the

(10-36)
asymp-

related

to the applie

apply

to inelastic

d forces.

problems,

As a consequence,

At curvature

just
M

double

in Fig.

that

10-25.

of the impending

Note

how

rapidly

yielding,

it approaches

eleven-twelfths,

or

cases piecewise linear solutions for small lead or are made until the desired level of lead or displacement is reached. stepwise linear calculations are made with the aid of a computer. natively, time-consuming trial-and-error solutions are used to deflections in indeterminate beams. However, it is possible to simple solutions for ultimate strengths of statically determinate determinate beams and frames assuming ideal plastic behavior terial. For such a method, a relationship between the and curvature at a section of a beam must be developed. An defining such a relationship is given in the next example. is this approach that is relied upon in Chapter 13 for plastic analyses of statically determinate and indeterminate beams and
frames.

Asymptote

/
/

/
gYP 2gyp

/
Residual curvature

The
6 This

second
section

example
is optional.

that

fol ows

discusses

the

deflection

4gyp

l/p=

Fig. 10-25 Moment-curvature relation for an elastic-plastic rectangular beam.

536

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.

t0-t3.

Introduction

to

the

Moment-Area

Method

537
6-38

the

91.6
the On

middle

percent,
releasing

half

of the
of

the

ultimate

beam

remains

plastic

moment
the curvature

elastic.

Mp is already
beam can

reached.

At this
as

A check

of the

ultimate

capacity

for

the

2-in

deep

section

based

on

Eq.

figure.

On

an applied this basis,

moment, residual

rebounds elastically, be determined.

The reader should recall that the ratio of Mp to Myp varies for dif erent sections. For example, for a typical steel wide-flange beam, M/Myp is about Establishing the asymptotes for plastic moments gives a practical basis for t the ultimate plastic limit state for beams and frames discussed in Chapter
EXAMPLE t0-t5

Mp
calculation

= Muir
shows that

= O'ypalthough

bh 2
4

40

3 x
4

22

120

k-in

applied
the

preceding
beam 11-in

moment.

example,

The applied
this
that at the of the beam

means

moment
beginning adjoining

the

that

is IM.
the

beam

curvature

According

yields

partial y,

in the
Therefore, is

to the results
2-in deep
the

it can

carry

section
curvature

found

the

of

in
in

is twice segment

of yielding. the support

A 3-in
Determine

wide

mild-seel
the tip deflection

cantilever

beam

has the dimensions

shown
loads of 5 kips

in Fig.
each.

E = 30 x 103 ksi and

Solution

%

= +40

caused

ksi.

by applying

two

p
10-26(b). From Crm = Mc/I, ab is 24.4 ksi, which indicates it is

1 2Kyp
maximum

2yp -h/2
curvature

2-Eh/2tryp
for segment

30 x 103 x 1
ab is

2 x 40

2.67 x 10 -3 per in

The that
behavior.

moment the largest

diagram

stress
5k

stress An analogous of 55 ksi, which

is shown in beam
calculation

in Fig. segment
for

the

shallow

section

of the

beam

p
0(0)

1 _ Mmax E1
data on curvatures = 0 and v(0)
is 0.89

O'Ecmax _
in upward.

3 x 103

24.4

x 1.5

= 0.542 X 10 -3 per in
On integrating this 10-26(e), is obtained. twice The

is not

possible

as the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

deflection

material

yields

at 40 ksi.

are plot ed in Fig. 10-26(c). = 0, the deflected curve, Fig.

If the be verified residual

applied

be

If
(a)
29.4
k-in

confined to the 2-in deep segment the end load were applied alone, the plastic moment capacity
cannot be use.d

loads by elastic tip deflection

were analysis,

released, the this would of 0.25 in would

of beam. the 165 k-in moment of 120 k-in and the

this problem.

beam would rebound cause a tip deflection remain. The residual

elastically. of 0.64 curvature at the left beam would

As can in. Hence would end would collapse.

to solve

(b)

(d)

+2.67

X 10 -3 per

in in

Introduction

to

the

Moment-Area

Method

X 10 -3 per

v=+0.16"
(e)

numerous
determined,

engineering

applications

where

deflections

of beams

must
of

(c)

the loading is complex, and the cross-sectional areas vary. This is the usual situation in machine shafts, where gradual stepwise variations in the shaft diameter are made to accommodate beatings, collars, retainers, etc. Likewise, haunched or tapered
Part B is optional.

Fig.

10-26

538

Deflection

of

Beams

beams tion.

are frequently employed in aircraft as well as in bridg e By interpreting semigraphically the mathematical operations of ing the governing dif erential equation, an effective procedure taining deflections in complicated situations has been developed. this alternative procedure, one finds that problems with load dis
uities beam work and arbitrary variations cause no complications for this solution. The of inertia of the cross-sectional and require only a lit le more solution of such problems is the
(a)

(b)

small
element.

Fig.

i0-27

angle

Interpretation
change

in an

of a

the fol owing placement

determine The

method

sections

in comparison

the

and

to be developed

on the moment-area
of the

however, it is the deflection and/or the angular rotation of the curve, or both, at a particular point of a beam that are of greatest in the solution of practical problems. The method of moment areas is just an alternative method for the deflection problem. It possesses the same approximations and
tations discussed earlier in connection with the solution of the to deflection
terminate

with

equation

rotation

at a single

is generally

method?
used but

the direct

solution

elastic

point

curve,

on a beam.

to obtain

of the dif erential

no advantage

It may

only

be

If the small angle change from an arbitrary origin see Fig. 10-27(b).
is
tinction between this geometrical

equation.

arc AA' reasoning,

dO for an element is multiplied to the same element, a vertical As only small deflections are
and vertical one has distance dt need

be made.

by a distance distance dt is considered, no

Based

dt = x dO = x dx
A and
The

(10-38)
two

B on a beam
first moment-area

integrating

(see

Eqs.

Fig.

10-37

10-28),

and

10-38
is

yields

between
the

any

moment-area

two

points

theo-

such

theroem

equation

of the
due

to the

elastic

flexure

curve.

of the

By

applying
beam;

glected.
*'10-14.

Application
and

indeterminate

of the

method
beams.

Moment-Area the associated derivation

Theorems M/EI diagram.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION dO = OB- OA = zXOmA www.avs4you.com

deflection due shear

it, one

determines

wil

be developed

for

staticalit

 dx
change A and

(10-39)

The
and the

necessary

theorems
of the

are

based

theorems

Boundary since the

on the

geometry
theorems

conditions

of the
are

do not based only

elastic

A 0m is the angle change between B and A. This in radians between any two tangents at points

in angle B on the

interpretation
metrical

For

deriving
fol owing

considerations

of definite
the theorems,
alternative

are

integrals.

necessary

As wil
10-10,

Eq.

to solve

be shown

c[2v/dx

2 = M/EI,

a complete

later,
can

furthe:

in the

forms:
C D

dx 2 = x

= x  EI

or

dO = dx
to this area The is

(1C

From Fig. 10-27(a), quantity (M/E1) dx corresponds area of the M/EI diagram. According to Eq. 10-37, the change in angle between two adjoining tangents.

an angle
shown

change

in one element

to the deformation
method

of the elastic
who taught of Dresden,

in Fig.

10-27(b).

is due classes
Greene.

8 The

developed

to Charles in 1873.

development a similar

E. Greene, Somewhat

of the moment-area that

method

of the University earlier, in 1868,

appears

to have

of Michigan, Otto Mohr,

for finding been

deflections

i +A0mA

curve

unknown

to

between
and

Fig.

t0-28
the

the
elastic

Relationship
M/E1
curve.

diagram

539

Deflection

of Beams
by
at'A

Sec. t044.
the. ordinates is known, Elastic

Moment-Area

Theorems

elastic curve is equal to the M/E1 area bounded A and B. Further, if slope 0A of the elastic curve at B is given as

0B-0Aq-AOBIA)
The first theorem shows that a numerical evaluation of the M/E1

+tl
(b)

curve

bounded curve performing moments ments such terclockwise clockwise tangents The element. distance placement at B. from
matical

between the ordinates through any two points on the gives the angular rotation between the corresponding tangents ] this summation, areas corresponding to the positive are taken positive and those corresponding to the negative are taken negative. If the sum of the areas between any two as A and B is positive, the tangent on the right rotates in the direction; if negative, the tangent on the right rotates direction; see Fig. 10-28(b). If the net area is zero, the are parallel. quantity dt in Fig. 10-28(b) is due to the effect of curvature  By summing this effect for all elements from A to B, AF is obtained. Geometrically, this distance represents the or deviation of a point A from a tangent to the elastic Henceforth, it wil be termed the tangential deviation of a a tangent at B and wil be designated tA/B. The foregoing, in
form, gives the second moment-area theorem:

. I
reasoning, the


_-

+ tBi A

between

Cent ofthroi ed
M/EI area {d}
A and B

(c)A
Fig. signs
deviation.

t0-29 for

Interpretation tangential

of

By is

analogous

deviation

of a point

B from

a tangent

at

--tB/A=i
where
being

(10-43)

the
through let ers

same
point for

M/E1

area

is used,
first.

but

 is measured
careful y The point the

from
order whose

the

vertical
subis

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

determined is writ en

B; see Fig. 10-29. Note t in these two equations.

of the deviation

dO x =
This from
to the

 x

(10-41

In the previous equations, distances  and  are always as E and I intrinsically are also positive quantities, of the tangential deviation depends on the sign of the A positive value for the tangential deviation indicates above a tangent to the elastic curve drawn through vice versa; see Fig. 10-29. The previous two theorems are applicable between continuous elastic curve of any beam for any loading.

taken positive, therefore the sign bending moments. that a given point the other point, any two They the points apply on be-

tween

and

beyond

the reactions

for overhanging

and

continuous

beams.

states that a tangent

statical (or
itself

the tangential through another

first) moment

deviation point
of the

of a point A on the elastic B also on the elastic curve

bounded section of the

is

around
is not in

a vertical
the

line
desired

through
deflection

A.

In most
of

cases,
a beam.

the

tangential
area, one in a s' may

Using convenience
as

the

definition restate

of the Eq. 10-41

center of gravity of an for numerical applications

it must be emphasized that only relative rotation of only tangential deviations are obtained directly. A further the geometry of the elastic curve at the supports to boundary conditions is necessary in every case to determine wil be il ustrated in the examples that fol ow. In applying the moment-area method, a careful y prepared elastic curve is essential. Since no deflection is possible a roller support, the elastic curve is drawn passing through

tangents considthe

include deflections.

sketch of at a pinned such sup-

ports.

tA/
where
considered

gent
sketch diagram between
to the centroid

the

At a f'Lxed

to the

elastic

direction

curve

support,

is permit ed,

neither

displacement

of the

unloaded

so the above

axis

elastic

nor

of the

curve

rotation

beam.

must

In preparing

be drawn

of the

tangent

tan-

cI) is the
and

total
 is

area
the

of the
horizontal

M/E1
distance

the
of

two
this

position,

a point

of the elastic curve in the the anticipated deflections. on a beam is usually referred

without

emphasis

on the

signs.

manner, it is customary to exOn such a sketch the deflection of to as being above or below its initial

To aid in the
by curves

application
and

of the
are

from

A.

useful properties of areas in Table 2 of the Appendix.

enclosed

centroids

Deflection
10 kN

of Beams
-1200

Sec. t0-14.
a b

Moment-Area
144
E

Theorems

area The area

= AOB/A

of triangle of triangle
= t/4 = 

are: leg:
dx +

 2
= '+

= 2

1200
2E

0.24

600

800

C __B d
---400

600

x
2E

0.48

144
E 288

-0.24/E

-0.12/E
-0.60/E g
(c)

(.)

70

103

-4.11

10-3rad

vB
B t

-6 -12 X 106 N.mm

X 106

N-mm

B = ABIA

800

-4.11

mm

the

tangent
A.

sign of A0 indicates at A. The negative

clockwise rotation sign of tB/A means

of the tangent at B in relation that point B is below a tangent

(b)

(d)

Fig.

t0-30

EXAMPLE Consider 400 mm an from

t0-t6 aluminum the free cantilever beam end, as shown

EXAMPLE
1600 in Fig. mm long 10-30(a). with For a 10-kN a distance force

t0-t7 the deflection due to the concentrated force P applied as shown in Fig. 10-

from

50

the

106 mm 4. For

fixed

end,

the
and assume

the

beam
the

remaining

is of greater

1000

Find the deflection of the beam, and Solution

angular rotation E for aluminum

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

of 600

at the

center

of a simply

supported

beam.

The

flexural

rigidity

E1 is constant.

mm

depth

of the

than

beam,

it is beyond,
end.

12 =

10

having

x 106
the

of the free at 70 GPa.

Neglect

The bending-moment M diagram by

El,

the

diagram M/E1 to the

is in Fig. 10-30(b). By diagram in Fig. 10-30(c)

dividing is obtained.

all ordinates Two

appear
-0.60/E,

at point
applies

D.
just

One,

-0.12/E,
right

is applicable
of D. Since

just
the

to the
bending

let
moment

of D;
is

the
see

from A to C, the elastic curve 10-30(d). At fixed support A, direction AB' of the unloaded beam is tangent to the elastic

thrdughout this distance the elastic curve must beam. The unloaded curve at C.

is concave down; start out straight segment

x--a - a.----.4 2a

L = 4a

(c)

(a)

CB

E' <
E

e
e (d)

B

After the foregoing preparatory steps, from the geometry of the sketch elastic curve, it may be seen that distance BB' represents the desired of the free end. However, BB' is also the tangential deviation of point B the tangent at A. Therefore, the second moment-area theorem may be obtain tmA, which in this special case represents the deflection of the Also, from the geometry of the elastic curve, it is seen that the angle between lines BC and AB' is the angular rotation of segment CB. This the same as the one included between the tangents to the elastic curve at' A and B, and the first moment-area theorem may be used to compute this It is convenient to extend line ec in Fig. 10-30(c) to point f

+ 3Pa 4

+P

tAIB
J n

(b)

tAlC
(e)

area

of the

M/E1

diagram.

This

gives

two

triangles,

the

areas

of which

are easi
Fig. 10-31

calculated.

Deflection
Solution

of Beams
at

Sec. t044.
generally
a distance

Moment-Area
of point E, Fig.
as

Theorems
10-31(d),

applicable.

The bending-moment diagram is in Fig. 10-31(b). Since E1 is constant, the diagram need not be made, as the areas of the bending-moment diagram by E1 give the necessary quantities for use in the moment-area theorems. elastic curve is in Fig. 10-31(c). It is concave upward throughout its the bending moments are positive. This curve must pass through the the support at A and B. It is apparent from the diagram of the elastic curve that the desired

e from

B is wanted,

For

example,

the

solution

if the deflection
may

be formulated

vr = E'E'

- E'E

= (e/L)tA/a

-- tE/B

' locating
'the elastic

point
curve

E at a variable
can be obtained.

distance
work,
although involve

x from
some
the

one
=

of the supports,
the
(not

the equation
tangent
shown portion

To simplify
must

is represented
considerations, tangent

by distance
to the
CC' elastic = C'C" curve

CC'.

Moreover,
- C"C, where passing through

from from

purely
distance the point

geometrical
C" of is measured support B.

or elastic curve at
A and to
CB

be this

exercised. solution

the

arithmetical

Thus, would

vc

care
use

in selecting
is more

tmA/2 -- tC/A of the unshaded

at a sup-

in the of the

-moment
Solution

diagram

to obtain

tC/A,

which

tedious.

since
other distance figure.

the
support

deviation
such In this

Of a support

point

a tangent

to the

and

multiplying
By

may always be computed by the second moment-area as C'C" may be found by proportion from the geometry case, tA/B fol ows by taking the whole M/E1 area between

solution
is drawn

of the

foregoing

problem
in Fig. distances 10-31(e), AC

may

be based
where and CB

it 9 by its  measured
application
this

from

a vertical

through

A; hence,
is equal

tA/B.

another
For

of the

second

theorem,

tc,

which

This is il ustrated at C. Then, since

a tangent are equal,

on a dif erent to the

geometrical
elastic curve

is determined. it,  is measured 2a, the maximum

case, the M/E1 area is hatched in Fig. 10-31(b), from C. Since the right reaction is P/4 and the distance ordinate for the shaded triangle is +Pa/2.

Vc Le., distance CC' by taking A, and tmc

= CC'

= (tAlC

+ tmc)12 The tangential deviation tmc is M/E1 area in Fig. 10-31(b) the shaded M/E1 area about B. completion by the reader. This

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

center of the beam is not horizontal.

is an average of tAlC and true the first moment of the unshaded about is given by the first moment of The numerical details of this solution are left for rocedure is usually longer than the first. Note particularly that if the elastic curve is not

symmetrical,

the tangent

at the

t048

a prismatic
The
through
beam

positive
B. As
is in

signs
may
a downward

of tam
be seen

and
direction.

tc/ indicate
from Fig.

that
10-31(c),

points
the

A and
deflection

C lie above
at the

t
center

caused

beam

by applied

loaded'

force

as in the

P; see

preceding
Fig.

10-32(a).

example,

find

the

maximum

Solution

The
ends and

slope

of the from Eq. =

=

elastic 10-40. A0mc

2 -

curve at C can be found For point B on the right, or 0c =

-

from

the

slope

Oa
Oc

0c
--

+
L

Oa
8EI

A Omc

the

maximum

bending-moment respectively.

deflection

diagram and the elastic curve are shown The elastic curve is concave up throughout
occurs where the tangent to the
right

elastic
support

in Figs. 10-32(b) its length, and

curve is hori-

tA/

5Pa
8EI

Pa 2
2EI

Pa 2 that
of a point
as two

This

point

horizontal

of tangency

distance

is designated

d measured

in the figure
from the

by D and

is located
B.

Then,

by

by

The
Alternatively,

previous

procedure
by

for

finding
whole

the

deflection

on the

and

9 See

Table

2 of the
treating

Appendix
the

for

M/E1

the

centreid
area

of the

triangles,

whole

triangular

tAm=

 4 J3 +[,T--)[,

a+

= +2---

A0mz = 0 since the line passing through the supports is horizontal. Howthe slope 0 of the elastic curve at B may be determined by obtaining tA/B dividing it by the length of the span. On the other hand, by using the first theorem, A0mo may be expressed in terms of the shaded area in 10-32(b). Equating A0mo to 0a and solving for d locates the horizontal tangent Then, again from geometrical considerations, it is seen that the maximum represented by DD' is equal to the tangential deviation of B from a
tangent through D, i.e., true.

a tangent

to the elastic

curve

through

point

B at the support,

one

sees

546
P

Deflection

of Beams
Vmax
supported
O t

Sec.

t0-14.

Moment-Area

Theorems

547 of
of

= 11.2Pa3/12EI.
beams,
accurate
obtain the true

For
where
maximum.

this
applied

reason,
forces
the deflection

in many
act

practical
in the
at the

problems
same
center

all the
to calcuate

direction,
instead

0 e  tA/e/L

t is often

sufficiently
to

tA/8

PLE

t0-t9

i-

---a >,,<
+ 3Pa 4

L =4a
(a)

3a

>-I
>
(c)
O t

In

a simply

supported

beam,

find

the

maximum

deflection

and

rotation

of

the

curve wo lb/ft;

at the see Fig.

ends caused by the application 10-33(a). Flexural rigidity

of a uniformly E1 is constant.

distributed

load

.+Pd
A

bending-moment is a second-degree elastic curve

10-33(c).

diagram parabola
passing

is in Fig. 10-33(b). As established with a maximum value at the through the points of supports A and diagram

in Example 5-8, vertex of woL2/8. B is shown in Fig. line

Horizontal

through
tangent seen

this

the

case,

center.

the

M/E1

Therefore,

the

is symmetrical

elastic

curve

must

about

be symmetrical,

a vertical

and

passing

the

(b)

Fig.

t0-32

q

.+--

SPa
2EI

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION I.)__. (Zw.Z2). VOz3 www.avs4you.com

(d)

to this curve at the center of the beam is horizontal. From the figure, it that A0mc is equal to 0B, and the rotation of B is equal to one-half the of the whole M/E1 diagram. Distance CC' is the desired deflection, and the geometry of the figure, it is seen to be equal to tmc (or twc, not shown).

(see

Example

10-17)

24EI

tam
L

tam
4a

SPa
8EI

011 = A0111C =  = +wL3 24EI

= Vm = tmc = q

Vc

woL
24EI

3 5L
16

5woL
384EI

4 enclosed by a

 2 4 ] = 8EI
Since 0B = 0z + A0mo and it is required that

(area
0o

between
= 0,

and

B)

3arabola

20 See

Table
as

well

2 of the
as for

.

Appendix
Ib/ft

for

a formula

giving

an area

AOmz = 011
Vmax --- VD
EI

pd2 8EI - SPa2 8EI

--- DD' = tmz> =
12EI

hence, d = X/a
12EI

1
deflections.
the two deflections

--L/2

< L/2 
(a)

IC'

AO, a/c B  -'

OB

+W o/2/8
(c)

After distance d is found, the maximum deflection may also be obtained as = two, or Vmx = (d/L)tw, - tom (not shown). Also note that using the two = tmo, Fig. 10-32(d), an equation may be set up for d. It should be apparent from this solution that it is easier to calculate flection at the center of the beam, which was il ustrated in Example 10-17,

to determine
sees that,

the
numerically,

maximum

Yet,

by examining
dif er lit le: v,t

the
=

end

results

I

{b)

Fig.

t0-33

3P

548

Deflection

of

Beams
A

The value of the deflection agrees quantity derived by the integration through C, the sign of vc is positive.

with method.

Eq.

10-22, Since

which

point

expresses B is above

the

(a)

EXAMPLE

l 0-20

Find the deflection by the applied

Solution

forces.

of the free end E1 is constant.

A of the

beam

shown

in Fig.

10-34(a)

+P

The The

bending-moment bending

moment

diagram changes

for sign

the applied at a/2 from

forces is shown the left support.

in Fig. At this

inflection

in the

elastic

curve

occurs.

Corresponding

to the

positive
(b)

curve is concave up, and vice versa. The elastic curve is so drawn over the supports at B and C, Fig. 10-34(c). To begin, the inclination ofth{ to the elastic curve at support B is determined by finding tc/B as moment of the areas with the proper signs of the M/E1 diagram verticals through C and B about C. tc/a

tClB

VERSION + (+Pa) _= 1 [(+pa) -2a NON-ACTIVATED l a ( a + l a) + la (-aa) (3_ + 52)] www.avs4you.com
= cbX'l + C12' 2 q- CI)3. 3
pa 3
6EI

(c)

The positive a corrected

sign diagram

of tc/B indicates of the elastic

that point C is above curve is made, Fig.

that the deflection sought is given by distance Further, since triangles A'A"B and CC'B are the other hand, distance AA" is the deviation elastic curve at support B. Hence,

the tangent at B. 10-34(d), where it AA' and is equal to AA" similar, distance A'A" = of point A from the tangent

C' (d)

VA

= AA'

= AA"

A'A"

tc/a/2

tA/a = (C4X--4)
where the negative sign means that

=  (-Pa)-'
point A is below

l[a

2aI
the

=
tangent

3EI Pa3
curve
of point

sign

is not

used

henceforth,
displacements. the supports

as the
is
Pa
3

geometry
Thus, the

of the
deflection

elastic

indicates
A example

il ustrates applications the

(e)
signs of the quantifies although usually less if the deflection of elastic curve at C, no of analysis is shown

Fig.

t0-34

direction line passing

of the actual through

1 Pa
26

Pa
4

Fig.

necessity of watching the in the of the moment-area method, is encountered than in this example. For instance, is established by ftrst finding the rotation of the in the direction of tangents occurs. This scheme 10-34(e), where VA = a t /C -- tA/O

549

550

Deflection

of Beams solving

Sec.

t0-t5.

Statically

Indeterminate

Beams

55

simple

geometrical statically

shapes. indeterminate
diagrams such

In the next problems.

as in Fig.

section,

superposition

is used

A P C lP .iB ..
(a)

(b)

by

The .method described ., inelastic deflection

the curvature

here can be used of beams, provided

very effectively the M/EI diagrams

10-26(c).

in determining are replaced

0-15.
(c)
A

Statically
indeterminate

Indeterminate
beams
are

Beams
can readily
the

be
beam

solved
deflections

for

unknown
and

re-

tons

tAl

redundant

using
Two

the moment-area
reactions

determined,

method

by employing
for finding more widely

superposition.

After

rota-

Fig. EXAMPLE 'i0-2'1

'10-35

,sition.

can

be found

A simple see Fig.

is constant.

beam 10-35(a).

supports Find

two the

equal deflection

and

opposite of the beam

forces P at the at the middle

quarter of the

by the presence bending-moment sidered to consist of two independent by all of the applied loading
the other part for the

beams Therefore,

that

dif erent procedures in this section. In the

in the

usual

manner,

again,

the

often
used

restrained
mainly

22 and continuous

Solution

redundant

of redundant moments at diagrams for these beams parts--one part for the on a beam assumed to be
end moments. Thus,

beams

dif er

redundant procedure,

employing

reactions

from

simply

are it is rec-

super-

the

the supmay be moment simply

effect

sup-

The Figs. itive

bending-mo _ment diagram and elastic 10-35(b) and (c), respectively. Then, and negative areas of the bending-moment

spectively,
at the Noting center this,

are numerically
of the span much work

equal,
of any

i.e.,
other

[ tAlC

is zero. The elastic curve may be avoided in obtaining

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

curve since with the a tangent at C are statical moments of thediagram around A and

,redundant

end moments is superposed Physically, this notion can

cut through at the
redundant

supports

on a beam be clarified
while

assumed to be simply by imagining an inthe vertical reactions

I = I tB/C

I, the

are

Served

maintained.
by

the

The

continuity

moments.

of the

elastic

curve

of the

beam

is pre-

in this the

case deflections

at

of the
in the

span.
usual

The
manner.

deflection

point

on the

elastic

curve

can

Although the critical ordinates of the bending-moment diagrams caused the redundant moments are not known, their shape is known. Appliof a redundant moment at an end of a simple beam results in a led moment diagram, with a maximum at the applied moand a zero ordinate at the other present at both ends of a simple superpose into a trapezoidal-shaped end. beam, Likewise, two diagram. when

are The foregoing area method minate beam. examples can be used No matter in which the of any statically diagrams may are applicable. In practice, any M/EI approximated by a number of rectangles to introduce concentrated angle changes at in the directions of the tangents at such the concentrations can be found from il ustrate the manner to obtain the deflection how complex the M/EI

triangular

end moments moment dia-

The

known
used

and the a complete

the previous whatsoever It is also

account for The magnitudes

procedures may be possible

discontinuities

in applying

unknown parts bending-moment

the

moment-area

of the bending-moment diagram. This

theorems

to the

whole

continuous

diagram diagram
such

built-in

the

curve continuity

of

quirements. 2 For complicated

termined sition.
21 For C. Scordelis Displacements,"

loading by the moment-area In this manner, the

a systematic and treatment C. M. Smith, Proc. ASCE

conditions, deflections method are often areas of the separate

of more complex "An Analytical 732 (July 1955):

best M/EI

of elastic found diagrams

by

the unknown values of An alternative method for procedure of plot ing the this method, only one
of the

ends

that

of a beam. of the

cannot

The geometrical elastic curve

rotate,

problems see, for Procedure for Calculating 732-1 to 732-17.

a cantilever. applied

Then forces

the redundant determining bending-moment of the existing

separate as well
one

permit

conditions at the support

a rapid

bending-moment as for the

moments at the supports. the redundant reactions employs diagrams by parts. In applyfixed supports is left in place,
unknown

formulation

of a problem, or the tangents

of equations

at

diagrams reactions
called

for

each at the

22 Indeterminate

beams

with

or more

fixed

ends

are

restrained

552

Deflection

of

Beams

Sec.

10-t5.

Statically

Indeterminate

Beams

553

unsupported grams for

then used

the
in

beam end cantilever

the usual

are drawn. The sum make up the complete

manner.

of all of these bending-moment

flexural rigidity, the

The' tangent
Hence,

yields

the

In either method, for beams of variable diagrams must be divided by the corresponding Both methods of solving for the redundant
the
EXAMPLE
Find the

EI's. reactions

tained

in the usual

the

a solution
reactions.

geometrical

at the built-in
The

for Mi.23

condition

end remains
The

is tB/A

horizontal

manner

after

final

the reactions

bending-moment

equations

= 0. An

after

of static

equation

the application
equilibrium
formulated Fig. 10-36(d),

of force
are used

on this is ob-

are known.

diagram,

to

Thus,

since

tB/A = 0,

are

il in

fol owing
t0-22
maximum

examples.

(0.25)(6)
downward defl ection of the small aluminum beam

 (0.25 + 0.10) +  (0.25)MA

(0.25)

= 0
and has of

Fig. 10-36(a) due to an applied rigidity E1 = 60 N.m 2.

Solution

force

P =

100

N.

The

beam's

constant

MA = -4.2 N-m. Since, initial y, MA was assumed to be positive, so shown in Figs. 10-36(a) and (b), this result indicates that actually MA an opposite sense. The correct sense for MA must be used in the equations that fol ow and is reflected in the shear and moment diagrams constructed
Figs. 10-36(c) and (d), respectively.

The
must

solution
be determined

of this

problem
to establish

consists
the

of two
numerical

parts.
values

First,
for

a redundant
the

MA MB

= 0 = 0

+ +

100(0.15) 100(0.10)

-- RB(0.25) -- 4.2 + 4.2 -- RA(0.25)

= 0 = 0

Ra RA

= =

43.2 56.8

N N

diagram; then the usual moment-area procedure is applied to By assuming the beam is released from the redundant end beam-moment diagram is constructed above the base line in moment diagram of known shape due to the unknown redundant shown on the sa.me diagram below the base line. One assumes
since in this manner, its correct sign is obtained automatically

beam
moment

sign

convention.
diagram.

The

composite

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

point
according

find the moment, Fig. 10-36(b)i moment MA to be

;ck:
The maximum

Fy

= 0 ' +

43.2

+ 56.8

- 100 = 0
her-

diagram

represents

a complete

deflection occurs where the tangent to the elastic curve is C in Fig. 10-36(a). Hence, by noting that the tangent at A is and using the first moment-area theorem, point C is located. This the hatched areas in Fig. 10-36(d) having opposite signs are equal, a distance 2a = 2(4.2/56.8) = 0.148 m from A. The tangential deviation tC/A) gives the deflection of point C.
7dmax = 7Jc = tAlC

also oci.e., tAlC

(c)

P=

lOON

EI = --

x 0.074(+4.2)
= 0.256

0.074 +  x 0.074

(a) (d)

+4.2 'm
0.15m   0.10m-
Solution
0.25R
+6 N.m

= (15.36)10-3/EI

+  x 0'.074(-4.2)5
also be obtained
in Fig.

x 0.074
mm the moment
one

(down)

parts.

solution

This

can

is shown

10-36(e).

by plot ing

Note

that

of the

diagram

ordinates

by can-

is in

terms

of the redundant reaction R. 0, one obtains an equation yielding

= 0,

Again, using the geometrical R. Other reactions fol ow

condition by statics.

t/A From

(b)

+MA=?

(e)

(0.25)(+0.25Ra) 32-(0.25) + (0.15)(-15)

R = 43.2 N, acting up as assumed.

0.1 +  x 0.15 = 0
distance of a whole triangle.

See Table
-15 N.m

2 of the Appendix

for the centroidal

Fig.

t0-36

Deflection
 MA
Here considered However, After
der of the

of Beams
= O
MA,

Sec. t0.t5.
MA + 43.2(0.25) -- 100(0.15) = 0 MA =

Statically
woL

Indeterminate

Beams

within the equation of statics for the summation of positive since it is assumed to act in a countercloclovise in the beam sign convention, such an end moment at A is the combined moment diagram is constructed, Fig. 10-36(d), the
work is the same as in the preceding solution.

:hen
assumed

MA = MB =
negative sign
in Figs.

12

(10-44)
their sense is opposite
In comparison reduction

for

these

10-37(a)

moments
diagram

and

(b).

indicates

that

from
with in the

The composite maximum

of

bending
the

moment
critical

momen.

is shown t o,f a simple

occurs.

in Fig. 10-37(c). beam, a considerable

moments

EXAMPLE

t0-23

Solution

Find
distributed
Solution

the

moments
lead

at the
of we N/m;

supports
see Fig.

for

a fixed-end
10-37(a).

beam

loaded

with

0, one

moment diagram = R = well2,

can verify

the

and

former

by cantilever using the

solution

same

parts

as fol ows:

is shown geometrical
1

in Fig. condition

10-37(d). Noting that as above, AOA/ =

The moments at the supports are called fixed-end moments, and their nation is of great importance in structural theory. Due to symmetry in this lem, the fixed-end moments are equal, as are the vertical reactions, well2 each. The moment diagram for this beam, considered to be

EI
MA =

+
woL
12

=0

ported, is a parabola, end moments give

Although this beam is statically indeterminate to the second degree, of symmetry, a single equation based on a geometrical condition is yield the redundant moments. From the geometry of the elastic curve, of the fol owing conditions may be used: AOA/B = 0, TM tB/A = 0, or tA/ =
the first condition, AOAm = 0,

as shown the rectangular

in Fig. 10-37(b), while the assumed' diagram shown in the same figure.

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t0-24

beam

Find

fixed
the

fixed-end

at both

ends

moments.

carries

E1

a concentrated
is constant.

force

P, as shown

in Fig.

10-

EI

treating tangent at the center of the span is horizontal, AOA/c =

24 Also
A 0c/'

since
= O.

the

.

4 t"v'
(a)

. .x,

beam AB as a simple beam, the moment diagram due to P is shown the base line in Fig. 10-38(b). The assumed positive frxed-end moments equal and result in the trapezoidal diagram. Three geometrical conditions elastic curve are available to solve this problem, which is indeterminate
second degree:

R A L = + wo L 2/2

AOA/B
zero.

= 0, since = 0, since

the support

change B does

in angle not deviate

between from

the

tangents a fixed tangent

at A and at A.

B is

tB/A

(c) Similarly,

tA/

= O.

Pab

(b)

"  A
-w
(d)

'

B [ '"
o

L2/2
+MA=?
(a)

+Ma
(b)

= ?

Fig.

t0-37

Fig.

10-38

556

Deflection
Any equations two

of Beams
of these governs conditions the choice. may be used; arithmetical Thus, by using condition simplicity (a), which of the is res

Sec. t0-t5.

Statically

Indeterminate

Beams

55

simplest,

and

condition

(b),

the two

equations

are 25

IOA,B
or

= 

l(PablL XM + M-

+  LMA
Pab
L

+ 

1 )

= 0

t, = 
or
Solving the two

-g-5
reduced

( + b) +
equations
Pab

4
Pab

 +  4 5  =
(L + b)
gives
(c)

2MA + M = ---
MA =
These

simultaneously
2
an (b)

L2

and
opposite

MB =
sense from

pa2b

L2
initial y
tAiB 

MB=?

Mc=?

and

shown

negative in Figs.

moments 10-38(a)

have and

that

EXAMPLE

t0-25

Plot moment 10-39(a). E1

Solution

an'd shear:diagrams is constant for'the

for whole

a continuous beam.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com +3.17k

+9.96 k

0'

beam

loaded

as shown

.
-14.04 k

This beam
to the
at A as

as a timpie beam with diagram of Fig. 10-39(c)

ones
this

is stai cally
shown
end

indeterminate

the redundant is obtained.

in Figs.
The

to the second
moments For each
to

assumed span, these

10-38(b).
solution

degree.

positive,
No
is contained

By treating
et

the
in

ea ch
are
o

.<-4.15'

---4.15'---*-

-.*---6.43'-----

+20.7

k/ft

+17.7

k/ft

earlier
is on a roller.

10-36(b)
clue

and
the

metrical
(a) (b)

conditions
0B = 0b. Since B that is tangent tB/c = 0, since

for
the

the
beam to the support

elastic

curve
is physically elastic curve B does not

for

the

whole

beam,

Fig.

10-39(d):

-gn

.ler

-23.3

...

k/ft

Fig.

t0-39

continuous, there in either span. deviate from a fxed

is a line tangent at

= 
E1

10(+30)

 10 +  10(+M)

 10

quantities These positive deviation

tion

To apply

by the angles are quantity, must be

the

condition

respective span lengths, the two equal. However, although tc/ the tangent through point B is considered negative. Hence, by
moments is obtained.

(a), t,/ and tc/ are determined,

angles 0 and 0b are is algebraically above point C. using condition (a), one distance of a whole

and,

by

1 (1000+ 100M)
18(+40)  (18 + 6) +  18(+M)
+ 54Mc) 18 +  18(+Mc)
1 1

with

redundant

= 

See

Table

2 of the

Appendix

for

the

centroidal

=  (2880 + 108M

558

Deflection

of

Beams

Problems
Os = O;
or

559

Since

tam

tC/B

Lam

Lcm

(1000 + 10
EI
or

E1

1 (2880+ 108M+54Mc)
18

28M/3
Using condition (b) for span BC

+
provides

3Mc

=
another

- 260
equation, tmc = 0, or

Generalizing the procedure used in the preceding example, a recurrence i.e., an equation which may be repeatedly applied for every two may be derived for continuous beams. For any n number - 1 guch equations may be writ en. This gives enough simultaneous the solution of redundant moments over the supports. This recurrence called the three-moment equation because three unknown moments
t. 26

foradjoining of spans, equations formula appear in

roblerns
ection
04,
one end

tions,

a curve
internal

the

bent

maximum

into
The

a circle

deflection

of radius

from

R is approximately
removes

a chord

L long

of

27


or

18(+40)(
the two reduced

+12)+18(+M)518+18(+Mc)
3M + 6Mc = -200 equations simultaneously,

18 =

0-2
A 2 x 6 mm
as shown

L2/(8R). steel strip

in the figure.
to

(Hint:
microresidual

machining
stresses.)

operation

the

3142
when

mm
What
touch

long
is the
the

is clamped
required
What wall?

Section
t0-5. If the

t0-7
equation of the elastic curve for a simply

Solving

the
condition?

maximum
E = 200

stress
GPa.

the

strip

is in the

MB
where with
After necessary must and convenient shears For

-20.4

if-lb

and

Mc

-23.3

if-lb

supported beam v = (k/360EI)(-3x

beam loaded?

of length  +
beam

L having 10x3L 2 of constant

a constant 7xL4), how

E1 and of length

E1 is is the
L (b) and

signs agree with the convention of signs used for beams. These proper sense are shown in Fig. 10-39(b). the redundant moments MA'and MB are found, no new tec to construct the moment and shear diagrams. However, be exercised to include the moments at the supports while computing sht reactions. Usually, isolated beams, as shown in Fig. 10-39(b), are free-bodies for determining shears. Reactions fol ow by adding on the adjoining beams.
free body AB:

the their

t0-6.

An

elastic

has

the

deflected

shape
loading moment shape.

EIv(x)

= Mo(x
for

3 - x2L)/4L.
conditions. the beam

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2 mm

(a) Determine the Plot the shear and sketch the deflected

and support diagrams

Fig.

Pt0-1

10-?. Rework Example 10-2 by taking the origin coordinate system at the free end. 't0-8. Using the exact dif erential equation, 8, show that the equation of the elastic curve
is bent

of the Eq. 10in Ex-

A round

aluminum

bar

of 6 mm

diameter

ample
(Hint:

10-2 is x 2 + (v - p)2 = p2, where

Let dv/dx = tan 0 and integrate.)

p is a constant.
the equations
in the figures

a circular

ring
maximum
wil be the

having
stress.in
radius

a mean
the
of curvature

diameter
bar? if the E =

of 3 m.
70 GPa.
of a W 8 x stress in the

M=O+ Ma=O+
For free body BC:

2.4(10)5 2.4(10)5

20.4 20.4

10Rn 10Vb

= 0 = 0

RA
Vb

=
=

9.96
14.04

k
k'
beam

is the
What

t0-9
the

lhrough
elastic curves

t0-29.
for

(a)
the

Determine
beams shown

of
conor

bent

around

the

X-X

axis

due
ditions.

to the
Unless

applied

loading
directed

for
otherwise,

the

given
use

boundary
Eq. 10-14a

fibers

is 36 ksi?

E = 29 x 10  psi.
bar after distribution Fig. 6-29.
is machined

Mc=O M=0G+
Check:
From

10(6)

20.4

23.3

18V'3

0
v'3=

Assume that a straight rectangular cold working has a residual stress as was found in Example 6-12; see
one-sixth of the thickness of this bar

so-

(a)

10(12)

20.4

23.3

18Vc
Vc

=
=

0
Rc =

the

top and on the of its original p of the machined

to solve

RA
above,

+ V
R

= 24k
= Vj

'
+ V'3 = 17.21

and

1
kips J'.

+Rc

10k

the previous
n long, what

conditions,
be

this

bottom, thickness, bar? problem

reducing the bar to what wil be the Assign the necessary

in general terms. (b)

10-14c, whichever is simpler to apply. For all cases, E1 is constant, except that in Prob. 10-20, E1 varies. Wherever applicable, take advantage of symmetry or antisymmetry. (b) For statically indeterminate cases only, plot shear and moment diagrams, giving all critical ordinates.

if the bar is 1 in 2 and

that for small
NJ:

40
27 This pansion
cluded angle.

wil

The complete
respectively.

shear

and moment

diagrams

are shown

in Figs.

10-39(e)
26 For

= 27 x 106 psi.

the

chord

the deflection through the

Note

of the bar at the end? Let tyyp = 54

deflec-

fol ows of R(1

by retaining the first term cos 0), where 0 is one-half

of the exthe in-

discussion

2nd

ed.

of this

(Englewood

procedure,

Clif s,

for

example,

1976)

435-440.

see E. P. Popov,

Mechanics

560

Deflection

of

Beams

Problems

56'i


Fig. P'10*9 Fig. P'I 0-'15

w. N/m ,

-- L/2"--- "'.----L/2--
Fig. P'10-2

w o N/m

Fig.

L 
P'10-26

Fig.
W (total)

P'I 0-'10

Fig.

P'I 0-'16

L
Fig. P'I 0-tt


Fig. P'10-'I 7

Fig.

P"10-22

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Fig. P'10-23

Fig.

P"10-27

Fig.

110-t2

Fig.

P'10-'I

N/m

vI ksi n'x/L
Fig. P'10-'13

Ip
x

rn
Fig. P'10-24

't

Fig.

P'10-28

Fig.

P'I 0-'19
w o N/m

vT
Fig.

kx3
110-4

vI

ksinx/L
Fig. 110-25 Fig. P"10-29

L/2---L/2 ).
Fig. 110-20

562
10-30 through t0-32. (a) Determine

Deflection
equations

of Beams
for the
t0-36. rigidity mine curve
mine

Problems
A beam with an overhang of constant El is loaded as shown in the figure. length a of the overhang such that the would be horizontal over support B.
the maximum deflection between
120

563

elastic curves due placement/x of the of constant E1 shown moment diagrams.

to an imposed small vertical disend for the beams of length L and in the figures. (b) Plot shear and

stress

is 24

ksi

and

that

for

shear

is

14.4

ksi.

It

is

the
kN/m

required that the maximum deflection 1 in. This requirement corresponds pan length and is often used to limit to the applied load in building design. 103 ksi.

does not to 1/360-th deflection E = 29 x

Fig.

Fig.

PIO-30 Fig. P10-36

A wooden beam is to span 24 ft and to support uniformly distributed' load, including its own Select the size required from Table 10 in the The allowable bending stress is 2000 psi and in shear is 100 psi. The deflection is limited to /360-th of the span length.

-40. 1 k/ft

[0-4t.
'procedure,
find the

The

maximum

deflection

for

a simple

beam
Fig. 1>10.47

t0-37.
Fig. PIO-3t

Using
Ii = 400

a semigraphical
10-9 point and 10-13, of the applied

shown in Figs. the beam at the

Let

in 4, 12 = 300

in 4, and
2O k

load; see the E = 30 x 106

= 30 x 106 psi. x
I0-42. be needed

24 ft and carrying a uniformly distributed oad of 40 k total, including its own weight, is limited 0.5 in. (a) Specify the required steel I beam. Let

(b) What use

the
(c)

size

aluminum-alloy

beam for

106 psi,
in

and

for

Table

same
Determine

requirements?

3 in the
the

Appendix

Let
maximum

E =

properties.
both cases.

Fig.

P10-32

10-33. If in Prob. 10-17, the cross-sectional beam is constant, and the left half of the of steel (E = 30 x 106 psi) and the right of aluminum (E = 10 x 106 psi), determine
tion of the elastic curve.

area span half

of the is made is made the equastrength

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

/ deflection characteristics. Select

A uniformly beam spans

loaded 6 x 12 in (nominal 10 ft and is considered

size) to have
an aluFig. 1>10-48

,y I beam, I beam having In making the

a steel I beam, and a polyesterthe same deflection characterbeam selections, neglect the

dif-

Fig.

P10-37

for
procedure, find the beam loaded of the axial
constant.
lb

wood

t0-34.
the

cantilever

What

is the

of constant

equation

width

of the

and

elastic

flexural

curve

for

loaded

9-17(a) and (d). Neglect the effect of the required increase in beam depth at the end for shear. t0-35. An overhanging beam of constant flexural gidity E1 is loaded as shown in the figure. For portion AB of the beam, (a) find the equation of the elastic curve due to the applied load of 2Wo N/m, and (b) determine the maximum deflection between the supports

at the end by a concentrated

f6rce

P? See Figs.

10-38. Using a semigraphical shown in Figs. 10-9 and 10-13, the center of the span for the
in the
deflection.

in their own weights. Let E = 1.5 x 106 psi and polyester plastic, E = 10 x 10 6 psi for and E = 30 x 10 6 psi for steel. For section
of all I beams, use Table 4 in the Appendix.
Fig.

kalb/in
1>10-49

as
force

figure.
E1

Neglect
for
25

the
the
lb

effect
is
25

Section 10-43.
19.

10-8 Using
Using

beam

singularity
singularity

functions,
functions,

rework
rework

Prob.
Prob.

1010-

ht0-50.
equations for the

Using
elastic

singularity
curves for

functions,
the beams

ob-

and

the

deflection

midway

between
2wo

the
N/m

supports.
Fig. P10-38

loaded
beams.

as shown

in the

figures.
w o N/m

E1 is constant

for

all

Fig.

1>10-50

Fig.

P10-35

t0-39. A steel beam is to span 30 ft and k/ft uniformly' distributed load, including weight. Select the required W section of weight, using the abridged Table 4 in the for bending around its strong axis. The allowable

its

a>a>2a__ '
Fig. P10-45

Section tions Table

10-5t.
Appendix

'10.9. Use the in Examples '10.2 '1'1 in the Appendix.

(a) From
for

deflection through
given
loaded

'10-6
in Table
by

equa-

and

the
a cantilever

solution

in the

a concentrated

Deflection
force P at the end, at A for the cantilever show shown that free-end in the figure the

of Beams
Problems

565

deflection is

determine

the

deflection

at

the

center

of

the

caused
(Treat

by

a uniformly

distributed

downward
concentrated fc

-59.
right

wo dx as an infinitesimal

span

Two
there

3.6

identical,

m each.

horizontal,
The

beams

simply

cross

each

supported

other

---0.8

m---[

v, = (3L(b) Show that the deflection

pb 

b)
at A due to force P at B

is equal Section flections.).

to the deflection 13-4 on Maxwell's

at B due theorem

to force P atA. of reciprocal

(See de-

integrate.) This method of influence named by Maxwell) can be effectively distributed-load problems. t0-55. Using the method outlined problem, determine the deflection beam for the loading given in Prob.

angles

used in the

for
beam

is a 6-mm
EI

at their

gap

respective

between
how

concentrated
carry?

at the center 10-49.

upper beam, for each beam

downward

force

much is 6000

midspans. When the two beams. of 50 kN is applied

wil kN.m the 2. lower

5 m

Wire

0-60.

10-56. loaded
mine the

An elastic prismatic with a concentrated

deflection of the free

beam end
end.

with moment
The:

an
Mo.

on the Determine meet,

force answer
for

The

midpoint
midspan

k =

48EI/L

3.
A

at the in terms
both

of a simply supported beam the deflection of point A, where which results from the application
end of the cantilever of El, which is the beam. same
beams.

of a cantilever

beam

6 m long

State and is

8 m the of a

Fig.

Pt0.62

GPa,

X 106

ct = 12 x 10 -6 per
mm 4 and E =

10 GPa.

C. For

both
the

beams:
other

I = 10
end

nstant

t0-63.
crete.

-L

Fig.

Pt0-5t

10-52.
10-17
a = 1.2

The
are
m.

data
Wo =
If the

for
beam

a beam
P
is made

loaded
=
from

as shown
25 kN,
a W

in Fig.
=
24

------iL
Fig. Pt0-56

- a 
member, such as shown
Let a bar of constant
vertical and

30 kN/m,

L
8 x

3 m,
section

and

_.m' 3  3m'
a
Fig. PtO-60
the mas:

the instal ation, however, the nut on the rod was poorly tightened and in the unloaded condition there is a -in gap between the top of the nut and the bottom
because

1-in 2 steel rod 12 ft long, as shown

What tensile force

It was

One

end ofa
intended

W 18 x 50 beam
to support

is cast

into

in the figure.
develop

During

with

con-

of the beam.

end C caused
t0-55. A

(I = 29

x 106 mm4),
W 8 x

by the applied
40 steel

what

is the
beam

loads?

deflection

E = 200 Pa.
as shown

of the

free
in

t0-57.
10-16(a),
lion.

An
Determine

is made

is loaded

of point
Neglect
the horizontal
I.

C caused
the

the

figure.

Calculate

the

deflection

at the

center

of the

span.

E = 29

103 ksi.

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L-shaped
up from by
the horizontal

the beam?

a force

E = 30 x 106 psi.
/ '/ / / / / / / / / / / / /.

of 15 kips

is applied

wil

(Hint:

See Prob.

at the

middle

in the rod

10-51.)

of

applied
and

force

P.

effect

on

deflection

of

the

axial

member

of

the

shear

in

member.
and

Express
A vertical rod

the
with

results

in
a concentrated

terms

of

t0-58.

end

A 30-in cantilever = 10 7 lb~in 2, initial y

in the figure,

free end is attached the figure. (a) At what imum bending stress
For
the

to

a rotating plane, as angular velocity to in the rod just reach

(a), determine
in diameter

and the spring. The spring constant k = If a force of 100 lb is applied to the cantilever,
how much of this force wil

of constant has a gap

flexural rigidity, of 0.02 in between

15k
be

10 as
Fig. Pt0.63

by the

spring?

(Hint:

See

Prob.

10-51.)

the
mass.

condition
The rod

in

the
and

is 5 mm

Fig.

Pt0-53

t0-54.
deflection

Using
of

the
a beam

results
due

found
to

in Example
a concentrated

10-6
force

for
P,

150 X 10 -6 kgJmm. The mass at the top of 60 x 10 -3 kg and can be considered to be at a point. cryp = 1 GPa and E = 200 GPa.

100 lb

0.02

t0-64. A steel piano wire the middle of an aluminum

at C, as shown in the
cross-sectional

figure.

30 in long beam AB
What
wire

is the

is stretched to a rigid

increase

from support
E

in
=

stress

in the

wire

area

if the temperature
of the

is 0.0001

drops

in 2 and

100F?

The

30 x 106 psi. For the aluminum beam, E1 = 1040 lbin 2. Let Ctst = 6.5 x 10 -6 per F, ct^ = 12.9 x 10 -6
per F.
A B

lOO
mm

Fig.

equal

A steel

of the of the

to 160 mm 2 is stretched
simple beam
as shown in the

wire

5 m in length

with and

the

tightly

a cross-sectional free

between
end

of the
the de-

the
Wire

figure.

Determine

Fig.

Pt0-54

Fig.

Pt0-58

end
drop

of the of 50C.

cantilever For steel

as a result of a wire: E = 200

Fig.

Pt0-64

Deflection
10-65. A flexible steel bar is suspended

of Beams
by three steel

Problems

rods, as shown in the figure, with the dimensions given in mm. If, initial y, the rods are taut, what additional forces wil develop in the rods due to the application of the force F = 1500 N and a drop in temperature of 50C in the right rod? The cross-sectional area of each

rod bar,
N/mm

is 10 mm 2, and ct = 12 x 10 -6 per C. For the I = 2 x 10 4 mm 4, and for steel, E = 200 x 103

2.

C ''600 mm
Fig. P10-67

-- 0.25, G = 80 GPa, 1-69. The temperature

fastened ace.
the

bent rod, as well The cross-sectional ass0mbly is made

as that of the cantilever, is 20 area of the wire is 0.40 mm 2. from steel having E = 200 GPa,

Section t0-7t.
a force
tical. The

t040 A 5-ft-long
P = 1000
member

cantilever
lb forming
is an

is loaded
an
S 8 x

at the
ct with
steel

end
the
beam.

with
verDe-

of a stainless-steel wire placed to the end of a cantilever The strain measured by the
of the beam

and ct = 11.7 in a furnace

in it. The wire beam outside the strain gage glued

of the tem-

x 10 -6 per C. is measured by

angle
18.4

termine

and
(b)
axes.

90 caused
Verify that

the

total

by the applied
deflections

tip

deflection

force.
are

for

E = 29 x 10 6 psi.
to the neutral

ct =

0%

10%

45 ,

normal
P

outside

is a measure

Assuming heated to the furnace  furnace temperature

of - 100
1000

x 10 -6 in/in?

that the ful length temperature, what if the gage records

Assume

that

of the wire is is the change a change in

the wire has

200
Fig.

[ 200
P10-65

= 9.5 x 10 -6 per F, am = 12 x 10 -6 perF, = 30 x 106 psi, Ea = 10 x 106 psi, Awire = 5 x 10 -4 in 2, lbeam = 6.5 X 10 -4 in 4. The depth of the
shaft?
rod
in the

initial tension properties

to perform of the materials

as intended. The are as fol ows:

force
and G

wil
=

be carried
80 GPa.

by the upper
L-shaped
as shown

E = 200 (

mall

beam

is 0.25

in.

Fig.
10-72. Determine the

Pt0-71
maximum deflection for the

t0-68. 10-66. built-in An L-shaped at one end steel rod of 2.125 to a rigid wall and in diameter is simply
figure. wil
E

A horizontal
wire to

is sup-

taut

ported at the other end, as shown in the the bend is 90 . What bending moment oped at the built-in end due to the application
lb force at the corner of the rod? Assume

In plan be develof a 2000= 30 x

1.00

10 6 psi,

in n and

G = 12 x 10 6 psi,
J = 2.00

in n. 2000

and,

for

simplicity,

let I =

drop in temperature of 100C takes place and ward force P = 250 N is applied at the end cantilever, what maximum bending stress wil cause at the cantilever support? Assume ' havior and neglect stress concentrations. All sions shown in the figure are in mm. The diame

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

a cantilever,

is connected

wooden for the

normal

beam wood.
to the

in Example Verify that

neutral axis.

6-15, the

Fig. 6-36. maximum

E = 12 GPa deflection is
having

10-73.

Consider

an

aluminum-alloy

Z section

the dimensions given in Prob. 7-41. If a 100-in horizontal cantilever employing this section is fixed at one end and is subjected to a vertical downward 20-1b force
at the
deflection?

centreid
How

of the
does

other
the

end,
direction

what

is the
of this

maximum
force relate

lb

to the

neutral

axis?

E =

10

103 ksi.

'
Fig. P10-69

Section
t0-74. fixed

t04t
Consider at one end
that

"''Wire 10To0
Fig. P10-66

a W 18 and loaded
deflection

35 short at the free

to

steel end,

cantilever as shown

in Fig.
With the the aid of the and first moment two solutions given in
such

10-23.

the

Determine
The

due

the

length

flexure

of this Note

is the

cantilever
same

as

Table
the

11 of the
deflected shape

Appendix,
shear

(a) find
of the
1 k/ft

the
diagrams

reaction
and

at A,
show

that

due

to shear.

steel

yields

at 36 ksi

in tension

beam.

10-67.
length

Two
are fixed

parallel
at one

circular
end and

steel
are

shafts
interconnected

of the

same
at
300

or compression and at 21 ksi in shear. a rectangular beam, it can be assumed web yields uniformly in shear. (Although is not exact, the results are representative
conditions.)

that
that this

unlike only the solution of actual

the other end by means of a taut vertical wire, as shown in the figure. The shafts are 40 mm in diameter; the radius of the rigid pulley keyed to the upper shaft
is' 100 mm. The cross-sectional area of the intercon-

necting applied

wire is 5 mm 2. If a vertical to the lower shaft, how

pull
much

P of 100 N is of the applied

Fig.

P10-68

Fig.

P10-70

10-75. A heavy object weighing 4000 lb is dropped in the middle of a 20-ft simple span through a distance of 1 in. If the supporting beam is a W 10 x 33 steel beam, what is the impact factor? Assume elastic behavior. E = 29 x 106 psi.

568
Section '10-'12

Deflection

of Beams
the beams,
of deflection

Problems

569

as shown
and

in the
of

figures.
rotation

Specify
for the

wo

N/m

t0-76.

1-in

square

bar (a) outer

of a linearly What thirds elastic

elastic-plastic

tion

material
shown required become

in the figure. so that the plastic, i.e.,

Assume

is to be wrapped

around

the
material

mandrel diameter D is of the cross sections core is in deep by 1

to be initial y stress-free

a round

mandrel,

as

quantities. of inertia

are

If neither given,

the size of a beam nor EI is constant. Wherever

its

let E = 29 x 103 ksi or 200 prepared sketch of the elastic

flection points, should be made.

GPa.
curve,

In all cases, showing

in wide?

the

Fig.
6 k/ft

Pt0-83

Fig.
AI
I

Pt0-86

with gyp = 40 ksi. Let E = 30 x 106 psi. The pitch of the hells. angle is so small that only the bending of
the
be

bar

in a plane

need
the

be considered.
after the

(b)

What

wil

P
Fig. Pt0-78

21

the

diameter

of the

coil

release

of the

forces

used
coil

in forming
diameter after

it? Stated
elastic

alternatively,
springback.

determin&

the
Fig. Fig. PI0-84 Pt0-87

Fig.

Pt0-76

t0-77.
early force
nitude

A rectangular,
elastic-plastic P, as shown
of force P that

weightless,
would cause

simple
the plastic

beam-of
middle the
zone

linby
magto

material is loaded in the in the figure. (a) Determine

penetrate one-fourth of the beam depth from (b) For the previous loading condition, sketch ment-curvature diagram, clearly showing
plastic zone.
P

each the it for

side. mothe

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Fig. P10-79 Fig. Pt0-85
w o N/m

Fig.

Pt0-88

AI

Fig.
h/2

Pt0-80

 561
P

20 kN

Fig.

Pt0-89

---L/2--- "'--L/2
Fig. P10-77

I=80Xl
Fig. PI0-8t

0 mm


the

Determine loaded

separate
results.

deflection at the midspan of a as shown in the figure, by solving problems indicated and superimposUse the moment-area method. E1 is

the

constant. subdividing symmetrical

it reduces

(Note: them part

the

Solutions of complex problems by into a symmetrical part and an unis often very advantageous because
numerical work.)

Section

'10-'14.
for
method.

Beam

deflections
and

for

specified
lems
area

sections

points

in many
'10-7

of

'10-8

the

can

prob-

be
I I

assigned
t078 method,

for

solution
t0-89. Using the deflection

by
and

the
the
the

moment.
moment-area slope of the

P
Fig. P'10-82

P/2 [ P/2
Fig. Pt0-90

P/2 I P/2

elastic

curves

through determine

 at points

A due

to the applied

loads

for

L/5  J/2 L/4

570
10-9t. Determine the elastic

Deflection
deflection at

of Beams
the center

Problems
t0-100 and 10401. Using the moment-area determine the deflection and slope of the point A for the beams loaded as shown in the EI in the second problem is constant.

of the span if l = 10
70 GPa. All
5 kN

for the beam loaded as shown in the figure x 106 mm 4, 12 = 20 x 106 mm 4, and E =
given
(total)

Hinge

110 kN

10408.
6 in (actual) Determine a concentrated

A fight

pointer

is attached

only

atA

to a 6 x

dimensions

are

in meters.
5 kN (total)

m4+
Fig. PI0-t04

106 psi.

wooden the position force

beam, as shown in the figure. of the end of the pointer after of 1200 lb is applied. E = 1.2 x
1200 lb

determine
force. E1 is constant

the

deflection
over the entire

at A

caused
structure.

by

this

405.
Fig. PI0400

stic

A hinged beam system is loaded Determine the deflection and curve at point A.

as shown in slope of the

Fig. PI0408

Fig.

PIO-91

t0-92.
equation
10-9.

Using
of the

the

moment-area
elastic curve for

method,
the beam

establish
in Prob.

the

6kN )inge
Fig. PlOdfit

't0-93.
equation
10-83.

Using
of the

the
the

moment-area
elastic curve for

method,
the beam

establish
in Prob.

the
the

t0-t09. Beam ABCD is initial y horizontal. Load P is then applied at C, as shown in the figure. It is desired to place a vertical force at B to bring the position of the beam at B back to the original level ABCD. What force is required at B?
P

t0-94.
maximum

Using
deflection

moment-area
for the
the the the

method,
beam in Prob.

determine
10-85.

t0-102.

Determine

t0-95.
maximum

Using
deflection

the the
deflection

moment-area
for beam

method,
in Prob.

determine
10-86.

the the
10-82.

for the overhang figure. E and

t0-96.
maximum

Using Using
deflection

moment-area
for beam

method,
in Prob.

determine determine
in Prob. 10-87.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

the maximum upward
as of
I are

Fig.

P'10405

a beam constant.

loaded

shown

10406.

Beam

AB

is subjected

to an end
moment

moment

atA

I
Fig. P10-109

an

unknown

concentrated

Mc,

as shown

in the

figure.

Using

magnitude

the moment-area of the bending

method,

moment

Mc

deterso that

the

deflection

at point

B wil

be equal

to zero.

E1 is

t0-97.
maximum

the the
in

moment-area
for beam

method, method,
determine the

the Prob.
det0-t03. For the elastic

t0-98.
10-38,
flection.

Using
and,

moment-area

rework
maximum

30'
Fig. PI0402
beam of constant

stant.

Section
t0-1t0 and

t045
t0-tt . For the beams loaded as shown in

100

kN-m

. Mc

addition,

the figures, the redundant diagrams.

the moment-area reactions and In both problems,

using

method, plot shear EI is constant.

determine and moment

t0-99. determine (b) the

curve, in 2 .

beam loaded (a) the deflection deflection at the point

and (c) the maximum

For

the

as shown at the center of inflection

deflection.

in the figure, of the span, of the elastic

E1 = 1,800 lb-

gidity flection

El, and

loaded the

as shown in the figure, slope at points A and C.

find
Fig. The PI0406 figure has a constant distance a such
in if the end

= 3600

x
deflection

beam shown in the 106 lb-in 2. Determine

at A would

the
be 0.25

121b l 12lb

that

the

Fig.

Pt04tO
100 kN/m

subjected

to a concentrated

moment

M,

15

. 6"43"-*- -3"-
Fig. P10-99

Fig.

P'10403

10404.

A structure

is formed

by joining

a simple
in the of the

to a cantilever a 10-kN force

with a hinge, as shown is applied at the center

['"

10'
Fig.
Fig. PI041I

572
t0-tt2.
(a)
of

Deflection
For
determine

of Beams
in the
at the fixed

Problems
end

the
the
A. E1

beam
ratio
is constant.

loaded
of the

as shown
moment

figure,
rotation

2k /

/2k

to the
the

applied
end

moment

MA;

(b)

determine

the

2k/ft 2{_ 13
Fig. Pt 0-124

Fig.
Fig, P10-1t5
60

P10-tt9
kN/m

10425.

A beam

of constant

flexural

rigidity

El is fixed

Fig.

P10-1t2

stant

k = 3El/a
Show
For the

3. (b) Plot
the deflected
beam loaded

the
shape

shear
as shown

and
of the
in

moment
beam.
the

at both
what t0-126

its ends,
moments

a distance
wil be

L apart.

If one

of the

sup-

10413.
the redundant

(a) Using

the moment-area
moment at the fixed

method,
end for

determine
the beam

grams.
t0-t16.

ports settles to the other

Fig. P10-120

vertically support
10-t27.

downward (without
induced

shown in diagrams. a W beam psi and a the maximum ports and E= 29 x

the figure, and plot the shear and moment Neglect the weight of the beam. (b) Select using an allowable bending stress of 18,000 shearing stress of 12,000 psi. (c) Determine deflection of the beam between the supthe maximum deflection of the overhang. 106psi.
10k

(a) plot the shear sketch the shape

of inflection, and

and bending of the elastic

(c) determine

moment diagrams, curve showing the

the rotation of end

and

Plot

the

at the ends? shear and bending-mo-

an amount causing any

A relative rotation),
rig-

t0-t2t

flexural rigidity and bending-moment

flection and

through
sketch

shown

10424.
the

in the diagrams.
elastic
/1/I 1

For the beams

figures, Locate
curves.

plot

of constant
points the

ment idities
and

diagrams shown
sketch the

for the beams of variable in the figures. Locate points

elastic curves.

flexural of inflection

shear of in-

30 kN/m

40 kN/m

...

t0-1t?. Fig. P10-113

(a} determine
end A.

For

the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Fig. P10-t16

k10 m- 12m 

Fig. Pt0-126
P

the ratio
moment

beam

loaded

of the moment
M,; (b)

as

shown

at the fixed
the

in

the

Fig,

P10-12t

to the
of

applied

determine

-4

6 k/ft

10414.
the redundant

(a) Using
moment

the

moment-area
at the fixed

method,
end for

determine
the beam

shown in diagrams. the depth allowable

stress of

1000

the figure and plot the shear and moment Neglect the weight of the beam. (b) Select for a 200-mm~wide wooden beam using an bending stress of 8000 kN/m 2 and a shear
kN/m 2.

IL/2
10-tt8.
maximum

EI
Fig.

'i  2EI L/2 __ ,

P10-tt7

Fig.

P10-122

LI2--------L/2
Fig. P10-t27

10428. right
method,
fixed at both ends

Rework
support

Example C is pinned.

10-25

after

assuming

that

Using
deflection

the

moment-area
of a beam

t0-129.
rework

After
Prob.

assuming
10-124.

that
that both
10-25.

the left
supports

support
A and

is fixed,
C are

carrying

a uniformly

distributed

load

is one-fifth

maximum
ported. Fig. P10-tt4 E1

deflection
is constant.

of the
For using
fixed-end

same
the

beam

simply
constant

Fig.

P10-123

10-t30. fixed,

Assuming
rework Example

10-1t5. For the beam and loaded as shown reaction and the'deflection

of constant in the figure, at point

flexural rigidity (a) determine A. The spring

El the con-

t0-tt9 shown
(a) determine

and 10-t20. in the figures,

the

the
moments

beams of moment-area
due

method
to the

loads and plot shear (b) Find the maximum

and

bending-moment deflections

Sec.

t -t.

Introduction

_ chapter

11ol.
The selection

Introduction
of structural and machine elements is based on three

acteristics: strength, stif ness, and stability. The procedures of stress 'deformation analyses in a state of stable equilibrium were discussed some detail in-the preceding chapters. But not all structural systems necessarily stable. For example, consider a square-ended metal rod say 10 mm in diameter. If such a rod were made 20 mm long to act as axial y compressed member, no question of instability would enter, a considerable force could be applied. On the other hand, of the same material were made 1000 mm long to act in then, at a much smaller load than the short piece could carry, the rod would buckle laterally and could collapse. A slender measuring if subjected to an axial compression, could fail in the same manner. consideration of material strength alone is not sufficient to predict behavior of such members. Stability considerations are primary in
structural systems.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

casings buckling rather spectacular tial y,
For

Fig. t 4 patterns cylinders and (b) pressurized (Courtesy

North
Inc.)

American

Typical buckling for thin-walled (a) in compression in torsion for a cylinder. L. A. Harris of
Aviation,

A vast preceding
voted

of rockets are critically loaded in compression. These are important problems for engineering design. Moreover, often the or wrinkling phenomena observed in loaded members occur suddenly. For this reason, many structural instability failures are and very dangerous.

number listing

of the structural of problems are

instability beyond

the

problems scope

suggested of this text.

by the 2 Essen-

The

where pable sion. under properly assume walled compression

Investigations
chanics

phenomenon of structural instability occurs in numerous compressive stresses are present. Thin sheets, although ful y of sustaining tensile loadings, are very poor in transmit in Narrow beams, unbraced laterally, can turn sidewise and an applied load. Vacuum tanks, as well as submarine hulls, unle: designed, can severely distort under external pressure and shapes that dif er drastically from their original geometry. A tube can wrinkle like tissue paper when subjected either to

only the column problem wil be considered here. convenience, this chapter is divided into two parts. to the theory of column buckling, and Part B deals First, however, examples of possible instabilities

Part with

A is dedesign that may

occur
static
1952).

in straight
This

prismatic
wil be

members
fol owed purpose by

with
establishing of the next

dif erent
two

cross
the stability introductory (New York:

sections
criteria sections McGraw-Hil ,
and

wil

be
for

equilibrium.
Buckling

The

is

2 F. Bleich,

or a torque;
are adapted
(July 1961):

see Fig.
from L. A. Harris,
5.

11-1..
Stiflened

 During
H. W.
Circular

some
Suer, and
Shells,"

stages
W.
Exl

of firing,
T. Skene,

1957-1958).
ible

Stability,

D. O. Brush, and B. O. Almroth, Buckling of Bars, Plates, York: McGraw-Hil , 1975). A. Chajes, Principles of Structural Clif s, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1974). G. Gerard et al., Handbook

Strength

of Metal

Structures

 Figures

of Unstiflened

3 and

and

'Elastic

Plates

Parts B. G. ed. (New Stability, and Shells, 66-216,

I-VI, NACA TN, 3781-3786, (Washington, D.C.: NASA Johnston (ed.), Design Criteria for Metal Compression MemYork: Wiley, 1988). S. P. Timoshenko, and J. M. Gere, Theory 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hil , 1961). A. S. Volmir, FlexAir Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory (trans.), Technical Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, 1967.

Shells Stability of Struc-

574

576

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns

to clarify the remainder

for

the reader the of the chapter.

aspects

of column

instability

*]1..=2.

Examples

of Instability
of even straight complex, and it is ' of the complexities invo derived by the type of cross fol ow. compression members is thin, the plate-like

Analysis of the general instability problem umns discussed in this chapter is rather be aware, at least in a qualitative way, understand the limitations of the subsequently ling of straight columns is strongly influenced and some considerations of this problem In numerous engineering applications, bular cross sections. If the wall thickness

 Pi 9
Fig.
P

of such
lustrated large ternating

a seq the a smaller axial stress in the regions of large amount of buckling ment away from corners; see Fig. 11-2(b). For such cases, it is to approximate the complex stress distribution by a constant
stress acting over an effective width w next to the comers or

in Fig. axial load, inward

members

11-2(a) for a square the side walls tend and outward buckles.

can

buckle

locally.

thin-walled tube. to subdivide into As a consequence,

An

example

of this

At

behaviOi
a
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

modes: and (c) and (d)

1t-3

(a) pure flexural, torsional-flexural, pure torsional.

Column

buckling

(b)

dis

:s

Section

a-a

In this text, exc_ept for the design of aluminum-alloy columns, assumed that the thicknesses of a column plate element are large to exclude the need for considering this local buckling [ Some aspects requiring attention in a general column instability lem are il ustrated in Fig. '11-3. Here the emphasis is placed on the of buckling that is possible in prismatic members. A plank of flexural but adequate torsional stif ness subjected to an axial, force is shown to buckle in a bending mode; see Fig. 11-3(a). If the plank is subjected to end moments, Fig. 11-3(b), in addition to buckling mode, the cross sections also have a tendency to twist. a torsion-bending mode of buckling, and the same kind of occur for the eccentric force P, as shown in Fig. 11-3(c). Lastly, torsional buckling mode is il ustrated in Fig. 11-3(d). This occurs
the torsional stif ness of a member is small. As can be recalled

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

,ccur
since the usual rolled or extruded thick.

sections buckle either in pure flexure, 1 l-3(d). For thin-walled members, when (Section 4-14) is smaller than the flexural stif ness, before exhibiting flexural buckling. Generally, in columns with cruciform cross sections than the torsional mode of buckling generally
metal cross

cross Fig.

11-3(a), or twist torsional stif a column may this is more likely to in I-shaped sections. does not control the the
sections are rela-

Fig.

The

cross

sections

shown

in Figs.

11-4(b)

and

(c)

have

their

centroids

sections principal

centers
flexural

S in dif erent locations. Flexural buckling in Fig. 11-4(b) if the smallest flexural stif ness axis is less than the torsional stif ness..Otherwise,
and

would around

occur
mem-

the si-

ber twisting
occurs in the wall

around

S. For

torsional

the

sections

buckling

in Fig.

would

11-4(c),

develop,

buckling

with

the

always

(a)

Section
stif ness.

4-14,
In

thin-walled
contrast, thin-walled

open

sections
tubular

are

generally
are

poor
excellent

in
member

having

lat er mode. In the subsequent derivations, thicknesses of members are sufficiently of torsional or torsional-flexural buckling. cross sections of the type shown in Fig.

it wil be assumed large to exclude the Compression mem11-4(c) are not con-

members

Stress

distribution

at

a-a

(b)

sisting torques and are torsionally stif . Therefore, as shown in Fig. 11-2, generally, wil not exhibit number of the open thin-walled sections in Fig. for their susceptibility to torsional buckling. Two sections having biaxial symmetry, where centers S coincide, are shown in Fig. 1 l4(a).
Plates references

a tubular torsional 11-4 are centroids

next
C and

Fig. -2 buckled

tube.

Schematic thin-walled

of

square

3 T. von

in Compression," given

Karman,
in the

E. E. Sechler,

Trans. ASME last footnote.

and

54,

L. H. Donnell,
APM-54-5

(1932):

"The

53 to 57.

Strength

c,s ic, s
,
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.

t -4

Column

sections

exhibiting

dif erent

buckling

modes.

577

578

Stability

of

Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

t -3.

Criteria

for

Stability

of

Equilibrium

579

The
are also

fol owing
excluded

interesting
from

cases
consideration

of pos
in this text. One of these is

Fig. t -5 compression

Snap-through bars.

of

Fig. t -6 twist-buckling
shaft.

Spiral

spatial of a slender

in Fig. 11-5, where two bars with pinned joints at the ends form small angle with the horizontal. In this case, it is possible that force P can reach a magnitude such that the deformed become horizontal. Then, on a slightly further increase in P, snap-through to a new equilibrium position. This kind great importance in shallow thin-walled shells and curved plates. possible buckling problem is shown in Fig. 11-6, where a slender bar is subjected to torque T. When applied torque T reaches a value, the bar snaps into a helical spatial curve. 4 This problem is portance in the design of long slender transmission shafts.

Only

Then, if the restoring to upset the system, the system The .rigid bar shown in Fig.

one

' moment
Therefore,

degree

of freedom.
is k0,
if

and,

with

For

forces are greater is stable, and 11-7(a) can only F = 0, the

an assumed

upsetting

small

than the forces vice versa. rotate. Therefore,

tending

rotation

moment

angle

is PL

0, the
sin

it has

PLO.

11-3,

Criteria

for

Stability

of
criteria spring
in Fig.

Equilibrium
for static of stif ness
11-7(b)

if
Right
the
system

k0 thesystemis stable 0 < PLO) thesystemis tinstable

at the
r unstable,

(11-1)

(11-2)
is neither
this condition

In order to clarify the stability rigid vertical bar with a torsional

in Fig. 11-7(a). The behavior
and horizontal force F is shown

of such

a bar

subjected
for

equilibrium, 5 k at th e base, as
to vertical
and a large a

transition
but

point,
is neutral.

k0
load,

= PLO,
The force

and
associated

the
be

equilibrium
with

critical,

or considered,

buckling,

which

wil

designated

Per.

For

the

The

question then arises: To answer this question displaced a small (infinitesimal)

4 A. G. Greenhil ,
Thrust. Appendix:

How wil this system behave if F = 07 analytically, the system must be delibera amount consistent with the boundary
the Strength
Theoretical

and to End under Given

neers,

"On

of Shafting
(London:

Forces,"
190-209.

Proceedings,

1883),

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION ( Pcr= k/L ) www.avs4you.com

Investigation

(11-3)

when

of the

Exposed

Institution

Stability of Mechanical

Both

to

by

In the

the dashed
at Pr.

presence

lines

of horizontal

in Fig.

11-7(b)

force

becoming

F,

the

asymptotic

P -

0 curves

to the horizontal

are

as shown
P

where

5 Some

columns

readers
Column

subjected

may

find
buckling

to axial

it advantageous
is the

and

transverse
limiting

to study
(degenerate)

loads

Sections

acting
case

11-9

and

11-lfi

line

considered.

in such

Point
Unstable

of equilibrium
the
that

Similar with systems,

curves respect 0 cannot

at 0 somewhat

would result by to the axis of the become infinitely

less than

x. The

placing the vertical force bar. In either case, even large, as there is always

for a

(a)

apparent

discrepancy

graph

F=O

equilibrium
/
Small

to a ball

sin when to Fig. 11-8. It is convenient

is caused by assuming in Eqs. 11-1 and 11-2 that 0 is small 0  0, and cos 0  1. The condition found for neutral equiF = 0 can be further elaborated upon by making reference

resting

on dif erently

to relate

the

process

shaped

for

frictionless

determining

surfaces;

the

kind

see

of stability

Fig.

11-

(b)

bifurcation
equilibrium

Large F
F

Stable
o

Pcr=

In this order the balls

gl
Fig. t -7 Buckling a rigid bar. behavior of
(a) (b)

figure, in all three cases, the balls in position 1 are in equilibrium. to determine the kind of equilibrium, it is necessary to displace an infinitesimal distance 0 to either side. In the first case, Fig. the ball would roll back to its initial position, and the equilibrium stable. In the second case, Fig. 11-8(b), the ball once displaced wil return to its initial position, and the equilibrium is unstable. In the case, Fig. 11-8(c), the ball can remain in its displaced position, where is again in equilibrium. Such an equilibrium is neutral. Therefore, by a structural system is in a state of neutral equilibrium when it neighboring equilibrium positions an infinitesimal distance

(c)

Fig.

unstable,

11-8

(a)

and

Stable,

(c)

neutral

(b)

equilibrium.

580

Stability

of

Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

t -3.

Criteria

for

Stability

of

Equilibrium

apart.

tesimal prevail Based

This

displacements, (Fig. 11-5). on the previous

within
set F

criterion

for

as at large reasoning,

neutral

equilibrium

displacements, the horizontal

is applicable

dif erent line for

only

for
the

where

:mber.

F = 0

two'

the terms
bars.

rotations In writing

are
these

On this

in parentheses

infinitesimal, equations,

basis,

constitute

equations it should

the infinitesimal
g02 -

of equilibrium be noted

that

rotation
0)

are M

writ en = k(802

for
-

each

angle

between

in Fig.
A' 02. A A'

meaning To
11-7(a)

only demonstate
and

11-7(b)

is purely
=

an infinitesimal this again, consider

0. Then, in order

schematic

for

distance the rigid

to determine

defining

from the vertical

Pcr.

Theoretically

vertical bar shown

 Me,
in ]
aid

= 0: = O:
-(2k

PL

k(02

neutral

 Mc

PL
k gOi linear

0 + k(g02
- (k PL) 0
equations

- g0)
= =
a trivial

- k g0 = 0
0 0
solution, 80 = 802 =

displace angle

the 0 shown

bar

in either direction in the figure) and

gO k gO = 0

through formulate

an angle the equation

g0 (not throu of ec
These two homogeneous

PL) g02 + k g02

possess

PL

or ((PL - k)gO.= O)

as well

as a nonzero

solution

? if the

determinant

of the

coefficients

is zero,

(a)'

(b)

This equation has two arbitrary, Fig. 11-7(b), vanishes. This second axial force, g0 is arbitrary. at Per. One of these is at an angle g0. Since at

distinct solutions: first, when g0 = 0 and and, second, when the expression in solution yields Per = k/L. For this Therefore, there are two equilibrium for a straight bar, and the other for a bar Per, there are these two branches of the such a point is Called the bifurcation (branch) point. 6 In the previous il ustration, the rigid bar has only one degree of freed since for an arbitrary infinitesimal displacement, the sy described by angle g0. A problem with two in the fol owing example.
**EXAMPLE '1'1-'1

-(2k
expanding this determinant,

k
-

PL)
one obtains

-(k- PL) ] = 0
k
the
k 2

characteristic

equation

p2 _ 3P + -5 = 0 NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

The roots of such buckling an equation load. In this are case, called there eigenvalues, are two
roots:

the

smallest

of which

is the

P1
(c)

3-X/k
2 L

and

P2

3 +X/k
2 L

Two rigid bars, each of length L, forming a straight vertical member as Fig. 11-9(a), have torsional springs of stif ness k at ideal pinned joints B Determine the critical vertical force Pcr and the shape of the buckled
Solution

A'

Substituting the roots into either one of the simultaneous equations ratios between the rotations of the bars. Thus, for P, 802/80 for P2,802/80 = -0.62. The corresponding deflected modes are !l-9(d) and (e). The one in Fig. 11-9(d) corresponds to Pc. These called eigenvectors and are often writ en in matrix form as

determines 1.62, and shown in Figs. mode shapes =

1.62

-0.62/i

In order displacement positive 80, and has two

deflected

to determine the critical compatible with sense is shown as A'B'C bar AB independently degrees of freedom. positions are drawn

the

buckling force Pcr, the system must boundary conditions. Such a dis in Fig. 11-9(a). Bar BC rotates through rotates through an angle 802. Therefore, Free-body diagrams for members AB in Figs. 11-9(b) and (c). Then, assuming

be an this and
80

s02j= {1.162}s0 and Lg02j = {_0.62}0,

is an linear arbitrary equations Ax +By constant. be

7 Heuristically,

this can be demonstrated

=0 and

in the fol owing

Cx + Dy = 0

manner.
A/B for

Let two
in

C
V V

(d)

(e)

Fig. '1'1-'9

Mass.:

systems where bifurcation does not occur Such cases arise, for example, when applied of the deflected bar at the point of application. studied by H. Ziegler. See his book, Principles
Blaisdell, 1968).

6 The

static

criterion

for neutral

equilibrium

and dynamic criteria must be force P remains tangent to This problem was of Structural Stability

is

first one of these equations requires that y/x = -A/B, y/x = - C/D. For the two equations to be consistent, = 0, which is the value of the expanded determinant simultaneous equations. There also is a trivial solution

whereas the second = C/D, or AD the coefficients for x = y = 0.

582

Stability

of

Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

t -4.

Euler

Load

for

Columns

with

Pinned

Ends

583

As springs

can

be readily to represent

surmised, a column,
column problems, loads has

by the

increasing degrees

the number of hinged bars of freedom increase. In the

of degrees only the with dif erent of freedom. smallest boundary

continuous elastic unlike vibration tant. The buckling

wil be derived in

an infinite number in buckling analysis, for elastic columns

sections that<fol ow.

root

is
1.0

the

Vo

all A o

all d o

for curvature, it can be shown s that for elastic columns, one can equilibrium positions above Per. The results of such an analysis lustrated in Fig. 11-10. Note, especial y, that increasing Per by a mere percent causes a maximum sideways deflection of 22 percent of the umn length. 9 For practical reasons, such enormous deflections can
be tolerated. Moreover, the material usually cannot resist the bending stresses. Therefore, failure of real columns would be Generally there is lit le additional post-buckling strength for real and the use of Pr for column capacity is acceptable. This contrasts the behavior of plates and shells where significant post-bucklin may develop. Another il ustration of the meaning of Pr in relation to the

Before on the meaning process.

proceeding concept of such However,

with the derivation of neutral equilibrium, analyses. Critical loads by using the exact

for critical column it is significant to do not describe the (nonlinear) dif erential

loads examine

L
(a)

A=dOq-Vma x !/Largedo
v

g/A o/L

rge do
0.4 A/L

Approx.
(c) Elasto-plastic columns

zL Fig. tl-l

straight columns
= A 0.

(b)

Elastic

columns

and initial y curved where (V0)max

Behavior

of

in Fig.
the
paths

shapes

11-11.

with

In these

a maximum

plots,

center

columns

deflection

that

are initial y

of Ao are

considered.

bowed

into

initial

elastic
8 j. L.
(Paris,

 and
Lagrange,
1867).

elastic-plastic
"On
an elastic

 columns
the' by Shapes
column continues

of Columns," a force

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

based on nonlinear analyses
the

long plete

see Fig.

of equilibrium for these curvature. However, load P,r serves as an asymptote which are commonly

column "circle,"

11-1 l(b).
with

pinned attains

It is to be noted
the

ends,

upon intolerable

that

cases vary, depending on the extent regardless of the magnitude of Ao, for columns with a small amount encountered in engineering problems; buckling deflection

a perfectly

into

elastic

approximately of 0.4 of the

P

initial y

straight

a comcolumn as in

length.

Oevres

de Lagrange,
beyond

11-11(c).

Behavior
Only

a perfectly

of elastic-plastic

straight

columns
colunto

can

is entirely

reach

dif erent;

and

thereafter

see Fig.

9 The

fact

that

to carry
saw.

a load

precipitously

stage may

a flexible bar 0 Discussion 2nd

can

be demonstrated

or plate such as a carpenter's of elastic deflection of columns,

applying

in excess
referred

of the Theory

buckling

to as Lagrange

ed. (New York: u T. von Karman,

be found

in S. P. Timoshenko,
McGraw-Hil , "Untersuchungen

1961). See also the

and

J. M.
Ueber
previous

Gere,
Knickfestigkeit,"

of Elastic Butterworth

in its carrying capacity. Column imperfections such drastically reduce the carrying capacity. Nevertheless, case, P provides the essential parameter for determining column With appropriate 'safeguards, design procedures can be devised this key parameter.

Publications,

of Theodore

yon

1956,

Karman,

90-140).

Volume

I, 1902-1913,

(London: P [

footnote.

bifurcation
Linearized solution

Point

of

1.015Per

x
failur e

11-4.

Euler
area may a compression

Load
buckle

for

Columns

with

Pinned

Ends
In the more general flexural rigidity
one centroidal

directions.
Fig.
ideal

thecriticlal oad, acolumn thatiscirculor artubulianritscross-sec  

The moment

sideways in any direction. member does not possess

of inertia is a maximum

equal

around

in

t -t0
elastic

Behavior
col/tmn.

of

an

and of the cross-sectional

The
I, and

minimum

significant

at the

flexural
critical

area a minimum
load

rigidity

a column

E1 of a column
buckles

around

the other;
either

depends

see Fig. Fig. 1t-12 Flexural

on the buckling
side major axxs.

to one

occurs

in plane

column

of

584

Stability

of Equilibrium: other in the

that derivation

Columns plane
fol ows

Sec. of the major axis. The use of a pinned a buckled

the compreSS

11-5.

Euler

Loads

for Columns
n2r2EI

with

Dif erent

End Restraints

585
P.,
4Pcr

pl

pl

or the
the

' '
are the eigenvalues

is understood.

Consider the ideal perfectly straight both ends; see Fig. 11-13(a). The least possible is the critical or Euler buckling
In order to determine the critical
M = -Pv

load

column with force at which load.

for this

Pn =
bility problems
as unity, elastic

L------5
problem. However, since

(11-9)
n must
in sta-

9Per

column,

this value curve for

column moment

is displaced according

of moment the initial y

as shown in Fig. to the beam sign

into Eq. straight 10-10, column

the
M

11-13(b). convention

dif erential becomes

P

In this position, 2 is -Pv. By

equation

and the critical or Euler load 3 Per for an initial y column wit h pinned ends becomes

only

the least

value

for

this

of Pn is of importance,

perfectly

be

/,n = 2

for

the

d2v

dx 2
P

E1
gives

E1 v
inertia
According

I r2Eil
Pcr= L--i-E is the elastic modulus of the material, I is the least moment

n=3 '/
(11-10)

of
(a) (b) (c)

by let ing
(a) (b)

k 2 = P/EI,

and

transposing,

of the constant

cross-sectional

area
critical

of a column,
load,
Xx

and L is itg length.

case of a column
the buckled

Fig.
both

1t-13
ends.

Column

pinned

at

j- + X2v = 0
This
motion,

case. to Eq.
elastic

pinned
11-7,
curve

at both ends is often

is

referred
B = 0, the

to as the Fig. t -t4 First three buckling

equation
(11-11)

at the

since

modes at both

for a column ends.

pinned

is an equation
and its solution

of the
is
v =AsinXx

same

form

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

as the
BcosXx

v = A sin

one

for

simple

(1;

where boundary

A and B are conditions.

arbitrary These
v(0)

constants conditions
= 0 and

that are

must
v(L)

be determined
= 0

is the characteristic, or eigenfunction, of this problem, and, since X nr/L, n can assume any integer value. There is an infinite number of functions. In this linearized solution, amplitude A of the buckling remains indeterminate. For the fundamental case n = 1, the elastic is a half-wave sine curve. This shape and the modes corresponding n = 2 and 3 are shown in Fig. 11-14. The higher modes have no physical ignificance in buckling problems, since the least critical buckling load
atn = 1.

Hence,
and

v(0)

= 0 = A sin
v(L)

0 + B cos

0
kL

or

B = 0
same

Euler
Restraints

Loads
procedure

for
as that

Columns
discussed

with
before

Dif erent
can be used

End
to determine

= 0 = A sin

This equation can be satisfied by taking each equal to zero, as can be seen from straight column, and is usually referred
native

This

k was

occurs

solution

shape

of the column

defined

when

is obtained

as ,

kn equals

by requiring

possible

the nth

n'rr, where
critical

the

A = 0. However, with A Eq. 11-7, this is a solution to as a trivial solution. An n is an integer.

sine term in Eq.

critical
solutions

axial

loads
of these

for
problems

columns
are

with
very

dif erent
sensitive

boundary
to the end

conditions.
restraints.

fol ows

from

force

solving

Pn that

X/P/E1

makes

Therefore,

shown
be
curve at

L =

the

Here considered
the

for example, in Fig. 11-15,

the
critical

effect of unknown in setting up

load:

a column with one where the buckled

the

end moment dif erential

end fixed column

Mo equation

and the other pinned, is drawn in a deflected

and the

for

the

reactions elastic

2 For the positive direction negative. If the column were would be positive. However,
it must likewise be treated

as a negative

of the deflection v shown, deflected in the opposite v would be negative. Hence,

quantity.

the bendir direction, to make

d2v the Pv
This formula was

dx 2  E1 derived by the

-Pv
great

+ Mo(1
mathematician

EI

- x/L)
Leonhard Euler

(11-12)
in 1757.

Fio.

11-15

Column

fixed

at

one

other.

end

and

pinned

at the

586

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

tl-5.

Euler

Loads

for

Columns

with

Dif erent

End

Restraints

587

Letting

k 2 = P/EI

as before,

and

transposing,

gives

Ip
L/4

d2v dx 2 +
The
that

X2v = X2M(1P
of this
right

)
by Eq.
equation,
becomes

(11,
11-7. The
i.e., when
the term
(11-1
L. = 0.7L

right

homogeneous
side

solution,

side is zero,

by k 2. The

due to the nonzero

v = A sin

is the same
complete
Xx

solution

as that

dif erential

solution

side,
Xx

given

then

is given

by dividing
- x/L)

+ B cos

+ (Mo/P)(1

where at the

A and B are arbitrary fixed end. The three

constants, kinematic

and boundary

Mo

is the unknown conditions are

iL. Le2L
P

L = L/2

0.3L

L/4

v(O) Hence, v(O) v(L)

= 0

v(L)

= 0

and

v'(O)

= 0
the
16(b),

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

columns restraints.

Fig.

t 46

with

Effective

dif erent

lengths

of

= 0 = B + Mo/P = 0 = A sin kL + BcoskL

other
with

hand,
a load

the

critical
at the top

load
is

for

a fi'ee-standing
T2 EI

column,

TM Fig.

11-

and

v'(O)

= 0 = Ak

- Mo/PL

Solving
scendental

these
equation

eqhations

simultaneously,
XL =

tan

Per - 4L 2 NON-ACTIVATED VERSION one obtains the fol owing www.avs4you.com

In this extreme case, the critical load
XL (11-1
case.

(11-18)
one-fourth of that for the

is only

All

which
at the

must
critical

be satisfied
load. The

for
smallest

a nontrivial
root
KL = 4.493

equilibrium
of Eq. 11-15 is

shape

of the

the
load for

actual
0.5L,

case,
for

the previous provided

inflection
the

column

fundamental

points

length.

that

formulas can the effective

on the elastic
casd

This

length

be made column

tums

is L,

but

curves.

out

to resemble lengths are

the

the

for

The

to be the
cases

used

effective

distance

fundamental instead of the

discussed

column

between

it is 0.7L,

length

and

2L,
length

respectively.

For

a general

case,

Le
end Fig.

= KL,

where

K is the

from fixed

which the corresponding at one end and pinned

least eigenvalue at the other is

or critical

Per It can 11-16(d), be shown the critical that

load

20.19EI L2
case

2.05'rr2EI L2
of a column
4,tr2EI

(114
fixed at both ends,

factor, which depends on the In to the classical cases shown in are seldom truly pinned or completely the ends. Because of the uncertainty regarding are often assumed to be pin-ended. shown in Fig. 11-16(b), where it cannot Summary

restraints. 11-16, actual compresfixed against rotation the fixity of the ends, With the exception of the be used, this procedure is

in the is

PcrThe last two are substantial y equations larger show than that those

L2

(11:

buckling
same curvature-moment

loads

in this

and
relation

the
that

preceding
was derived

section
for

are
the

found
deflection

using

beams, 4 A telephone
top

Eqs.
is an example.

10-10. pole having

However, no external

the

bending braces and

moments with a heavy

are

writ en transformer

for at

by restraining the ends the critical in the fundamental case, Eq.

588

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

H-6.

Limitations

of

the

Euler

Formulas

589

axial y loaded columns in slightly deflected positions. results in an entirely dif erent kind of second order than that for beam flexure. The solution of this equation the same load, two neighboring equilibrium configurations for a column. One of these configurations corresponds umn, the other to a slightly bent column. The axial multaneously with the bent and the straight shape critical buckling load. This occurs at the bifurcation
the solution.

that are to a straight force associated of the column is (branching) point

Mathematically dif erential shows

Ocr , ksi

3C

Aluminum
alloy

limit

20

\

Long column
range

In the developed formulation, the columns are assumed to be elastic, and to have the same cross section throughout the Only the flexural deformations of a column are considered. For the second order dif erential equations considered in this the same kinematic boundary conditions are applicable as for beams flexure, Fig. 10-5. Elastic buckling load formulas are truly remarkable. Although they not depend on the strength of a material, they determine the capacity of columns. The only material property involved is the elas!

10

Fir-
Fig.
0 100 120 200 LB
column slenderness dif erent

1t-t7

Variation
stress ratio materials. with for

of critical
three

modulus
material.

E, which
previous proportional

physically
equations limit do of the

represents
not apply material.

the
if the This

stif ness
axial problem column

characteristic
stress is discussed ex in ne:: ..

general. The ratio L/r of the column length to the least radius of gyration is called the column slenderness ratio. No factor of safety is included in the last equation. A graphical interpretation of Eq. 11-19 is shown in Fig. 11-17, where the critical column stress is plot ed versus the slenderness ratio for three

The the

next section.
][-6.
The elastic

modulus

Limitations
E

of-the
was used

Euler

t: i curve is a hyperbola. However, since Eq. 11-19 is based on the elastic NON-ACTIVATED behavior of VERSION a material, Crcr determined by this equation cannot exceed the proportional limit of a material. Therefore, the hyperbolas shown in Fig. 11-17 are drawn dashed beyond the individual matehal's proportional www.avs4you.com
Formulas
and these
the derivation of the Euler

dif erent'materials.
-

For

each

material,

E is constant,

and

the

resulting

in

portions of Eq. 11-19

next

of the curves to include

cannot inelastic

be used. material

The response

necessary wil

be

for columns; therefore, all the reasoning presented earlier is while the material behavior remains linearly elastic. To bring out significant limitation, Eq. 11-10 is rewrit en in a dif erent form. By niti0n, I = Ar 2, where A is the cross-sectional area, and r is its of gyration. Substitution of this relation into Eq. 11-10 gives

in

the

section.

:
One

The

useful
column,

portions
but rather

of the
the

hyperbolas
behavior

do not
of an infinite

represent
number

the

behavior
of ideal col-

of

at the most

For

example,

'Pcr -- L2

r2 EI

r2 EAr

L----

COlumn is now possible with the aid of these diagrams. Thus, a column said to be long if the elastic Euler formula applies. The beginning long-column range is shown for three matehals in Fig. 11-17.

g ratios of L/r. Moreover,

carry

a particular

a load of o'A. Not e that crc; always

steel

column,

say,

with

note th TM PreCiSe definitin

decreases

an L/r

= 120,

6f  16fig
of

with

or
where the critical stress

i Pcr *r2E1
crcr - A - (L/r) 2
crcr for a column

the as Pcr/A, i.e.,

= 200

is defined

shortest length L for a steel column with pinned area of 60 by 100 mm, for which the elastic Euler GPa and assume the proportional limit to be 250

ends having a crossformula applies. Let MPa.

average stress over load Pr. The length of the cross-sectional the minimum t: By

the cross-sectional area A of a column at the of the column is L, and r is the least radius of area, since the original Euler formula is in using the effective length Le, the

1.8

minimum moment of inertia x 106 mm 4. Hence,

of the

cross-sectional

area

I.n

= 100

x 603/12

590

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

1t-7.

Generalized

Euler

Buckling.

Load

Formulas

59i

rigidity the load decreases.

E,I at B is sufficiently is increased, the stress A column of ever

large, level "less

and it can rises, whereas stif material"

carry

a higher load. tangent modis acting under an the

increaging modulus
and

rmin
using
limit,

=
O'cr=

/-'f Xx 100106 V X 10mm

'rr2E[(L/r) 2. Solving for the L/r ratio at the
O'cr 250

Euler

load. Substitution E is then the only formulas applicable buckling-load formula,

of the tangent modulus E, for the elastic modification necessary to make the elastic in the inelastic range. Hence, the generalized or the tangent modulus formula,iS becomes

Then,
tional

Eq.

11-19,

_)2 ,rr2E 'rr2'x 200 x 10 800,rr2

L
or

I 'rr2Et 1
Crcr -- (L/r)2
Since stresses compression buckle with
this

(11-20)

=
F

88.9

and

L = 88.9/

x 10 = 1540mm

corresponding stress-strain these values

behavior for

to the tangent moduli can be obtained from diagram, the L/r ratio at which a column can be obtained from Eq. 11-20. A plot
low and intermediate ratios of L/r is shown

Et

Therefore, as, for such

exceed the

proportional

if this column is 1.54 m or more dimensions of the column, the

limit for the material.

in length, it wil buckle critical stress at buckling

11-7.

Generalized
from

Euler
is shown

A typical
vented

compression

O to A, buckling

hyperbola

the material behaves does not exceed this

buckling

strdss-strain

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Buckling-Load Formulas www.avs4you.com diagram for a specimen that is

in Fig. 11-18(a). In the stress

at the instant of the fibers

5 The

tangent

a case.'This important column, of dif erent

the figure A column the shortest A shorter

portion to recall but rather lengths.

by

expressed

of the curve that this curve the behavior The hyperbola

by Eq. 11-19,

elastically. If the stress range, the column buckles

is shown as ST in Fig. 11-18(b). does not represent the of an infinite number of ideal beyond the useful range is

O'er = q'r2E/(L/r2),

is applicable

in a elastically.

range

in

Column
load.
B.

of some stress, rebound with .hown in Fig. 11-A at point C. Inasmuch used in developing this theory (see F. Structures [New York: McGraw-Hil , is or the reduced-modtdus the same column slenderness ratio, column buckling capacity than between the two solutions was explained by F. concept,

tangent

modulus

it tends on the

modulus

Et.

to buckle. concave

formula

The

fibers

side

As

gives

on the

a column continue

the

carrying

Theory,"

aSymptotically

The

applied
can

buckling

J. Aero:
load

proceeds given

Sci.

However.
one the

prior

to that

given

anticipate

to reaching

by

by the
the

simultaneously

14/5

original elastic modulus E, as as two moduli, Et and E, are Bleich, Buckling Strength of Metal 1952]), it is referred to either as the theory of column buckling. For this theory always gives a slightly the tangent-modulus theory. The is not very large. The reason for R. Shanley (see his paper, "Inelastic

the

convex

deforms further, to approximately

capacity

side,

however,

the stif ness exhibit the

of a column

on being

1.

Fig.

behavior

11-A

Stress-strain
in

buckled

column.

(May

1947):261-267).
with

proportional limit of the material. gram, Fig. 11-18(a), this means passed point A and has reached
elastic

dashed lines. with an L/r ratio corresponding to point S in Fig. column of a given material and size that wil column, having a stil smaller L/r ratio, wil not buckle

stress created,

level,

neously modulus

it may be said that a column of dif erent material has the stif ness of the material is no longer represented by modulus. At this point, the material stif ness is given by the tangent to the stress-strain curve, i.e., by the E,; see Fig. 11-18(a). The column remains stable if its new

On the compression stress-strain that the stress level in the some point B perhaps. At this

at

between the tangent-modulus load and the y time-independent elastic-plastic material and section was accurately determined by T. H. Lin (see his paper on "Inelastic Column Buckling," J. Aeron. Sci., Vol. 17, No. 3, 1950, 159J. E. Duberg and T. W. Wilder (see their paper on "Column Behavior the Plastic Stress Range," J. Aeron. Sci., Vol. 17, No. 6, 1950, 323have further concluded that for materials whose stress-strain curves

modulus The

they vary theory. maximum

mechanical

dif erently

a material yield or It is convenient properties for the whole

for dif erent

the load

double-modulus

tangent-modulus
given

the theory;

theory

increasing

According
see

increases
Fig.

axial

to

cross-sections

failure, making the tangent that in the tangent-modulus cross section are the same,
in the double-

by the

double-modulus

the-

11-

Double-modulus

load

lying

Tangent-modulus

ctual
rotation

nley

since

gradually

irnum

the

load

inelastic

y above

in

is only

range

the inelastic the tangent-modulus

range,

the

slightly

tends

higher

to rapidly

than

exhibit

maximum load. If,

the

tangent-modulus

plastic

however,

column

behavior,

load can the material

Cross-section

load.

the

max-

Fig.

t *B

Inelastic

buckling
dif erent

loads

theories.

by

592

Stability

of Equilibrium:
cr

Columns

Sec.

t -8.

Eccentric
Ocr

Loads

and

the

Secant

Formula

593

Yield

strength

.. .Euler's

hyperbola
Proportional limit

Euler'shyperbolas

Short

columns--

Pin-ended

(a)

(b)

columns 
in columns versus

( L/r h

L/r

Fig.
slenderness

t 48

(a)

Compression
ratio.

stress-strain

diagram,

and

(b)

critical

stress

Fig. 1149

Comparison

of the behavior

of columns

with

dif erent

end

conditions.

in Fig. verify
As

11-18(b) this curve_

mentioned to as long

by

the

buckle elastically are ferred having small L/r ratios buckling phenomena are called short columns. The remaining are of intermediate length.' At small L/r ratios, ductile materials "s( out" and can carry very large loads. If length L in Eq. 11-20 is treated as the effective length of a dif erent end conditions can be analyzed. Following this comparative purposes, plots of critical stress O'cr versus the ratio L/r for fixed-ended columns and pin-ended ones are shown in 11-19. It is important to note that the carrying capacity for these two per Eqs. 11-10 and 11-17 is in a ratio of 4 to 1 only for columns the slenderness ratio (L/r) or greater. For smaller L/r ratios sively less benefit is derived from restraining the ends. the curves merge. It makes lit le dif erence whether a "short pinned or fixed at the ends, as strength rather than buckling
the behavior.

with earlier, columns.

curve remarkable
columns Columns

from

R to S. Tests accuracy.
that

NON-ACTIVATED where an VERSION eccentric load is deliberately applied. Thus, an eccentrically loaded column can be studied and its capacity determined on the basis of an allowable elastic stress. This does not determine the ultimate cawww.avs4you.com To analyze the behavior of an eccentrically loaded column, consider
on individual
of a column.

actual

column, which is termed "straight," .load eccentricity may be assigned.

a probable Also, there

crookedness are many

or an columns

taken
and

the column

concentrically

the dif erential

at the upper
loaded

shown

force

in Fig.

equation

P, the bending
i.e.,
d2v M

11-20.

If the origin

column,

for the elastic

moment
P

of the coordinate

curve

at any section

is the same

as for a
y V
x

is -Pv,

axes

is
P

dx 2   = - where, by again let ing X = X/,

v =AsinXx

v solution

(11-5) is as before:
(11-7)

the general
+ BcosXx

Eccentric
A dif erent method a column than was nor are the applied umns may be studied

Loads

and

the

Secant

Formula

of analysis may be used to determine the discussed before. Since no column is perfectly forces perfectly concentric, the behavior with some statistically determined

However, the remainder of the problem is not the same, since the boundary conditions are now dif erent. At the upper end, v is equal to the eccentricity of the applied load, i.e., v(0) = e. Hence, B = e, and
v = AsinXx + ecosXx

(11-21)

possible

misalignments

of the

applied

loads.

Then,

for

the

design

Next, midheibecause of symmetry, ght of the column,

i.e.,

the elastic curve has a vertical tangent at lFi g. t -20 Eccentrically oaded column.

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns
v'(L/2) = 0

Sec.
ling in Eq. faster caused must For nPa, yield can exist 11-24,
the

t .8.

Eccentric

Loads

and

the Secant

Formula

Therefore,
,L/2, it is found

by

setting
that

the

derivative
sin
cos

of Eq.
kL/2
kL/2

11-21

equal

to zero

at x

Hence,

the

equation

for

the

elastic

curve

is

in the direction of no definite eccentricity. Also note that relation between Crmx and P is not linear; Crmx increases .than P. Therefore, the solutions for maximum stresses in columns by dif erent axial forces cannot be superposed; instead, the forces be superposed first, and then the stresses can be calculated. an allowable force Pa on a column, where n is the factor of safety, must be substituted for P in Eq. 11-24, and Crmx must be set at the point of a material, i.e.,

XL/2 2 sin Xx + cos Xx sin xL/ v= e(\co

(1
This
since

No indeterminacy imum deflection occurs at L/2,

zero. Hence,

of any constants appears in this equation, and the maxVmx can be found from it. This maximum defle, since at this point, the derivative of Eq. 11-22 is equal

ma y--p ec I O'xO'
procedure
such a force

"1 +  sec 7
factor
n

4EA,/
for the
a critical

(11-25)

assures
can

a correct
be increased

of
times

safety
before

applied
stress

force,
is

7J(Z/2) = Umax - eos ' q- cos

For
are

- e sec-bending moment

(11-23)
M

reached. Application and-error

Note

the term of Eqs.

procedure.

nP appearing under the radical. 11-24 and 11-25 is cumbersome, Alternatively, they can be studied

requiring graphically,

a trial-

as

the
now

column
known,

shown
the maximum

in Fig.

11-20,
compressive

developed to Pvmx.

at the/)oint Therefore,

of maximum since the direct

deflection force and

(contrast

this

with

the
usual

average
formula

stress
as

P/A

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

the largest

shown

in Fig.

11-21.

6 From

this

plot,

note

the

large

effect

that

load

ec-

acting

stress

and numerically the largest bending

occurring

is

on the

column)

in the

centricity columns. secant

has on short columns and the negligible Graphs of this kind form a suitable aid equation covers the whole range of column
Trans.

one on in practical lengths. Design

very slender design. The The greatest of Steel Col-

can

computed

by the
P

umns,"

6 This

figure
P

ASCE

is adapted

101

(1936):431.

from

D.

H.

Young,

"Rational

Mc I
= P,

= AP +
hence,

PvmaxC Ar 2

1 + ' ec sec

o, ksi
36

But

k = 

O'max This equation, for columns,

imum

AP_( ec L 4E )
1 + ' sec 7
term,
elastic the

,1
of equal

24


0

0.1 =ec/r2 \ "Yield strength

er'hsyperbola

200 L/r

stress

does

because of the secant and it applies to columns

not exceed

is known of any length,

limit.

A condition

as the secant providied

causes

the

Mild steel
1 O0
P

centricities
deflection.

of the
it is obtained

applied

forces
the

in the
value

same

direction

the
axis

since

Note

that

in 'Eq.
occurs.

11-24,
from

the radius
cases,

of I associated

of gyration
a more

r may
critical

with

not be minimum
the

(b)

which

bending

In some

condition

secant

Fig.

t -2t

formula.

Results

of analyses

for

dif erent

columns

by

the

596

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

'1t-9.

Beam-Columns

597

handicap even for

The secant

in using supposedly
formula

this

formula straight
for short

is that columns,
columns

some

and

eccentricity e must this is a dif icult

reverts to a familiar

be as., task? secant

when proaches

L/r

approaches unity; hence,

zero. For this case, the value in the limit, Eq. 11-24 becomes
P Pec P Mc

of the

Moreover, in the majority of applications, large deformations cannot be tolerated. Therefore, it is usually possible to limit the investigation of the behavior of systems to small and moderately large deformations. In this problem, this can be done by setting sin 0  0, and cos 0  1. In this manner, Eq. 11-27 simplifies to
P kO FL

Crmx
a relation normally used for

A + Ar 2
short blocks.

A + I

LO

or

0 =

-k

FL

PL

(11-28)

*'11-9.
In the jected
colurns.

Beam-Columns
preceding to equal
The

member acted or moments

section, the moments upon simultaneously causing bending.

end

problem of an axial y was considered. This

by an axial Such members
and the

load_ed column is a special case

and referred
linearized

of
be

force are

to
solutions

as

bar

behavior

of

beam-columns

are generally employed for their example of the rigid bar shown initial y held in a vertical position
spring constant k. When vertical to the top of the-bar, it rotates wrriten for the deformed state, analysis. Bearing in mind that the spring at A, one obtains.

be clarified by the This bar of length Li at A having a force P and horizontal and the equilibrium equation must a form similar to that used in k 0 is the resisting moment developed

analysis in Fig. by

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

EXAMPLE t -3

can 11-22(a). a spring

For small finite values of 0, this solution is quite acceptable. On the other hand, as 0 increases, the discrepancy between this linearized solution and the exact one becomes very large and loses its physical meaning. Analogous to this, for the analysis of elastic beam-columns, where the deflections are small to moderate, it is generally sufficiently accurate to employ the usual linear dif erential equation for elastic deflection of beams. However, in applying this equation, the bending moments caused by the transverse loads as well as the axial forces must be writ en for a deflected member. Such a procedure is il ustrated in the next example.

A beam-column F at its midspan; and the critical

Solution

is subjected see Fig. axial force

to an axial force 11-23(a). Determine Pcr- E1 is constant.

P and an upward transverse the equation of the elastic

force curve,

(a)

 MA
or

= O0

+
P=

' PL
kO

sin O + FL
FL cos 0

cos

0 - k0

= 0

Exact /
Linearized
solution

The This

sin

includes
the
M =

free-body diagram

relation
-(F/2)x

the effect
M

diagram assists

for with

=EIv",
Pv,

of the axiai
Eq.
one

the deflected formulation

10-10, =

force

and

P multiplied
noting

of

beam-column the total

that

by the deflection
for the

is shown in Fig. 11-23(b). bending moment M, which

left

side

v. Thus,

of the

span,

using

The the to large an

as

qualitative features of this result are shown in Fig. 11-22(b), corresponding curve is labeled as the exact solution. It is note that as 0 --> r, provided the spring continues to function, a force P can be supported by the system. For a force P applied upward direction, plot ed downward in the figure, angle 0
P increases.

has

EIv"=

-Pv

(F/2)x

0 --< x --< L/2

The

tions.
secant
(b)

solution In complex
formula.

expressed problems,
there
The fact

by
question
the

Eq. 11-27 it is dif icult

stress reaches

is for arbitrarily to achieve

philosophical
a certain value

large solutions
correctness
does

of
not

F
of

7 Moreover,
the

is some
that

that

as to the
is not
axial

that case.

column It can be

buckles, shown

i.e.,

an

stress additional

a measure load

can

of buckling be resisted

load

beyond

in
(a)

-L/2
(b)

Fig.
degree

t -22

Rigid
of freedom.

bar

with

one

point Buckling
1.

where

the Strength

maximum of Metal

stress at the critical Structures (New

York:

section

is reached. McGraw-Hil ,

See F. 1952), Cha

Fig.

t -23

598

Stability

of

Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

t -9.

Beam-Columns

599 with

or

EIv"

q- Pv

- (F/2)x

By

dividing

through
dif erential
d2v

by E1 and
equation

let ing
becomes
k2F

h 2 = P/E1,

after

some

simplification

governing

Equations 11-31, 11-33, and 11-34 become infinite when since then cos  is equal to zero and tan  is infinite. require. ment, for an nth mode, where n is an integer,

 is a multiple In conformity

of r/2, this

dx 2 q- .2v =
The homogeneous solution of this

2p'X
equals the
cos IX

0 <-- x --< L/2

equation is the same as thatl

=term divided by
load

kL =  - L
for P, and setting

2
n = 1, the
,r2EI

(11-35)
critical buckling

dif erential

Solving

Eq.
Therefore,

11-6,

and
the

the
complete

particular
solution

solution
is

right-hand
(F/2P)x

is obtained.

the

last

two

expressions
n2,rr2EI

v =
Constants condition

Ci

sin

Xx

C2

Pnv(0) = 0, and

L2
infinite
deflections

--
deflections
are

Per = L2
and

(11-36)
moments.
trends

C and C2 fol ow from the boundary of symmetry, v'(L/2) = 0. The first

condition, condition

This
the
forces,

gives

Euler

procedure
on

buckling
the

shows
other

load

that

causing
the

a solution

of the linearized
reduced.

dif erential
These

equation

For
are

tensile
similar

yields

hand,

v(0)
Since

C2

to those

shown

in Fig.

11-22(b).

v'
with C2 already known

Ck
to be

cos
zero,

Ix
the

C2k
second

v'(L/2)

= .Ck

cos

XL/2

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 62 -9 + . . ran = + 3 +5 + 357 + 2_u www.avs4you.com

sin Ix F/2P making note of Eq. 11-35.
condition gives

Next it is of considerable practical importance to obtain an approximate to this problem that can then be generalized for a great many beam-column lems for finding deflections and maximum moments. For this purpose, tan  into the Maclaurin (Taylor) series and subtitute the result into

solution probexpand Eq. 11-33,

F/2P

(11-37)
(11-38)

or
On substituting this constant

Ci

= F/[2Pk
into Eq. 11-30,

cos

(XL/2)]
However,

Vmx = 2P 
in view

F 1(-)3(
of Eqs.

1+ 
and

u 6 + '" 2 2 + u17-4 + 96_5-pL 4EI 2

11-35

11-36,

v - 2Pk F cossinIXL/ x2
where the last relationship is obtained

2P F x = 2- F (si \ cos n .kc_ Ix

by setting

(11-3
By
(11-32)

2 . .
substituting the last equation

.2L2 4

2.467411-38 and

P Pcr

(11-39)

into

Eq.

simplifying,

XL/2
Since the maximum deflection occurs

= 
at x = L/2,
F

after

some

simplifications

48EI

0.9870

Vmx
and the absolute maximum bending

2Pk

(tan

 occurring

)

+ 0.9857(pr) 2 + 0'9855(prr) 3+ '"1

coefficients 8 in the bracketed
beam Biegung

(11-40)

By
moment at midspan is

approximating

the
For

expression
columns, beanspruchter

by unity

and
"Die

Mmax = ---FL - Pvmx[ = - F tan

Der

Hall, 1974). Tragfaehigkeit

Stahlbau

s A. Chajes,

9 (1936):!2,

discussion axial gedrueckter

Principles

of Structural
22, and

of elastic-plastic und

Stability
auf

(Englewood

Clif s,
see

K.

39.

Jezek, Stahistaebe,"

NJ:

Prentice-

600

Stability

of

Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

t -t0.

Dif erential

Equations

for

Beam-Columns

60'1

recalling
form, one

that
has

the sum

of the resulting

power

series

9 can

be writ en

in

The

first

one

of these

equations

yields
dV

7)max  48---
In this
coefficient

FL3 1 (see
beam

/Pcr
Table
center

(11-41
11 in the
deflection

dx
second,
dM dx

q
on neglecting
dv dx

(11-43)
the infinitesimals

expression,
in front

it can
of the

be recognized
bracket is the

Appendix)
without the

which is identical of higher order,

to Eq. gives

5-3.

The

force. The bracketed expression gives the deflection magnification factor by the applied axial force P. When this force reaches Per, the deflection bec infinite. This magnification factor can be used with virtually any kind loadings as long as they are applied in the same direction, and the results remarkably accurate for small and moderate deflections. After the approximate maximum deflection is obtained using Eq. 11-41, maximum bending moment fol ows from statics as

V = -are

+ P--

(11-44)

Mmax
where the in a deflected
portant.

I - FL - PvmaxI
loading, beam-columns, and the second the last term to the axial becomes

(1
such as Eq. 11-29,

first

term member.

is due

For

to transverse stocky

Therefore, for beam-columns, shear V, in addition to depending on the rate of change in moment M as in beams, now also depends on the magnitude of the axial force and the slope of the elastic curve. The lat er term is the component of P along the inclined sections shown in Fig. 11-24. On substituting Eq. 11-44 into Eq. 11-43 and using the usual beam curvature-moment relation d2v/dx 2 = M/E1, one obtains the two alternative governing dif erential equations for beam-columns:

It is important
beam-columns are

to-note
of dif erent

that

the
kind

dif erential
than those

only.
applied

For

this
in these

reason,
problems.

the

singularity

functions

d2M 2 h NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

equations,
used for beams

(11-45)

previously

presented

cannot

or
Alternative
Columns

I d4v K2d2v qi
-/
V

dx 2 - E1

(11-46)
M +dM

Dif erential

Equations

for

Beamto that

Yt

For some solutions of beam-column problems, the governing dif erential equations into dif erent cussed in the previous section. In order to derive the beam-column element shown in Fig. 11-24, small-deflection approximations:
dv/dx = tan 0  sin 0  0 cos 0  1

it is convenient forms from such equations, and make the

dis

fol owin
 dx
V+dV

and

ds

On

this

basis,

the

two

equilibrium

equations

are

q dx

+ VP dv +

(V
unity

+ dv)
by the

= 0
dx/2 (M + dM) =
dv/dx + higher-order terms
x

MA
This

= 0
can

+
be verified

M-

V dx

+ q dx

by dividing

denominator.

Fig.
element.

t -24

Beam-column

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns
EI is assumed to be constant, and, as before, conditions for these equations are the same (see Fig. 10-5), except for shear where Eq. 11-44 use of the beam curvature-moment relation, Eq. alternative form can be writ en as
Solution

Sec. 1t40.
as

Dif erential

Equations

for Beam-Columns

where, for simplicity, P/E1. The boundary beams in flexure By again making in more appropriate

Within the span, there Eq. 11'-46 is zero, and 11-47a is the complete

is no transverse the homogeneous

solution. The

load. Therefore, solution of this boundary conditions

the right-hand equation given

are

term by

of

Eq.

v(O)

=
M
v(0) v(L)

0
=EIv",
= =

v(L)
with

= 0
the aid

M(O)
of Eqs.
+ + c2 C2

=
11-47a

-Mo
and

and
11-47c, these

M(L)
conditions
+C4=0

-Mo
yield:

I. V d3v dvI
If P = 0, Eqs. 11-44a, 14b, 5-5, and 10-14c For future reference,
of its derivatives are

(1

Since

+C

sin

kL

cos

kL

C3L

+C4=0

for

11-45, and transversely the homogeneous

11-46
loaded

revert,
beams.

respectively, of Eq. 11-46

to E{ and sev
Solving

M(O) M(L)
these

= =
four Mo
P

-C1EI'A
equations 1 sin

2 sin

kL

- C2EIPA - C2EI'A

2 2 cos

solution

simultaneously, 205
205

v= v' =

CsinXx+ CX cos

Xx

C2cosXx+ - C2X

sin

Xx

C3x+ + C3

C4

(1 Therefore,

C

cos

C2 elastic

= curve

-C4 is

Mo
P

and

v"

-CX

 sin

Xx

v"' = -CX
These uating relations constants are useful C, C2, for C3,

3 cos

Xx + C2X3
The

Eq.

10-14b

is essential

when

shear

expressing and C4.

at a boundary

Solutions of homogeneous Eqs. 11-45 or 11-46 for 1; conditions lead to critical buckling loads for elastic prismatic These solutions have the same meaning as discussed earlier with the equivalent solutions of the second order dif erential
in Sections 11-4 and 11-5.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION v =-,sinXx www.avs4you.com

sin Xx
the boundary use of Eq.

C2X 2 cos

Xx

the

equation

of the

must

conditions 11-44a

in

be considered.
in

rather

+ cosXxAfter some

1
simplifications,

(11-48) it is

The

maximum
be

deflection

occurs

at x = L/2.

found

to

VmaxThe largest bending

Mo P (si \cosn 2 kL/2 + cos '- - 1 =  sec-- - 1 (11-49)

moment also occurs at x = L/2. Its absolute maximum is

Mmax
EXAMPLE t -4

= I -Mo

- Pvmax
to that
Mo

I = Mo

sec

XL/2
11-8 for solutions,
solution

(11-50)
an howand the

A slender axial force the largest

bar of constant EI is simultaneously P, as shown in Fig. 11-25(a). bending moment.

subjected Determine the

to end maximum

moments deflection

Mo

This centrically
ever,

solution loaded
should be

is directly column.
noted. The

comparable Two dif erences

end moments

given in Section in the details of the

= Pe of the earlier

ec-

Total

deflection

L
(a)


Fig. 11-25

Deflection dueto
Mo only
(b)

x axis axis. Eqs. The stantial y condition and If

of the eccentrically loaded column is at a distance e Then, with the use of some trigonometric identities, 11-22 and 11-48 lead to the same results. results again show that in slender members, bending increased in the presence of axial compressive encountered in Example 11-3, when kL/2 = r/2, Vma x and Mmax become infinite. the applied axial forces are tensile instead of compresslye, and so does the character of Eqs. 11-45 and 11-46. are reduced with increasing axial force P.

away from it can be moments forces. axial

the column shown that can be subto the P = Per, sign cases, of P the

Similar force the

For

such

Stability
been done the Maclaurin
using Eq.

of Equilibrium:
Eq.

Columns
as
and

Sec. 11-1t. General

M(L) =EIr
lt

Considerations

Next

11-49 is recast into an approximate form in the same manner in Example 11-3. For this purpose, sec kL/2 = sec  is expanded (Taylor) series, and, after substituting into Eq. 11-49, is
11-39. Thus,

(L)

Using.these

conditions

with

Eqs.
C2 C2

11-47a

and

11-47c,

one
+ + C4= C4

obtains
0 0

sec=1+5-+7/

1 ,

5 4 +7-76 61 6 +'"

(11-5[

C sin

kL

-Ck2EI

sin
solution

+ kL requires algebraic

cos

KL

C3L

C2.2EI C2.2EI
that equations

cos
the

KL
determinant be equal

= = 0 = 0

and

Vmax =--

1 + 1.028
+ 1.032 + --(1

To for

11-1).

obtain this

Therefore,

set

a nontrivial of homogeneous

with

X2EI

= P,

of the coefficients to zero (see Example

Again,
unity,

and

all the coefficients

the power

series

in the bracketed
summed,

giving

expression

can be approximated

sin -PsinkL

0 , 0i
kL cos kL L

-P

-PcoskL

0 0

=0

The

coefficient

in front

of the

bracketed

of the span due to the end moments Me (see Table 11 in the Appendix). deflection magnification factor due to the axial force P in the brackets is
to that found earlier lead, the deflection
ory.

in Example 11-3. When becomes infinite according

The maximum

bending

momeht
mmax

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com at the center of the beam fol ows from
same 11~8.

expression

is the

The

evaluation condition

of this as given

determinant by Eq.

leads

to sin

kL

= 0, which the length extends

is precisely

the

This

force P reaches to this linear

the snall

Euler deflection

The

the method

approach

axial

force

is advantageous
and

cannot

E1 remain constant throughout be applied directly if the axial force

in problems

with

dif erent

boundary

of the column. over only a part

conditions,

a member.

= I -me

- Pdmax

EXAMPLE

t -5

By using
a column
Solution

Eq.

with

l 1-46 in homogeneous
pinned ends.

form,

determine

the Euler

buckling

lead

'211.11.
For other than

General
short

Considerations
columns cross-sectional and blocks, areas the should buckling have theory for the largest columns possible

that this purpose, Eq. 11-46 can be writ en

d4v + dx 4
k 2

their

For

as
d2v dx 2
=0

least radius est possible

as discussed

of gyration slenderness
rolled

r. Such ratio,
of the shapes

in Section

a provision Le/r, permit ing

11-2,

limitations

for columns the use

must

assures of higher

be placed

the smallstresses.
on

the

The

47. For a pin-ended

solution

of this

equation

column,

the boundary
v(L) = 0

and

several

of its derivatives

conditions
M(O)

are

are given

by

material generally

to prevent have

local plate wall-thickness

buckling.

ratios

Since suffi-

lem
= 0

ciently

as it applies
remainder

large

to prevent

to aluminum
of this

such
chapter

buckling,

alloy

compression

only

a brief

members

treatment

wil

of this

be given

prob-

v(O)

= 0

= EIv"(O)

2o The

is optional.

606
Lacing

Stability

of

Equilibrium:

Columns

]E
Lacing (a)
(b)

here. Torsional made from are excluded

thin
from

buckling plate

modes elements consideration

that may control the and open unsymmetrical (see Section 11-2).

capacity

cross

sec

Oyplj
to

ocr 

Vertex of

Oc r

parabola
\

Since

tubular

members

have

a large

radius

of gyration

in relation

Lacing

amount of material in a cross section, umns. Wide flange sections (sometimes very suitable for use as columns, and have narrow flanges, resulting in larger a large radius of gyration, columns are truded shapes, and the individual pieces desired effect. Cross sections for typical are shown in Figs. 11-26(a) and (b), for

they are excellent for use as referred to as H sections) are are superior to I sections, ratios of Le/r. In order to often built up from rolled or are spread out to obtain bridge compression a derrick boom or a radio

a,
0

\NJ/
(L/r)

tangency

Point of

Euler's

1
(a) (b)

in Fig. 11-26(c), the lat er case

and
are

for an ordinary truss in Fig. separated by spacers. The main

11-26(d). longitudinal

The

angles shapes
regard to column-design

Fig.

t -29

Typical

column-buckling

curves

for

design.

(e)

(f)

column

Fig.

t -26

'cross

Typical

sections.

built-up

the other members are separated by plates, or are laced by light bars as shown in Figs. 11-26(e) and (f). Local instability careful y guarded against to prevent failures in lacing bars, as shown Fig. 11-27. Such topics are beyond the scope of this text. 2 Unavoidable imperfections must be recognized in the practical desi of columns. Therefore, specifications usually stipulate not only the c of material, but also fabrication tolerances for permissible ness. The residual stresses caused by the manufacturing process mu also be considered. For example, steel wide-flange sections, uneven cooling during a hot rolling operation, develop residual patterns of the type shown in Fig. 11-28. The maximum residual

formulas.

Now

that

the

column-buckling

phe-

pressive

Lacing Lacing

in aluminum alloy terial in the heat on column buckling After initial y range of applicability,
(New

stresses

members affected have accepting (ed.),

may

be on the order
reduce
zone. a large the a chaotic

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

mechanical these reasons,

the

of 0.3Cryp

in such

For scatter. Euler buckling-load situation existed

properties experimental

members.

of the:

for for Metal

formula many

years

Fig. t -27 instability.

Lattice

2 B. G. Johnson
York:

Wiley,

1988).

Stability

Design

Criteria

Structures,

we in common use. For steel, it is now customary to specify two formulas. One of these is for use for short and intermediate-length columns; the other, for slender columns, Fig. 11-29(a). For the lower range of column length, usually a parabola, and, in a few instances, an inclined straight line, is specified. In this manner, the basic compressive strength of the material, residual stresses, and fabrication tolerances are accounted for. For slender (long) columns, the Euler elastic buckling load provides the basis for the critical stress. In this range of column lengths, the residual stresses play a relatively minor role. The dominant parameters are the material stif ness, E, and geometric fabrication imperfections. Often the two specified complementary equations have a common tangent'at a selected value of L/r. Such a condition cannot be ful "fled if a straight line is used instead of a parabola. In a few specifications, the more conserapproach of using the elastic formula and an allowable stress is ,y assuming an accidental eccentricity based on manufacturing tolerances. For some materials, a sequence of three dif erent equations is specified for the design of columns, Fig. 11-29(b). One of these equations for short columns defines the basic compressive strength of a material. Another equation, specifically applicable for the long column range, is based on the Euler buckling load. An empirical relation, such as an inclined straight line shown in the figure, or a parabola, is specified for columns of intermediate lengths. Such a type of formula is generally given for aluminum alloys and wood. In applying the design formulas, it is important to observe the fol owing
items:
1. The writ en. material and fabrication tolerances for which the formula is

nomenon

is more

clearly

understood,

only

a few

column

formula

types

Fig.
stress

t -28
pattern.

Schematic

residual

2.

Whether

the

formula

gives

the

working

load

(or

stress)

or whether

607

6O8

Stability

of

Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

t -12.

Concentrically

Loaded

Columns

609

it estimates the ultimate mula is of the lat er type, The range of the applicability mulas can lead to unsafe

carrying a safety

design

capacity of a member. If the factor must be introduced. of the formula. Some empirical if used beyond the specified ran:

F.S.,

the

factor

of safety,

is defined
5 3(Le/r)

as
(Le/r) 

F.S. = 5 +
Le/r.

*]]42.

Concentrically

Loaded

Columns
alloy,
considered in

Note

As examples of column-design formulas for nominally representative formulas for structtural steel, an aluminum fol ow. Formulas for eccentrically loaded columns are
next section.

the

The equation
value slenderness
steels

that F.S. varies,

structural

of 1.67 at zero Leh' ratio for axial y

is shown

chosen

being

for F.S.

more

conservative
11-30.

Since,

Column Formulas The American

of column formulas

for

Institute
with

Structural of Steel
two

Steel Construction
formulas in each

(AISC)
set.

22 provides
One of these

two
sets

set For

specifies
columns

in practical in Section

modification
built

applications, 11-5, cannot

in at both

in Fig.

and 1.92 at C. An allowable loaded columns of several

approximates

for the larger

a quarter

sine curve,
kinds

ratios

of
of

stress

of the effective
ends: Le

the ideal restraint of the column ends, always be relied upon, conservatively,
lengths, for example,
= 0.65L

as fol-

for use in the allowable stress design (ASD) and the other for the and resistance factor design (LRFD). In the second approach, an probabilistic determination of the reliability of column capacity based load and resistance factors is made (see Section 1-12). These two sets formulas fol ow. Since steels of several dif erent yield strengths ufactured, the formulas are stated in terms of f yp, which varies for ferent steels. The elastic modulus E for all steels is approximately same, and is taken to be 29 x 103 ksi (200 MPa). AISC ASD Formulas for Columns. The AISC formula for allowab
stress, load talow,

For

with

for a safety

slender factor

columns of 23/12

is based = 1.92.

AISC LRFD Formulas for Columns. Here, NON-ACTIVATED tions governing VERSION column strength, one for elastic buckling. The boundary between the inelastic www.avs4you.com
on the Slender Euler columns elastic

Specifications.

columns built in at one end and pinned at the other: modification need be made for columns pinned at both = L. Modifications for other end restraints may be found

Le = 0.80L ends, where in the AISC for inelastic

as

again,

kc

= 1.5,

where

the column

slenderness

parameter

and elastic

and the other

there are two equainstability is at

k is defined

are

Constant

as having
The formula

Cc

the
the

corresponds

slenderness
steel
for long

to the

ratio

critical

(Le/r)
f yp.
when

stress

= Cc = X/22E/tyyp
trcr at the

Euler

or

load

to one-half

yield

stress
columns

X L tr
r,lT

(11-58)
elastic critical

(L/r)
12x2E

> C is

expression
suming trcr

to the slenderness
= tryp.

results

from
Oallow

ratio

normalizing

for the Euler

the slenderness

ratio

stress,

Le/r with

as-

tralow - 23(Le/r)
where Le is the effective for the cross-sectional
Le/r of 200.

2
r is the least are permit ed radius

column area.

length,

and

No C,

columns AISC specifies

to

of exceed

Euler's

For

an Ldr

ratio

less
O'al ow

than

a parabolic

formula:

hyperbola

[1 -- (Le/r)2/2Cc2]tyyp
F.S.

AISC, (Chicago: Basic Salmon, Row,

22 For

1989). Steel

ASD

1980).

AISC, Design, and J. E.

For

formulas,

LRFD 1986).

W-W.

formulas, see AISC LRFD Manual of Steel See also B. J. Johnston, F. J. Lin, and T. V. 3rd ed. (Englewood Clif s, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986). Johnson, Steel Structures, 2nd ed. (New York: Yu, Cold-Formed Steel Design (New York: Wiley,

see AISC

Manual

of Steel

Construction,

9th ed.

C
40 80 120 160 200

Le/r

v.

columns specifications.

for

Fig.

concentrically

1t-30

Allowable per AISC

loaded

stress

610

Stability

of

Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

t 42.

Concentrically

Loaded

Columns

61'i

For and

Xc > 1.5, is given as

the

critical

buckling

stress

Crcr is based

on

the

Euler

For
These.
1 in of

aluminum
stresses
a weld.

in the

alloy

same

compression
11-61a

manner

as recommended

'members,
11-6lb

the effective
by

the

AISC.

lengths

are

in Eqs.

and

are

reduced

to 12 ksi within

local
where the factor 0.877 is introduced to account for the initial out-i

straightness
stresses.

of the

column,

see

Fig.

11-11(c),

and

the

effects

of res

For
and

h = 1.5, probabilistic

an empirical studies

relationship is given as

based

on extensive

Crcr = (0.658Xc2)Cryp
This equation includes the effects of residual straightness. Both of the previous formulas of columns and must be used in conjunction resistance factor (b of 0.85 (see Example 1-7).
ratios Le/r are determined as for the ASD.

In designing aluminum alloy columns, it is also recommended to check buckling of the column components. Therefore, formulas are also by the Aluminum Association for the allowable stresses for outflanges or legs and column webs, i.e., flat plates with supported legs..These formulas, in groups of three, are similar to Eqs. 11-61, except in place of the slenderness ratios L/r, the ratios b/t are used, where is the width of a plate, and t is its thickness. The allowable stresses by such formulas may govern the design if such stresses are smaller than those required in Eqs. 11-61. Two basic groups of formulas for determining local
outstanding

buckling
legs

for
or fianges:

6061-T6

alloy

are 0 -< b/t 5.2 -< b/t 12 -< b/t -< 5.2 -< 12 (11-62a) (11-62b) (11-62c)

stresses with The factored effective

and

initial loads

For

cracow cracow cracow

= 19 ksi = 23.1 - 0.79b/t = 1970/(b/t) 2 ksi

ksi

Column

Formulas

for

Aluminum

Alloys

A large number of aluminum alloys are available for engineering cations. The yield and the ultimate strengths of such alloys vary wide range. The elastic modulus for the alloys, however, is

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

For edge-supported plates24: craiow cranow craiow = 19 ksi = 23.1 - 0.25b/t = 490/(b/t) ksi ksi
(AA) 23 provides a large

0 < b/t < 16 16 -< b/t -< 33 33 -< b/t

(11-63a) (11-63b) (11-63c)

constant.
column mulas, shown here elements that alloy rosion 2024 formulas The

The

Aluminum

Association

design formulas for dif erent aluminum alloys. In all the allowable stress varies with the column slenderness ratio, in Fig. 11-29(b). A representative set of three equations is fof6061-T6 alloy. As identified by the first number in this aluminum alloy are magnesium and silicon. T6 desi this alloy has been thermally treated to produce stable temper. finds its greatest use for heavy-duty structures requiting resistance as in trucks, pipelines, buildings, etc. Alloys and 7075 in their various tempers are used in aircraft, where are employed. three basic column formulas for 6061-T6 alloy are
cruow cruow = = 19 ksi 20.2 51,000 0 < L/r < L/r
-< L/r

Since stresses
usage.

all three on gross

Formulas

groups sections,
for

of these formulas are given for the allowable they include factors of safety for the intended
Wood

Column

The

be limited convenient Le/d, where

of the

essary

National

information

Forest

cross

to solid rectangular to recast the design Le is the effective

section; see Fig.

for the design

Products

Association

columns. In treating such columns, it is formulas in terms of the slenderness ratio column length, and d is the least dimension
11-31. On this basis,

of wood

columns.

(NFPA)

5 provides

Here

attention

the

nec-

wil

O.126L/r
ksi

ksi

9.5
66

< <

9.5 66

(11-61 (11-61 (11-6

24 Such as column

rmin =
webs.

= V 12 bd

x/T

(11-64)

Cranow = (L/r)2
April 1981

Structures,"

23 Aluminum
1978; and (Washington,

5th

Construction
"Engineering DC:

ed.,

April
The

1982;

Manual,

Data Aluminum

Section
for

Section

Aluminum Association,

2, "Il ustrative

1, "Specifications
Structures,"

Examples

for
5th ed.,

of

zs See National Design Specifications for Wood Construction and Design Values for Wood Construction, NDS Supplement, National Forest Products Association DC. Table compiled by National Forest Products Association. See also D. E. Breyer, Design of Wood Structures, 2nd ed (New York: McGraw-Hil ,

Inc.).

wooden

Fig. t1-$t

column.

Cross

section

of a

Stability

of

Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

1t-12.

Concentrically

Loaded

Columns

the

Substituting

recommended

this

relation

factor
'rr2E

into

of safety

Eq.

11-19

of 2.74,

and dividing
'rr2E

the critical
0.30E

stress

)nunended

The

effective
for

by

the

lengths
loaded

AISC.

are approximated
columns.

in the same

manner

as rec-

mulas

The. fol owing

t -6

axial y

examples

il ustrate

some applications

of the design

for-

(row

= 2.74(Le/r)

2 = 2.74 x 12(Le/d)

2 - (Le/d) 2
EXAMPLE

Since this stress is deduced from the elastic Euler formula, on its use must be placed for the smaller values of Le/d. In the design specifications, this is achieved by requiring that at a slen ratio Le/d, designated as K, the allowable stress does not exceed
that

thirds allel

of the design stress F for a short to the grain. In the form of an equation,
2 0.3E

wood

using
0.3E

block

Eq.

in compression (11-65),

Assume
Solution

(a) Determine the allowable using AISC ASD formulas other has one end fixed and ft W 14 x 159 columns. For
A36 steel having

try v = 36 ksi.

axial loads for two 15-ft W 14 x 159 steel when one of the columns has pinned ends the other pinned. (b) Repeat the solution for the given section, A = 46.7 in 2 and rmi, =

columns and the two 404.00 in.

 F = (Le/d)2min
Hence,

-- K2

For both cases,

11-57 is applicable.

it is necessary

to calculate

Cc to determine

whether

Eq. 11-56 or

C c = 'V/'/O-yp
value of K provides
dif erent

_w. X,/2.rr 2 X 29 X 103/36

= 126.1

The
assumes

the

boundary

use

in Eq.

11-65.

Note

values.

that

since

E and

A qualitative graphical representation for the allowable stresses columns over the permissible range of column slenderness ratios shown in Fig. 11-32. Note that for short columns, a constant stress specified; for the intermediate and long slenderness ratios, a curve an inflection point at K is shown. There is a small discontinuity
=11.

with pinned ends, Le/r = 15 x 12/4 = 45 < Co, and Eq. NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com 5/3 + 3 x 45/(8 x 126.1) - 453/(8 x 126.13)
for the least slender column

column

(a) For the W 14 x 159 shape, the minimum r = 4.00 in. Hence, for the 15-ft
11-57 applies.
[1 - 452/(2 X 126.12)]36

F for

dif erent

woods

vary,

18.78 ksi

Pxow
applying Eq. 11-57,

= Arow
cro, = 19.50

= 46.7

x 18.78

= 877 kips
= Atropos, = 46.7 x 19.50 =

The
are

allowable
' Fc

stresses

in axial y

loaded

wooden

rectangular
0 --< L/d --< 11
-< K

For the column with one end fixed and the other pinned, according to the AISC, the effective length Le = 0.8L = 12 ft. Hence, Le/r = 12 x 12/4 = 36, and again
kips.

ksi, and Pow

ITallow

Here tends. he alJowable

Acro, = 46.7

axial force is increased

x 10.28 = 480 kips. Similarly,

by 3.9 percent
since

by firdng

one of the
fixed at one

row = F
0.30E

12

11

< Ldd

(b) For a 40-ft column with pinned ends, Ldr = 40 x 12/4 = 120 < Co. Hence, n using Eq. 11-57 again, it can be determined that cro, = 10.28 ksi and Pow
for a column

(rmow - (Le/d)
t

K --< L,/d

-< 50

11

50

Slenderness

ratio,

Le/d

NFPA

loaded

Fig. t .-32 stress for

specifications.

Typical allowable concentrically wood columns per

where F, is the allowable design stress for a short block in parallel to grain, E is the modulus of elasticity, and K is defined 11-66. Note that the maximum allowable slenderness ratio Le/d It must be recognized that F, and E for wood are highly variable titles, depending on species, grading rules, moisture, service temperature, duration of load, etc. Therefore, in actual applications, reader should consult texts dealing with such problems in more

by
is

and pinned at the other, Ldr = 0.8 x 120 = 96, Eq. 11-57 gives cro, = 13.48 ksi and Po, = Acruo, = 46.7 x 13.48 = 630 kips. For this case, the allowable axial force is increased 31.2 percent by fixing one of the column ends. This contrasts with the 3.9 percent found earlier for the shorter This finding is in complete agreement with the generalized Euler theory

for columns,
their

Section

strength.

Restraining

a large the ends

11-7. As can be noted from Fig. 11-19, by restraining

increase of short in their columns strength results

is obtained at large values only in a modest increase

the

Stability
EXAMPLE

of Equilibrium:
t -7

Columns

Sec. t1-12.

Concentrically

Loaded

Columns

Solution
ASD

carry
=

Using
50

a concentric
ksi.

the

AISC

lead

column

of 200 kips.

formulas,

The

structural

select

a 15-ft

steel

long

is to be A572,

pin-ended

having

column

column

slenderness

parameter

as defined

by

Eq.

11-58

is

Solution

15 4'xrr 12 /9 x36 103

size
the

- 0.5047
the critical stress and

'

The

Steel

required

Construction

of the column
Manual.

However,

can be found
this

example

directly
this

provides

from

the tables
an

in the
in

Since

Xc is less

than

1.5,

Eq.

11-60

applies

for

determining

demonstrate and the

Eq.

First

whose
stress Cc:

= 6.67

11-57,

try:

solution

is found

rmi, = 1.61 in. Hence,

using Eq.

in 2. From

Let since

L/r --' 0 (a poor assumption F.S. = 5/3, cro, = 50/F.S.

Table 4 in the Appendix,

trial-and-error presented

fol ows

procedure from

that using

for a column 15 ft long). = 30 ksi and A = P/cracow

this

is so often method.
requires

necessary

IYcr = (0.658's472)36
=
for this column, the nominal compressive

= 32.36
strength

ksi

11-56

L/r = 15(12)/1.61
or 11-57,

whichever

= 112. With

a W

is applicable

thsL/r,

8 x

24

Pn

= After

= 46.7

x 32.36

1510

kips

depending

and since

the resistance P,,

factor = qbP,
Pow 11-6, between

Oc = 0.85, = 0.85 x

the column-design 1510 = 1289

compressive kips.

strength

Cc = /2'iT2E/O'Yp
Hence, using Eq. 11-56,

= X,/2'rr 2 X 29 x 103/50
crmow =
12,r 2 X 29 x 23 x 1122 103
=

= 107 < L/r

11.9 ksi

= 112
dividing the P, Example relationship by

This
must

is much
be selected.

smaller

than

the

initial y

assumed

Second try: Let cro, = 11.9 ksi as found before. Then A = 200/11.9 = in 2, requiring a W 8 x 58 section having rmin = 2.10 in. NOW L/r = 15( = 85.7, which is less than Cc found before. Therefore, Eq. 11-57 applies,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

stress of 30 ksi,
t -9

= 877 kips one obtains the ASD

for a comparable column analyzed 1.46. This load factor gives an and the LRFD for this case.

in the
indication

F.S.
and

= 5/3 (r,ow

+ 3(85.7)/(8 = [1 - (85.7)2/(2
A = 200/17.9

x 107)

- (85.7)3/(8 x 1072)]50/1.90

X 1073) = 17.9
for this section the requirements

= 1.90 ksi
shows = 4.563

dimensions

the aluminum

allowable

shown
Assume

alloy

in Fig.'
each

axial having

11-33.

loads for two compression 5 in x 5 in x 5.366 lb/ft

One

of the

members
rmi
ends.

members wide-flange

is 20 in long
the

made section

and
section,

from with

the
Outstanding leg

This
lem.

with rmi allowable

stress

= 2.04 in. A calculation axial load for it is 204

requires

of the capacity kips, which meets

= 11.2

in 2, which

is met

by a W 8 x 40
of the

in 2, and

the

minimum

strut

to be pinned

radius

of gyration

at both

= 1.188

For

in.

given

Regardless
values

of the
For legs determine

column

length,

for

aluminum

alloys,

it is necessary

to investigate
one for instances, the

the given section, two of the flanges, and the the allowable compressive

calculations must be made, other for the web. In both stress. For the flanges,
= 7.51

0.312"

bi
*EXAMPLE t -8
t

5 2 x

0.312
0.312

5.00"

Determine

46.7

pinned

in 2 and

at both

the design

rmin

ends

= 4.00

based

compressive

in. Assume

on the AISC

strength

A36

LRFD

Pu for a 15-ft

steel

having

provisions.

W 14 x 159

ratio

requires

the

use

of Eq.

11-62b;

hence,

cr,o,

For

= 36 ksi.

this

---0.312" "*---5.00'Y' -
= 17.2 ksi
Fig. 11-33

((rnow)nng

= 23.1

0.79

x 7.51

6i6

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.
is

'11-t3.

Eccentrically

Loaded

Columns

6'7

The

web

width-thickness
--=

ratio

to or less
2 x
0.312

axial

loads,

than

Eq.

for

6-45,

an axial y

and setting

loaded
P

the maximum
column.
Mc

For

compressive

a planar

case,

stress

this

equal

be-

bw
t

5-

0.312

comes

14.0

Since

this

ratio

is less

than

16,

according

to Eq.

11-63a,

trx =  + -- < trynow

The compressive tities. If only
where

(11-68)
as positive moment
allowable
materials.

(traUow)web

19 ksi

Overall
for a 20-in

buckling
strut is

is investigated
_
L --

using
20

Eqs.

11-47,

which

depend

on L/r.

Pc,

e is the

stresses an eccentric
load
for

eccentricity;
axial y

in the last equation force P is applied,

see

Fig.

are treated the bending

11-34.

The

stress

quanM =
Usu-

preceding

*ow ally,

is determined
section

from

an appropriate
loaded

columns

formula,

of dif erent

such

as given

in the

1.188

16.8

Hence,

using

Eq.

11-61b,

For short and usually conservative, less than the allowable

may become

the

solution

of Eq. intermediate

11-68

unconservative

since *ow for compressive bending stress. On the other

for slender columns,

requires length

a trial-and-error procedure. columns, the previous procedure

where the

stresses is generally hand, this procedure

deflections

is

craow
For buckling this case controls.

= 20.2

- 0.126
design,

x 16.8
the

= 18.1
allowable

ksi
stress for local

of a well-balanced Therefore,

deflection
Interaction

are magnified due to the axial determine the extent of bending

using
11-3

Pnow
The slenderness ratio for

= 4.563
the
L

x 17.2
strut
60

60-in
-

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com usually higher than the allowable axial stress.
= 78.5 kips
Method

in Example

the
or

11-4.

approximate

force. For such cases, moment magnification

deflection magnification

it is appropriate to caused by column

factor derived

Fig.

loaded

t -34

column.

Eccentrically

is
=

In an eccentrically from the applied

loaded moment.

column, However,

much

the

of the allowable

1.188

50.5

column,

it is desirable

to accomplish

some

balance

stress may result stress in flexure is Hence, for a particular

between the two

total

Hence,

again

using

Eq.

11-61b,

stresses, depending on the relative magnitudes of the bending and the axial force. Thus, since in bending,, = Mc/I = Mc/Ar r is the radius of gyrati6n in the plane of bending, in effect,
required by bending moment M is

moment 2, where area Ab

iranow
This stress is smaller than

= 20.2
those

- 0.126
for local

x 50.5
buckling;

= 13.8
hence,

ksi

mc

(abF12

Pnow

= 4.563

x 13.8

= 63.0

kips

where

11-14.)

crab is the allowable

Similarly, area

Aa

required

maximum

for

stress
P

axial

in bending.
force

P is

(See

also

Section

*ll-13. In the past,

as a rational
other
Allowable

Eccentrically the secant-type

method
that
Stress

Loaded
for the design
found

Columns
of eccentrically

formulas

discussed

in Section
fol ow.

loaded

11-8 were
columns.

methods

have
Method

a wide-use

for a column

where traa is the allowable axial stress and which depends on the L/r ratio.

subjected

to an axial

force

for the member Therefore, the

and

a bending
Mc

acting as a column, total area A required

moment

is

A procedure

adapting

the elastic

for designing

solution

eccentrically

for short

blocks

loaded

subjected

columns

to bending

is

A =Aa

+Ao

=--

O'aa

+

O'abrl 2

(11-69)

68

Stability
By dividing

of Equilibrium:
by A, P/A
--+---1
O'aa

Columns

Sec. t -13. Eccentrically

At intermediate points in the length of a compression ondary bending moments due to deflection (see Fig. significantly to the combined stress. Following the
11-73 can stil be used.

Loaded
11-34) AISC

Columns

69

Mc/Ar
O'ab

or

cra
O'aa O'ab

where (ra is the axial stress is the bending stress caused only an axial load and the that the column is designed
allowable stress becomes

caused by the applied vertical loads, and by the applied moment. applied moment is zero, the formula for the stress (r. On the other hand,
the flexural stress crb f there is no direct

this c6ntribution the axial stress

plying takes
the

is neglected in cases where /Fa is small in relation to the allowable bending

When /F

additional

nature

both fox and roy by an amplification into account the slenderness ratio
of the end moments. The

secondary

moments

is greater

may

term

factor, C,,/(1 - f/Fe'), which in the plane of bending and also

in the denominator of the am-

be approximated

than

0.15,

is less than axial stress,

the

member, the seccan contribute specifications,

effect

0.15, i.e., and Eq. by multi-

of the

pressive force acting on the column. Between these two extreme cas Eq. 11-70 measure the relative importance of the two kinds of action specifies the nature of their interaction. Hence, it is often referred to an interaction formula and serves as the basis for the. specifications
the AISC ASD manual, where it is stated that the sum

long

plification factor brings in the effect of the slenderness ratio through the use of F;, the Euler buckling stress (using Le/r in the plane of bending) divided by 23/12, or 1.92, which is the AISC factor of safety for a very
column with Le/r greater than Co. (See Section 11-12 for a definition

ratios must applications Association Association In terms

not exceed unity. The same philosophy other than those pertaining to structural suggests a similar relation. The National developed a series of formulas to serve of the notations used by the AISC, Eq.

has steel.

found

favor

creases and is a correction

of Co.)

It can

blows

up as fa approaches factor that takes into

be noted

that

the

amplification
account

F;.

The term the ratio

factor

C,, in the numerator of the end moments

increases

as f in-

Forest the same 11-70 is rewrit en

In practice, cause bending

11-71 is then

the

eccentricity moments
to

of the about both

load on a column axes of the cross

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION  + (1 - f, IF;x)Fox + (1 www.avs4you.com

f a Cmxf ,x
may be such section. E as
According
as fol ows:

0.15

as well as their relative sense of direction. The term C,, is larger f the end moments are such that they cause a single curvature of the member, and smaller f they cause a reverse curvature. The formula for f/F >
then becomes

Cmyf

f,/Fe'y)Foy
value

ly

-< 1.0
of C,, shall

(11-74)
be taken

to the

AISC

specifications,

26 the

modified

1. For

(sidesway),

compression

C,,

= 0.85.

members

in frames

subject

to joint

translation

Subscripts about
Fa F

which

x and y combined a particular

axial stress compressive

with
stress

subscript applies,

b indicate
and

the

axis

2. For restrained translation

ports

in the

and

plane

compression not subject

of bending,

members to transverse
0.6 -

in frames loading
0.4MJM2

braced between

against their

joint sup-

= allowable = allowable
existed

f the axial force bending stress

alone existed f the bending

(but

not

less

than

0.4),

where

MJM2

is the

ratio

of the

smaller

to

 = computed b = computed

axial bending

stress
stress

At points
of Fy,

the

that are braced

yield stress

of the

in the plane
material,

of bending,
and

F is equal

to 60
(11-

in single

the member

in the plane

larger

moments

of bending
is bent

at the

ends

curvature.

in reverse

under

of that

consideration.
curvature

portion

of the

and

negative

Mi/M2

member

is positive
when

unbraced

it is bent

when

0.6-y

f

+ fx

- + y - 1.0

roy <

3. For compression in the plane their supports,

members in frames of loading and subjected the value of C,, can

braced against to transverse be determined

joint translation loading between by rational anal-

26 AISC

Steel

Construction

Manual,

9th ed. (Chicago:

AISC,

1989),

5-27.

620

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns

Sec.

1t-13.

Eccentrically

Loaded

Columns

ysis. used:
for

However, (a) for

members

in lieu members
whose ends

of such whose
are

analysis, ends
unrestrained,

are

the fol owing restrained,

C,,= 1.0.

C,,=

0.85;

with
has

Second

A = 9.12
same
before 50 -9.12

Try:

in 2, S = 27.41
properties.)
shows 176 27.41 that

Select

8 in x 8 in
Substituting

in 3, and

10.72

rmin

lb/ft,

= 2.01
quantities

the

in.

next

(A W 8 x 31 steel
into the first equation

larger

available

section,

section
for-

the

these

mulated

*EXAMPLE

t -t0

11.9

--< 20.2

0.126

Select a 6061-T6 the allowable ported at both

Solution

aluminum stress method. ends.

alloy Assume

column the

for

the column

loading shown to be. pinned

in Fig. and laterally

8 x -2.01

12

14.2

ksi

Therefore, local buckling 11-9. Such larger than

this

section of flanges a solution, the allowable

is satisfactory. For a complete and webs should also be checked, not given here, shows that the axial stress and do not control

solution of this problem, as was done in Example local buckling stresses the design.

are

Fig.

t -35

In this problem, 61. By assuming applies, and the

30

Eq. 11-68 must that the column fol owing relation

be satisfied with length is in the can be writ en:

8.8 50 176

ruow given intermediat.e

by one range,
L

of Eqs Eq.

!l
*EXAMPLE t -t

A
the

20

20

A +  - 20.2 - 0.126 cross section. A trial-and-error

Select interaction
F

a steel method.

column

for Assume

the the

loading column

shown in Fig. to be pinned

11-36 using and laterally

the AISC braced

ASD at both

ends.

Let

Fy

= 50 ksi

and

Fb

= 30 ksi.

where applicable
used

A,
to solve

S, and to the

r depend on the selected column plane of bending must be used.

problem.

First

Try:

It is convenient

to recast

the

' + .A ,S]
where
for

50

176(h

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 0.12& www.avs4you.com < 20.2 r

In this problem, the interaction formulas, Eq. 11-72

Note procedure

Solution

or Eq.

11-73,

must

be satisfied,

last

equation

into

the

fol owing

depending obtained

upon whether by trial-and-error

f,/Fa is less than or greater process as is outlined.

than

0.15.

The

solution
column.
can using then

is

A/S
a whole

= B defines
class of cross

a bending
sections.

factor.
Therefore,

27 These
the

factors
solution

are
can

reasonably
begin by

First Try: Let Le/r = 0, although it is a'poor assumption Corresponding to this value of the slenderness ratio, F, Eq. 11-57, as F, = 50/(5/3) = 30 ksi. The required area be computed using Eq. 11-72:
1.0 >--

for a 15-ft can be calculated, of the section

here

a plausible equation

size

an 8 in

can

x 8.5

for a member, be solved for

in

which

then

x 8.32

a trial

lb/ft

value

aluminum

provides data of A. Following

alloy

wide-flange

for this

A/S, and procedure,

section.

the
The

f,

or
P M

A->-?-7

Af,

Afb

P = 200

minum Association Construction Manual gives the fol owing A = 7.08 in 2, Sx = 21.04 in 3, and rmi, = 1.61 in. (Geometrically, is very similar to the W 8 x 24 steel section given in Table

data

for

The

= 1.61 design

corresponding

in.) Based equation.becomes

176

on this

values

data,

given

B = A/S

there

are A = 7.08
= 7.08/21.04

in 2, Sx = 20.9
= 0.337.

this 4 of the
Hence,

this cross

secti0h

Since

-For any
a few

fb

M A, AMB, and &, M A S:

+ ?fi
factor of section,

fa AP
value
not
Then 13.7 in 2

M =800k-in
a good

in 3, and
one depth the

- + - x 0.337 -

50

109.3

- 20.2 - 0.126 x !.6----i-- = 12.69

in 2, which trial. is larger than in the section that AISC when

8 x

12

Therefore,

if a W 10 section
values A

is to be chosen,
in Table 4 of the
800 x
30

bending

a typical
Appendix). -

B does

of B is about

vary

0.264

deal.

Levels

bracing

of

of A/S =
200
30

The solution of this equation gives A = 8.61 by the assumed section, and requires another 27 Bending factors of Steel Construction
known.

0.264

r M = 600

k-in

S are

are tabulated for many or may be calculated

cross sections for an assumed

and

Select a W 10 x 49 section with A = Bx = 0.264, and carry out the necessary the interaction Eq. 11-72 or 11-74 governs.

14.4

in 2, rm, calculations

= 2.54 in, r = 4.35 to determine whether

in,
P=200k

Fig.

t -36

622

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns

Problems

623

a = A
Le rn

14.4
12

200

13.9 ksi
= 70.9 < Ce

MB:,

800

14.4

x 0.264

14.7

ksi

149

15

-- x 2.54

(Le/t:) 2
has

10 3

(15 X 12/4.39) 2 88.6 ksi

in one plane
12.0

149

10 3

Ce = X/2'rr2E/Fy

= 107

propriate

Again,

using

quantities,

Eq. 11-74 for bending

one
0.9-x

and substituting
+ 0.41 = 1.00

into it the ap-

Using

interaction in the plane

Eq.

formula of Eq. 11-74 must of bending, one determines 12,rr2E 149

11-57,

Fa = 19.3 ksi, f,dF,

be checked.

= 13.9/19.3

For 149

= 0.72
this

purpose,

> 0.15;

using

hence,

11.4

19.4

(1 -

11.4/88.6)30

0.59

F - 23(Ldr,)2
Then,
= - 600/800

- (15 x 12/4.35) 2 =
subject the column
and

x 103

(41.4) 2

x 103

86.9

ksi

Since
M

this relation

satisfies

Eq. 11-74,

the W 10 x 60 section

is satisfactory.

since
=

the end moments

- 0.75,

to a single

curvature,

11-14.
only

Lateral
if such beams

Stability
occasional
are in stable

of Beams
theory
lateral
equilibrium.

C, = 0.6
With bending taking

- 0.4M/M2
place
f, F

= 0.6
only,

- (0.4)(-0.75)
Eq.
----

= 0.9
reduces to

The strength

and deflection

of beams
supports

developed
may

in one plane

11-74
1.0

C.fo (1 - f/F)F

On substituting
--+

the appropriate
0.9 x 14.7

quantities
=

13.9

19.3

(1 -

13.9/86.9)30

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION of the references cited in this chapter discuss www.avs4you.com

into this relation,
= 0.72 + 0.52 1.24 > 1.0

be used to maintain the stability of such beams. The nature of the reduced stresses resembles the curves displayed for columns in Figs. 11-29 and 11-32. The key parameter for stress reduction depends on the material properties, geometry of the cross section, and moment gradient. Several

thus become unstable; see Fig. 11-37. Theoretical and experimental ies of this problem show that, within limits, reduced bending stresses

that

do not have

Narrow

in this text applies

buckle
or slender

sideways

beams

studcan

and

Fig.
beam.

tl-37

Lateral-torsional

only a simple criterion ling for compact steel

Since

Eq.

11-74

is violated,

a larger

section

must

be used.

Second Try: As an aid in choosing is the value computed for the section
for W 10 sections,

a larger section, in the previous

assume Fa = 19.3 ksi. trial. Also, using B =

to qualify supports

According

for the maximum shall be provided.at

to the AISC

for avoiding the problem beams is given.

this topic.
of lateral

In this section,
torsional

buckling

of a narrow

buck-

ASD

allowable intervals

specifications,

bending stress, not exceeding

in order

for a compact
intermit ent the value

lateral

beam


where
the depth

76b

nor
Fy is the yield

(d/A)Fy
flange,
stress

20,000

(11-75)
b is the flange
for the material.

P MB, 200 800 x 0.264 17.4 in 2 A >- + -o - 19. + 30 =

Now select a W 10 x 60 section with A = 17.6 in 2, rmn = 2.57 and B = 0.264, and proceed as in the first trial to check the in, rx = 4.39

A is the area
of a beam,

of a compression
and

width,

d is

Problems
Section
A rigid bar hinged at the base is held in a vertical

2006 = 11.4 ksi 17.

Le

fo15 x 12

MBx

A
70.0 <

800
Ce

17.6

0.264

= 12.0
position

rmin

..

2.57

Using
11-74

must

Eq. 11-57,
be

checked.

Fa = 19.4 ksi, f,dF,

= 114/19.4

= 0.59 > 0.15;

hence,

frictionless

and the other, 2k N/mm, as shown in the figure. termine the critical force P= for this system. throughll-4. Rigid-bar segments ofequallengths are connected at the joints and at the bottoms

by

two

springs:

one

has

a stif ness

k N/mm

Deby
Fig. Plt-1

hinges

and are maintained

in straight

po-

624

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns
P

Problems
the lateral wire only ing slack, displacement with the as shown of the diametrically by the
dashed

625
by the that
all joints
details

sitions by torsional springs of the stif nesses shown in the figures. Determine the eigenvalues for these systems and show the eigenfunctions on separate diagrams. Identify the critical loads.

top

is prevented by one opposite wire becomcurve. Consider the

force plied
and that

F, governed at A? Assume
the connection

size

of the
are

are

mast,

pin-connected
made that

can

be apthe

so

columff
tions.)

to be perfectly
top. (Note:

rigid
be

during

lateral

displacecolumn applica-

ment of the crookedness

should

Load eccentricity and considered in actual

mast braced formula

psi.

is loaded concentrically. The top of the mast is to prevent sidewise displacement. Use Euler's with a factor of safety of 3.3. E = 29 x 106

t -?.
bar and can

A 1-in round

steel

bar 4 t long
in the designed, Use

acts
figure.
Euler's

as a spreader
what

in the arrangement shown connections are properly be applied to the assembly?

If cables pull F formula

and

assume

a factor
Spreader
bar

of safety

of 3. E = 29 x 106 psi.

Fig.

Ptt-4

Fig.

Plt-2

't -5. A weightless prismatic elastic column can approximated by a series of rigid bars each of a, with an appropriate torsional spring constant each joint, as shown in the figure. Set up the minental equation for finding the critical load for a:
tem having n. degrees of freedom.

Cable'd
Fig. Pll-7

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Fig. PIt-5 the column and the wires

tl-8. A boom mm outside ness, and is as shown in force F that

GPa. All

is made

from

an aluminum

pipe

of 60 t140.
shown minum-alloy

Fig.

Pll-3

diameter part of an the figure. could be controlled by the capacity tor of safety of 3 for
dimensions

and having a 4-mm wall thickarrangement for lifting weights, Determine the magnitude of the applied to this planar system as of the boom. Assume a facthe Euler buckling load. E = 75
are shown in mm.
B

Fig.

Plt-9

VVnat
in the

force

F can

be Assume

applied

to the the ends

system

figure, governed by the 25 bar AB? The factor of safety

x 16 mm aluon the Euler

buckling
E = 70

load
GPa.

is to be 2.5.

are pinned.

of 80

mm

in diameter.

For

E = 200 GPa
t -6. An ideal column is pinned at the base and guyed at the top by four wires, as shown in the figure. The 3000-mm-long column has a solid circular cross section
P

diameter

of the

and

wires

cryp = 400 MPa.

such that

a perfectly

What

sho
Assume
1000

buckling load Per could with lateral displacement

be reached at the the

top?

I Pcr
1000

,Column

Wires "x
t -9.
Plan

C F2CLO
-*ii-1500
Fig.

Rod
Bar

B
400 mm

 - 1500
Pll-8

4
rec(A

Fig.

P11-10

The

= 2.02
s assembled

in 2, Ix = 1.29

mast of a derrick is made of a standard x 2 in steel tubing weighing 6.86 lb/ft.

in 4, Iz = 3.87
in the

in4.)

If this
what

derrick

Fig.

Plt-6

as indicated

figure,

vertical

t 4t. Governed can be applied factor of safety that the ends concentrically sibility of torsional

by the steel T section, what to the system shown in the figure? on the buckling load must be 2. are pinned and that the applied applied. E = 200 GPa. Neglect buckling.

force The
Assume

force is the pos-

626

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns

Problems

627

-- J, 10mm

lect

a factor

the

of safety
weight

of the

of 3 on the Euler
members.

E = 29

buckling

lead.

103

ksi.

Neg-

Section

11-5

that they are pinned.

Section a-a

of the angles.

t -t6. A tripod is to be made up from 3 x angles, each 10 ft long, to support a vertical 8 k at the center, as shown in the figure. Euler buckling formula with a factor of safety account for impact, determine the required
are loaded concentrically, E = 30 x 106 psi.

Neglect

the weight

of the angles,
and

3 in steel lead F = Using the of 3 to thickness

the

11-18.
1t-t9.

+ Pv

Derive
Derive
-

= Me,
v),

Eq.
Eq.

where

11-17
11-18

Me

using
using

is the

Eq.
Eq.
end

moment

l 1-5 in the form

at the

end.

EIv"
EIv"

11-5
deflection.

in the form

= P(g

where

g is the

that

assume

ends

El.)

'tl-20. column problem;

Determine the critical buckling lead for the shown in the figure. (Hint: See the preceding enforce continuity conditions at a change in

0mffl
Fig.

Pt1-tt

EI

L/2

1142.

A thin

bar

of

stainless

steel

is axial y

procom-

pressed constant assembly ature of of 2 with and ct =.

100 N between distance of is made at the bar rise, respect to 15 x 10 -6

two 150 mm 20C. so as buckling? per C.

plates that are fixed at a apart; see the figure. This How high can the temperto have a factor of safety Assume E = 200 GPa

mula safety
11-t4.

for columns of 2.5. Neglect

Select a W

with

pinned the weight

section for

ends and of construction.

member

a factor

29 x 10 6 psi.
steel AB fo:
2E/ L/2

system
150 lect

shown a factor

in the figure of safety

and

k. The system is laterally the weight of the members.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

braced

to resist

a vertical

force

of 2. E = 29 x 103 ksi.

Assume

at B and C. pinned

Fig.

Plt-20

Fig.
3--' 150

Pl1.t6

finding
ence

'1t-21.

the

Determine

critical
force

buckling

the

transcendental
lead

for

bar

AB

equation

of constant

for

1
Fig. PI'M2

 16'
Fig. Ptt-14

" 12' 
for the tripod lead F =

't -t7. propped rigidity

center

simple up at the EIc. Estimate to this

beam middle
the

of flexural rigidity EIb is by a slender rod of flexural deflection of the beam at the
the Euler lead for the column

E1 due to the application of axial force link BC. (Hint: In a deflected position,
of a shear at B.)

P through rigid note the pres-

if a force

F double

is applied

system.
F

1143. What size standard steel pipe should be used for the horizontal member of the jib crane shown in the figure for supporting the maximum force of 4 k, which includes an impact factor? Use the Euler buckling for-

t -15. in the

Select figure

standard to support

steel pipes a vertical

EI

L Hinge

Fig.
F

Plt-21

1t-22.

ended

column
Five

An

allowable

of a certain

axial
columns

linearly
made

lead

for

elastic

a 4-m-long
have Using criterion,

material
same

pinma-

is

20 kN.
L/2

dif erent

of the

Fig.

Ptt-13

Fig.

Plt-15

Fig.

Plt47

terial and having the same cross porting conditions shown in the umn capacity for the 4-m column
are the allowable loads for the

section figure. as the

five columns

the supthe colwhat

shown?

628

Stability'

of Equilibrium:

Columns
P4

Problems

629

't -27. The an aluminum

for

conv.enience,

stresses

up

stress-strain curve in simple tension for alloy is shown in the figure, where, for e x 103 = e. The alloy is linearly elastic
to 40 ksi; the ultimate stress is 50 ksi.

A
Fig. Pll-3'1

abola
uous
Hinge

(a) Idealize

to the

the

curve

stress-strain

so that
limit

r and

relation
and

do/de

by fit ing
the

= Et is contin-

a parMB
P sin

at the

proportional

so that

r = 50-

Fig.
t -23. A machine bracket of steel alloy is to be made

PI1-22

ultimate stress, and E, the tangent r. (c) Plot in one graph O'cr against and pinned-pinned columns, where
a ksi

ksi line is tangent against r/{rutt, where

to the parabola. E is the elastic

modulus at stress L/r for fixed-fixed rcr is based on E,.

(b) Plot modulus,

Et(r)/E rut the

and the bending moment

sin
LL

Xx

Mx
PL

is

M=
50 40

- MsinXx
sin

as shown in the figure. is so arranged that it can in the plane ABC, but direction perpendicular ness of the member is h to have equal probability

tually

and the factor of safety on instability is 2, what force F can be applied to the bracket? Assume that the bar

perpendicular

directions?

The compression member AB buckle as a pin-ended column as a frxed-ended column in the to this plane. (a) If the thick in, what should be its height of buckling in the two mu-

LL

t -32. chanical
an

(b) If E = 28 x 10%
Fig.
end wil

Fig.

PI1.27

X

103=e

PIt-24

designed

in (a) controls

the capacity

of the assemlily.

be unsuppc

the column
12"

against

buckling

on which

E = 30 x 106 psi. (Note: if the height of the rigid

to the height of the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

,

is 2.5,

the equipmeni

what

is the

maximum

can be

tl-28. For some materials, the stress-strain relationship in normalized form can be expressed 28 as r = 1 - exp(-ce), where c is an arbitrary constant. Setting c = 500, plot the stress-strain diagram for e from
0 to 0.01, and the normalized-stress-vs-column slen-

using

moment of the moment.

maximum

end moment Mo = 30 kN, as shown using Appendix (b)

Consider properties

the thin-walled tube having the megiven in Prob. 11-30 subjected to

= 250 N-m and

deflection

example.

the accurate
Note

an approximate for beam Compare the that

and then

in the

figure.

expressions
the

method. Use Table 11 deflection due to an end results in (a) with those

the maximum

an axial (a) Determine

force

bending

the

maximum

found

moment

in the preceding
occurs

at

dM/dx

Solution becomes mass is significant

inaccurate in relati

stresses

due

0. (c)

to the

Calculate
axial

force

the

and

maximum
bending.
37 mm

in-span

column.)

derness t -29.
for

L/r

ratio Using

= 0 and

Ldr Eq.

75.

from 11-24,

Assume

0 to 200. (Note: exp(x) = obtain the average stress P/A

ec[r 2 = 0.05.

Sections
t -25. Find

11-6
the

through
shortest lengths

11-8
for

Section
elastic dif erent
size (

11-9

pinned mula

ends would

such apply.

that the Consider

strut

Euler three
of nominal

cases:

a 2 x 4 in wooden

of the Appendix)

ifE

= 1.8 x 106 psi and the

compression stress is 1500 psi, (b) a solid alloy shaft 50 mm in diameter if E = 70 GPa = 360 MPa, and (c) a W 14 x 193 steel section

11-30. long P = diameter area and flection

Table
=

4 of the Appendix)
Two grades
slenderness

if E = 29 x 103 ksi
are
for

Fig.

Pll-23

36

ksi.

the

34. (b) Compare

the combined maximum

A high-strength thin-walled steel tube 1250 mm is loaded as shown in Fig. 11-23. The axial force 25 kN and the transverse F = 500 N. The outside of the tube is 37 mm, and its cross-sectional is 223 mm 2. For this tube, I = 34.2 x 10 3 mm 4 E =, 200 GPa. (a) Determine the maximum deand bending moment using Eqs. 11-33 and 11-

Fig.

Pll-32

1t-33.
the

figure,

If an elastic
show

that

bar

the

is initial y
total

deflection

curved

as shown

in

approximate

the results
Eqs.
moment.

11-26.

of steel
ratios

in common

stresses

due

11-41

in (a) with
to the Neglect

and

11-42.
axial

the results
force

(c) Calculate
and

using

1-}/Por 1

) a sin
P

--

tl-24. A piece of mechanical equipment is to be ported at the top of a 5-in nominal-diameter standard steel pipe, as shown in the figure. The equipment its supporting platform weigh 5500 lb. The base of pipe wil be anchored in a concrete pad and the

sup-

umns A572

and the top

smallest

in buildings[ A36 steel with O-yp = 50 ksi. For

ends

with each

which

o-yp = 36 ksi, steel determine

the

centrations.

bending
MB, as shown

local

stress
deflection

the con-

t -31.

buckling

at both

formula

and

when

applies

it is fixed

when

the

at both

column

ends.

is

moment

Show

that for a beam-column

in the

figure,

loaded
the

by an end

is
Fig. Pll-33

28 Courtesy

of F. C. Filippou.

630
Section tl-34. Show 1140 that since the character

Stability

of Equilibrium:

Columns
t -43. aJong
its

Problems
A pin-ended length bar
by an elastic

63'i
is often
are

of

of Eqs.

11-45

and

constant foundation,

EI

is supported as shown

A572
in
where

grade
the

steel
columns

used
stocky.)

in building

construction

11-46 changes a tensile force the dif erential

if instead is applied, equation

Xx

of a compression the homogeneous for deflection

+ C2 cosh Xx

is + C3x

axial force, solution of

+ C4
Fig. Ptl-38

the

figure.

The

foundation

modulus

is k lb/in

2 and

is

v = C sinh

such that when the bar deflects by an amount v, a restoring force kv lb/in is exerted by the foundation normal to the bar. First, satisfy yourself that the governing homogeneous dif erential equation for this problem is
EIv i' + Pv" + /iv = 0

t -47.

is laterally braced 12 ft apart in the weak direction of buckling and 24 ft apart in the strong direction, as shown in the figure. (a) Determine the allowable axial lead for this column per AISC ASD. (b) Is this a wellbalanced design?
P

A 14 x 193 column

of A36

(%,

= 36 ksi)

steel

where
from the

constants.
boundary

C,,
that
deflection

C2,
conditions.

C3,

and
11-3,

C4 are
axial

determined
force P were

t -35.
tensile,

Show
the

if in Example

1t-39. (a) Using Eq. the bending moment

beam-column is given

11-45, for
as

show that a uniformly

the loaded

Then, ential

show equation

that is

the

required

eigenvalue

of the

dif er-

v = 2- sech
t -36. due

sinh hx - 2-
found in Prob.
the deflections end using

M = -[qof ,' COSXL n , - 1 sin hx - .cos Xx + 1 )

11-31. This
the (b) How can the equation found from the preceding
50.)
w o N/m

Per - nr2EI L2 [ n2 + I , ( rkL4Xl raEiJ j

Note that if k = 0, the minimum value of Per becomes

expression
column identical

Verify to the case

Show

special

:or the deflection

demonstrates
that

Eq. 11-48 by superposing moments applied at each that

of the elastic curve be result? (Hint: See Eq.

1]

the

classical

Euler

buckling

lead.

deflections members

11-37.

an elastic sinusoidal

beam-column lead as shown

can be found by superposition for subjected to the same axial force. the equation of the elastic curve fdr
of constant E subjected in the figure is

the solutions

for beam-

EI = const

P
Fig. Plt-47

to a

v - 1 - P/Per

qo : sin -r 4El L

L 4

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Fig. Pll-39
Fig, Plt-43

Yl

qosin rx/L
Fig. Pll-37

'

tl-40. Rework Example 11-4 using Eq. show that for P = 0, Eq. 11-49 reduces MoL2/SEI. tl-41. Using Eq. 11-55, rederive Eq. 11-16.

11-45, to

1t-48. A standard 12-in-nominal-diameter steel pipe (see Table 8 of the Appendix) supports a water tank, as shown in the figure. Assuming that the effective length of the free-standing pipe-column is 30 ft, what weight of water can be supported per AISC ASD? Let

Sections t -44. long (a)

and

11-11

and

11.12

Gyp
should

= 36 ksi.
also be

(Note:
considered.)

In a complete
Water tank

design,

wind

lead

t -42. critical
ness
conditions

Using buckling
shown

homogeneous lead for

in the
at the

Eq. 11-45, determine the column of variable

(Hint:
in EI.)

figure.
change

Enforce

11-38. Using Eq. 11-45, show that the equation for the bending moment for an elastic beam column subjected to a uniformly varying increasing lead to the right is
given as

If a pin-ended solid circular shaft is 1.5 m its diameter is 50 mm, what is the shaft's slenderness ratio? (b) If the same amount of material as in (a) is reshaped into a square bar of the same length, what is the slenderness ratio of the bar? t -45. The cross section era compression member for a small bridge is made as shown in Fig. 11-26(a). The top cover plate is x 18 in and the two C 12 x 20.7 channels are placed 10 in from back to back. If this member is 20 ft long, what is its slenderness ratio? (Check L/r in two directions.)

30'

EI

L/2

1t-46.

from

36 ksi.

Consider two axial y loaded columns W 10 x 112 sections of A36 steel, where
One of the columns is 12 ft long and

the

made cryp =
other
Fig. Plt-48

M =
where q = qox/L.

X 2 sin XL
Fig. Pll-42 

qo sin

Xx

EI

= oo

L/2

is 40 ft long. Both columns are braced at the pin ends. (a) Using the AISC ASD, determine the allowable loads for these columns. (b) What would be the allow-

1t-49.
is

able

loads
instead?

if A572
(Note:

grade
This

steel
il ustrates

having

Cry v = 50 ksi
the reason why

ksi. (a) Determine between Eqs.

For

A36

steel,
11-56

the and

ratio 11-57

%0

= 36 ksi and
Le/r for the for AISC

transition ASD

E = 29 x 10 3
point formulas.

632
(These formulas are constructed

Stability
using

of Equilibrium:
the concept

Columns
11-57.
mine the

Problems
Using
allowable

633
on
axis.

Aluminum

shown in Fig. 11-29(a).) (b) Show that the AISC LRFD Eq. 11-58 reduces to Le/r = 89.2Xc, and then determine the ratio Le/r for the transition point between Eqs. 1159 and 11-60.

axial

Association
loads

for

two

formulas,

8 in

P using
conditions.

the

AISC
Let F0

ASD

formulas.

Assume

pin-ended

= 27 ksi.

centtic
tance

load

of 25 k applied
the X-X

the
The

Y-Y
column

axis

at a disis braced

of 6 in from

10.72 that
erties
W

lb/ft 6061-T6 are 10 and

of the
8 x 31 steel

aluminum-alloy 30 ft long.
use
section.

For
Table

pin-ended cross-sectional
4 of the Appendix

colu

t -62.
this

columns,

20 ft. lOsing
column
a concentric

A W 12 x 40 column

the AISC
load

ASD
load
k.

has

formulas,
that

an effective can
figure,
column

determine

length

the

of

top and bottom stress is 22 ksi

and and

is 14 ft long. The try. = 36 ksi.

allowable

bending

magnitude the

t -50.
the nominal = qbcAtrcr, columns
tween

(a) Using
axial where in Prob.
the factored

the

AISC

LRFD

method,

determine
Pn two befor

of an eccentric at A, as shown
of 20

in the
The

be applied in addition
is braced

to
at

column strengths (factored loads) A is the cross section for the 11-46. (b) Determine the ratios
and the allowable axial loads

t -58.

lowable

Using

axial

loads

the

NFPA
lengths:
ends,

for

three

formulas,

6 x 6 in Douglas

determine
psi

umns
is braced

of dif erent
at both

5, 12, and
and F = 1000

20 ft.
and E =

top and
ksi.

bottom.

The

allowabl

bending
Y

stress

F0 = 17

'1t-65. A narrow rectangular beam, such as shown in the figure, can collapse when loaded through lateral instability by twisting and displacing sidewise. It can be shown 29 that for this case, the critical force that
may be applied at the end is

the
for

lowable
with

corresponding
the
the

axial

loads

columns
are

593

k and

in Prob.

153

k, respectively,.

11-46.

Such

al-

x 106 psi.

Per = 4.013V'BiC
where B = hb3E/12 is the flexural

/ L2
stif ness of the beam

short
aid
form

and the

the long
1-28.

columns. LRFD formulas,

Interpret rework
factored

the results Prob.

and the

of Eq.

Sections
11-59. An

1143
observation

and

1144
platform 6 ft in diameter is

around

the

vertical

axis,

and

C = [3hb3G
sections,

is the
coefficient

tor-

1t-5t.
11-47

_Using
and

AISC
the ratio

between

the

allowable of Eq. t -52.

48.

axial
1-28. Using
Two

loads. Interpret the result with the (See the preceding problem.) AISC LRFD formulas, rework Prob.
A36 steel C 10 x 15.3 channels form

aid 11a 24-

t -53.

ft-long flanges gether. allowable

and

square compression member; are turned in, and are adequately Using the AISC ASD formulas, axial force on this member?
29 x 103 ksi.

channel laced towhat is the tryp = 36 ksi

from two as shown in back to back
of inertia for the

the

tached to the top of a standard 6-in pipe 20 ft supported by a footing. Governed by the the pipe, what weight, including a person or can be placed on the platform? Locate the live load ft from the pipe centerline. Neglect the weight struction. Use Eq. 11-68 with the allowable given by the Euler formula with FS = 3. E = 10 6 psi and try" = 36 ksi.
11-60.
an eccentric

sional stif ness. (For [3 is given in a table A 5 x in narrow

Fig. Pll-62 Y

rectangular in Section rectangular

4-14.) cantilever is made

from

steel

(try"

= 36 ksi and

E = 30 x 103 ksi)

and

is

A W

12 x 85 column
load of 180

11-54. A572 Fig.

of the

A compression member steel C 8 x 11.5 channels 11-26(b). (a) Determine the

channels so that the moments

is made arranged distance

up

ure. mine.
allowable

Using whether

the
stresses

AISC ASD this column

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

AISC ASD interaction formula? Assume that the

tl-63. reaction having delivers

umn, respect
=

What is the magnitude that can be carded an effective length the reaction
shown to the

by of

of the maximum beam a W 10 x 49 column 14 ft, according to the

beam

20 ft long

is subjected

at the

outside

flange

of the

colwith of the

loaded as shown in the figure. (a) Determine the critical load Pr and the critical length Lr, where both the strength and the stability criteria are equally applicable. (b) Plot P vs L in the neighborhood of Pr and L for the two criteria. (Note that the smaller of the P values governs the design.)

k located

as shown

in the

as

interaction is adequate.

formula, Use

in the figure, minor axis. The

and top

is concentric and bottom

the

as in Example

11-11.

column

22

ksi.

are

held

laterally.

Assume

Fy

= 36 ksi

and

Fb

section about the member compressive AISC LRFD

103 ksi.

two principal axes are equal. (b) If is 32 ft long, what is the nominal axial strength of the member according to provisions? try" = 50 ksi and E = 29 x

the

l 0"

Fig.
Fig. Ptt-63

Plt-65

t -55. A boom for an excavating machine is made up from four 2 x 2 x in A36 steel angles, as shown in Fig. 11-26(c). Out-to-out dimensions of the square

Fig.

Pll-60

t -64.
68 column made of A36 grade

Using
to carry

the

AISC
a concentric

ASD

code,
load

select

a W shape
an ec-

column,
AISC ASD
29 x

excluding
formulas,
103ksi.

lacing
what

bars,
axial

is 14 in.
load can

According
be applied

to

1t-61.

A W

14

column

of 60 k and

t -66. Using Eq. 11-75, determine the maximum tance between intermit ent lateral supports compression flange of a laterally unsupported 76 beam spanning 24 ft.

disfor the W 24 x

to this
=

member

if it is 52 ft long?

tryp

= 36 ksi

and

(tryp = 36 ksi) is 20 ft long and as shown in the figure. Determine

is loaded the

allowable

tl-56. A compression chord of a small truss consists of two 4 x 4 x  in steel angles arranged as shown in Fig. 11-26(d). The vertical legs of the angles are separated by spacers in apart. If the length of this member between braced points is 8 ft, what axial load may be applied according to the AISC ASD code? try" =
36 ksi and E = 29 x 103 ksi.

Fig.

Pll-61

-"--n

bility,

29 See Timoshenko
p. 260.

and

Gere,

Theory

of Elastic

Sta-

Sec.

t2-2.

Elastic

Strain

Energy

635

chapter
12-2.
The elastic ume, for principal of stress,

Elastic

Strain

Energy
strain energy per unit volby Eq. 8-49 in terms of element in a general state

strain-energy density Uo, i.e., the a three-dimensional body was given stresses and strains. For a cartesian the main energy density is

Uo = (crxex
Therefore, linearly ]2-].
was the of of In

+ %% + o-e + 'rxyxy + -ryy + -r)

expression
is

(12-1)
energy in a

the
elastic

general body

for

the

total

internal

strain

Introduction
obtained internal employing the most Part A,

In a few

instances

in bodies. energy discussed from a somewhat more general point of view. This is fol owed by a specialized statement of the law of conservation of energy for formable bodies, and the reason for the need to develop additional meth ods based on work and energy concepts to solve deflection problems.
Part B serves as an introduction to the two virtual work methods

by invoking the law of Conservation of energy and strain energy to the external work. This Lagrangian scalarfimctions can be greatly extended, resulting effective procedures for the analysis of deformable the previously encountered concept of elastic strain

in the preceding

chapters,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

+ 'r' + 'ry:y

the deflection

of

U = 

(o-,e, + %e, + cre

+ 'r,.x',.x)dx

dy dz

(12-2)

Integration extends over the volume is used in elasticity. In engineering of problems is considered and Eq.

of a body. Such a general expression mechanics of solid, a less general class 12-2 simplifies. An expression
(12-3)

u = 
is sufficient well as in writ en in problem of the major For linearly shear, '/xy

(c,,e:, + ,yxy) dx dy dz

deformable
useful
is not

bodies.
for
limited

One
all to

of these,
deflections
elastic behavior.

the
caused

method
by
This

of virtual
any
method

forces,
of deformation
is one of the

is
and

determining
at

kind
The in the

available of virtual

structures

for calculating displacetnents,

and

in finite

elements,

deflections of great

is also

of members. importance

discussed.

The

conjugate matrix

duality

two

methods In Part C similar problems are discussed. energy or the nal work. The tems and are given for both discussion on column buckling

is il ustrated by considering discrete structural of this chapter, the classical energy methods to those susceptible to analysis by virtual work These methods are based on considering the internal complementary strain energy and the corresponding derived equations are specialized for linearly elastic known as Castigliano's theorems. Il ustrative examples statically determinate and indeterminate cases. A an application of the elastic energy concep loads concludes the chapter.

analysis of thes systems. for

for determining the strain energy in axial y loaded bars as bent and sheared beams. Moreover, the last term of Eq. 12-3 the appropriate coordinates is all that is needed in the torsion a circular shaft and for thin-walled tubes. These cases include types of problems treated in this text. elastic material, for uniaxial stress, e = ,x/E, and for pure = 'rxy/G. Thus, Eq. 12-3 can be recast in the fol owing form:

U = dddv -dx dy dz + if iv
s
for axiloading bending and ofbeams for shear
or

dx dy dz
in beams

(12-4)
(12-5)

u=

-5-dxdydz+

dxdydz

634

636

Energy

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

Sec.

'12-3.

Displacements

by

Conservation

of Energy

637

These equations can be specialized for the solutions gineering mechanics of solids, where it is generally with stress resultants P, V, M, and T. In this manner, are reduced to single integrals. Assuming that E and special cases of the last two equations fol ow.

encountered customary the G are constant,

in

to

where

factor

ct depends

on

the

cross-sectional

area

of a beam,

and

was

both

shown

s. hear

to be 6/5 in Example
V and area Energy for Circular

A can

10-12

vary

for a rectangular
along in Torsion

the

span

beam.

of length

 In this
L.

equation,

Strain

Tubes

Strain
In this P and

Energy
problem, cross-sectional

for

Axial y
rx = P/A area

Loaded
and A A can

Bars
= f dy dz. Therefore, only be functions since of x, axial

For this case, the basic ogous to the last term previously in Example
simplifications, becomes

expression for the of'Eq. 12-4. Such 4-11. By substituting

shearing strain an expression -r = TO/J, Eq.

energy is analhas been used 4-4, after some

=
elongation

dV fi. T2
by Conservation of Energy

(12-9b)

where an integration If P, A, and E are

A = PL/AE,

along constant,

bar
alternatively,

length L gives the required and, since for such cases,

per

quantity. Eq. 2-9,

12-3.
namics

Displacements
expresses this principle

VERSION I U _P2L 2AE NON-ACTIVATED = AEA2) 2L J

as

The law of conservation created nor destroyed, of elastic systems due

of energy, which states that energy can be neither can be adopted for determining the displacements to the applied forces. The first law of thermodydone = change in energy
(12-10)

Strain
According around

Energy

for

Beams

in Bending
elastic axes strain reduces

www.avs4you.com
work

length

L,

to Eq. 6-24, the one of its principal

i.e.,

energy in pure to an integral

bending along

the

law

For with

for

an adiabatic the forces

conservative

process applied

systems

2 and when in a quasistatic

4 reduces

no heat is generated in the system, manner, 3 the special form of this

to

(12-

(12-11)

where
cross

M
section.

is the

bending

moment,

and

I is the

moment

of inertia

for

where We is the total work done by the externally the loading process, and U is the total strain energy
It is significant to note that the total work
W = We + Wi
in Eq.

W must

applied stored

be zero,

forces during in the system.

and
(12-12)

Strain

Energy

for

Beams

in Shear
10-34 for using a rectangular the last

= 0
12-9a.

The expression constant shear

given by Eq. can be generalized

term

beam subj in Eq. 12-4

to

= 1, provided
neglected.

 For a circular

2 No heat

3 These
system

forces

is added

only

cross

web

section,
area

are applied
generally,
any

or subtracted system,
closed

A,eb

ct = 10/9,
is used

and for I beams

and box

sections,

ct

to the body
path.

from

so slowly

the system.

that the kinetic

forces no work

energy

can be

5-&dy&

4 In a conservative to friction. More

the

around

there are no dissipative in a conservative system

such as those due is done in moving

638

Energy

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

Sec.

12-4.

Virtual

Work

Principle

639

where

We

is the

from

Eqs.

12-11

external and 12-12,

work,

one

and has

W is the

internal

work.

u =

- w

(12-13
for
Fig.

where Wi has a negative sign because the deformations are opposed the internal forces. (See the discussion in connection with Fig. 12-2. Some formulations for determining the internal elastic strain were given in the preceding section. For linearly elastic systems, a force, or a couple, is gradually applied, the external work We is to one-half the total force multiplied by the displacement in the of its action. The possibility of formulating both We and U provides basis for applying Eq. 12-11 for determining displacements.

(a)

(b)

equilibrium.

determining

'12-'1

Alternative

static

means

Virtual
the concepts basis, the

Displacement

Method

The

conventional

procedure for twist of a thin-walled hollow member subjected to a tore Lastly, this method was applied in Example 10-12 for finding the tion caused by bending and shear in a cantilever loaded by force at the end. In all of these cases, the procedure was limited to determination of elastic deflections caused by a single concentrated at the point of its application. Otherwise, intractable equations are tained. For example, for two forces P and P2, P A/2 + P2 A2/2 = where A and A2 are, respectively, the unknown deflections of the forces. An additional relationship between A and A2, except in cases symmetry, is not available. This requires development of the more methods discussed in the remainder of the chapter.

of a circular

an axial y

This

procedure

loaded

shaft.

bar,

was used
and

A general

again

in Example
relation,

in Example

2-10 for finding

4-11

Eq.

4-37,

for

was

determining

the deflection

introduced forces shown

solution

by Archimedes in Fig. 12-1(a)

of static

equilibrium

in his studies are related as

problems

of levers.

usually

On

fol ows

this

derived

using

Pai

= P2a2

(12-14)

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

8W = P 8A

virtual quantities are expressed as 80 rather than the dqb employed in usual dif erential notation. The rotation shown causes virtual displacements 8A and 8A2 at the points of load application. Then, assuming that the system is conservative, the v#'tual work 8W done by real forces moving through virtual displacements in the direction of the applied forces is zero. Such work is positive when the direction of forces and displacements coincide. Applying this principle to the rigid bar shown in Fig. 12-2(b),
- P2 8A2 = 0 (12-15)

agina:y

An

alternative

or v#'tual

method

angle

80.

s consists

Here,

as elsewhere,

of rotating

the lever
for

emphasis,

through

all such

an bn-

However, change

during

since

the

8A

= a 80 and 8A2 application of 80,

(Pai - P2a2)

= a2 8qb,
80 = 0

and

P and

P2 do not
(12-16)

12-4.
Direct
deflections

Virtual
use of 'external
breaks

Work
work
down

Principle
and internal
deflections

strain
and/or

energy
rotations

for
are

Inasmuch as 80 is perfectly arbitrary, bearing no relation to the applied forces, the expression in parentheses must be zero, reverting to Eq. 1214. Stated dif erently, for a system in equilibrium, the virtual displacement equation simply leads to an equation of statics multiplied by an arbitrary For eralized. inon. ntroduced
Stevinus

if several

at dif erent points in a deformed body subjected to one or more It is possible, however, to devise extraordinarily effective means for ing such problems by replacing true or real work and strain energy external and internal virtual (imaginary) work. Two dif erent for applying the virtual work principle are described, resulting in the tual displacement method and the virtual force method.

deformable bodies, For such systems,

(1548-1620),

the virtual-displacement the total virtual

work

equation must 8W, consisting

Bernoulli,

be genof the to Varigin 1717

s This approach

apparently

the notion

of virtual

Galileo

was considered
(1564-1642),

displacements

and

by Leonardo
(velocities)
Johann

da Vinci
in his let er

who

(1452-1519),

Energy
Initial

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

Sec.

t2-4.

Virtual

Work

Principle

64'i

--

equilibrium position

of

external the form

virtual work of an equation,

gWe

and

the

internal

virtual

work

gW,

is zero.

approach restrictions
fit,

leads are

to the placed

virtual force on constitutive

method. relations,
total virtual

In

this method, and problems

again, with

no
therof

Initial

--

mal
In

gW=

gWe

gWi=

can

deformations,
be

This equation can be interpreted by making reference to Fig. 12-2, a weightless spring supports a rigid mass. This mass applies a force P the spring, and the system is in equilibrium. Then a virtual dis gA is imposed on this system, as shown in Fig. 12-2(a). During this placement, force P and internal forces F, shown on isolated parts in Fi
As virtual virtual can be seen from the isolated mass in Fig. 12-2(b), the extern work gWe done by force P is P gA. On the other hand, the intern work gWi done by F is -F g/x. Therefore, this-internal work is negative. However, it can be noted that the work done by F acting on the
12-2(b), remain constant.

the
'order

external
to

the

analyzed. virtual force

as well work
method,

as settlement gW
the
the

of supports the internal

work

and
force
in

lack gW,
are

of member
consisting

equilibrium position

of

bP

virtual

and

work
this

gW*,

is zero.
with that

In
by

dif erentiate

between

virtual

method

in the asterisks.

virtual

displacement For this case,

method, analogous

the
to Eq.

work
12-17,

quantities

identified
(12-20)

gW*
This spring force forces mation
Thereafter,

= gW

+ gW*e

= 0

{a)

shown fore,
gW,,

in the upper by calling this

it fol ows that

diagram internal

of Fig. virtual
gWi ='

12-2(b), has work caused

-gWi

an opposite sign. by the external force

(12-18

equation can supports a gP is placed gF = gP, of the system

gP

be clarified with the aid of Fig. 12-3, where rigid mass. However, unlike the previous on the system first and is in equilibrium as shown on isolated parts in Fig. 12-3(b). is permit ed to take place after force
constant.

a weightless case, virtual with internal The deforgP is applied. when force

(a}

remains

In
gP does

the

next
the

step,
external

real
virtual

displacement
work:

A is allowed

to occur

(b)

By

substituting

this

relation

into

Eq.

12-17,

Fig. '12-2 displacement

model.

Virtual

mass-spring

' gWe
Applying Eq. 12-19
pgA

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 12-3(b), the internal virtual work gW done by www.avs4you.com here, again, the internal virtual work is negative.
During the same process, as can be seen from

gF is - gF A. Therefore,
work

the

isolated

mass

in Fig.

be reversed
external

by considering
gP =

the internal
gW?

virtual

However,

gW* caused

this sign can spring model.

by the
(12-21)

Fig. t2-3 Virtual

force

mass-

force

gF,

i.e.,

to the
= FgA

simple
or

system
(P-

in Fig.
F) gA

12-2,
= 0

= -gWe

This relation is analogous to Eq. = 0, an equation of equilibrium.

12-14.

Here

gA is arbitrary,

so P

Therefore,

since

from

Eq.

12-20,

The virtual displacement Eq. 12-19 establishes

It is essential

to note
relations

the

that

method equations
during
do

a virtual
not enter

for deformable for static

do not
into

displacement,
the

equilibrium.

systems
It is to be

expressed
the of the basic virtual work equation for the virtual force method is

and

that work
Virtual

the

constitutive equations.

directions

of applied

forces

change.

deviation

(12-22)

Force

Method

where
virtual work can be formulated in two
work

gW
calculated

is the
in

external
the sense

virtual
described

work,

and
before.

gW**e

is the

internal

virtual

For

deformable

bodies,

ways. tiplying

obtained

In the previous real forces

as a product

discussion, by virtual
of the

virtual

virtual displacements.

work
and

forces

was Here
real

displacements.

determined the virtual

In applying Eq. 12-22 to the simple system that gF = gP. Then, since the virtual Aspr, A --- Aspr, an equation of compatibility.

in Fig. 12-3, work equation

it is known a is gP A =

642

Energy

and Virtual

Work Methods
to recognize of the simple
such over elements all of

Sec. t2.5.
that only one deformable systems in Figs. 12-2
and
them.

Virtual

Forces
Deformation

for Deflections
due to real

643
force is u

It is important sidered in each

there work are must several extend

and
for the

element 12-3.
internal

is

Virtual

force
element

in a typical
is/F

in a typical

element

P2

calculations

To summarize: in the virtual displacement method, the use of matically admissible (plausible) displacements assures compatibility, solutions lead to equations for static equilibrium. By contrast, in the tual force method, the requirements of statics are fulfil ed by the virtual force system in equilibrium, and solutions lead to of compatibility for the systems.
referred that

P
A

In applying
these

to

as the internal terms are calculated

Eqs.

12-19 and 12-22,

virtual

work. It is to be in accordance with

the terms

Wie and We wil be si

understood, the definitions however

(a)

Real
(b)

in

the

displacement

direction

AB

of point

is A

in connection In the next work methods

with Eqs. 12-18 and 12-21. five sections, self-contained development at an introductory level is given. For

of the two more advanced

virtui

Fig.

t2-4

Virtual

forces

and

real

displacements.

ment
this
12-5. The

of this
text, the
Virtual virtual

important
applications
Forces

subject,
are
for

the
limited
Deflections

reader
to small

is referred
deformations.

to other

texts.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION externalvirtual work= internal virtuwww.avs4you.com al work

work principle can be simply stated in words as
force method, virtual work is obtained by

For

the

virtual

virtual

forces

by real
on a deformed

displacements.

An
The

algebraic
may

implementation

of

First, apply an imaginary or virtual force gP at A acting in the desired direction AB to the unloaded body. This force causes internal forces throughout the body. These internal forces, designated as gF, Fig. 124(a), can be found in any statically determinate systems. Next, with the virtual force remaining on the body, apply the actual or real forces, Fig. 12-4(b), or introduce the specified deformations, such as those due to a change in temperature. This causes real internal deformations u, which can be computed. Owing to these deformations, the virtual force system does external and internal work. Therefore, since the external work done by virtual force gP moving a real amount A in the direction of this force is equal to the total work done on the internal elements by the virtual forces gF's moving their respective real amounts u, the special form of the virtual-work equation becomes

equatio

element)

n enables

one

to calculate
body.

deflection

deformations

(or rotation)

be due

of any

to an3

such as a temperature change, misfit of parts, or external forces a body. The method is not limited to the solution of elastic problems. this reason, this method has an exceptionally broad range By confining the discussion to typical problems of engineering of solids involving stress resultants, the basic virtual work equation, responding to general Eq. 12-23, can be readily derived. For this purpose consider, for example, a body such as shown in Fig. 12-4 for which deflection of some point A in direction AB caused by deformation distortion of the body is sought. For this, the virtual work equation be formulated by employing the fol owing sequence of reasoning.
6 For rigorous elastic problems mathematical requiring
the

real
(12-24)

virtu__J
Since all virtual forces attain their ful values before real deformations

are or,
all

imposed, in general,
internal virtual

virtual integration,
work

work
must

is a product of the right

be included.

of these quantities. side of the equation between these gF's virtual

Summation, indicates

that be

Oden, and E. A. Ripperger, Mechanics McGraw-Hil , 1981). For an extensive Davies, Virtual Work in Structural

treatment use of the

theorem, of Elastic Structures, 2nd ed. exposition of virtual work, see Analysis (Chichester: Wiley, 1982).

of virtual divergence

work (Green's)

for

Note regardless
G. A.

that

in Eq. 12-24, the ratios of the value of gP; hence,

and gP remain constant quantities need not

infinitesimal. choose
24 as

the

Therefore, applied virtual

it is particularly force gP equal

convenient to unity,

and

in applications to restate

Eq.

to 12-

644

Energy

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

Sec.

12-6.

Virtual

Force

Equations

for Elastic

Systems

645

Fi is the force
extends
Peams

over

all

in the same
members

of a truss.

member

due to the real

loads.

The

summation

I
virtual

where

virtual

unit

force

real
virtual

displacement
unit force

of a point

in the

direction

of the

which the deflection is sought. ing moments at various sections

work

If the deflection
method,

a virtual

of a point

unit

force

on an elastic
must

virtual'
force

internal
internal

forces
displacements

in equilibrium
of a body

with

the

virtual

real

virtual beam
reall
a

moments M rotate Eq. 10-37. Hence,

Eq. 12-25 for

in Fig. 12-5(a).

Next,

moments  is M dx/EI. Integrating gives the internal work on the elements.

beams becomes
Z M

the "plane sections" the virtual work done

as the real forces

This virtual force wil set up internal bendof the beam designated by , as is shown

be applied

beam

is wanted
first

in the direction

by the virtual

in

are applied

of the beam on an element

to the beam,

this over Hence,

M dx/EI radians, of a beam by the

bending

the length of the the special form

Fig. t2-5 Beam Virtual bending (b) Real bending
the rotation

d M dx/EI
(b)

For and
formations case.

simplicity, are barred

can Tensile

the symbols designating as shown instead of being

be due to any cause, forces and elongations

virtual quantities are identified by- 8's. The

ones are taken being

with the elastic of members

positive result indicates that the deflection occurs as the applied virtual force. In determining the angular rotations of a member, instead of a unit force. In practice, the procedure force or a virtual unit couple in conjunction with
to as the unit-dummy-load method.

in the

same

xA=

EI

dx

(12-27)

and

elements. moments moments

of

(a) m.

sections

they

cause.

An analogous VERSION expression may be used to find the angular rotation of a NON-ACTIVATED particular section in a beam. For this case, instead of applying a virtual unit force, a virtual unit couple is applied to the beam at the section being i nvestigated. This virtual couple sets up internal moments  along the www.avs4you.com beam. Then, as the real forces are applied, they cause rotations M dx/EI
a unit couple is of using a virtual virtual work is

12-6.

Virtual

Force

Equations

for

Elastic

Systems

Equation 12-25 can be specialized the solution of problems. This flexural members. Application
Trusses

for linearly elastic systems to is done here for axial y loaded examples fol ow.

by multiplying

27 applies

of the cross

here.

sections.

it by the real rotation

The external

Hence,

work

the same integral

by the virtual

expression

0 of the beam

unit couple

as in Eq. 12is obtained

at this couple.

Hence,
(12-28)

Yxo=
unit
to be

E1

A virtual
deflection

force
determined.

must

be

applied the

at a point

in the bar

direction

of

axial

For

linearly forces
Therefore,

elastic F, according
Eq.

bars

of constant to Eq. 2-9,

12-25 becomes

cross real

section axial

A subjected deformations

to

FL/AE.

pressed
EXAMPLE

In Eqs. 12-27 and 12-28,  is the bending moment due to the virtual loading, and M is the bending moment due to the real loads. Since both and M usually vary along the length of the beam, both must be ex-

by appropriate
t24

functions.

x A= .= AiEi
where i is the axial force in a member due to the virtual unit force

Find the vertical deflection 12-6(a) due to the fol owing

a shortening by 0.125

in of member

of point B in the pin-jointed steel truss shown in Fig. causes: (a) the elastic deformation of the members,
AB by means of a turnbuckle,

and (c) a

646

Energy

and

Vidual

Work

Methods

Sec.

12-6.

Virtual

Force

Equations

for Elastic

Systems

647

AA' -/ I
3'

L

A =0. 15in2 =60in

/ 3000 lb

drop in temperature of 120 F occurring in member expansion of steel is 6.5 x 10 -6 inch per inch the possibility of lateral buckling of the compression
.psi.
Solution

per

BC.

The degree
member.

coefficient of the Fahrenheit. Ne Let E = 30 x

+ 0.1042 - 0.0390 have been considered

EXAMPLE '2-2

= +0.0208 in up. To find this quantity, simultaneously in the virtual work

all three equation.

effects

could

Find

(a) A virtual unit force is applied in the upward vertical direction, as shown Fig. 12-6(b), and the resulting forces  are determined and recorded on the diagram. Then the forces in each member due to the real force are also
and recorded,
out

shown
Solution

the

in Fig.

deflection

12-7.

and

EI for

rotation

the

beam

at the

is constant.

middle

of the

cantilever

beam

loaded

as

Fig.
in the

12-5(c).
table.

The

solution

fol ows

by

means

of Eq.

12-26.

The'

.

C.,i

L = 60 in
(a)

is carded

respectively.
Member
AB BC

The downward virtual force is applied at point A, whose 12-7(b). The  diagram and the M diagram are shown
For
deflection.

, lb
-0.833 + 0.833

F, lb
+2500 - 2500

L, in
60 60

A, in 2
0.15 0.25

FL/A
-833,000 - 500,000

the cantilever.
the

After

these

these

functions,

moments
X
3

the same

are determined,
Wo X3
6L

origin

ofx

Eq. 12-27

is taken

deflection in Figs.

at the free

is sought, Fig. 12-7(c) and (d),

to find
end

is applied

of

M=
 

X HJoX
2 L

O<x<L
0 <x<L/2 L/2<x<L

* '"833

lb

From

this

table,

 FL/A

= - 1,333,000.

Hence,

7 x A = wzFL AE
and A =

-1,30333,0x 00 106
-0.0444 in

- 0.0444

lb-in

= 0 = -l(x-L/2)

/+0.833

lb

The negative sign means is done by the virtual direction. Note particularly
in members are taken

that force
positive,

point acting the'units

and

B deflects down. upward when and the signs

vice versa.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION + 1 fL,L_ ( -x + $] WoX3 www.avs4you.com

In this case, it is displaced of all quantities. "negative in 'a Tensile work
-3840EI

EI
4

- EJ

(0) , 6L / dx

49woL

N.m

wox/L

(b)

Virtual

loading

_A. 1500lb 2000 lb 

(b) Equation shortening force acting

Then,
BC,

since

12-25 is used to find the vertical deflection of point B due of member AB by 0.125 in. The forces set up in the bars by in the direction of the deflection sought are shown in Fig. u is -0.125 in (shortening) for member AB and is zero for

to

-'

Wo~
(a)

Realloading

diagram

(d)

T x and

/t =

(-0.833)(-0.125) /t =

+ (+0.833)(0) + 0.1042 in up
to the

+0.1042

lb-in

2000 Ib '-2500lb

C 11500 lb
(c) Real loading

3000 lb

(c)

2-18,

Again,

Ar

using = -6.5

Eq.

12-25, x 10 -6

and noting that due X 120 X 60 = --0.0468

drop in temperature, in in member BC,

 x /t = (+0.833)(-0.0468)
and A = -0.0390 in down

-0.0390

lb-in
diagram
'L/2

due

to '' N
TN.m diagram

Fig.

t2-6

By superposition,

the net deflection

of point

B due to all three

causes

is

(c)

(f)

Fig.

t2-7

648

Energy The
due to

and deflection
shear

Virtual
has been

Work of point

Methods A is numerically
neglected.

Sec. equal
middle of the
0 and

12-6.

Virtual

Force

Equations

for Elastic

Systems

649

to this
beam,
and

quantity.
a virtual

The
unit

To

find
virtual
of

the

beam

rotation

at the

The
The

applied
of the
tation

real

at A, Fig.
bending
the

moment

moment

12-7(e).
these
at A.

The

 = 0 for

M is the moments,

corresponding

x between

same and

as in the
L/2,

 diagram

previous Eq.

is shown
 = - 1 for

part

of the
the

in Fig.

12-7i
the

of the beam is 5000 mm 2 (50 x 10 -4 m2), m2). The moment of inertia for the beam mm 4 (60 x 10 -6 m4). Neglect deflection
Solution

and that of the bar, 500 mm 2 (5 x 10 -4 around the horizontal axis is 60 x 10 6 caused by shear. Let E = 70 GPa.

beam.

Using
beam

applying

12-28,

determines

A unit

virtual

force

of 1 kN

is applied

vertically

downward

at C. This

force

causes

WoX 3
6L

and

-1

L/2<x<L

an axial force in member DB and in part AB of the beam, Fig. 12-8(b). Owing to this force, bending moments are also caused in beam AC, Fig. 12-8(c). Similar computations are made and are shown in Figs. 12-8(d) and (e) for the applied real force. The deflection of point C depends on the deformations caused by the axial
forces, as well as flexure; hence, the virtual work equation is

Ix0=
The rotation

l: mME1 dx EI ,2 (-1) , 6L ] dx =-of the beam at A is numerically equal to this result.

'12-3

15woL
384EI

EXAMPLE

An aluminum bar at a third

the application

beam is supported point, as shown of the downward

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION , D 4AIiminum bar www.avs4you.com 4m =2kN  pFL/.AE = 3.75 x 10 -3 kN.m
Member , kN
+5 -4

by a pin at one end and an inclined in Fig. 12-8(a). Find the deflection at C caused force of 2 kN at that point. The cross

The rrst term on the right side of this equation is computed the integral for the internal virtual work due to bending is found. parts of the beam, two origins of x's are used in writing the and M; see Figs. 12-8(c) and (e), respectively.

in the table. Then For the dif erent expressions for 

F, kN
+10 -8

L, m
2.5 2.0

A, m 2

FL/A
+250,000 +12,800

DB AB

50

5 X 10 -4 X 10 -4

From
or

the table,

 FL/A

= + 262,800

(a)

fo L MEI dx - fo 2 (-2x)(-4x)dx EI
D '5kN
2 kN Virtual
(b)

+
kN.m

8.kN

DA 10
4 kN

'NB

kN
Real loading
(d)

15.25

10 -3

/04 (-x0(-2x)dx EI
and point C deflects

Therefore,
19 x

10 -3

T x A = 0.75
m = 19 mm

down.

+ 15.25)10
two

-3 = 19 x 10 -3 kN.m

loading

1 kN

Note that the work due to the that the origins for the coordinate venient; however, the same origin

types of action was superposed. Also note system for moments may be chosen as conmust be used for the corresponding  and M.

EXAMPLE
-8 kN.m

t2-4

diagram

diagram
(e)

Find
curved Neglect

the

horizontal
bar shown the effect

deflection,
in Fig. of axial 12-9(a). force

caused
and

by concentrated
The

force

P, of the
of the bar

end
is constant.

of the

Fig.

12-8

(c)

flexural rigidity EI shear on the deflection.

650

Energy

and Virtual

Work
-R(1

Methods
- cos O)
M = -PR sin 8

Sec. '12-7. Virtual

Solution

Forces

for Indeterminate

Problems

(a) The structure Then the forces

can be rendered in the members

force the FL/AE

R P
(a)

(b)

Fig. '12-9
Solution

of the problem, the deflection of this system. It is necessary to multiply fz>z> by a factor Xz> to chose the gap Az>p = 44.4 x 10 -3 in at D caused by the force P in the determinate system. This simply means that the deflection Az> at D becomes zero. Stated algebraically,
is large in comparison

a vertical virtual However, since of point D is the to be 44.4 x 10 The deflection

structure,

the deflection

determinate by cutting bar DB at D. in Fig. 12-10(b). In this determinate of point D must be found. This can be done by applying at D, Fig. 12-10(c), and using the virtual force method.
term for

statically are as shown

member

same as that of B. -3 in down and is of point D, shown and a vertical force of point D due to a

In Example 12-1, the lat er quantity was found so shown in Fig. 12-10(b). in Fig. 12-10(b), violates a boundary condition must be applied at D to restore it. If z>z> is unit (real) force at D, it defines the flexibility

BD

is zero,

the

vertical

deflection

-B

-4 
(a)

If the

dimensions placing

radius

wanted,
load,

Applying
from

(Section 6-9), ordinary beam deflection dx by ds. In this case, ds = R dO.

of curvature

of a bar

formulas

with

the

may

be used,

Fig.

a horizontal
12-9(b),

Fig.

12-9(c),

it is seen

virtual

M = -PR

that

force

7fi = -R(1
sin.0.

at the end in the direction

Therefore,

- cos 0). Similarly,

of the deflecti0h
for the

T-lb virtual
the real

Hence,

the problem
forces

using

Eq.

12-26.

force

A=

f ) MEI ds

= fo /2 -R(1 The deflection of the end to the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com cos O)(-PR sin O)R dO

pR 3

the two, forces in members real force by p. The solution

Member

are numerically

The

at D, then applying
forces

resolves

into

finding
same,

set up in the determinate

the Fig.

a l-lb real force

12-10(c).

fz>z>. This

structure

at the same point,

To dif erentiate

can be done

by applying

by the virtual

and then
between

and

caused by a virtual force are designated is carried out in the fol owing table.
p, lb L, in
60 60 40

by  and the
,pL/A
+278 + 167 + 400

, lb

A, in 2
0.15 0.25 0.10

EI

AB BC BD

-0.833 +0.833 + 1.000

-0.833 +0.833 + 1.000

right

is numerically

equal

to this

expression.

5001b
= 0

From

the table,

 ,pL/A

= + 845.

Therefore,

since

determinate
(b)

Real

loading-

3000lb
structure

12-7.

Virtual

Forces

for

Indeterminate

Problems
fzz = 28.1

 x A = '. SpL _

 AE

30 X 10 6 -- 28.1 x 10 -6 lb-in
28.1
l-lb the the

+845

lb,

The unit-dummy-load be used to advantage Here the procedure the first degree. The described in Section indeterminate axial y

the force indeterminancy

method
is valid.

is best

(or flexibility) method to problems of higher degree of is discussed in Sections 13-2 and 13-3. In general,
suited for linearly elastic problems, where

method derived using the virtual force concept for the solution of statically indeterminate t is il ustrated on a problem statically inde basic procedure is essential y the same as that 2-15 on the force method of analysis for loaded bar systems (see Fig. 2-43).

x 10 -6 in

and

x 10-6Xz

-44.4

x 10 -3

To close the gap of 44.4 x 10 -3 in, the 0.0444/0.0000281 = 1580 times. Therefore 1580 lb. The forces in the other two members shown in Fig. 12-10(c). lb (tension), and in BC,

or by superposition

of the forces

By either method, -1180 lb (compression).

shown

in Fig.

real force at D must be increased actual force in the member DB is may now be determined from statics

+1

lb

12-10(b)
force

in AB

with

is found

Xz> times

to be

the p forces

+ 1180

recognizing
the

(b) Three dif erent virtual systems nodal point B caused by the applied
deflection

that

at B

since

the force

in vertical
1580

are employed force. The

to determine the deflection simplest of the three consists member BD is known to be 1580

lb,

of of
ture

ding

--

EXAMPLE

t2-5

(a) Find

10. (b) Determine

the forces

the deflection

in the bars of the pin-jointed

of joint (nodal

point)

steel

structure

B. Let E = 30 x 10

shown

in

Aa

..

FL

40

(c)

AE

0.10

30

106

21

10 -3

in

Fig.

'12-t0

652

Energy

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

Sec.

12-8.

Virtual

Displacements

for

Equilibrium

653

This virtual

Alternatively, the virtual force system may consist of active members AB BC, with a zero virtual force in member BD. Then, by assuming that the unit force acts upwards at B, the virtual forces in members AB and BC are shown in Fig. 12-10(c) (or Fig. 12-6(b)). (Remember that the force in member BC,
is assumed
table.

solution force

from the in member

point of view of a virtual force system means DB is unity and is zero in the other members.

that;

*'12-8.
The virtual placement can begin

Virtual

Displacements
be adapted analysis. work
work =

for
for The principle
internal

Equilibrium
developing delivation in words:
virtual

work principle can method of structural by restating the virtual

external virtual

the virtual disof this method

work (12-23)

The

solution

and BD are known

of Eq.

to be zero.)

From

12-26

to be, respectively,
to obtain

the solution

for (a),

the deflection

+ 1180 lb, -1180

atB is carried

the real forces

lb, and

in members

+ 1580

Member
AB BC BD

, lb
-0.833 +0.833
0

F, lb
+1180 -1180 + 1580

L, in
60 60 40

A, in 2
0.15 0.25 0.10

FL/A
-393,000 ' -236,000
0

Virtual work for the virtual displacement tiplying the virtual displacements by with the virtual force method, where the virtual forces by real displacements. .Because dif erences arise in the virtual work In the virtual displacement method, placements must be compatible with lem. This means that the member boundary conditions and the displacements

real virtual

method forces. work

is determined by This is to be contrasted is found by multiplying of this, a number

mulof

equations. both the virtual and the real disthe special requirements of a probdisplacements must conform to the of the load points. Since the

Hence,
The

AB =
negative

 FL/A

30 X 10 a
consist

629,000

boundary
= -21 x 10 -3 in

conditions

are

simplest
are considered meeting

to satisfy

at pin-ended
here. Moreover, a single pinned

axial y
the joint discussion where

loaded
an

bars, only is limited

due to the applied force is 1180/3000

in the bars

Lastly,

let the v'f 'tual

due

sign

shows

to a unit

force

that

forces by 3000; = 0.393 lb. Again,

downward

system

the deflection
force

for example, the solution

can be found

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

of all three
is downward.

for member is carried

by dividing

bars.

The virtual

external Although described

at force is applied. Such a joint is referred to as a nodal the discussion is limited to the simplest class of problems, procedure provides an introduction to the most widely
matrix analysis of structures and finite elements,

such problems to bar assemblies

point.
the used
where it

AB, such out in

the bar

Member
AB BC BD

, lb
+0.393 - 0.393 + 0.527

F, lb
+ 1180 - 1180 + 1580

L, in
60 60 40

A, in 2
0.15 0.25 0.10

,FL/A
+ 185,000 + 111,000 + 333,000

method is indispensable. In the the real functions constitutive linearly

in the

virtual displacement method, and the virtual displacements, of the nodal displacements. relationships. Here such elastic behavior.

besides member This relationships

an-accurate definition forces must be defined is achieved with the aid are strictly limited

of as of to

librium, In

tiofi s of equilibrium.
12-25, one
a virtual the

As with

Archimedes'

compatibility, order to construct

method.

In this manner,
and

lever,

the virtual

constit !tive the basic

the three

work

equations

Hence,

AB = . FL/ A E
results

30

629,X000 10 a = 21 x 10 -3 in
in general.
dif erent

are in static

The

system

can be used
case,

equilibrium.

are

the

same

provided

This

by three

its displacements
certain
the

is true

entirely

go through

Any

virtual

self-equilibrating

force

sy

real virtual displacements the fol owing virtual

displacement through taneously,

Eq.

can
unit

Here the real external displacement in the internal forces at their

formulate

virtual it by going

relations work

basic

are satisfied. equation, by

requirements
to the

provide

the equaanalogy unit-dummy-

of equito
moves Simul-

force at its ful value direction of the force. ful values move through

directly

the

caused by the work equation:

real

unit

virtual

displacement.

This

yields

the prescribed
is applicable,

displacements.

imum

In any given

stresses
linearly

must be determined.
elastic range for

to make

For the solution

material used.

that the elastic

to be correct,

analysis

these

mustl
virtual

in the

(12-29)

654

Energy
where

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

Sec.

12-8.

Virtual

Displacements

for Equilibrium

655

virtual
of P

unit
external

displacement
(nodal) force

at a nodal
compatible
with
as those

point

in the
with
P
of finite

dire,
the

real

displacement Eq. 12-29 must be applied twice. The equilibrium equation for forces acting in the horizontal direction fol ows by taking  = T. causing virtual bar displacements 7/ = 7/2 = 0.8. Noting that no horizontal force is applied at B,

virtual
unit real

internal
displacement internal of flexural

displacements
forces
members

T X 0 = F
0.8(60A
eleme

+ 2F2
+ 75A2) = 0

in equilibrium
as well

45A2)

+ 0.8(100A

.z

%/

. TP=3k
()

Deformations

or obtained
Similarly,

'128A by setting
Again,

+ 24A 2 = 0 in virtual
for forces

for a continuum generally definitions. Therefore, loaded pin-ended bars.

the

require examples

more
that

than
fol ow

one

nodal consider

point
only

for

the equilibrium
applying

7/2 = 0.6.

A2 = T, resulting
Eq.

equation
12-29,

bar displacements

acting

in the vertical

7/ = -0.6

direction

and

is

EXAMPLE

t2-6

T x (-3)
-0.6(60A - 45A2)
24A1 +

= 1FI
q- 0.6(100A
72A 2 =

q- 2F2
+ 75A2)
--3

--3

(a)

linearly
Solution

Using

the virtual

elastic

steel

displacement

truss

of Example

method,

12-1;

determine

see Fig.

the bar

12-11.

forces

E = 30 x 103 ksi

in the

or

Solving

the two A = 8.33

reduced

equations

simultaneously, and A2 = --44.4

k

In this truss, bar AB has the cross-sectional area A = 0.15 in 2, and bar BC an area A2 = 0.25 in 2. Because of this lack of bar symmetry, during a process, joint B can move both horizontal y and vertically, Figs. 12-1 l(b) and l Hence, this system has two degrees of freedom, or two degrees of
indeterminancy (see point B are designated,
in Fig.
(b)

Section 2-17). respectiyely,

These displacement as A and A2, with

12-11(a).

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Hence, F1 F2 = 60Ai = 100A components their positive for

X 10 -3 in

x 10 -3 in

45A 2 = 2.5 k + 75A 2 = --2.5

sense:

The nodal

compatibility requirements point B to move, as shown

for the problem in Figs. 12-11(b)

are are

are complied or (c).

defined

with A linear
by the

by

These results are in complete agreement with bar forces as well as for the vertical deflection.
are more apparent in the next example.

those The

given in Example advantages of this

12-1 for method

of these displacements The constitutive Eq. 2-12 which

is appropriate. requirements for the problem for bars 1 and 2, respectively,

EXAMPLE

t2-7

(b)

k k2 On ing this to these basis, the displacements internal

AE
Li

bar

0.15 0.25
forces

x 30
60

x 103 x 103
F2 can

= 75 k/in = 125 k/in

as

Using the virtual displacement method, indeterminate pin-jointed linearly elastic

12. Let E = 30 x 103 ksi.

determine the bar forces in the statically steel truss of Example 12-5; see Fig. 12-

A2E
L2

x 30
60

%
//

Solution

F and

be determined

of the joint

displacements th = 0.8At
F1 F2 = klltl = k2u2

 and
are

2. The and

-

bar

deformations u2 = 0.8A

th and

l 2 COlTeS

-- 0.6A2
= 75(0.8A = 125(0.8At

+ 0.6A2

cated than that in the previous that the cross-sectional area

k3 --example,
A3E
L3

degrees

Although this problem is statically indeterminate previous example of a statically determinate case, ically indeterminate to the second degree. In both deflection components, a horizontal and a vertical,

of freedom.

Therefore,

example. Hence, for the third bar,

0.10 x 30
40

the solution

becomes
x

to the first degree, the system remains cases, nodal point and both systems

proceeding DB, is 0.10

103

only

as before, in 2,
k/in

slightly

more

as in the kinematB has two have two

and noting
,xhlC

compli-

Fig.

'12-'H

Hence,

0.6A2) + 0.6A2)

= 60A1 -- 45A2 = 100A + 75A2

= 75
k/in.

Fig.

'12-'12

As this

problem

is kinematically

indeterminate

to the second

degree,

the

the

previous

k = 75 k/in

and

k2 = 125

656

Energy

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

Sec.

t2-9.

Virtual

Work

for

Discrete

Systems

657

The displacements of the system in the horizontal and vertical shown in Figs. 12-12(b) and (c). It is to be noted that the length considered not to change because A  is very small (see Fig 2-24). Bar u and u2 due to A and A2, respectively, remain the same as in example, whereas u3 is equal to A2. Summarizing these results,

directions of bar deformati the

DB

*'12-9.
The virtual same ;virtual terrelationship tems, i.e.,

Virtual

Work

for
and

Discrete

Systems

Il
Hence,

= 0.8AI
recalling

-- 0-6A2
the earlier results,

t 2 = 0.8A1
and adding

+ 0.6A2
only a new

and
term for

u3 = A2
bar DB,

F = 60A

- 452
equation

F2 = 100A1
for the forces

+ 75A2
acting

F3 = k3u3

= 75A

By noting
on Eq.

the equilibrium
12-29,

that for the virtual

becomes

displacement

A = T, 7/ = 2 = 0.8 and 3 =

in the horizontal-direction,
q- 3F3
to the
2 = 0

virtual force methods both stem from the It is instructive, therefore, to show the inthe two methods using discrete structural syssystems with a finite number of applied forces, members, and nodal displacements. This is done here by employing matrix notation. The required matrix definitions and operations required for this purpose fol ow. A matrix is an ordered array of numbers, such as encountered earlier in Eqs. 1-1a, l-lb, and 3-12. The special matrix in Eq. 1-1a is commonly referred to as a column vector. The matrices in Eqs. l-lb and 3-12 are known as square tnatrices. Here matrices are identified by braces for column vectors and by brackets for square matrices, or are shown in boldface type. A matrix product of a 2 x 2 square matrix by a 2 x 1 column vector
results in a 2 x 1 column vector:

displacement work principle. between on structural

 x 0 = 7F
However, since u3 = 0, this equation
128A +

+ 2F2
reduces
24A

one

given

before,

a2
e vector

a22_[
2-42.

b2

La,_b
square

+ a22b2.]
matrix by a 4 x 1 column

for

Since the

for A2 = T,  = -0.6, forces acting in the vertical

2 = 0.6, direction,

 x (-3
0.6(60A
or Solving the reduced equations

= F
+ 0.6(100A
24A + 147A2

+ 2F2
=

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A product
and 3 = 1, the equilibrium using Eq. 12-29, becomes is displayed

of a 4 x 4 symmetric
in Eq.

The obtained

transpose of a column by interchanging the

vector rows

and

such

as P is denoted by pr columns of P. Therefore,

and if

is

q- 3F3

45A2)

+ 75A2)
--3

+ 75A2

--3

p =
then

P2

and

x =

A2

simultaneously,

A = 3.947
Hence,

x 10 -3 in
F F2 F3 = 60A = 100A = 75A2 agreement
of this

and
-

A2

-21.05

x 10 -3 in

pr
The fitnction: fol owing

= [p

P2 P3 '" P,
products of these

and
two functions

X r = [A A 2 A 3 . . A,
lead to the same scalar

45A2 = 1.18 k + 75A2 = 1.18 k = 1.58 k with

problem
B.

pri Xrp x
earlier
the

= pA Ap

+ P2A2 A2P 2 + P3A3 A3P 3 + . . + p,,

with
of the
i.e.,

These
12-5.

results
kinematic
number

are

in complete
indeterminacy
meeting

those
would

found
remain

in

These
that

fol ows.

scalar
transpose

functions
of the
reverse

are associated
product

the
two

work
matrices

term

in the discussion
needed in the sub-

The
of the

The

Problems

of higher

of bars

degree
with the

of statical
displacement

at joint

indeterminacy
method

are discussed
of analysis.

in

13-6

in connection

taken

sequent

in the

development

order,
Clif s,

is defined*

as the product
if F = bP,

of the transposed

matrices

Algebra

7 For proof,

(Englewood

see any text on linear

NJ:

Prentice-Hall,

algebra

such

1969).

as B. Noble,

Applied

Linear

658

Energy and Virtual

Work Methods
Fr= prbr

Sec. 12-9. Virtual

methods recalling, virtual work virtual and the By

Work for Discrete

by conventional

Systems

The duality of the virtual force and virtual displacement be readily shown with the aid of this matrix notation. Eq. 12-23 in words, a parallel development employing given. For the virtual force method, the forces are

forces

placements
virtual methods

are
work are

real

are real,
and

the

whereas

displacements

for

the

are

virtual

virtual.

displacement

Except

for
two

method
for

barred.

statics and matrix. [b]. by kinematics transformation

In the

outline,

are related Similarly, to the matrix

the

internal

to the externally member distortions nodal displacements [a]. Symbols

forces

{F}

applied nodal forces {P} by the (deformations) {u} are related {A} through a displacement designating virtual quantities are
but
the

are

determined

forming
the

thl

in a dif erent identical. The

manner, fol owing

the matrix is an outline

operations for the

external

virtual

work

= internal

virtual

work

(12-23

is confined erations
dures
EXAMPLE

'The parallel development in the two methods is striking, the virtual force method leads to equations of compatibility, displacement method determines the equations ofequilibriutn. An example il ustrating the application of these procedures
are

whereas virtual
It

to a statically are required for

discussed
t2-8

in texts

determinate statically

on finite

problem, indeterminate
element

analysis.

as additional problems;
8

matrix opsuch proce-

fol ows.

Virtual

Force

Method

Virtual

W*
Statics:

= W,'

(12-22)
Kinematics:

Displacement We = Wie

Method
(12-19)

 = b
{F} [b] {P} = internal = force = external member transformation forces forces

(12-30a)

fi

aA

(12-30b)

{u}
matrix [a] {A}

= member
=
tion

displacement

at nodes

= nodal

W
Equating:

= rA

and

W;

=ru

We
Equating:

= rp

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

distortions
transformamatrix

(a) Using the virtual force method in matrix notation, determine the displacement components for nodal point B for the pin-ended elastic truss system shown in Fig. 12-13. (b) Using the virtual displacement method in matrix notation, find nodal forces P, and P2 for static equilibrium of the same system if the elastic elongation of bar AB is 5L/AE, and that of bar BC is 25L/AE. For both bars, lengths L and cross-sectional areas A are the same, and E is constant.

displacements

Solution

(a)

From

statics,

and

gWie

= TF

6 - and
McGraw-Hil ,

Fac = F2 = P + 2
Structural Analysis (New York:

prA
From Eq. 12-30a:

= ru From = rbr

Hence,

XTp Eq. 12-30b: r

= aTF

8 See,

for

example,
1971).

J. L:

Meek,

Matrix

r
Hence,

= rar

rA=rbru
and

or

r(A-bru)=0
(12-31a)

rP=rarF
and

or
P = arF

r(P-arF)=0
(12-31b)

A = bru

Since
forces, 12-31a

r and r are perfectly

the and preceding 12-31b expressions are in real

arbitrary,

bearing

no relation
must vanish,

to
and
Fig.

in parentheses variables only.

660

Energy

and Virtual

Work Methods
This result
processes

Sec. 12-11. Strain

corresponds
are completely

Energy
This means

Theorems
that the
The

to the joint
reversible

forces
for

given
elastic

for part
systems.

(a).

Hence,

F =
By using Eq.
I I=

F2 = bP = {F}
constitutive relations for the bars

P P2

two

use
2-9, the
--

In the matrix equations similar

of computers

analyses of structures and especial y in finite element applications, to the previous ones contain a large number of unknowns. is essential for the solution of such systems of equations.

are

l 2

--

Hence,

'912-10.
By using Eq. 12-31a, for the compatibility of the system,

General
strain-energy are summarized

Remarks
equations for in Section
total
in conjunction elastic energy

Elastic of solids

in determining deflections energy in equating the sible applications

applications 12-2. The

with the law of the system Here

direct

in engineering use of these

of conservation to the total

mechanics equations
work
classical

of

 = {A;} = bru =
(b)
aid of Figs.

Compatible

12-12(b)

bar

deformations
and

(c),

are

determined

as functions

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

to be

67J75'[ AE A= .J'116.8' L

displacements,

done by the out in Section approach based is considered. solving problems

methods.

externally 12-3.

was

An

discussed

applied effective

forces is very limited. approach to enlarging

in Part B.

an alternative

This was the scope

pointed of pos-

of nodal

with

work

on elastic strain energy and complementary This requires the derivation of appropriate similar to those treated in Part B describing
The derived equations wil be found

useful

strain energy theorems for the virtual

in the next

4 - A 3 2 th = A,
Hence,

and

4 x + u2 = /
A A2

33A 2

chapter in considering problems with a high An example of the use of the potential energy buckling loads is given at the end of this part.

degree approach

of indeterminancy. for determining

'12-11.
unloading

Strain
respond

Theorems

Energy
it was
in a nonlinear

and
that

Complementary
manner

Strain
materials
along the

Energy
stress-strain

u = Lu2j
From constitutive relations for linearly elastic bars,

In Section

2-5,

indicated

some

during

same

loading

and

since

th

= 5L/AE

and

25L/AE, AE AE

curve, Fig. 2-11(b). Such materials are elastic although they Hooke's law. It is advantageous to consider such nonlinearly terials in deriving the two theorems based on strain energy this manner, the distinction between elastic strain energy
mentary strain energy is clearly evident. The derivation

F = th
Hence, using Eq. 12-31b, for

= 5
static

and
equilibrium,

F2 =--u2
the joint forces

= 25
are

of the

do not obey elastic maconcepts. In and completwo basic

These theorems are specialized in the next section for the solution of the linearly elastic problems considered in this text. As a rudimentary example for deriving the theorems, consider the axial y loaded bar shown in Fig. 12-14(a). The nonlinear elastic stress-strain plying

theorems

for

nonlinear

and

linear

elastic

systems

is essential y

the

same.

P =

P2

12

diagram
9 The

the

for

normal

the

material

stress

cr in the

of this

bar

bar

is shown
by the

cross-sectional

in Fig.

12-14(b).

area

By

A of the

multi-

remainder

of this

chapter

is optional.

662

Energy

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

bar,

one

obtains

axial

force

P.

Similarly,

the

product

of

the

axial

e by suitants,

bar

length only the

L gives
for scale, mechanics

bar
corresponds of solids

elongation is considered

A. The
in detail it is customary

p-A

diagram fol owing

in Fig.
Since stress

to displacement
a general

14(c), except engineering

to the

cr-e diagram. to work with

p-A

diagram

in the

According to the diagram in Fig. 12-14(c), when force P is increas{ by dP, the bar elongates dA. Therefore, neglecting infinitesims higher order, the increment in the external work dWe = P dA  to Eq. 12-11, this increment in the external work must equal the increa in the strain energy of the system, since dWe = dU. The colored strip in Fig. 12-14(c) corresponds to P dA, and the area under the curv is the total strain energy U, which is equal to We. Stated mathematic

complementary strain energy U* for a statically determinate body, such as shown in Fig. 12-16(a), is defined to be a function of the externally applied forces P, P2 . . . Pk . . . P,,; M, M2 . . . M v, i.e.,

The

theorem

by the same
corresponding

nonlinear

to Eq.

(or linear)fitnction.
12-35

is derived.

On this

basis,
M 2

U*
ferential

= U*(P,
infinitesimal
as
OU*

P2 . .
increase
OU*

', Pk . . .
in this function

P,;

M1,
U*
OU*

M2 . . .
is given

M i ...
by the total

My)
(12-36)
P1

An

dif-

We = U= fPd6,
A derivative of this relation with
dU d6,

U* = OP 8P + '2 P2 + '" + -k

upper limit gives

respect
P

to the

+ . . + 8Mi+
In this expression,
(12-33

OU*

--- (12-37)
of ordinary
quantities.

entials

to emphasize
P2

8P's,

the

linear'

and 8M's

independence

are used instead

of these

dif erFrom

determinate

Fig. t2.15 Statically

member.

A generalization
basic theorem.

of

this

procedure,

which

An causing

ment

in the comple/nentaty
this quantity By analogy defines the

analogous a force

expression increment

can
dP,

external

be formulated Fig. 12-14(c).

work

(b)

that figure. curve

U*

= W*.

On

this

is represented to U, the cotnplementary

by integral

basis,

one

can

the horizontal colored of this infinitesimal strain energy U*, and

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

fol ows, establishes the firi

dW*

by Then,

= A dP,

increasing by defining

it can be noted)
strip in

A by an '

P1

q-

write

area above it fol ows

Op.. 
(a) (b)

U* = W** = f A i dPi
dP

A derivative

of this

relation

with
dU*

respect

to the

upper

limit

gives
A k + SA k

dP

_ A
basic theorem. ]

(12-3

,Pk

+ ;',

7
M 1

A k + A k

P + P

This

is the

prototype

of the

second

In order to generalize these results for problems where several (and/or moments) are applied simultaneously, consider the externally sta ically determinate body shown in Fig. 12-15. The stress resultants in a member, or group of members, in any given problem must be
(c)

M1

Fig.

t2-14

Work
and

and
work, and

complementary

strain energy complementary

energy.

Strength

erally

o The

concept attributed

of Materials

of complementary to F. Engesser's
(New

York:

energy and derivation of this 1889 paper. See S. P. Timoshenko,

McGraw-Hil , 1953), 292.

equation

HistoO

(c)

(d)

Fig.

t2-t6

Alternative

loading

sequences

for

an elastic

system. 663

strain

664

Energy
this point mentary

and

Virtual

Work

Methods
Pk were increased would be
=
OU*

Sec. 12-t2.
by 8Pk, the

Castigliano's

Theorems

of view, if only force strain energy increment

8U*

8U =  8A,
(12-38

OU

(12-44)
since relation 8We =

OP,

gP

colored tution

For thi case,

strip of the

in Fig. previous

external

12-13(c). quantities

work

8We = P 8A, and corresponds

Therefore, into

this
OU

and

8U, after simplifications

to the vertical
substi-

The

addition

of the

incremental

force

gP

is il ustrated

in Fig.

If the order of load application were reversed, Fig. 12-16(d), force gP, would be applied to the system first, Fig. 12-16(b). Then, already applied to the system, it would do work by moving throu deflection Ak caused by the application of the loads shown in Fig2 16(a). This work may be likened to the horizontal strip in Fig. and, by definition, is an increment in the compIenentay work
Hence,

Pe

0A,

(12-45)

This relation is a generalization of Eq. 12-33, and gives the external force acting at point k if U is expressed as a continuous function of displacements and rotations. A similar expression can be writ en for an external moment acting at a point by taking a derivative of U with respect to a rotation angle such as 0s. In the next section, the general expressions are specialized for linearly
elastic materials.

However,
celling gPe,

since

W* = U*,

setting

Eqs.
OU*

12-38

and

12-39

equal,

and

12-12.
Castigliano's
formations.

Castigliano's
theorems  apply
The mathematical

Theorems
to linearly elastic
these

OP

which
direction

is the
of before,

generalization
force P.

of Eq.

12-35,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

statements

systems
theorems

for
are

small
the same

de-

of

and

gives

deflection

A

in

as those derived in the previous section for However, as shown in Fig. 12-17, for linearly strain energy U is equal to the complementary U = U*

nonlinear elastic strain

elastic material, energy

materials. the elastic U*, i.e., (12-46)

By retaining
as

a derivative

with

respect
OU*

to M s in Eq.

12-37

and

t
The

O- OM s
where 0s is the rotation in the direction In an analogous manner to the previous be defined as a function of displacements as known members' constitutive relations,
U =
The total

(12-41
M.
strain energy rotations 0s, as 12-7. On this basis 0s . . . Or.)

can
as

W.

external

express

Therefore,

work

the

second

using

We is also

Eqs.

Catigliano's

12-40

equal

and

to the

theorem

12-41,

complementary

because
for

linearly

of Eq.

external

elastic

12-46,

work

material

one

of moment derivation, Ak and/or see Eq.

0, 02 . . .

Ak - OS* OS OP, -- OP

(12-47)

Pkj Complementary
energy U

U(fi,
dif erential

h2 . . .
for

k . . .
this case

A.;
is

( ./-'1879. Extension preceding section,

OS*

 j
by Italian
attributed

OS

(12-48,
cases developed to F. Engesser

 These

theorems

tv=
If only fixed,

0A 1

vtx

1 0A 2

+ v tx, + . . + _-:V_vtx; + . . + 0Us0.

_ OAk
were reduces allowed to to occur with the

00 s j
other

+..

one displacement the last relation

J. H. Argyris. See Aircraft Engineering pers with S. Kelsey,

1960.

ruhe.

Further

developments

of the theorems as noted earlier,

were

Errst

derived

J. H. Argyris, "Energy Theorems and Structural 26 (1954) and 27 (1955). These articles, combining were republished in book form by Butterworth

of this approach

to the nonlinear is generally

elastic

engineer

C. A. Castigl ano

are due to H. M. Westergaard

in the of Karls-

in

Analysis," joint pa- Fig. t2-t7 Energies & Co. in elastic materials.

and

a
in linearly

666

Energy

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

Sec.

t2-t2.

Castigliano's

Theorems

667
M'P/3

In both equations, f U is expressed as a function of externally forces, Ak (or 0) is the deflection (or rotation) in the direction of the (or moment) Pk (or M). The expression for the first Castigliano's theorem remains the same before for nonlinear elastic materials, and Eq. (12-45) is repeated here
reference.

Deflection

of a rectangular
U -

cantilever
+--

due
hence,

to end
 -

load

P:
-

p2L3
6El

3p2L
5AG

OU
OP

PL 3
-3EI

+--

6PL 5AG

""A
Verify the

EXAMPLE

t2-t0

(12-45)

The bracket of Example deflection of point B caused

theorem

where,
(or

of the deflection (or rotation) Ak (or from Eqs. 12-5-12-9 that the strain ener is of quadratic form. Therefore ' Castigliano's theorems, it is advantageous to form derivatives of carrying out a complete solution of the problem. It is also important to note that f a deflection (rotation) is rec where no force (moment) is acting, a fictitious force (moment) must applied at the point in question. Then, after applying Eq. 12-47 or the fictitious force is set equal to zero in order to obtain the desired result Several examples fol ow il ustrating the application of Castigliano's

moment) It should U for linearly

f U is expressed

in the direction be further noted elastic materials

as a function

of displacements,

Pk is the forci

before,
Solution

cross-sectional

with

the

let E = 10.6

area,

result

with

found

1-3 is shown schematically by applied force P = 3 kips

x 103 ksi.

At

in Example

= A = 0.125

2-2.

Assume

in 2, and ABe

that

in Fig. 12-18. using Castigliano's

each bar

= A2 = 0.219

is of constant

second

in 2. As

From

Eq.

12-7,

the

elastic

strain

energy

is

Fig.

be
By dif erentiating
is at B determined.

u=u*=
with respect

k= 2AkEk
to P, an expression
PLx AlE OP -OP

2AE + 2A2-
for
P2L -A2E

(12-49a)
deflection A

ond theorem to statically determinate plication of Castigliano's first theorem is given in Example 12-17, where the
priate.

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linearly elastic problems. for a statically indeterminate use of the theorem is more An ap:
A = OU* OP -

the
OP2 OP

vertical

(12-49b)

By
'12-9

statics,

the

forces

in bars

as fitnctions

of applied

force

P are

EXAMPLE

By
4-11, Solution

applying
and 10-12.

Castigliano's

second

theorem,

verify

the

results

of Examples
Subsituting operations,

Pa = P = - P
Here A = 0.125
the

and

PBc = P2 =
carrying

2x/5

3 P
the necessary

the

above deflection

in 2, A2 = 0.219
quantities  for

into Eq. 12-49b and P = 3 kips is found.

in 2, L = 3/ in, and L2 = 6/ in.

out

In all these formulated.

necessary
law.

examples, Therefore, to obtain

of an

the

expressions for a direct application

the

internal of Eq.
constant): A --

strain 12-47

or

energy 12-48

is all

that

the
axial y U =

required
loaded

results.
bar hence, (P

In all cases,
=

the material

obeys

A = 0.125

Deflection

= 0.002813P

X 103 .2- P/  3' 10 3)(2__) -(X/P/X 3)10.x6 (3X/ )(__) + (-2X/ ). x X(6X/
+ 0.003249P = 0.006062P = 18.2 x 10 -3 in
dif erent

P2L
2AE

OU
OP

PL
AE

This more easily obtained result, except roundoff errors, is in agreement with that in Example 2-2. 2
TL

for found

a small discrepancy by an entirely

because

method

of

Angular

rotation
U

of a circular
-

shaft
hence,

(T

= constant):
cp=O = OU

T2L
2JG

OT

JG

Eq.

12 A solution

-2X//3,

12-26.

resulting

For a downward

of this

problem

in an identical

virtual

by the

expression

unit force

virtual

for

applied

force

method

A.

at B,  = /5/3

requires

the

and 2 =

use

of

668

Energy

and

Virtual

Work

Methods Solution

Sec.

2-'12.

Castigliano's

Theorems

669

fictitious
Fig. t2-t9
EXAMPLE t2-tt

No forces to be found.

are

force

applied Therefore,

TM must

be added

at the end in order

corresponding

of the to be

cantilever where the able to apply Castigliano's

displacements

are
theorem,

to the displacement

sought,
force Ra = 0, gives one has

Thus,

as shown in Fig. 12-20(b), introduced. This permits tical deflection of point

in addition determining A. Applying

+ RAX

to the specified loading, OU/ORa, which with R Eq. 12-50 in this manner,
and
OM

has been the ver-

A linearly elastic prismatic beam is loaded liano's second theorem, find the deflection
at the center.

as shown in Fig. 12-19. Using due to bending caused by applied

A A --

---

WoX-

ORA

+x

Solution

OR.4 - E1
sign for force
due

oU 1 fo( WoX2
to Wo and Ra would

2 +
be found.

( + x) dx =

Wo L4
8EI

The expression Since, according of this function,

useful.
integrating.

For

In problems

for the internal to Castigliano's it is advantageous

where

this

purpose,

the fol owing

M is a complex

strain energy in bending is given theorem, the required deflection to dif erentiate the expression
relation
function,

becomes

this

applicable:

scheme

by Eq. is a derivative for U before is

where that
the

the assumed
end

negative
deflection

shows that the deflection Ra. If R in the integration at A can at the end,
before:

is in the opposite were not set be found in an analogous Fig. 12-20(c), and the

direction equal to zero, manner. calculations

to

The angular rotation A fictitious moment

are made in the same

of the beam Ma is applied

manner as

OP

EI

(a)

Proceeding

on

this

basis,

one

has,
P

from

A to B:

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OP OM

M = + x
On substituting
the problem,

and
Eq. 12-50

OP

2
the symmetry

where the the assumed

sign sense

indicates of the

that the fictitious

sense of the rotation moment M.

of the

end

coincides

with

these

relations

3 into

and

observing

EXAMPLE

t243

A = 2
{b)

fo L/2 -dx= Px 2
the deflection takes

pL +48---
place

3
in the direction of

Using

Castigliano's

second

theorem,

determine

the

horizontal

deflection

for

the

The

plied

positive
force

P.

sign

indicates

that

elastic frame shown in Fig. 12-21(a). ing. The flexural rigidity E1 of both
sponds, couple

Consider members
of

only the deflection caused is equal and constant.

a virtual

by bend-

14 Application

respectively, at A in the

of a fictitious
virtual

to

the application force method.

force

or a fictitious

couple
unit

force

at A precisely
or

a virtual

corre-

unit

EXAMPLE

'12-t2

Using

Castigliano's

second

theorem,

determine

the

deflection

and

the

rotation
Fig. 12-20,

of the end
again.
corresponding = x/2.

of a uniformly
that for a downward
to OM/OP.

loaded
virtual

cantilever,
unit force

Fig.

12-20(a).
at the middle

E1 is
of the
A P

t3 Note.


(a)

(b)

Fig.

12-2t

670

Energy Solution

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

Sec.

12-13.

Statically

Indeterminate

Systems

67t

Using
energy function is a scalar. Therefore, the separate strain elements of an elastic system can be added algebraically. energy is determined, its partial derivative with respect displacement of that force. For the problems at hand, Eq.
A to B:

The strain the dif erent total strain gives the propriate.
From

to a 12-50 is

placements

(and/orrotations) atthepointsofapplicationofredundantforces(and/orA la/

couples.) X in the direction of these forces can be found. If these dis-

this

function

and Castigliano's

second

theorem,

p displacements

are zero, ox:

+Px

and

OM/OP

+x

From

B to

C5:

Thesep equationsareequalto thedegreeof staticalindeterminancyof

the
of

.U= 0
solving
are

(j = 1,2,3.. . p) (12-52)
simultaneously,
directly these procedures.

system.6

By

these

equations

the

magnitudes

A A --

M = + and OM OP OU OP - E11 ( + Px)( + x) dx

- 44 L

the

redundants

obtained.

(a)

ically

Castigliano's first indeterminate Several examples

theorem problems. fol ow

can il ustrating

be used

for

the

solution

of stat-

P-X 2 cos a X

P-X 2 cos a

+ ] fo L
Note the for bending axial force caused by
bending

) dx= + 192---

EXAMPLE

t244

If at A
P1

F = normal

free choice in location of the x-coordinate axes and the sign moments. If the elastic strain energy included the energy due to in member BC and the sheax7 energy in member AB, the deflec these effects would also be found. However, deflection AA due is generally dominant. the vertical deflection of point A were required, a fictitious vertical force would have to be applied. Then, as in the preceding example, OU/OF, 0, would give the desired result. In a similar manner, the rotation of section for this beam may be obtained.

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elastic modulus is E.

Using Castigliano's 14 caused by in Fig. 12-23(a).

applied

second theorem, force P. The The cross-sectional

verify planar area

the system A of

bar forces of three each bar

found elastic is the

in Example 2bars is repeated same, and their

Solution

It is convenient force in bar magnitudes change, the

to visualize the system to be cut atB and to designate BC by X. From statics, the forces in the inclined bars shown in Fig. 12-23(b). Hence, using Eq. 12-49a, with complementary strain energy is
U* = U=

the unknown then have an appropriate

the

(b)

Fig.

12-23

12,-13.

Statically

Indeterminate

Systems
Since the deflection

.X2L
2AE

Castigliano's second theorem can be generalized for statically minate linear elastic systems. The necessary modifications d0nsist pressing the strain energy not only to be a function of n externally forces (and/or moments) P, P2, Pa . . . P,, but also of p indeterminate redundant forces (and/or moments) X, X2 . . . possible system of such forces is shown in Fig. 12-22. The number of selected supports for maintaining static equilibrium of the mary section (Section 2-15) are excluded from the enumeration of redundant forces. On this basis, strain energy U for an
system can be defined as

+ 2[2 (P-X)2L a]
at point (P 2AE cos
P

of the OU OX
-

system
xl+

B is zero, X)L
3 a
3 a
x

by
(-1)

applying
= o

Eq.

12-52,

XL AE

X-

1 +

2 cos

This expression for obtaining

the

is identical to that given result is more direct.

for

Fx

in Eq.

2-34.

Here

the

procedure

U*
FiG. 2-22 indeterminate Statically

=
reader
by

U =
should

U(Pi,
check
virtual

P2,

P3 . . .
the
unit

P,;

Xi,

X2 . . .
of the OM/OP

X . . .
terms with
for a problem solved in this manner principle of least work. Castigliano
statically indeterminate problems.

6 Italian

mathematician

L. F. Menabrea

system.

5 The
caused

correspondence
force applied

a horizontal

at A.

is a minimum. employed

(1809-1896)
this

His theorem principle

proved

that

is known as the in the solution of

the total

work

672

Energy EXAMPLE

and

Virtual t2-15

Work

Methods

Sec.

12-t3.

Statically

Indeterminate

Systems

673

M
uniformly as represented loaded beam in Fig. clamped 12-20(b). at one Determine end
the

= MA
1

+ RAx
and

aM

kx3/6
x

Consider ported
Use
Solution

an elastic at the other,

Eq. 12-52.

and

simply reaction

Hence,

aM

The solution is analogous as the unknown and Eq. 12-52 is

not

to that permit ed

of Example to vanish.

12-12 The

except key

that RI kinematic

must condition

be tre

A A = which states that

M

OU/ORA at A due

0 to the applied load

= +x

Carrying

out

the

indicated

operations

and

simplifying,

no deflection
-

occurs

Wo and

R21
Solving these two equations

MA/2 MA

+ RAL/3 q- RAL/2

= kL/30 = kL/24

WoX 2
2

RAX

and

aM
ORA

simultaneously,

AA -- ORA OS EI1;oL(__poX2 2
Therefore, Rt = +3woL/8, the
EXAMPLE 12-t6

+ RAX ) ( + x) dx = - $Vo 8E---[ 3EI L4 + RAL3

result found in Example 10-5.

RA
where
sense.

= 3kL2/20
sign of Mt shows

and
that this

MA
end

=
moment

-kL3/30
has a counterclockwise

(12-53)

Consider creasing A using

Solution

an elastic beam load to one end, Eq. 12-52. E1 for

fixed at both ends and subjected as shown in Fig. 12-24. Determine the beam is constant.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

EXAMPLE t2-t7

the

negative

to

the

a uniformly reactions

Rework
Solution

Example

12-14

using

Castigliano's

first

theorem.

See

Fig.

12-25.

at end

In applying

must

be expressed
deflections,

Castigliano's

in terms

f'Lrst

of'the

theorem,

vertical
= A

the

elongation
COS a

elastic

strain

A  of the

energy

in all three

center

bar.

bars

For

This prob16m is statically take reactions RI and MI of these forces as well as that the vertical displacement can be fulfil ed by applying 0t at A equal to zero. This Rt and MI. Proceeding in

indeterminate to the second degree. as the redundant forces and to express of the applied load. The kinematic and the rotation at A be zero. Eq. 12-52 twice and setting deflection provides two simultaneous equations this manner,

It is M as a conditions AI

small

rec

A2

and
LAC

using
= LDC

Eq.

12-7
= L/cos

expressed
o,

as a function

of displacement

A , and

noting

that

U=
MB

  A,E 2L cos 3 ct k= 2Lk A. - AE2L A2 + 2 AE A2

OU AE

(12-54)

and

OA

A + 2COS3 aAl = P
PL 1

Fig.

t2-24

Hence,

A 

AE1

2cos

3ct

Fig.

t2-25

674

Energy

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

Sec.

12-t4.

Elastic

Energy

for

Buckling

Loads

675

Then

the

force

in the

vertical

bar

using

Eq.

2-10

is

x = kA = --A
This result

= 1 + 2 p COS3 ct
12-14. of s, of the

This

type

bars with degree of terminacy. If the inclined bars lack symmetry or the applied force forms an angle with vertical, the problem is more complex. In such cases, the elongation in each is determined from two separate displacements at the load point. This is analogous to that shown in Example 12-7 and il ustrated in Fig. 12-12. discussion of this approach can be found in Section 13-5, where lhe method of analysis is considered.

is in agreement of solution A remaining

with is easily as the

that found in Example extended to any number only unknown, regardless

For conservative, elastic systems, this relation is in agreement with Eq. 12-11. This condition can be used to determine the position of equilibrium. However, Eq. 12-57 cannot discern the type of equilibrium and thereby establish the condition for the stability of equilibrium. Only by examining the higher order terms in the expression for the change Ali in the total potential I can this be determined. Therefore, the more complete expression for the increment in I .as given by Taylor's expansion must be examined. Such an expression is

Fig.

equilibrium

t2-26

Dif erent

conditions.

Ali = $li + . $2li +

Since term elastic
bility

8li + "'

(12-58)

for any type of this expansion systems, the

criteria are

of equilibrium, 8li = 0, it is the first that determines the type of equilibrium. second term suffices. Thus, from Eq.

nonvanishing For linear 12-58, the sta-

*'1244.
Stability problems
or the

Elastic
can
virtual

Energy
be treated
methods.

for

Buckling
in a very

Loads
general manner
to such

using

the basic
method.

energy

riteria

for determining
conservative

work

the stability
linearly

As

in this

article

for

To establish of the system, of the internal of the external

the stability criteria, a function I , called the must be formulated. This function is expressed energy U (strain energy) and the potential forces that act on a system, i.e.,
l= U+fl

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

of equilibrium
systems

an introduction

are

elastic

using

an energ

total

as the

The to Fig.

meaning 12-26,

equi e librium I S2l>0 i l forstabl

821-I 821-I < = 0 0

for for

unstable neutral

equilibrium equilibrium
load

(12-59)

associated

with

the

critical

of these expressions where the curve

may

represents

be clarified the potential

by

making function

reference I . The

origin

of this

function

is shown
three

below

the

curve,
second

since

the
derivative

absolute
for
that

value
the of equideter-

of I is arbitrary. ball are shown

librium is zero

Three in this
for all

dif erent figure?

cases;

possible The first the

are

positions derivative for

If, however,

of equilibrium of I at points forming

the

it is the

mines
fl = -We, i.e., the loss

Disregarding

a possible

additive

constant,

For
dif erentials,

the type of equilibrium. simple functions of I ,

and variations

procedures
alike.

the
function

derivatives,
of

potential done
rewrit en

on

energy during the system

as

the by

application the external

of the forces.

forces Hence,

is equal Eq.

to 12-55

expressed complicated,

by

integrals, requiring

the the

problem becomes use of the calculus

mathematically of variations

much or finite

I is more ele-

ments.
EXAMPLE

The

treatment
t2-t8

of such

problems

is beyond

the

scope

of this

text.

9

I must

As

is known

be stationary;

from

classical

7 therefore,

mechanics,

its variation

for

equilibrium,

8ll

must

equal

total

zero,

i.

Using the a torsional to the minimax. stable

energy spring

method, at the

verify base, 1 with analysis,

the Fig. that

critical 11-7(a).

load

found

before

for

a rigid

bar

with

Sll = 8u- 8we= o)

where
value.

8 A point
left

7 In terms
the

and

the

function

derivative

of the ordinary
itself

of a function
has

functions,

a maximum,

with

respect

this

simply

a minimum,

to an independent

means

that

a condition
variable
or a

a minimax,

is

York: bility

1962).

9 H. L. Langhaar,
Pergamon, Analysis

of position In stability equilibrium.

on a curve

resulting

of the curve such a point

from

a combination,

to the corresponds

right

for

of position 2 defines a to the condition of un-

example,

of the

curve

K. Washizu,

1975). of Complex

Variational

Energy

Methods

J. S. Przemieniecki, Structures,"

Methods

in Applied

in Elasticity

Mechanics
and

"Discrete-Element Aeron. J. 72(1968):

Plasticity,

(New
1077.
Methods

2nd

York:

ed.

Wiley,
for

(New

Sta-

Energy
Solution

and Virtual
a displaced
same displacement,

Work
position

Methods
12-4.
of the
force

Problems
bar,
P lowers

677
12-11
the flexural

For

the

strain
an amount

energy

in the
L - L cos

spring
0 = L(1

is k02/2.
cos

metry,

Using

determine

Eq.

and

taking

deflections

advantage

at the

of symload

Therefore,

the

points elastic ertia

is Io.

due to the application of both forces P for the beam shown in the figure. The moment of inof the cross section in the middle half of the beam

Yl =
If the study of the cos 0 = 1 - 02/2!
accuracy simplifies

U-

W,

k02-

PL(1

cos0)

LI12
order i
L

hi4 I_b.I

problem + 04/4!
to

is confined + "., the

k02
2

to small (infinitesimal) displacements total potential 12 to a consistent

PLO
2

Fig.
P

PI2-4

Note into

especial y that the in the last term is due to the expansion the series. Full external force P acts on the bar as 0 is permit ed Having the expression for the total potential, one must solve dif erent problems. In the first problem, a position of equilibrium this purpose, Eq. 12-57 is applied:

of the to two dis! is found.

t2-5.
Fig. DI24

board,
What
the

A man
maximum
deflection

as shown

weighing

E/G = 2.5. d = 40 mm.

trations on

an =
At this point

ao =
of the solution,

- P0) ao = o
k, p,
an equilibrium dif erent, equilibrium,

and
phase

L must

cannot be zero. Therefore, In the second, distinctly part of Eq. 12-59, for neutral

position of the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

t2-:5. Using Eq. 12-11, determine the vertical
or (k PL)O 0 = 0

deflection.

(c) Repeat part (b) for L = 500 Neglect the effect of local stress

mm and concen-

bending
characteristics

in the

figure,

180

lb jumps
from
wil

stress

this

a height

onto

a diving

cause

of 2 ft.
in the

board? The diving board is 2 x- 12 in cross section, and its E = 1.6 x 106 psi. Use Eq. 12-11 to determine
of the board.

tion, in mm, of the free end of the cantilever shown in the figure due to the application of force P = 500 N. Consider only flexural deformation. E = 200 GPa.
4O

deflec-

Assume

pinned

:)

be considered
occurs solution,

constant,

and

at 0 = 0. according

to the

oo I 100 1

4--

8' 
PI2-5

a2yl =a02
(k
since buckling

d2yl

+a20
- PL)O
yields P

dH

='0
g20
= k/L,

10
which is the

Plan

view

P

advantage
forces

Fig.

- PL)(g0)
zero, the first

2 + (k
term

= 0

Sections
All problems

2-5
for

and
these two

2-6
sections should be soh,ed

For equilibrium
g20

cannot load.

at 0 = 0, the second
be

term

on the left side vanishes;

whereas
t2-3. Using Eq.

{'
Side

800
view

Fig.

PI2-2

metry,

determine

12-11
the

flexural

and taking
figure.

deflections

at the

of symload

Problems
Sections t2.2 and t2-3
bent 90 at two points in the figure. Application
causes an axial force.

points elastic
(a)
flection

due to the application beam shown in the

of both

P for

the

In each case, of the computed

using the virtual-force method. For planar problems, the fol owing notation applies: v and n are, respectively, the vertical and the horizontal deflections, and 0 is the rotation of an element at a specified point.
clearly

quantity.

indicate

the

direction

and

sense

Using
of

Eq.
the

12-11,
free

obtain
end.

the
Constants

expression
A, I, J,

for
E,

12-6.
to

Trusses.
the

In Example
enumerated

Consider
planar

12-1,
three

axial
mast

determine
causes.

deformations
and

A n for point arrangement

only.

B due

12-t. A solid circular bar in at one end as shown

force P at the free end

is built
of
direct

are given for the bar. (Hint: 10-12.) (b) IlL = 100 mm

See

and

Examples the diameter

12-7.
d

mm.
to each

in percentage,
of the four

what
causes

amount
enumerated

of deflection
earlier?

is

shear,

bending,

andtorsion

in the

three

bar

segments.

by lengthening much must

its original

shown

For

in the figure,
position?

the

rod AB a distance rod BC be shortened

(a) determine

of 0.5 in. (b) By how to bring weight W to

A v of load

boom

W caused

678
B

Energy

and

Virtual

Work

Methods
mine x v and An 10 kN. For simplicity,
12-t0. For the truss

Problems
of joint C due assumeAE
in Problem

679

to applied = 1 for
12-9,

force all m,
determine

t2-2t. find

cation

For the overhanging beam shown in the figure, A v and/or 0, as assigned, at the point of appliof couple
Mo

Mo.

E1 is constant.

relative deflection between joints B and E caused applied force P = 10 kN. (Hint: Place equal posite unit forces, one at joint B and the other at E, along a line joining them.) 12-tl. For the truss shown in the figure, determini of joint B due to applied vertical force P = 9 k at

-6m
Fig.

>  6m
Pt2- 7
Fig. PI2-21

For

simplicity,

assume

L/AE

is unity

for

all memb

Beams. only.
Fig. Pt2-7

Conside;'

flexural

t248. ai3plication
.section

Find
shown

A v and/or 0, as assigned, of force P for the beam

in the figure.

at the of variable

point

cross

of

Frames. only.
t2-22.

Conside;'
A planar bent bar

flexural
of constant

deformations
EI has the di-

12-8.-A pin-joined system of three bars, each having the same cross section A, is loaded as shown in the figure. (a) Determine A v and Au of joint B due to applied force P. (b) If by means of a turnbuckle the length 'of member AC is shortened by 0.5 in, what A v and Au
take place at point B?

lo, t
10'

mensions shown in the figure. Determine 0, as assigned, at the tip due to the application P. Comment on the virtual-force method
son to the geometric approach based

on the
P

A v, Au, or of force in comparidif erential

equations

and

superposition

discussed

in Chapter

10.

10'I
1242. stant A simply supports
the

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Fig. P12-18
C E

t2-19.

For

the

cantilever

shown

in the

figure,

deter-

EI

mine

is

constant.

(a) A v at the applied

force,

and

(b) A v at the tip.

Fig. PI2-22

 a/2

Fig.

PI24t

E1

supported a downward
maximum
beam in

beam

of length uniformly
to
12-3,

L and
Wo. find
find Av

Fig.

PI2-8

12-9.

For

the

planar

truss

shown

in the

figure,

deter-

load Wo. Find '1243. For the imum A v.due t2-14. For the 0, as assigned,
forces.

A v due
Problem

the

to the
beam

two
in

applied
Problem

forces.
12-3,

12-23 through 12-30. the figures, determine assigned, due to the

For the planar frames shown in A v, Au, or 0 for point A, as applied loading. For all cases, as-.e----ii-a .

at the

left

force

P due

to both

"
due

L
Fig.

<
PI2-19

of application

t2-t5. stant load

A simply EI supports Wo. Determine

suppported beam of length a downward uniformly A v and/or 0, as assigned,

L/3 from Determine the left support. xv and/or

L and

12-20.
of

Wo at a distance 12-16 and 12-17.

force

Find
P.

E1

the

is constant.

deflection

at the point

0, as

at the
in the

center
figures.

of the
'EI

span
is constant.

due

to the

applied

loads

z Hinge ! P
Fig. PI2-20

A
Fig. P12-9
',-----4 m 

Fig. Pt2-16 14
-

.

Fig.

PI2-23

L/2

' ""ei---L/2

/m
k N/m
A

Problems
frame plest
3m

68

sume

segment, expressions

EI constant.

locate for

(Hint:

the m(x)

For

origin and

ease

ofx M(x).)

of solution,

to obtain

for each
the sim-

12-34. In the preceding that due to the applied

t2-;5t
EI

figures, determine as assigned, due

is constant.

oriel

t2-32.

Av, Au, to the applied

For the planar

or 0 for loading.

frames

points For

shown

A and B, both cases,

in the

in up. If, without

to return

by

nection, rod CF?

means

what This

point

of a turnbuckle.

is the required change change in length can

D to its initial

removing

force

problem, it was determined of 12 k, end D moves

this force,
position

in the length be accomplished

to make

it is necessary

1.57

a con-

of

Frames.
mations.

Consider

axial

and flexural
A

defor-

t2-35. section

Fig.
8 kN/m

PI2.24

Fig.

PI2-27
B 3 4

supported hanger

An inclined steel bar 2 m long, of 4000 mm 2 and an I of 8.53

DB

GPa.

the downward deflection of point C due to the application of the vertical force of 2X/ kN. Let E = 200

as shown in the figure. The inclined steel has a cross section of 600 mm 2. Determine

having a cross x 10 a mm 4, is

1,5

Fig,

PI2-25

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Fig. PI2-28

Fig.

PI2-3t

2x,/kN
Fig. PI2-35

B
Fig. PI2-26

D9 '
Wo
B A

B/

' a ' ;-IB

Fig. P'12-32

t2-36.

A planar

system

consists

of an inclined

canti-

lever and rods BC and CD, as shown termine  v and/or flu, as assigned,
vertical

t2-33.
tem

shown

For

the aluminum
in the

figure,

alloy,

determine

planar

the

structural

sys-

de-

400

the application area of each

flection of D due to the applied rod, A = 0.5 in2; for the beam,
Fig. PI2-29

in 4. Let

E =

10 x

103 ksi.

force of 12 k. For the A = 4 in 2 and I = 15

member,

mm 2. For
E

rod
=

the

of force P = 300 N. The cross-sectional is 10 mm 2 and that of the cantilever

in the figure. Deof joint C due to

each

200

cantilever,
GPa.

I = 10 4 mm 4. For

400

I 100 t

200--*,-

6,--
680
Fig. PI2-30

Rod
Fig. PI2-36

682
t2-37. sisting Determine
horizontal

Energy

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

Problems

683

A planar structure consists of a moment-reframe ABC and a truss CDE with pinned joints. Av and/or Au at C, as assigned, due to the
force 8 k at D. For all members, EI = 800
a

tions,

and 0,, of the free stants E, G, I, and

,%,

A.,., and

,x., and the three

end due J for the
for

to applied force bar are given.

12-1 and

rotations,

F.

0., 0y,
Con-

'12-46.
18-kN

determine

(a) For
the

axial

the

planar

forces

truss
find force

in all

shown
the

members

in the

due

figure,

fo the

k-ft
units

2 and
of
B

EA
k and

= 500
ft.
c

k. Work

the
D

problem
8k

using

the

shown

't2-43.'A

in the

solid

figure

circular

Problem

bar is bent
translations,

into

is built

the shape

in at

dif erent virtual at B caused by

vertical

systems, the applied

force

at B.

(b)

By

vertical at B. Let

using

at least 2 for

deflection the relative

two and

A, free and

3'

one end.

and the three rotations, end due to applied force G for the bar are given.
12-7

Determine

the three

0:o., 0y, and P. Constants

Ax, A.,., and

values

09, of the A, I, J, E,

3 for

CB.

of L/A

Consider

be as fol ows:
member

BC

1 for
18kN

to be

AB,

redundant.

DB,

E
Fig. PI2-37


Fig. PI2.40

Section

t2-44. sectional figure.

end to the
of (a) At without

A system of steel rods, each area of 0.20 in 2, is arranged At 50F, joint D is 0.10 in away
what temperature stressing any

having a crossas shown in the from its support.

figure. by the
to the

Determine application
semicircle.

the deflection of the free of force P acting normal

Neglect the contribution

12-38.
the
generating

rotation

For the data given

of member

CD

in Problem
due

12-37,
forces

applied

determine
force

of at

the

10 6 psi,

and

c = 6.5

x 10-6/F.

can the connection of the members? Let

(b) What

stresses

be made E = 30 x

wil

deformation.

D. (Hint:'Apply
a unit

equal
couple.)

and

opposite

at C and D,

Curved
due to direct

Members.
shear.

Neglect
in the figure. forces away

deformations

Deformations defortnations

in Three-dimensions. due to direct

shear.

Neglei

develop tions

in the at D, the

members temperature

if after drops

making the to - 10F?

connec-

-"<---3 m
Fig. PI2-46

12-39.
to

mensions shown tion of the applied

flexure.

A U-shaped

member

of constant

Determine from

EI has the lieach

the deflecother due

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

a

'12-47. termine
L/A

For the planar truss shown in the figure, the reaction at A, treating it as redundant,
is unity.

dedue

to the

applied

vertical

force

at B.

For

all

members,

100k

P (down)

Fig.

PI2:44

Fig.
t2-42. A solid bar of circular

PI2-4t
cross section is

t2-45.
is built in at one the three

shown

in the

Find

the

figure

force

due

in bar

to the

AC

30-kN

for

the

horizontal

planar

force

truss

the shape as shown

Fig. PI2-39

of a right angle and in the figure. Determine

at C. For member and for all other

AC, members,

let the relative unity.

L/AE
c

= 0.50,

10' - '-10'-
Fig. PI2-47

t2-40. In order to instal a split ring used as a retainer on a machine shaft, it is necessary to open a gap of A by applying forces P, as shown in the figure. If EI of the cross section of the ring is constant, determine the required magnitude of forces P. Consider only flexural
effects:

1m!m
Fig. PI2-45

30 kN


12-48.

the reaction at A, treating it as redundant. mine the moment at B, treating it as redundant. Use the solution given to Problem 10-51.)

For the beam

shown

in the figure,

(a.) determine

(b) Deter(Hint:

B 1P 1P A

12-41.
a semicircle

A bar

having
and

a circular
i built

cross
in at one end

section

is bent
as shown

into
in the

Fig.

P12-42

< 3m

684

Energy

and

Virtual

Work

Methods

Problems
applied forces, and plot the entire moment dia-

685 12-17
BC is twice

t2-49. A uniformly loaded beam fixed at both ends has the reactions shown in the figure. By using a simply supported beam with a unit lead in the middle as a virtual system, determine the maximum deflection
for the real beam.

the

12-63.
12-64.

Rework
Rework

Problem
Problem

12-30.
12-31.

gram.
the tions.
sider

(b) Find
applied (Hint:
the moment

the
forces. Take

decrease
Consider advantage
at A as

in diameter
only flexural of symmetry
redundant.)

AB

caused

by

12-72. cross
AC or

Rework
section
DC.

Example
of bar

after assuming that the as large as that of bar

deformaand con

t2-65.
12-66. 12-67.

Rework
Rework Rework

Problem
Problem Problem

12-32.
12-33. 12-34.

w o N/m

Section 12-52.
termine

12-8 Using
the forces

Section the virtual

in members

1243

Section
12-52, shown
same

t244

displacement
BD and

method,
BC in Prob

12-68. elastic
force P.

Using Eq. bar system

L/AE is the

determine in the
for each

the

figure
bar.

forces in the due to applied

12-73.
rium,
11-1.

determine

Using

Eqs.

the

12-57

critical

and
for

buckling

12-59
neutral
pinned

for neutral
lead

in Problem

equilibdea

Fig.

P12-49

12-46 assuming that member system, and (b) find the forces the complete framing. 12-53. For the elastic truss using the virtual displacement

BA

is removed in all three

from members

shown method,

in the figure (a)

termine the critical Euler buckling tic column of constant EI with that

*'t2-74.

Using

Eq.

12-59

lead

equilibrium,

Per for an elasends, as shown

12-50. idealized

A small pipe expansion as shown in the figure.

joint in a plane Hinge support

can be points

A and B are immovable. Derive an expression for the ' horizontal abutment reactions R caused by the change in temperature gT in the pipe. The coefficient of thermal expansion for the pipe is ct and its flexural rigidity is EI. Consider flexural deformations only.

AB is inactive due to the applied force at A, and (b) find the forces in all four members in the complete[ framing. The relative values L/A are as fol ows: 0.40
for AB and AD, 0.20 for AC,
1Ok

the

forces

in members

AC,

AD,

and

AE

assuming

and 0.80

for AE.

[ I

120
D 12

60

in Fig. 11-13. Assume that the deflected shape slightly bent column in a neighboring equilibrium sition is v = A sin rx/L, where A is an arbitrary
stant. eral (Hint: deflection Axial shortening v is given by of a column due

for

to lat-

pocon-

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Fig. Pt2-68
C E

,x, = 5 fo L
for

ax
work gW = P A,.
the expression

noting

and heuristically
gU

from

then

fol ows

Eq.

2 the external
11-5
from

that

Eq.

M = -Pv,
12-8.)

By

t2-69. A two-span uniformly distributed left span is L and

continuous beam is loaded with a downward lead we N/m. If the the right one is 2L, what is the re-

Fig.
Fig. Pt2-50

P12-53

Section t2-54.
ample due

t2-12 Using Castigliano's

the

12-5t. A circular ring of a linearly elastic material is loaded by two equal and opposite forces P, as shown in the figure. For this ring, both A and I are constant. (a) Determine the largest bending moment caused by
A

t2-70. Without taking "dxantage of symmetry and

second
horizontal force P =

beam.

the solution.

action

at the middle
Draw

shear

support?

and

moment

.Use Eq.

diagrams

12-52

to obtain

for this

lutions
shape EIv",

ing problem by assuming column to be a parabola, the kinematic boundary

are not very
provided where

*'t2-75.

Find

an approximate

sensitive

the deflected shape of the v = A(x 2 - xL), satisJ,ing conditions. (Note: Energy soto the
=

solution

to the preced-

assumed

deflected

one takes M the second derivative

-Pv

not of an assumed

and

as M = func-

theorem,
deflection 3 k.

in

12-10, determine to the applied vertical

lead

on the left for the beam

We.

using

Eq.

1252;

determine

in Problem

the reaction 12-16

12-49
with

due to applied

components

tion is used. umn-buckling

Numerous problems

approximate can be found

solutions in this

of colmanner.)

The fol owing Castigliano's

12-55. 12-56.
12-57.

problems second
Problem Problem
Problem

are theorem:
12-8. 12-19.
12-16.

for

solution

t2-71.
12-52.

supported,

Assuming

determine

that in Example

the reactions

end B is simply

the aid of Eq.

guerre, Neuere (Berlin/G6ttingen/Heidelberg:

229.

20 For

further

Festigkeitsprobleme

study

of this problem,
Springer,

des

see K. Mar-

Ingenieurs 1980), 189-

Rework Rework
Rework

12-58. t2-59. t2-60. t2-6t.

Rework Rework Rework Rework Rework

Problem Problem Problem Problem Problem

12-17. 12-21. 12-24. 12-28. 12-29.

Fig.

Pt2-5t

t2-62.

Sec.

13-3.

Force

Method

687

=chapter
13-2.
Structural

Two
systems

Basic
that

Methods
experience is applicable effective

for Elastic
only small such for

Analysis
deformations structures the analysis and and are combasis

ciple ofsuperposition for two of the

systems.

posed

of linearly

elastic
most

materials
methods

are linear
for

structural

systems.

forms the of indeterminate

The

prin-

*x13-1.
The

Introduction
force and
A of this formulations. criteria often
is referred to

deformation reactions analyzed

In the first of these methods, a statically duced initial y to one that is determinate by fluous) reactions or internal forces for maintaining Fig. 2-42. Then these redundant forces are plied, and their magnitudes are so adjusted
are for
conditions determined, strength

indeterminate
in Part

problems
important

displacement
chapter

previously
They

methods

encountered
complex

for

to more

particularly
element design
teflon

in the
the

based
as

are directly on the maximum

limit state

matrix

analysis
for

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

in this
These

solving

linearly

text

elastic

are exter
methods

staticall'

force

cases.

two

applicable allowable
the

of structures
maximum

in

satisfying stress.

and

in

nethod, or the flexibility method; see Section In the second method, referred to as the displacement stif ness method, the joint displacements of a structure unknowns; see Sections 2-16 and 2-17. The system

duced

earlier.

This

widely

at their points of application. the system is statically or stif ness characteristics

system is reredundant (superstatic equilibrium; see considered as externally apas to satisfy the prescribed
Once determinate by the
2-15.

indeterminate removing

used

method

is commonly

referred

redundant and can be methods intro-

the

to as the

are is first

method, treated reduced

or the as the to a
sufficient more

Such

stress.

In

fron

series

any

of members
the

movement.

whose

The

joints

joints

are imagined
are then

released

to be completely
and, hence,

to an extent

restrained
is even

cases, effect
limit

the limit of system

states.

state may stif ness

of a member parameter, conservative

be the maximum on vibrations.

allowable Such criteria

deflection, are
ove

or

extremely

to satisfy

well-suited

force
structures.

equilibrium
for

computer

conditions

coding

at each

joint.

This

method

is

If the trength the only controlling lead to an unduly

or members for emergency the elastic maximum stress design. For ductile materials,

of large-scale

widely

used

in practice

than

the force

method,

especial y

for the analysis

limit

state where

fatigue a point strength

be reasonably

problem does not arise, merely reaching the maximum or a few points of a member does not necessarily capacity of a system. The ultimate strength of such

the

While the force

'13-3.

solution

some and

of indeterminate

of the older displacement

Method

classical methods

structural

methods continue are the two

systems.

to have some modern approaches

utility,

to

exhaust systems 2 The

the

plastic.
limit

discussed
state other and

A few

well

in Part
is of

such

approximated

B of this structures,
overload

cases

were

by considering

chapter

encountered
for

beams

earlier.
and

the

Force

frames.

This

approach
desi

considerable

importance

in understanding

The first step in the analysis of structural systems using is the determination of the degree of statical indeterminacy,
same as the number of redundant structure, reactions, as discussed a statically

the force method which is the

in Sections released to as the

behavior

of ductile
emergency

especial y
situations.

as it applies

to seismic

1-

9 and

2-15.

determinate

The

redundant of beams
of

reactions

which

3 are

is referred rotations

temporarily

removed

to obtain

or

 This chapter 2 For further G. Hodge. Jr.,

is optional. discussion of beams, frames, Plastic Analysis of Structures

as well (New

as plates and York: McGraw-Hil ,

shells,

see

are

are often

3 In the analysis
considered

treated

instead

as redundants.

and flames,
deflections.

In such

cases,

the bending

of tangents

moments

at the supports
at the supports

686

688

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Sec.

13-3.

Force

Method

689

primary
ical

methods previously discussed. For example, the beam shown in Fig. l(a) is indeterminate to the first degree. For this beam to remain in st: static equilibrium, only one of the vertical reactions can be remov Removing the vertical reactions at b, Fig. 13-1(b), deflection caused by applied forces P can be calculated. By reapplying the removel
redundant

determinacy,

structure.

it is possible

Then,

since this structure

to find

any

desired

is artificial y

displacement

reduced

to

by

I &

P2

JP

/.
(a)

b
(d)

ctR,=xc

beam must be zero, by superposing the deflections and requiring + A ob = 0, the magnitude of Ro = Xo can be determined.

A  at b due to Ro can be found.

reaction

Rb to the unloaded

Since

member,

the deflection

Fig.

13-1(c),

at b of the

w
9'/ / /  bP

/ P,

P2 JP3
l N

that the
(b) (e)

placement reapplied
ments. the

tions.

This

However,

procedure

By removing
beam

As an example, becomes

of evety point on the pritnay structure is affected redundant force. This also holds true for the rotation
any two of the redundant
determinate occurs, and consider the beam the in Fig.

it is essential

can be generalized

in such

to any number
cases

to recognize

of redundant

that

computed, respectively,
where

Fig.

By reapplying

at b can be found,

Fig.
two

A,.o, sum

at b and c due to NON-ACTIVATED VERSION are designated respectively. Similarly, Aoc and Ac, due to R, can be 13-2(d). Superposing the deflections at each support and settin www.avs4you.com equal to zero, since points b and c actually do not deflect,
the deflection

13-2(b). These deflections are designated Ao,, and A where the first let er of the subscript indicates the Rb to the same
Fig. 13-2(c).
and the second,

deflections

reactions

13-2(a).

by ea, of
c can
Rb = Xb
(c) (f)

such

at b and

as Ro and

Fig.

continuous

13-2

Superposition
beam.

for

beam,

These

the deflections
deflections

the cause

of the deflectio

redundants. the deflection

Then, since a linear structural at point b due to the redundants and

system

can
Abe

is being be expressed

considered,

as
(13-2)

= oX

and,

similarly,

at point

c as

equations:

Ab = AoJ o + Aoo A = A., + Aco

+ AOc + A

= 0 = 0

(13d
where Xb
becomes

and

Ac

= fX

(13-3)

and

Xc

are

the

redundant

quantities.
+ fbX + fcX

Using
+ A oio = 0 + Aio = 0

this

notation,
(13-4)

Eq.

ticlents oo, o., cO, and , which are defined as the deflections in Figs. 13-1(e) and (f) due to unit forces applied in the direction

These

can be rewrit en

in a more

meaningful

form

using

flexibility

13-1

[P b
a b c
bb
(a)

[P2
(b)

A o = fooXo A = foXo

where the only unknown quantities are Xo and X; simultaneous of these equations constitutes the solution of the problem. Generalizing the above results for' determining the unknown systems with n redundants, using superposition, the fol owing bility equations 4 can be formed:
A a = f,,X, A b = fbaXa
:

solution
forces compatifor

+ f,bXb + fbbXb + f, bXb are referred

+ + +

'" '" '"

+ f,.X. + fbnXn + f, , X, to as the

+ + + Maxwell-Mohr

Abe

(13-5)

R, = X

A,, 4 Sometimes these

= f, ,Xb expressions

Fig.
the

force

13-1

Superposition
method.

for

(c)

equations.

690

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems
are such column immovable, deflections can the left column can be prescribed. be calculated for the of thi s

Sec. 13-4. Flexibility

Coefficients

Reciprocity

When the redundant supports equation is zero. Alternatively, terms for deflections in the right

tem. All quantities gular rotations, couples. For the force

form as

structure.

The

flexibility

in these depending
method,

coefficients

equations on whether

6 u are for
represent they are
to

either associated

the

whole

deflections with
13-5

primary
forces
in

or

sy.,

<

a
(b)

;11 N
deflections
Fig. t3-3 Reciprocal

it is customary

express

Eq.

(a)

fij = fji.

Xb

zx = oP--5- and

the

au

zXs = 
equality O2U
oP:

au

By

preceding

taking

partial

equation,

derivatives

the OAi
oP:

fol owing

of Az with

respect

is obtained:

to Pi in Eq.

13-5a

and

Because the square matrix is made up of the flexibility coefficients, method is often called the flexibility method of structural analysis. It should be clearly understood that the previous equations are cable only to linearly elastic systems that undergo small It should be noted further that the matrix exhibited by Eq. 13-6 is a or global flexibility matrix. Such matrices can be readily constructed rectly only for the simpler problems. For treatment of more

and,

similarly,

aAj =

problems,
or

the reader

is referred

to previously

structural Before the flexibility

matrix analysis proceeding with coefficients

in Sections 2-10 and 12-9. examples, it is shown next that u is symmetric, i.e., u = Ji.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com . fi= f,)

cited texts on finite elemenii
However, since the order of dif erentiation
the matrix

aPi

fJi - aPi OPj

is immaterial,

a2U

(13-7)
the displacement to the displacement
of the forces be noted that

13-4.
According systems, after Eq.

Flexibility

Coefficients

Reciprocity
coefficients, for linearly to forces P at i and Pj atj

to the definition for flexibility the displacement A at i due 13-5 can be expressed as

As il ustrated point i due

j due flections

in Fig. to a unit

13-3, force

this relation at any point

the coincide.

states that j is equal

directions
It can

at any
and this

of

to a unit force at i, provided in each of the two cases

dere-

A = fP
Similarly, the deflection at j is

+ fuP.

lationship holds true for several cases considered of virtual force equations in Section 12-6. For flexibility coefficients, using Eq. 12-26, by setting p, its role with 2' is interchangable. This is also
12-27 and 12-28.

earlier in applications example, in calculating Fi equal to unit force true in the use of Eqs.
theorem of reciprocal

Ai

= fPi

+ fP

The derived displacements. of a given

of tk 12-47,
EXAMPLE '13-'1

relationship 7

is often

called

Maxwell's

where

fi, fu,

i, and
energy

 are

the
system

flexibility
due second

coefficients
to the application theorem, Eq.

If the strain is U, according qualities are

the

also
is increased

of the to Castigliano's given as

by

the

For

5 If an elastic
a The
support

support
coefficients

is provided
adding

flexibility

are also

the

at an ith point,
called
flexibility

the

deflection

of such

the

flexibility

the simply of the tangent at j, is equal

supported elastic beam shown in Fig. 13-4, show that to the elastic curve at the support i, caused by applying to the deflection atj caused by applying a unit couple
was demonstrated

the

rotation

a unit at i.

force

a support.

influence

co

general

7 This

case

relationship

was

discovered

by

E.

by James
Betti

in

1872.

Clerk

Maxwell

in 1864.

The

more

692

Statically

Indeterminate
------0 U

Problems

Sec.
1 N'm

13-4.

Flexibility

Coefficients

Reciprocity

693

+%L

L
L

-woL
, e woL 2

Fig.

13-4
Solution

(a)

(b)
(b)

< L L
by Eql
to (c)
b 1N


(e)

+T 9 woL 2

The

deflection

of the beam

due

to a concentrated

force

P atj

is given

10
_1

27, applicable for 0 < x < a. The gives the slope for the elastic curve. rotation 0ij, defining fo, when the

derivative of this equation The slope of this function applied force P = - 1.

with respect at x = 0

ft

.
Fig. t3-5

WoL

v =

- --(L2x
6EIL

Pb

- b2x = 0(0) =

- x3) -- --(L
Pb

' and

v'

-- --(L i I

Pb

6EIL
Pab

2 -

b 2 - 3x 2
EXAMPLE t3-2

v'(O)

6EIL

2 -- b 2) =
ab

and
The equation derived next. a counterclockwise By

0o -- fu = 6--
for an elastic proceeding moment

cui-ve for a beam as before, the deflection Mo is applied at j,

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6EIL

( a + 2b)

A two-span continuous tributed load, as shown

moment
Solution

diagrams.

EI

for

elastic in Fig.
the

beam

beam 13-5.

is constant.

on simple Determine

supports carries a uniformly the reactions and plot shear

disand

subjected

atj

to an is found.

end moment Assumir

-Mo

+ Mox/.L

EIv'=
Hence,

-Mox -Mox2/2
= 0, and from

and + Mox2/2L

EIv"=

-Mo

+ Mox/L

Reaction flection

R0 at b is removed at b for the primary

A bP i

to make structure

the using

beam Eq.

statically 10-22 is

determinate.

The

de-

+ C3 + C3x
= MoL/3,

5Wo(2L)
384EI

5woL
24EI

EIv=
v(0) = 0. C4

+ MoX3/6L
v(L) = 0, C3

+ C4
and

From

by

The

setting

deflection

P = 1, the

at b due

flexibility

to a concentrated

coefficient

force
is

is given L 3
6EI

by Eq.

10-30.

Therefore,

EIv

- -Mo =

mox

6EIL

(-

3Lx

+ )5 2 q- 2L 2)

fbb

1 x (2L)
48EI

Therefore,

for

v(a)

and
a

1,

By using + a 2 + 2L 2) - --(a
ab
6EIL

Eq.

(13-5)

and

assuming

that

the

supports

are immovable,

f i -- --(-3La 6EIL
This result is identical to that given

2b)

Ab in Figs.
From

= fbbXb 13-5(d)
statics,

+ Abe

= 0

and
and

Xb The
the

= Rb
shear

=
and

--Abv/fbb
moment

= 5woL/4
diagrams

by

Eq.

13-8.

and (e), respectively.

R = Rc = 3woL/8

elastic

curve

is shown

in Fig.

13-5(0.

are

as

694

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems
fa fbb

Sec. t3-4.
Substituting the relevant quantities from before,

Flexibility
the required

Coefficients
equations

Reciprocity
are

(a)

(c)

fba
(b)

Solving

these

two

equations

simultaneously,

X,
Abp

= M,
signs
unit forces.

= O.0714woL
of these quantities

and
indicate

Xb
agreement

= Rb

= 1.143woL
with the assumed di-

The
Fig, t3-6
rection

positive
of

EXAMPLE

t3-3

EXAMPLE

t3-4

A two-span other points; of a uniformly

Solution

continuous see Fig. distributed

beam 13-6(a).

is clamped Determine load wo. EI

at one end the reactions for the beam

and

simply caused

by

supported the

at

is constant.

Consider the planar elastic pin-ended bar system shown in Fig. 13-7(a_). Determine the bar forces caused by the application of inclined force P = 10X/5 kN at joint e. All bars can resist either tensile or compressive forces. For simplicity in calculations, let L/EA for each member be unity.

This beam dundants Rb, resulting in Example

must

is statically indeterminate to the second degree. Therefore, be removed to proceed. A convenient choice is to remove in a simply supported beam, Fig. 13-6(b). Using the results 10-3, and summarized in Table 11 of the Appendix,

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two

fou

wo(2L)
24EI

3
--

woL
3EI

A bP

--

5wo(2L)
384EI

5woL
24EI

One
Fig.

set 13-6(c),

equations Fig. 13-6(d),

of flexibility coefficients and determining the in Table 11. This process and finding the rotation

is determined by applying rotation at a and the deflection

a unit

force at b using

at

' 2 '""'&. 10x/kN

(a)


(b)

P = 10x/kN

is repeated at a and and and lb.

by
the

applying deflection --

a unit moment at b. Thus,

at

fb f.
Note
13-5,

..

(2L)
16EI

2
2L
3EI

L 2
4EI

fbb =

(2L)
48EI

-- --

L 3
=

6EI

b\
L 2
4EI

(2L)
3EI

L[(2L)
6EI(2L)

2 - L 2]

Forming

that

as to be expected,

two equations

for compatibility

fab

= fba.

of displacements

at a and b
f

lkN

A o = A or

+ fbX

+ fooXo

0
Fig. 13-7

 1 (o)

(d)

696

Statically Solution

Indeterminate

Problems
and

Sec.

13-5.

Introduction

to the

Displacement

Method

697

This
bars

problem
ae and

is statically
ce are assumed

indeterminate
to be redundant.

to the

second
Therefore,

degree,
the

and,
bar

in this
system

soluti
with

Fae
indeterminacy.

-13.42

10.52

x 0.894

+ 2.36

x (-0.800)

-5.90

kN

bars cut at a and for this condition

c, shown are shown

the possible displacements removed to restore the of the unloaded primary studied first, as shown each case are shown directly on the is unity, the force in bar ce is zero,
the bar ce is unity, the force

in Fig. 13-7(b), is on the diagram in that may develop required compatibility system due to the in Figs. 13-7(c) and

the primary parentheses.

Calculations for the required in tabular form using the pattern of Example 12-5.

figures. Fig. in bar ae is zero. deflections and

at a and conditions. application (d). Again, Note that when 13-7(c); conversely, flexibility method

system. The bar force s In this primary system c are noted and must be Therefore, the behav of unit axial forces the axial bar forces for
the force in bar, when the force

Computer

solutions

are

commonly

used

for

problems

with

a high

degree

of

in

13-5.
In the force

Introduction
method discussed

to the

Displacement
13-3, the

Method
redundant forces were

in Section

out

virtual

force

and

coefficients fol owing

are

the

Bar
ae be ce de

F, kN
0 + 17.89 0 -13.42

a or pa
+1 -0.447 0 +0.894


-0.60 +1 -0.80 Sum:

or p
0

fiF
0
-8.00

fibF
0
-10.73

,p
+1 +0.20 0 +0.80

p
0
+0.36 +1 +0.64

aPc 0 0

0 -t2.00
- 20.00

+10.73

Since
according

for

each
to Eq.

bar,
12-26

L/AE
are

= 1, the

relative

deflections

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-0.7
0 + 2.00 + 2.00 - 0.

and

flexibility

coefficients

A a, =
and

--20 f

A c, = 0 faa = f = --0.448

= Xc,

= fc

to be the unknowns. In the displacement method, on the other the displacement--both linear and/or angularof the joints or points are taken as the unknowns. The first step in applying this is to prevent these joint displacements, which are called kinetnatic indeterminants or degrees offi'eedom. The suppression of these degrees of freedom results in a modified system that is composed of a series of members each of whose end points are restrained from translations and rotations. Calculation of reactions at these artificial y restrained ends due to externally applied loads can be carried out using any of the previously described methods. The results of such calculations are usually available for a large variety of loading conditions and a few are given in Table 12 of the Appendix. In beam analysis by this method, counterclockwise moments and upward reactions acting on either end of a member are taken as positive. This beatn sign convention dif ers from that used previously in this text, and is necessary for a consistent formulation of the superposition equations. Sometimes this sign convention is referred to as "analyst's" to distinsign convention pressive regions The procedure degree of kinematic

assumed hand, nodal method

guish
the required conditions

it from

"designer's".

Therefore; compatibility

for bar forces Fac = Xa and Fcc at a and c, using Eq. 13-5 gives

A
and

= f, aX,

+ fac

A,

= 2X

0.448X

20

= 0

conveniently dif erentiates between in flexural members. for applying a displacement method indeterminancy is il ustrated

used

previously

throughout.

tensile

The

designer's
and

com-

for a beam with one in Fig. 13-8(a). First,

A,.
By solving

= fXa
these two

+ fXc
equations

A cj,

-0.448X

2X

+ 0 = 0

simultaneously,

Fe
Using

= X

+ 10.52
the forces

kN
in the

and
other two

Fe
bars

= Xo
are

+2.36

kN

superposition.

Foe

17.89

10.52

(-0.447)

2.36

(-0.600)

+11.77kN

(c)

Fig.

3-8

698

Statically
the
an
of a fixed-end

Indeterminate
beam. Both

Problems
the vertical

Sec.

t3-5.

Introduction

to

the

Displacement

Method

support

at b is restrained,

Fig.

13-8(b),

reactions

reducing
end,

and

end

the

moments

problem
first

in

to

Solution

a beam

example

can

be found
of such

a reactive

by methods
the location reactions

force

discussed

at an

previously.

where

the

Moment

let er

Mt,v

is

the subscript Such end

designates moments and

and the are referred

second identifies to as fixed-end

the cause actions

b

Since joint rotation at b is the 9(a), this beam is kinematically in the Appendix, the fixed-end
the end moments and reactions

only kinematic indeterminate actions due

due to 0b,

unknown to the

first

to the
Fig.

applied
13-9(c),

at the degree. load,

are

supports, Fig. Using Table Fig. 13-9(b),

1312 and

beam ends. For general use, fixed-end let er A with two subscripts. For the P refers to any kind of applied lateral Next, moment Mt,t, at b, Fig. 13-8(c),

actions are identified here above case, At,v --- Mt,v. load. is determined as a function

of:
For

Mav= Mat, Rat,

moment

Aaj, = woL2/12 --- Aat, = 2EIOt,/m = 6EIOt,[m 2

equilibrium at the end

and and and

b, using

Mbp
Mbb

m AbP
= Abb

= - woL-/12 ' = 4EIOb/L

Rbb
Eq.

=
13-11a,

-- 6EIOb/L

titles the location titles the location moments and reactions ment are given in Finally, an equation the beam is simply general use, such Therefore, assuming

applied

rotation

0t,. In this
of the of the

fixed-end force (moment) and the second ide applied displacement. Two basic cases for caused either by applied end rotation or Table 12 in the Appendix. for static equilibrium is writ en. In this case, supported at b, total moment Mt, must be zero. FOi force quantities are identified as Pt, i.e., Mt, -that the system is linearly elastic and

notation,

the first

let er

of the

subscript

Mt,---Pt,
Hence,
Using this 0b in the

= Mt,v+Mt,t,
superposition equations,

woL

12

+ 0t,

4EI

= 0

0t, = woL2/48EI

small

dislacements,

for

equilibrium
Mt, = Mt,v

a[ joint

+ Mt,t,

or in generalized

notation, Pt, ' At,v

+ At,t,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Ra =Rav +Rat, - 2 + ~ Rb = Rbv + Rt,t, - 2  www.avs4you.com

= 0
(13-1 woL 6EI woL 6EI

b,

Ma = May + Mat, --

woL

12

+ 

2EI

0b Ot, Ob -beam
5woL 3woL

woL

2
(a)

8 8
sign convention.

= 0

The
EXAMPLE t3-5

sign

of Ma

is opposite

from

that

of the

designer's

beam
constant.

Using

fixed'

a displacement

at one

end

method,

and

simply

determine

supported

the

reactions

at the

other,

for

a uniformly

Fig.

13-9(a).

loadec

EXAMPLE

t3-6

Three
system

elastic
shown

pin-jointed
in Fig. 13-10(a).

bars
by

are
The

symmetrically
cross-sectional

arranged
area

in a plane
A of each bar

to form
is the same,

the
(b)

and 23,
Solution
(b)

the and

elastic 12-17

modulus caused

is E. applied

Verify
force

the
P.

bar

forces

found

in Examples

2-14,

12-

ob
(a)

Because of symmetry, this system has joint c can only displace in the vertical is restrained from displacement, Fig.

only one direction.

degree of kinematic In this solution,

freedom first, the

are

zero,
bc.

and

Ac,

--- Pc,

= 0. s
12-17,

13-10(b).
next

Here
compatibility

all of the

fixed-end
of deflection

and joint actions

A  for

Force

Pcc

for

the

system

is determined

as a function

bar
Rbb

As

in

Example

for force downward

geometric P were force

at joint

c,

A2

' Fig.

t3-9

(c)

zero. For example, c, per Eq. 2-39,

8 If an axial

force

if a downward the fixed-end

were

applied

somewhere

between

applied at a distance at c would be Roe

b and

c, P,

Ld4 = 3P/4.

would

not

above

be
Fig.

(c)

t3-10

700

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Sec.

t3.6.

Further

Remarks

on

the

Displacement

Method

70t

A  cOS
(or dc),

a. Hence,
respectively,

using
are

Eq.

2-12,

the

bar

forces

F and

F2 in members

bc and

ac

F
Then

= k A ] =
for vertical

_
force

A
equilibrium Pc

and
= Pc' + F

F2 = k2 A 1 COS Ct
at joint + c, 2F2cosct = P

AE ct L/cos

A cos

. a
(a)

b
.

a
(d)

gbp

for Fig. t3-tt

Substituting
An,

one

finds

the values

of PeP,

F, and F2 into

PL

the above

equation,

and

solving
(b)

0b=lrt

AE(1
b

+ 2 cos 3
the relations for the bar forces, the results

ic in Example
Fig. 13-12

By

substituting

2-23

this

are

value

verified.

of A  into

If in this example there were no symmetry about the vertical axis (either due to lack of symmetry in the structure itself or due to application of force P at an angle), a horizontal displacement would' also have developed at the joint. force equilibrium equations, one in the horizontal direction and the other in the vertical direction, mr/st then be set up and solved simultaneous13 and vertical displacements. Such cases are il ustrated in Figs. 12-11 and 12-12
and are also considered in the next section.

It should Fig. 13-11,

In the

force

be noted does not

method,

that increase
on

the

by adting additional bars the kinematic indeterminacy,

other hand, the number

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION of two fixed-end beams, ab and bc, Fig. 12-13(b). www.avs4you.com
(c)

(f)

Fig.

t3-13

to the

of statical

system, as shown and it remains at two.

redundants

The
beams
ba and

effect
bc

of the exat b caused

ternally of reactive
b is the

applied

volves

creases, dants.

as does However,
the solution

the number this does

of fewer

of simultaneous not imply that

equations

compared

equations the displacement

for
force

to the

determining method
method.

sum

forces

of the

loads on these at the supports.

fixed-end

two

moments

fixed-end The fixed-end

fixed-end

in beams

is to produce action (moment)

Ac,

a set Abe, at

always

by

the

applied

loads.

Similarly,

the

action

is the

vertical

Consider

for example, This beam three

indeterminate at c); hence,

the case is statically

simultaneous

to the third degree only one equation

of a propped indeterminate

equations

are required

(rotations is needed

cantilever only

at b and for solution

with an overhang; to the first degree, the displacement

using

c, and a vertical by the force

see Fig. but kinem

method, method.

reaction pable
level.

at c restraining vertical of developing a moment

the

displacement. at c, it does

not

Since enter

the support the problem

is caat this
rise to the

fixed-end

Next

as shown
displacement

in Fig.

actions

support
Ac

13-13(c).

(moments)

at b is rotated Similarly,

Aoo

and

through Aoc

Aco

at c, Fig.

13-13(d).

and

at points
Act

an angle

are caused

b and

0b, giving

c, respectively,

by the vertical

'13-6.

Further

Remarks

on the

Displacement

Method

restraining

of freedom of this beam beam is thus kinematically

these two

The displacement method of kinematic indeterminancy the beam shown in Fig. for vertical displacement degrees

is the rotation indeterminate

is extended to problems with several de in this section. For this purpose, 13-13(a), where the guided support at c allows but no rotation Of the beam. The other degree of freedom,

Since no external moment Pc at c, the resultant forces zero. These two forces may yses, shown in Figs. 13-13(b)-(d),
equations:
Pb Pc

Mb is applied at b, nor a vertical reaction Mo = Po and Pc at these points are equal to be found by superposing three separate analleading to two simultaneous equilibrium
q- Abc= + Act 0 0 (13-12)

of its tangent at support to the second degree.

one obtains a system

b.

= Abp q- Abb = Ac o + Aco

These

coefficients

equations

kob,

can

koc,

be rewrit en
and

kcc,

defined

in more

as the

meaningful

fixed-end

form

actions

using

shown

stif ness

in

702

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Sec.

13-7.

Stif ness

Coefficients

Reciprocity

703

Figs. 13-13(e) corresponding the moments

Ab = 0bandAc,

and (f) due to the unit displacements to the kinematic indeterminants. Then at b and the vertical reactions at c, caused
are

(linear or an for a linear by displacements

'13-7.
For linearly ficients'can
coefficients.

Stif ness

Coefficients

Reciprocity
for stif ness coef13-4 for flexibility is U, according to Casof forces P and Pj

elastic systems, an analogous relationship be obtained similar to that found in Section

Thus, if the
directions
Pi =
au

system's

elastic

energy

tigliano's
in the By substituting these
Pa Pc

first
respective

theorem,

Eq.

12-45,
of A's

the
are
and

displacement
au

relations
= = kaa &a kcbAb

into

Eq.

13-12,
+ Aa, + Ac, = 0 = 0

aA

Pj

(13-18)

+ kac zXc + kccAc

These

equations

can

be solved

simultaneously
to systems equilibrium Ai are equations having

for unknowns
n degrees for determining

Ao and
the

By extending indeterminancy, known nodal

this approach the force displacements

Alternatively, it can be seen from Eq. 13-16 that a partial derivative of Pt with respect to As is ku. Similarly, a partial derivative of Pj with respect to At is kit. Carrying out these operations with Eqs. 13-18 establishes the fol owing equalities: aPi a2U
ku

and
Pb -- kba Aa q- kbb Ab .q- "' q- kbn An q- AbP

where

at the nodal The stif ness a rotation. externally In matrix

terms

points. In the absence coefficients k u are The fixed-end actions applied loads. form, Eq. 13-16 for

Pa,

Po . . .

P,correspond

of such associated A,, Abe,

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Since the order of dif erentiation for the

aAi

aPs

aAiaA

a2U

k,
derivatives is immaterial,

(13-19)

mixed

to the
forces, either ...

external
with A,, method

these

terms a displacement are caused

forces

are

applie
by

(13-20)

the

displacement

can

be

as

This relation proves that the matrix of stif ness coefficients is symmetric, a very important property for analysis of structural systems. The relationship between the. stif ness and flexibility coefficients is illustrated in the next example. It is more complex than that for systems with one degree of kinematic and static indeterminancy.
EXAMPLE t3-7 9
between shown elastic in Fig. flexibilities the 13-14. flexibility and The externally and stif nesses the stif ness applied for each matrices forces spring are are for the P and shown

(13-1'

Because displacement general referred analysis

are considered.

the

square method

procedures to previously in Sections

consists entirely of stif ness coefficients, is often referred to as the stif ness method. for constructing the stif ness matrix, the reader cited texts on finite elements or structural 2-10 and 12-9. In this text, only the

matrix

Show the relationship two-spring system P2, and the linearly in the figure.
Solution

Before matrix
matrix.

proceeding is symmetric,

with i.e.,

examples, k o = k,

and

it wil that

be shown it is related

that the to the

The using
(Englewood

displacement spring

of nodal flexibilities
Clif s,

points as

b and

c for

the

loaded

system

can

be

writ en
(b)

9 Adapted

from

M.

N.J.:

F. Rubinstein,

Prentice-Hall,

Matrix

1966),

Computer
60-63.

Analysis

of Structures,
Fig. t344

704

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Sec.

13.7.

Stif ness

Coefficients

Reciprocity

705

A
where force

=
P

(p
+ P2

+ p)
acts on spring

and
ab.

A2
for each
and

(P
nodal
P2

+ P2)f
point
= k2(A2

+ P2f2
kcb

. Similarly,
stif nesses,

the
are

equilibrium
= kl A k2(A2

equations
A1)

b and
-

c, using
Ai)
(a)

P

kbb
(c)

where Recasting

the

stretch these

of spring equations

bc

is A2 -- A. into matrix form

gives

and
(b) (d)

Next it can the reciprocals

terms matrix of spring multiplication,

be noted of the
constants,

that spring
giving

the individual constants.

is multiplied

spring
Then
by the

the

flexibilities flexibility
matrix

can matrix,
using

be replaced expressed
the rules

by
fixed-end

Fig.

t3-t5

stif ness

against

rotations,

actions

a system
for

these

of two
beams

fixed-end
can

be obtained

beams

with

is obtained,

the

aid

Fig.

of Table

13-15(b).
the

12 in the

The

 1
This identity
are zero.

k + k 2

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION -k* = - k2 k2www.avs4you.com

identifying a beam designates
=

Appendix.

In the

fol owing,

the

the end

first

let er

where

of the

the fixed-end
[Ab,]a

subscript

action
=

outside

applies.

brackets

For

beam

ab:

[Aaa]ab

+ PL/8

and

-- PL/8

For

beam

bc:

shows matrix. result

that

a product All diagonal that

of a flexibility elements

matrix by a stif ness of this unit matrix are matrix is an inverse this can be

matrix unity, and

leads all matrix

to

[A,]c
or
For joint

= + Wo(2L)2/12
b:

= + woL2/3

and

[Ac,]

= - woL3/3

This

vice

versa.

means For these

a flexibility symmetric

matrices,

of a stif ness symbolically

writ en

a,

Abt

[Ab']ba

+ [Abt]bc

--PL/8

+ woL2/3

[fi
For problems expressions with degenerate single

= [k]
into
degrees simple

or
of static reciprocals and

[k]

= [fikinematic of these indeterminacy, quantities.

The stif ness coefficients can be calculated by subjecting the temporarily ends b and c, to unit rotations one at a time, Figs. 13-15(c) and (d). Again, formulas in Table 12 of the Appendix and by noting that the two adjoining
contribute to the stif ness of the joint at b, one has

fixed using spans

EXAMPLE

t3-8

Using

the

displacement

method,

calculate

the

rotations

at b and

c for

the

tinuous
moments

beam
at

of constant
a and b.

EI

loaded

as shown

in Fig.

13-15(a),

Solution

Similarly,
supports b and c, the beam is free to rotate, making the system

for

the

member

ab,

due

to a unit

rotation

at b,

At

indeterminate

to the

second

degree.

By temporarily

restraining

these

= F4E!]

= L

and

kab =

J,,b

706

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Sec.
applied become forces (moments) at b and c, for

13-7.

Stif ness

Coefficients

Reciprocity

707

Since rium

there at these

are joints,

no

externally Eqs. 13-15

= --ab

6E/

+ zXc
2EI

E/

- -- 8
woZ
3

PL

woL
3

-0

-0

By

solving

these

two

equations

simultaneously,

A=O
By
tions,

- 11EI
the end

L2 (-' -*vol )
these
moments

and
values
are
15

Ac--Oc-into
found.
2

11
the member

L2 ( P8 + 7
superposition e

(a)

substituting

displacement
in all members

M,, = [Aa']a + kab0 = - PL - ' woL 2

M = [A,],
Mb Note
+ Mbc

+ kb0 = -. 8- PL - 'i wL2

3

Mbc = [At;,]bc + kbcOb

= the [Ac,]cb analyst's
they are

kcbOb beam
of opposite

+ sign

that

with

VERSION + kcboc NON-ACTIVATED = + ' PL + - woZ 2 www.avs4you.com

4

kcOc

convention
sign.

employed

in this

solution,

= 0, since

Fig.

t3-t6

EXAMPLE

t3-9

Rework
16(a). Solution

Example

13-4

using

the

displacement

method

of analysis;

see

Fig.

1!

P=
nodal point e can of freedom. As to the second the statical indeterminancy
would remain

, L sin2rz A = kA ,L sinrzcosrz zX = kzX

stif nesses for a horizontal displacement A .
A2 if end e of bar ie is constrained to move as shown in the lower diagram of Fig. 13-16(d), vertical force components for the bar are

(13-22a)

In this problem, since system has two degrees also statically indeterminate from e would increase
degree of indeterminacy

move noted degree.

at two.

horizontal y and in Example 13-4, Each additional by one, however,

where
this bar the
shown

k
the

and
same direction horizontal

k2 are bar

reasoning, only, and

system

By vertical spective

in the the re-

The 13-16(b)

horizontal and

(c),

and vertical respectively,

positive are the

displacements, unknowns.

For

A and A2, displacement

A,

P'i,

of bar ie is constrained to move only horizontal y, 13-16(d), the bar elongates by A sin ai. This'would p = k i A sin ai, where the bar spring constant
= P sin

can

be resolved,
ai and

P2

= Pt cos

respectively,

el.

Therefore,

into

horizontal

as in the upper diagram develop a bar axial k i = AEdL. This

P2 = AiLiEi COS20i A2 = k/92 A2 P}l ,-/cos c sin ci A2 = k A2

where
vertical

(13-22b)

and

vertical

components

k2 and
displacement

k2 are
A2.

bar

vertical

and

horizontal

stif nesses,

respectively,

for

708

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Sec.

t3.8.

Plastic

Limit

Analysis

of Beams

709

To
and
is

solve summed
out

this

problem, to obtain
in the table.

the

these equations horizontal

and

must be applied vertical stif nesses

to each of the four of the system.

bars

carried

of contained plastic flow. further increase in applied

plastic ening
structures,

yields

as the remainder
the

continues

Bar
ae

at,

degrees
90.

sin al
1.

cos
0.

ai

sin 2 al
1.

cos 2 at
0.

sin

at cos
0.

be ce de

26.565 -26.565 -63.435

0.4472 -0.4472 -0.8944

0.8944 0.8944 0.4472

Sum:

0.200 0.200 0.800

2.200

0.800 0.800 0.200

1.800

0.400 -0.400 -0.400

- 0.400

limit
the for
tab

From

As is shown in the previous state for ideally plastic

collapse plastic

limit state. and changes

deformations

Finally, a structure load. At this stage

become

to deform

In this analytical in structure

the practical

the system's horizontal stif ness kn =  k =  sin 2 at = 2.2, k22 =  cos 2 ai = 1.8, and k12 = k21 =  sin ai cos ai = -0.4.
Writing these results in matrix form,

The

relative

bar

stif ness

AiEdLi

for

each

bar

is unity.

Therefore,

from

and,

the

behavior. If at a service or working load some prior yielding had occurred, the deflections and distribution of forces remain unknown. Only step-bystep computer solutions, or solutions for simple cases, as in Examples 2butions.

mode of ductile limit load do not

point

of view,

examples, materials
structures. provide

idealization, geometry are

unbounded.

continues of behavior

elastically.

This

such

calculations

a direct calculation of the plastic is both possible and rather simple.

such information

the effects neglected.

This

to yield at no of ideally plastic

condition

is the range

of strain

is the

hard-

However, complete

provide

direct

an insight

solutions on inelastic

into

18 and

2-23,

can

provide

complete

history

of force

and

deflection

distri-

[k, Lk2
The fore, solution again,

kn- 1 A, k22J A2
for since

=
equation bar, AiEi/Li

or
gives/x = 1,

2.2 --0.4
= 10.536

1.8
and A2

A2
= 7.895.

10
The

this matrix for each

F = A sin
Using this equation, Fae = -5.88 kN.
force method.

cti + A2
Fbe with

F,e These

= + 10.53 kN, results agree method

complex. more

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

termining
sin ct2
= + 11.77 kN, Fee = +2.35 kN, and those found in Example 13-4 by problem with more

bypassing

for determining

and

The

same frames,

general behavior is exhibited by elastic-ideally and here the objective is to develop simplified

Myp, for elastic-perfectly dif erent cross sections. lished in Example 10-14

Some previously established Typical moment-curvature

the plastic

the elastic,

directly

limit

and

the plastic loads,

the elastic-plastic

limit

states

plastic beams are shown in Fig.-13-17 for three Basic results for a rectangular beam were estab(see Fig. 10-25). Results for the other two cases

results are reexamined relationships, normalized

the procedure

stages

for such

becomes

of loading,

members.

plastic beams procedures and

for background. with respect

relatively

simple.

de-

By

to

can be found
Myp
1.7
1.5

using

the same

procedure.

Curves

normalized

with

respect

Application
would only be

of the
slightly

displacement

to a similar

1.0

- Typical
= 1.12

13-8.
Procedures

Plastic
for

Limit
determining

Analysis
ultimate

of Beams
loads for axial y loaded bar s]

of elastic-ideally
These these increasing there spond ultimate loads,

plastic

material

are

given

in Examples

2-18

and
of obtainin under systems s

2-23:

loads are the plastic limit states. In the process the entire range of elastic-plastic system behavior load is considered. As can be seen from Fig. 2-54(e) are three distinct regions of response. At first, these in a linearly elastic manner. Then a part of the structural

70yp
0 2

OVp

Oyp
4
rectangular,

Fig. t347 relations

factor.

Moment-curvature for cimular,

and

I cross

shape

sections.

Mp/Myp

= k, the

710

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Sec.

13-8.

Plastic

Limit

Analysis

of Beams

forces

nitudes termining

biaxial

The approximate as columns subjected

.symmetry,
and

is discussed

should the reduced

the positive
in Section

theory discussed here is applicable to moderate axial forces. When

be accounted for in the analysis. A method plastic capacity of members in the presence
6-13.

and negative

moments

to beams a cross section

dif er

in their

as well lacks

for deof axial

disto as

mag-

terminate placement
anism. matically

By inserting

the collapse mechanism.  For each degree of static indeterminancy beam, an additional plastic hinge must be added to form a collapse
The

beam, a kinematic mechanism of the system can be formed.

of plastic (plausible)

a plastic

hinge

at a plastic

permit ing an unbounded This is commonly referred

as to obtain The use

limit

load

into

a statically

de-

matically
to
Fig. t348 Moment-curvature

fol ow.

admissible
limit

insertion admissible

collapse
design,

mechanisms
to obtain of safety
other

hinges must be such collapse mechanism.

is il ustrated

in the examples
This This

a kineof kine-

of a mech-

idealizations
a. nalyses
dif erent

of beams
cross

for

plastic
sections.

of

load factor larger than unity ogous to the use of a factor

discussed in Section 1-11.

In plastic

it is necessary

design factored loads. in elastic analyses.

to multiply

working

loads

is analissue is
method

by a

large flanges and a negligibly thin web is added in this diagram. In both diagramg, as the cross sections plastify, a rapid ascent curves toward their respective asymptotes occurs. This means that sh after reaching the elastic capacity of a beam, a rather constant moment, very near to Me, is both achieved and maintained. This is true for the important case of an I beam. As can be noted from Fig. 18, for this cross section, the elastic-plastic behavior is essential y fined to the range between B' and C; for the remainder, the moment essential y Me. The influence of the elastic core next to the axis is more pronounced for members with rectangular or round sections, whose shape factors, k, are larger than those for an I beam, 13-17. Nevertheless, in the plastic limit analysis of members subjected b. ending, it is generally assumed that an abrupt transition from elastic ideally plastic behavior occurs at Me. Therefore, member behavior tween Myp and Me is considered to be elastic. It is further assumed when Me is reached, a plastic hinge is formed in the member. In to a frictionless hinge permit ing free rotation, the plastic hinge large rotations to occur at a constant plastic moment Me. In a plastic limit analysis of beams, the elastic displacements to the plastic ones are small and can be neglected. Detailed analyses shown m that it is sufficiently accurate to consider beams n with plasticity confined to plastic hinges at points. In reality, extend along short lengths of beams and depend on loading
Wiley,
(New

with

to M e are shown

in Fig.

13-18.

The behavior

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION The procedure for forming kinematically admissible mechanisms, what similar to continuity conditions in elastic analysis, is il ustrated www.avs4you.com
moment

of an ideaiized

cross

sectio

the bending

on conventional

There

are two

Me,

moments
and

statics

common
the

conditions

anywhere

and

methods
the

of plastic

along

of equilibrium

a member

on virtual

limit

must

cannot

work.

analysis.

always

exceed

In either

One

is based

be satisfied.

the plastic
somein

the

fol owing

examples.

EXAMPLE

t3-t0

effect

A concentrated force P is applied at the middle of a simply supported prismatic beam, as shown in Fig. 13-19(a). If the beam is of a ductile material, what is the plastic fir/fit load Put? Obtain the solution using (a) the equilibrium method and (b) the virtual work method. Consider only flexural behavior, i.e., neglect the
of shear forces. Neglect beam weight.

Solution

For any value

behaves

(a) The shape

of the moment When

elastically.

of P, the maximum

diagram

the moment
Pyp

moment

is the same

is at myp,

M = PL/4,

regardless

the force

and ifM

of the load magnitude. at yield

< Myp, the beam

= 4myp/Z

o See,

York:

for 1966)

Wiley,

example, L. S. Beedle, or S. J. Moy, Plastic

1981).

Plastic Methods

Design for

Steel

of Steel and

Frames Concrete

When My v is exceeded, contained yielding tinues until the plastic moment Mp is reached,

of the beam Fig. 13-19(c).

commences

and

con-

erable

n In seismic

to call such

analyses,

mechanisms

the plastic

energy

hinges

dissipating

dissipate

mechanisms.

energy.

Therefore,

it is pref-

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Sec.

t3-8.

Plastic

Limit

Analysis

of Beams

7'!3

o

Pult

shown in Fig. 13-19(c). The external virtual work is Put 8A, where from geometry 8A = L 80/2. The internal virtual work is caused by rotating M e through an angle of 2 80. Hence, per Eq. 12-19, equating the previous expressions for work,
P,lt
Plastic

B A = P,t
expressions for

L B0/2
Pult,

= My(2
as before,

g0)

On

solving

the

last

two

hinge (a) (c)

Put
EXAMPLE '13-tt

= 4M,/L

A prismatic the other, Determine

Neglect
b Mvp
E1

virtual

displacement
beam

beam of ductile material, fixed at one end and simply supported at carries a concentrated force in the middle, as shown in Fig. 13~20(a). the plastic limit load Pult using (a) the equilibrium method and (b) the
weight.

method.

Compare

the

result

with

that

of an elastic

solution.

Solution

(b)

Fig.

t3-19

The that

curvature diagram prior to reaching shown in Fig. 13-19(d). Since the

middle is shown I beams than

Me elastic

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com  L/2 ] L/2 

(d)
P

(a) The results of an elastic analysis are shown in Fig. 13-20(b). The same results are replot ed in Fig. 13-20(c) from horizontal baseline AB. In both diagrams, the colored portions of the diagrams represent the net result. Note that the auxiliary

at the middle curvature

can

of the at most

(a)

be
in this fi

(d)

Pult L/4

it is exceeded
near the narrower.for the middle

as shown

above

in black for the

line

in Fig. rectangular very

ab.

At Mp,

13-19(a). cross

the

ful y

This section

plastic
flanges.

region implied

part
The

is M e and
(b)
PL/4

because tinues equal

most to grow to PL/4

of the
of the beam

bending
becomes

moment (see Fig. one obtains

is carried'
large

in the
as it rapidly

approaches

without bound with P = Pult,

13-18). the

By result

setting sought:

the

Pult
PL

Put
Note that unnecessary consideration of the actual

= 4Mp/L
region indicated in Fig.

(e)

in this

calculation.

plastic A comparison

of this

result

with

Pyp

shows

< L/2 > '<

L/2

mp pyp = k Pyp Pult = myp

where
k.

(c)

PL/4

the

dif erence

between

the

two

forces

depends

only

on

the

shape

(b)

An

admissible

virtual

kinematic

mechanism

assuming

Fig.

13-20

714

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Sec.

13.8.

Plastic

Limit

Analysis

of

Beams

715

ordinates
with

PL/4
a concentrated

have
yield:

precisely
force

the value
in the middle.

of the maximum

moment

in a simple

By setting
at impending

the maximum

elastic

moment

equal
16Myp

to Mvp,

one

obtains

force

P2
D

(a)

(e)

PYP --

3L

When the load is increased above Pyp, the moment at the built-in end increase and can reach but cannot exceed M v. This is also true of the moment at the of the span. These limiting conditions are shown in Fig. 13-20(d). At the limit load, it is necessa. ry to have a kinematically admissible mechanism. the two plastic hinges and a roller on the right, this condition is satisfied, Fi
13-20(e).

(b)
(f}

My

From the + My/2

geometric = PultL/4.

construction Hence,
Put

in Fig.
= 6Me/L
has

13-20(d),

in the

middle

of the
(c)

Comparing

this

result

with

Pyp,

one

(g)

9Me pyp =  9 kPyp Pult = 8Myp

The

equalization
13-20(c)

increase
and

of the maximum
(d)).

in Pult

over

Pyp

moments.

is due

to two

(Compare

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

causes;

 2P3IPa
q-  M,o I+M.o
0

the moment

the

shape

diagrams

factor

k and

in Figs
wo

(d)

(b) For the virtual displacement shown in Fig. 13-20(e), the external virtual at plastic limit load is Put gA. The internal virtual work takes place in the' hinges at the left support and in the middle of the span. Equating these
of work per Eq. 12-19,

-M

(h)

Fig.

13-2t

P,t
giving, as before,

BA

= PutL

g0/2

= M e g0

+ Me(2
and
An

Put
EXAMPLE t342

= 6Me/L

for

this

the

admissible internal
case

as P and

mechanism virtual work

2P,

one

is shown per Eq.

has

in Fig. 13-21(b). 12-19, and identifying

By

equating the plastic

the

limit

external loads

(2P0(L

g0/4)
on the right
of this

= M e g0 + Me2
equation

g0 + Me
to the

g0
plastic hinges at A,

A prismatic the virtual

weight
Solution

beam of ductile material is loaded as shown displacement method, determine the plastic
of the beam.

in Fig. 13-21(a). limit loads. Neglect

B,

where

and

the

C. The

three

solution

terms

apply,

gives

respectively,

P = 8Me/L
displacement process. generates mechanisms The correct a compatible are possible, and mechanism is moment diagram.

and

2P

= 16Me/L
Fig. This than basis

In this case, several kinematic solution is found by a trial-and-error the assumed virtual displacement

By applying the forces to the beam and assuming hinges B and C rigid, 13-21(c), the resulting bending moment diagram is as shown in Fig. 13-21(d). diagram shows that with P and 2P, the moments at B and C are greater M e. This is an upper bound solution that asserts that a load found on the

7t6

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Sec.

t3-8.

Plastic

Limit

Analysis

of

Beams

717

of an assumed

equal

By reducing

to the plastic
of the

admissible

P and
member

limit

2P by a ratio
and that
the upper

lead.

kinematic

2

mechanism of 2/7, the

of equilibrium are
results with

is always conditions
satisfied.

greater
Since
assumed

than
such

or at bes t momen
a sotutio

for the plastic

it gives
mechanism

capacity

(a)

(d)

Occurs bound
the

prior 3 for

to the ful the applied

development loads.
obtained bounds:

of a kinematic

mechanism,
the

the

lower
have

Based on this reasoning, fol owing lower and

-x
7

8--for

My
L

16My
7 L

-<P<8-bounds and are (g),

Me
L

 a t,L b
(b)

A similar relation native mechanisms,

21(e)
to
for

.By fol owing

these
the

give

forces
solution,

P2 = 3.5Me/Z
which

the earlier
is shown
are

applies shown

and
in

procedure,
Fig.

2Pi. in Figs.

These 13-21(e)

2P2

13-21(f).

= 7Mp/Z.

the results
These

The

moment
results

for the mechanism

establish

rather far are tried.

apart,

and

alter-

---L/2

diagram

corresponding
better

in Fig. 13bounds

w.2/ tiL8
 b8

Wult

(e)


(c)

a=L -b

"'

3.5

2.8

<

P,

<

3.5

By

carrying

out

a solution

for

the

mechanism

that
and

13-21(h) The

P3 = 3Me/L
confirms

and
equal

the

2P3

correct

= 6Me/L.

choice

The

of the

moment
the

C are

each

to M e. Therefore,

even hinges

mechanism this solution, within the

in Fig. 13-21(b) is not a good as can be seen from Fig. span should be at C. By taking

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

in Fig. 13-2(g),
since

it can

be shown

f
Fig. t3-22

mechanism,

diagram

for these
the

moments

forces

in Fig.

at A

solution

is "exact."

choice for this problem. However, 13-21(c), indicates that the plastic advantage of such observations,

Solution

the
This
first.

exact
Then

lution,
moments

result problem as.suming

an

inclined

could have been obtained more quickly. can be easily solved by the equilibrium the beam simply supported, the moment
line, as shown in Fig. 13-20(d)

method.
is drawn

For

such

a so-:
e

(a) In thi-problem, nism. One of these with the maximum

diagram

such

is prepared
that

ually

and there
such

is no distinct
13-22(b).

two hinges positive

plastic hinges are required is at the built-in end. The moment is not known,

to create location since

pak.

However,

one can assume

is compatible

a collapse mechaof the hinge associated the moment varies grad-

an admissible
with

mech-

anism,
diagram

as shown

in Fig.

13-22(c),

which

the

moment

M e develop

at A and

C.

of Fig.

EXAMPLE

t3-t3

purposes of analysis, the beam with the assumed plastic hinges is separated into two parts, as shown in Figs. 13-22(d) and (e). Then, by noting that no shear is possible at C, since it is the point of maximum moment for a continuous function, one can write two equations of static equilibrium:
fixed
the

For

A prismatic

the
the

other,
plastic
method.

carries
limit

beam
lead

a uniformly
Wut using

of ductile

material,

distributed
(a)

ioad
equilibrium

at one

as shown
method

end

and

in Fig.
and

simply

1322(a).
(b)

supported
the

Ma=00+ Ma=0+
H.
in

Mp - wultb2/2 2Mp - Wult(Z

= 0 - b)2/2

= 0

force

2 For Greenberg
117

(1952):447-458. 3 Proof and

proof, and
cited

see any W. Prager,

of the "Limit

cited

references On plastic analysis, Design of Beams and Frames,"

lower bound theorem can

Trans.
be found

and

Simultaneous

(X/

- 1)L.

Either

solution

one of these
Wult --

of

these

equations
2M.

equations

yields

locates

the limit

the

plastic

lead

hinge

C at

b =

previously

formal statement references.

of the

2M.

b2

[(V-

1)L]

718

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Sec.

t3-8.

Plastic

Limit

Analysis

of

Beams

719

(b) On a virtual

the

average, displacement

the

uniformly of A/2,

distributed Fig. 13-22(c).

plastic Hence,

limit for

load vul t goes through use in Eq. 12-19,

(a)
A

Wu R

12Mp/L
(c)

gWe = w,t L ? = WultL a g0

2

L/2

<

L/2

The internal virtual C, going through

work their

is done respective

by plastic rotations,

moments Me Fig. 13-22(c).

at plastic Hence,

hinges

+%

(b)
By
fications, Solution

(d)

equating

the

previous

two

relations

and

solving

for

Wut,

after

some

sim

Fig.

13-23

H"ult -The unknown

setting

L
by taking a derivative of Wutt with respect
Thus,

By

applying

Eq.

12-19,

i.e.,

equating

the

external

and

the

internal

virtual

work,

distance
it equal

a can
to zero.

be found

to a and

dWult
da

-0

After

carrying

out

the

dif erentiation
-a 2 + 4aL

and
-

simplifications,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

where L 80/2 is the maximum deflection at C,

and

the

factor

of reduces

this

to

an average an upper

deflection bound for

for

the

the plastic

distributed limit

load

load. wut

Solution for the

of the assumed

last equation mechanism,

gives and

],Vul t = 12Mp/L
and diagram

2
above load to the in Fig. 13-23(d). beam, Since,

2L 2 =

By Fig. fal ing within the span,

load

assuming 13-23(c),
in Fig.

the plastic the resulting

13-23(c)

hinge moment
must

C rigid
be'reduced

applying the is as shown

a factor

By

solving

this

quadratic

equation

and

retaining

the

root

in this
bound

diagram,
solution.

the

maximum

positive
lower-bound
this

bending
by

moment

of 24/25

exceeds
the

to

obtain

My,

the
limit

the

applied
load

lower-

a'=

(2 - X/)L

and

b = L - a = (X/
applies to this loads, such alternative solution as just procedures,

- 1)L
as well. shown, are however,

(24/25)l2Mv/L

as before. Hence The virtual work what complex for

possible.

In one,
forces,

wut found previously solutions for distributed routine applications.

Summarizing,

2 = 11.52Mv/L
the bounds

Therefore,

the

for

2.

solution
solution are

for

plastic

is

the

distributed

load

Two

can

be approximated

by a series

of conBy
13-23(d)

11.52
taking
and

< Wul t < 12 L2

point of the
nearly

centrated Alternatively, solution. and the

The lower

where the location accuracy bounds,

possible plastic hinge locations are more easily of a plastic hinge can be estimated, leading of such a solution can be judged by calculatin as has been il ustrated in Example 13-12.

identified; to a simp

the

plastic
repeating

hinge
the

at the
calculations,

maximum
an exact

positive
plastic limit

moment
load

in Fig.
is found.

EXAMPLE EXAMPLE t3-t4

t3-t5

Rework bending
bounds

the previous moment occurs

on this approximate

example in the

by assuming middle of the

solution.

that span;

a plastic see Fig.

hinge 13-23.

for a Determine

A prismatic uniformly 24(a). (a) Determine pare the results with

virtual work method.

loaded beam the plastic limit elastic analysis.

is fixed at both ends, load using the equilibrium (b) Verify the plastic

as shown in Fig. 13method, and comlimit load using the

720

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Sec.
P

t3.9.

Continuous

Beams

and

Frames

[ P I P2
(c)

Ps

()

(a)

(c) (d)

(b)

Fig. Solution

t3-24

Fig.

13-25

Collapse

mechanisms

for

continuous

beams.

'13-9. to the analysis

on the

Continuous procedures discussed

Beams in the

and Preceding

Frames section, and il ustrated by

According
yield,

moments occur at the itive moment develops

based

built-in ends and are equal to woL2/12. The at the middle of the span and is woL2/24.
moment,

in Example

10-23,

Fig.

10-37(c),

the maximum

maximum Therefore,

bending

maximum

Myp
By increasing
anism of the The

= wypL2/12
plastic
for

or
hinges
until
a simply

Wyp
hinge

---= 12Myp/Z
also develops

2
in the

the load,

deveiop
a plastic

is not formed, however, span, Fig. 13-24(c). maximum moment

supported

woL2/8. Therefore, in a clamped beam,

as can be seen from Fig. this quantity must be equated

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

at the supports.
uniformly loaded beam

13-24(b), to obtain the limit to 2M v, with wo = w,t. Hence

w,tL-/8 ,
Comparing this result with

= 2My
wyp, one has

or

= 16Mv/L

examples, can be extended to the simpler cases for plastic limit analysis of continuous beams and frames. Usually, the kinematic mechanisms in continuous beams, associated with a collapse mode, occur locally in only one beam. For the two-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 13-25(a), the plastic moment at the middle support is limited to (Mv)m of the smaller beam. Then, whether the kinematic mechanism would develop in the right or the left span depends on the relative beam sizes as well as the magnitudes of the applied loads. The solution in either case fol ows the procedure discussed in Example 13-11, 13-12, or 13-13. The beams, restrained at both ends, usually develop the kinematic mechanisms shown in Fig. 13-25(d) for the two left spans in Fig. 13-25(c). The solution of such problems resembles that of Example 13-15, except that the end moments for each span are not necessarily equal. For example, for the left span of Fig. 13-25(c), the plastic moment on the left is determined by the large beam, whereas that on the right depends on the

The

plastic Plastic
ber

moment limit

of the analysis
joints,

confer span beam. of frames may become

and dif erent

rather
conditions

complex

as the
increases.

numFor

4My
As in Example
the equalization

4.
on shape factor
hinges
12-19, one

of

members,

loading

13-11, the increase

of the maximum

moments.

of Wutt over wyp depends

location
work equation,

k and

analysis texts. analysis,

EXAMPLE

of such problems, the reader As a reasonably simple il ustration an example fol ows.
t3-t6

is referred of the

to the previously plastic limit state

cited frame

(b) Because
in Fig. 13-24(c).

of symmetry,
By writing

the precise
a virtual

of the plastic
Eq.

is as sho TM
has

E,

Consider

and

loaded

a rigid
the

as shown

jointed My,

planar i.e.,
limit

in Fig.

frame effect

13-26(a).

of ductile
All

members

material forces

are

fixed

of the

at A and
same

pinned
size

and

at

WuttL

--

= M(g0

+ 2 gO

+ gO)

Determine
Solution

can

develop

ful

plastic

the

loads.

of the

axial

on My

can

be neglected.

and

w.

= 16Mv/L

2 as before.

The solution to this missible mechanisms

plastic member

capacity.

problem is obtained by asstiming and searching for the one that

dif erent satisfies

both

kinematically equilibrium

adand

722
-----a

Statically
2_a

Indeterminate
,,

Problems
J Pa 8/2
Since
be reduced
for the

Problems
MA is twice
by a factor
assumed

as large
mechanism,

as My,

the
the

upper
bounds

bound
the
for

solution
lower
the

found
bound solution.
are

before
On

must
this

?/2

of 2 in order

to obtain

{a)

P3/2
2a E
(d)
/2

basis,

solution

3My
2a

3My
a

By proceeding shown in Fig.

in the 13-26(c),

same

manner

using

the

(sway)

mechanism

for

the

frame

P2

--2a 80 = My(80
For this upper bound solution,

+ 80 + 2 80)
the moments at the

and
critical

P2 points

4My

a
=
the

(b)

_P/2B S8
P2

are

3 8/2
C

MA
-%

=
Mc
for

- M,
is three
must this

Ma
times
be case, reduced

= Mp
greater
by

Mc
than My, the
a factor

= 3Mp
upper bound
of 3 to obtain

and
solution
the lower

Mo
for
bound

- Mp
assumed
solution.

Since
mechanism Hence,

(c)

4My < P2 < 4Mp NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

3a a

Fig.

'13-26

This previous better work virtual

solution

two

results. in hinges work

is no better than the first. However, mechanisms, such as to eliminate For a proper combination of these can be reduced. Such a mechanism equation for this case is

it is possible to combine the the plastic hinge at B, leading to mechanisms, the internal plastic is shown in Fig. 13-26(d). The

A virtual

work

solution

for

an assumed

mechanism

provides

an upper
is then [ Since the be constructed the up[
mechanism

bound

P3
=

T 2a so + a,a so =
The -M The consisting

so + --5(38080

+ T + 2 so

and

P3

2a

for the plastic limit loads. With these loads, a static analysis on members or parts of the frame separated at plastic hinges. at each plastic hinge is Me, a complete moment diagram can the frame. The lower bound solution is obtained by reducing

loads
Fig.

The

virtual 13-26(b)

by a factor
is

work

such

equation

that

nowhere
for

the

is M e exceeded.
admissible

moment diagram corresponding to P3 is shown in Fig. 13-26(e), v, Mc = Mv, and Mo = -Mv. last solution satisfies the three basic conditions of plastic limit of the requirements of an admissible mechanism, equilibrium,

where analysis, and

MA all

kinematic

(beam)

moments

being

at most

My.

Therefore,

this

is an exact

solution.

PROBLEMS
80 = My(g0
frame

Pia
Applying moments solution, gives

+ 80/2)
and

and

Pl

= 3Mv/2a

Sections

13.3

and

13.4

the

P and P2/2 to the are M v, the moment using the designer's fol owing moments

separating it at joints B and D, where for the frame is found (not shown). sign convention, such as shown in Fig. at critical points A, B, C, and D:

diagram

Ma

- 2M,

M

- M,

Mc

= M,

and

Mo

that for a linearly angle of rotation j due to a couple acting at i, the angle of rotation 0u at i j. (Hint: Use the results in mine 0u by the moment area

t3-1. beam,

Show the

elastic simply supported 0si of the elastic curve at see the figure, is equal to due to the same couple at Example 13-1, and deteror singularity functions.)

Fig.

P13-t

724

Statically

Indeterminate

Problems

Problems

725
displacement method,
curve at b and the

t3-2.
ure,
moment
stant

For
El.

the
diagram.
(Hint:

planar
the
Both
Use

elastic
reactions,
members
the

structure
and
have
virtual-force

shown
(b)
method

in the figdraw the

same
for

(a) determine
deflections.)

final
confind-

the

8' !*--8'. 8'--*-J

-,e--1m-l m-l m-l mt

13-13.
rotation

Using
of
EI is

the
the elastic

determine
moments

the
at

a, b, and
ure.

c for
constant.

the

continuous

beam

shown

in the

fig-

ing

110kN

Fig.

P13-5

2woN/
and
rework'Problem


that
rotation

t3-6.
method,

Assuming
rework

elastic
Problem

behavior
2-64.

using

the

force
12-53.
Fig. P13-9

Fig.

P13-13

13-7.
Consider
8m -  3m--->.

Using
the

the
forces

force

method,
in AB and

AD

as redundants.

t344. bars
each

Rework
supported.
Determine

Problem
the deflection

13-13

assuming
and

end
at the

c is
end

13-8.
at the

For
ends.

the
The

planar
determine force

system
the
cross-sectional

of six
area

elastic
A of

shown
bars
bar is

Fig.

P13-2

in the figure, due to applied

forces P = 30 kN.

in the vertical The bars are

t340.
= 1 for
ce and

Rework
members
de.

Example
ae and

13-4
be, and

after
L/AE

assuming
= 2 for

that
members

L/AE

simply
13-t5.

t3-3.
beam

A 10
is braced

x 12 in (actual
by a 1-in round

size)
steel

rectangular
rod and

wooden
an 8 x 8

100 mm 2 and E = 200 GPa.

symmetry and use Eq. 2-34.)

(Hint:
-

Take

advantage

of

in (actual Determine
applying

size) the
span. For

wooden force that

wood,

post, would
force

as shown develop
P =

in the figure._ in the post by

10 k at the center

a concentrated

of the
post bd

E,.

1500

ksi

and

steel,

Est

= 30 x 103 ksi.

For

purposes

of calculation,

consider

to be 5 ft long.
P=10k

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

plot the moment formations, and stant. (Hint: Use deflections.) diagram. Neglect assume E1 for the virtual-force axial and shear
the members method

13-11. termine

For
the

the

planar reactions

structure at the

shown support,

in the figure, and, if assigned,

for

de-

force that

of the
equations
Mb

P.

cantilever
Use

the

shown
the

displacement other

in the
pertain
that

figure
Rb

method. =

due
-P.)

(Hint:

to applied
requires

Both

of equilibrium
= 0 and

to end

b; one

deis confinding

P
L
Fig. P1345

P
b

}-

St
d

1346. tinuous
is loaded

Let the fol owing beam ac shown

L, and
with a concentrated

conditions apply for the conin Fig. 13-13(a): (a) Both spans
(b) span downward
downward

are of equal length uniformly distributed middle of the

conditions

ab is loaded load wo, (c)

force

with span boundthe rota-

bc

Fig.

P13-3

P in the

span,
remain

(d)E1
as shown.

is constant.
Determine

The

t3-4.
Use

Consider
the

Using

the
solution

the force
reactions
given

method,

at b and
in Problem

c as redundants.
10-51.)

rework

Example

(Hint:

13-3.
t3-9.
dundants, is

Fig.

PI3-8

ary

tion

at b and
loads.

the

vertical
Calculate

displacement
the moments

at c due

to the
c.

for the frame. All E1 for the frame IE/5. Assume the
in k-ft units.

t3-5. For a planar structure consisting frame bcde, as shown in the figure, reactions, and (b) plot the bending

members are of the same is constant and AE for force in the bar as redundant.

of rod ab and (a) determine the moment diagram

the material. rod Work

Theplanarpin-endedbarsystemofExample
by Assuming
determine

13-4
member members e, ae,
coefficients

 . 1.5m J
Fig. P13-1t

applied

at a, b, and

is augmented figure. (a)

square matrix

adding

as shown ce, and e

values for

in the as
a 3 x

t3-11. with
figure.
action

A propped a concentrated
(a)
at b.

cantilever force
the
calculate

of constant P = 100 N,
method,
the rotation

E1 is loaded as shown in the

determine
of the

Using
Then

force

the
elastic

reFor

the

numerical

of the
find the

flexibility

and

Sections

13-5

and

13-6

the

corresponding

column
forces

vectors
in all bar

as in Eq.
members.

13-6.

If assigned,

t3-12.
fixed.

Rework

Example

13-8

assuming

that

end

c is

curve rotations method.) mine

at

b and and

c and the deflection,

deflection use

at

the the

c. (Hint: moment-area

the

(b) Using rotations

the displacement at b and c, and

method, deflection

deterat c.

726

Statlcally

Indeterminate

Problems

Problems

727
shown
hinges The
column

t3-23.

(a) What load w can this beam carry when in the middle just reaches yield and plastic point hinges develop at the built in ends?
Fig. PI347

uniformly

A T beam
distributed

fixed

load

at both

w including

ends

its own

is loaded
the

weight,
mom,

by

Section t3-26. Using that would beam shown. 120 mm wide MPa. Neglect

13-9 limit analysis, calculate cause flexural collapse The beam has a rectangular and 300 mm deep. The the weight of the beam. of value of P the two-span cross section yield stress is 15 the

t3-29.
that Based lower
AC is

For

the

structure

in the
form establish plastic
DE

figure,

assume

stress

strength span What

of the

deflection

is the

material is 50 ksi. (b) What due to w? Let E = 30 x plastic limit load

is the mid103 ksi.

The

yield

at collapse, plastic on this assumption, bound on load w,t.

150 and

at A, B, and C. the upper and moment for beam

is 50.

all quantities

are given

that

for

in a consistent

system

Assume

of units.

that

Then

calculate

the
=

moments

at a and

b,

and
= -100N.)

the

rew N/m

action
atbandcareMb

at b. (Hint:

The

three
0, Me=

external
0, andRe

forces

applied

2P
I'-3'2m
Beam section

w o N/m
C

t5-t8.
for
and

Rework
members
de.

Example
ae and be and

13-9
L/AE

assuming
= 2 for

that

L/AE
members

= 1
ce

t$-t9._Using
forces
13-9.

the
for the pin-ended

displacement
bar system

method,
given

find

the
in Problem

bar
t3-27. Using limit analysis,

;I-0.);8 I
Fig.

;I-'
select a steel

;I
W section
--10 10 >

P13-26

Section

'13-8

Fig.

P13-23

for the loading = 40 ksi, the

condition shape factor

size is the

shown in the be 1.10, and

same
12k

figure. Let %.p the load factor

t3-20.
centrated

Rework
force

Example
P at C.

13-12

after
other,

removing

the

conin the

t3-24.
one end uniformly termine
sult

A prismatic
simply increasing the plastic
the

beam

of ductile

material,

fixed
a

be

2. The

beam

throughout.
27k

Fig.

P13-29

and

t5-2t.
at one

A ductile
end. and

prismatic
fixed at the

beam

is simply
as shown

supporte_d
smallest mechacritical

figure. concentrated
nism.

(a) Determine force

(b) Find the

the position x where the P would cause a collapse

ultimate moments for the

force

hinges

method
forms

in the

and assuming
middle

using

equilibrium

position

of applied

force

P.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION that one of the plastic www.avs4you.com

of the span. Check the
method.

supported at the other, carries load, as shown in the figure. limit load Wut using the

13-30.
izontal The
vertical

Rework
force at force

Example
B is P and P remains

13-16
column at

assuming
DE
C.

that
is fixed

the
at

horE.

t3-31. concentrated

A portal
forces

frame
P,

pinned each Substantiate

and lower

at A and as shown

F carries three in the figure. If

My
collapse
plying

of all members
value
both the

is the same
of P.
upper

throughout,
your
bound

obtain'the
results
theorems.

W(tot
Fig. PI3-24

Fig.

PI3-27

by

ap-

13-28. governing
beam

Determine factored
of ductile
P=2woL

the

load
material

ultimate for
shown

the

plastic moment for prismatic continuous

in the
P=woL

the

figure.

13-22.
limit both

A ductile
load Pult. the upper

prismatic
Demonstrate and lower

beam
that

is fixed
the criteria.

at both
result

ends.
satisfies

t3-25. loaded,

A prismatic as shown

beam of ductile material in the figure. (a) Determine

is the u

N/m

For a concentrated the span, as shown

force P placed in the figure,

bound

at the third point of determine the plastic

and lower bound solutions by assuming a plastic in the middle of the span. Let Mp = 1000 in-lb. assigned, refine the solution by placing the' hinge at the point of maximum positive moment for the lower bound solution in part (a).
Wult

(b)

IL/4[L/41 l>l<

j

L
Fig. P13-28

[ I ,l < L/2---L/2-

t
Fig. P13-31

Fig.

P13-22

--,LI3 >j-

2L/3

Fig.

P13-25

Tables

1A.
lB.

Typical Common
Typical Common

Physical Materials
Physical Materials

Properties (in U.S.

Properties (in SI

of and Customary
of and

Allowable System
Allowable of Units)

Stresses of Units)
Stresses

for
for

Some
Some

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

System 2. Useful Properties of Areas

3. American
signing

Standard

Steel

Beams,

S Shapes,

Properties

for Designing

4. American
5. American

Wide-Flange
Standard Steel

Steel
Channels,

Beams,

W Shapes,
Properties for

Properties
Designing

for

De-

6. Steel
7.
8.
9.

Angles
Angles
Steel
Section

with
with
Pipe
Moduli

Equal
Unequal

Legs,
Legs,
Around

Properties
Properties
the X-X Axis

for
for

Designing
Designing

Steel
Standard
Plastic

10. 11.
12.

American Deflections
Beams

Standard and
Actions

Timber Slopes
for

Sizes, of
Prismatic

Properties Curves
Beams

for for

Designing Variously Loaded

Elastic

Fixed-End

Acknowledgement:

Data

for

Tables

3 through

9 are

taken

from

the

AISC

Manual American

for use design.

with

of Steel Institute

this

Construction of Steel
text.

Original

and are Construction,

sources

reproduced Inc.
should

by

The

be

consulted

permission tables are

for

of the compiled
actual

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

A-2

A-3

[=g
Table 2. Useful Properties
Areas
RECTANGLE

Appendix
of Areas
and moments of inertia of areas
CIRCLE

aroand

centroidal

axes

oleo
TRIANGLE

= bh

hi2

! o = bh3/12

t
SEMICIRCLE
= bh/2

A = 'n'R 2

I = J/2

= rR4/4

00
HALF OF THIN TUBE

R

rR2/2

I o = bh3/36

0.110R

, 2R [ 4R/(3r)
A = lrRavt

THIN

TUBE

0
' TRIANGLE
Centroid

A = 2Rav

Io = J/2  R3v t
Areas
TRIANGLE

-K2Z_
Centroids of areas

and

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

(2hr) Ray
PARABOLA

I o  0.095rRaavt

dd

ddd

dd

d-d'5d

dd

dd

dd

dd

dd

dd

dd

dd

dd

(a+L)13
A = bh/2
A = hL/2

L)/3

VertexI__
A = -bh
PARABOLA
Vertex

PARABOLA:
Vertex

y =

- ax 2

y =

_ ax n

Vertex

The
A = bh/3

area

for

any

segment

A = bh/(n

+ 1)

of a parabola

is A = hl
. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

XXXXX

XXX

XXXX

XXX

A-6

A-7

Appendix

A-9
Y

Table

6. Steel

Angles

with

Equal

Legs,
Axis

Properties
X-X and

for
Aris

Designing
Y-Y Axis Z-Z

Size and
Thickness
in
L 8 x 8 x 1 1

Weight
Foot

per

Area #l 2
16.7 15.0 13.2 98.0 89.0 79.6

I #l 4

S = I/c in 3
17.5 15.8 14.0

r in
2.42 2.44 2.45

x or y in
2.41 2.37 1.56 1.56 1.57

r in

lb
56.9 51.0 45.0

 a fl

38.9 32.7

11.4 9.61

69.7 59.4

12.2 10.3

2.47 2.49

2.32 2.28 2.23

1.58 1.58

L 6 x 6 x 1 

26.4
37.4 33.1

7.75
11.0 9.73

48.6
35.5 31.9

8.36
8.57 7.63

2.50
1.80 1.81

2.19
1.86 1.82

1.59
1.17 1.17

a 

28.7 24.2

8.44 7.11

28.2 24.2

6.66 5.66

1.83 1.84

1.78 1.73

1.17 1.18


L 5 x 5 x  a

19.6

5.75

19.9

4.61

14.9
27.2 23.6

4.36
7.98 6.94

15.4
17.8 15.7 11.3

3.53
5.17 4.53

1.86 1.88
1.49 1.51 1.54

1.68 1.64
1.57 1.52

1.18 1.19
0.973 0.975

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

16.2 4.75

3.16

1.43

0.983

12.3 10.3
18.5 15.7 12.8

3.61 3.03

8.74 7.42

2.42 2.04
2.81 2.40 1.97

1.56 1.57
1.19 1.20 1.22

1.39 1.37
1.27 1.23 1.18

0.990 0.994
0.778 0.779 0.782

L 4 x 4 x a 

5.44 4.61 3.75

7.67 6.66 5.56

  
L 3 x 3 x 

9.8

2.86

4.36

1.52

1.23

1.14

0.788

8.2 6.6
11.1 8.5

2.40 1.94
3.25 2.48 2.09

3.71 3.04
3.64 2.87 2.45

1.29 1.05
1.49 1.15

1.24 1.25
1.06 1.07

1.12 1.09
1.06 1.01

0.791 0.795
0.683 0.687

 
L 3 x 3 x 

7.2 5.8
9.4 8.3

1.69
2.75 2.43

2.01
2.22 1.99

0.976 0.794
1.07 0.954

1.08 1.09
0.898 0.905

0.990 0.968
0.932 0.910

0.690 0.694
0.584 0.585

 

7.2 6.1 4.9

3.71

2.11 1.78 1.44

1.73 1.46 1.91

1.09

0.962
0.984 0.849 0.703

1.76 1.51 1.24

0.441
0.566 0.482 0.394

0.833 0.707 0.577

0.913 0.922 0.930

0.753 0.761 0.769

0.939

0.888 0.869 0.842

0.762 0.740 0.717

0.820

0.587 0.589 0.592

0.487 0.489 0.491

0.596

L 2 x 2 x  

5.9 5.0 4. t

3.07

0.92

0.547

0.303

0.778

0.694

0.495

A-8

Appendix

A-11

Table

8. Standard
Dimensions

Steel

Pipe
Properties

Nora. Diam.
b
 8

Outside Diam.
h
0.405

Inside Diam.
in
0.269

Thickhess
h
0.068

Weight per Foot

lb
0.24

I
in 4
0.001 0.003 0.007

A
in 2
0.072 0.125 O. 167 0.16 0.21

r
in
O. 12




0.540
0'.675

0.364
0.493

0.088
0.091

0.42 0.57
0.85 1.13

a4
I

0.840
1.050 1.315

0.622
O. 824 1.049

0.109
O. 113 0.133

1.68 2.27 2.72

3.65 5.79

15
1
2

1.660
1.900
2.375

1.380
1.610
2.067

0.140
O. 145
O. 154

0.017 0.037 0.087 O. 195 0.310 0.666 1.53 3.02 4.79 7.23 15.2 28.1
72.5 161.

0.250 0.333 0.494 O. 669 0.799 1.07 1.70 2.23 2.68 3.17 4.30 5.58
8.40 11.9

0.26 0.33 0.42 0.54 0.62 0.79 0.95 1.16 1.34 1.51 1.88 2.25
2.94 3.67 4.38

2
3

2.875
3.500

2.469
3.068

0.203
0.216

7.58 9.11 10.79

14.62

3
4

4.000
4.500

3.548
4.026

0.226
0.237

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

18.97
28.55

5 6 8

10 12

5.563 6.625 8.625 10.750 12.750

5.047 6.065 7.981 10.020 12.000

0.258 0.280 0.322 0.365 0.375

40.48 49.56

279.

14.6

Table
Shape
W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W 36 33 36 36 36 36 36 33 36 33 33 30 30 30 27 24 27

9. Plastic

Section
Plastic

Moduli
Modulus

Around
Z,

the

X-X
Shape

Axis;

'i'yp
Plastic

---- 36 ksi
Modulus Z,

in 3
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 230 221 194 182 170 160 150 141 135 130 118 116 108 99 94 94 84 943 855 767 718 668 624 581 514 509 467 415 378 346 312 278 254 244
W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W

in 3
x x x x x x x x 84 76 68 68 62 55 57 55 44 40 40 35 31 26 22 24 18 224 200 177 160 153 134 129 112 95.4 78.4 72.9 66.5 54.0 40.2 33.2 23.2 17.0

24 24 24 21 24 24 21 18




,-
. 
oo


.
oo

X
x
-J

X
x
-J

X
x
-J

X
x
-J
-J

X
x
('q

X
x
-J

X
x
-J

X
x
-J

21 18 16 18
16

x x x x
x

14 14

x x 8 x 8 x

A-'O

A=2
Table
Standard

Appendix
10. Properties
Dressed
Standard

Appendix

A43 Beams
Curve

of Structural
(S4S)* Sizes.

Lumber

(Abridged

List).

Sectional
Standard

Properties

of American

Table

11,

Deflections

and

Slopes

of Elastic

Curves

for

Variously
Equation

Loaded
of Elastic

Nominal
Size in
2 x 4 6 8 10 12 14

Dressed
Size in x in
I.X_, x 3.x_, 5 7, 9 11 13

Area
Section #l 2
5.25 8.25 10.9 13.9 16.9 19.9
13.8

of

Motnent
of Inertia in 4
5.36 20.8 47.6 98.9
178 291
34.7

Section
Modtdus in 3
3.06 7.56 13. I 21.4 31.6 43.9
12.6

Weight
er Foot lb
1.46 2.29 3.02 3.85 4.69 5.52
3.82

Nominal
Size in
lO x lO 12 14 16 18 20 22

Dressed
Size in x in
9-' ._, x 9 I l 13 15 17 19 21
I -' 13 15 17

Area
Section in 2
90.3

of

Moment
of Inertia in 4
679

Section
Modnlus in 3
143

Weight
per Foot lb
25. l

Loading

Maximum

Deflection

Slope

at End

P (9L 3
Vm = v(O) = --

3Lr + .r )
pL
3El

109

1204

209

30.3

128
147 166 185 204

1948
2948 4243 5870 7868

289
380 485 602 732

35.6
40.9 46.1 51.4 56.7

o(0)

pL
2El

3 x 46
8-

2 x 5-' 3
7{ 9{ I 1{ 13{

8.75

8.93

5.10

2.43
12 x

24
12 14 16 18 l . x

23

223
132 155 178 201

10274
1458 2358 3569 5136

874

62.0

IO 12 14 16

18.1 23. l 28. I 33.1

79.4 165 297 485

21.9 35.7 52.7 73.2

5.04 6.42 7.81 9.20

253 349 460 587

36.7 43. l 49.5 55.9

v = 2-- (x4 - 4L3x + 3L4)

qo

Urea x = u(O) : q"L4 8El

qo

o(o)

6EI

15{

38.

739

96.9

10.6

20
22

19
21

224
247

7106

729

62.3

4 x 46
8
10 12 14 16 6 x 6 8 l0 12 14 16 18 8 x 8 l0 12 14

3 x 53-
2

12.3 19.3
25.4
32.4 39.4 46.4 53.4
30.3

12.5 48.5
Il
231 415 678 1034
76.3

7.15 17.6
30.7
49.9 73.8 102 136
27.7

3.40 5.35
7.05
8.94_ 10.9 12.9 14.8
8.40

24
16 18 20 22 24

23
15 17 19 21 23

270
182

12437
2768
4189 6029 8342 11181 14600

9524

1058
410
541 689 856 1040 1243

886

75.0
50.6
58.1 65.6 73.1 80.6 88.1

68.7

7
9 II 13 15
_, x 5-'

14 x 14

13 x 13

5 7-' 9 I I 13 15 17 7 9 I l 13
17

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

209 236 263 290 317

q,,x v = 24E1
=

t'-L 3 _ 2Lx2
v( L/2) -

+
4

See

Example

10-3.

Vm,,
When

5q,,L
384E1

0(0) = -0(L)
See Example

- 24EI q"L3
10-6.

41.3 52.3 63.3 74.3 85.3 96.3

56.3 71.3 86.3 101.3

193 393 697 1128 1707 2456

264 536 951 1538

51.6 82.7 121 167 220 281 '

70.3 113 165 228

11.4 14.5 17.5 20.6 23.6 26.7

15.6 i9.8 23.9 28.0

16

16 18 20 22 24 18 20 22 24
22

15

15 17 19 21 23 17 19 21 23
21

240 271 302 333 364 306 341 376 411

419

4810 6923 9578 12837 16763 7816 10813 14493 18926

621 791 982 1194 1427 893 1109 1348 1611

66.7 75.3 83.9 92.5 101 85.0 94.8 105 114

0 -< x -< a,

then

Pbx (L2 -- b2 -- 3'2) v = 6-

When
v=
PJ

a =

b =
--4x)

, then

18

17

7-' ._, x

4-- (3L'
= v(L/2)

2
pL 3

Vma

48.EI

o(0)

-O(L)

pL
16E/

16 20
* Surfaced are based
National
18

15 19

116.3
131.3

2327 4634
All properties average
3350

300 475
383

32.0 40.6
36.4

20 x 20 24
24 x 24

19 x 19 23
23 x 23

380
552

12049
16150

1236
1502

106
116

146.3

458
sizes

21089
25415

1795
2163

127
153

6EIL

M,,x (L 2 _ x2 )

See

Example

13-1.

Forest

four sides. on an assumed

Products

Association.

and weight

weights given of 40 lb per

are cubic

for

dressed

foot.

Based

only. The weights on a table compiled

given

by the
P P

7Jmax  v(L//)
pa 2

9/3 E1

MoL

o(o)

0(L)

Mo
6E/

v = v(a) = - (3L - 4a)

Vmax = v(L/2)

= 2--- (3L2 - 4a2)

Pa

0(0) = (L

Pa

- a)

Appendix
Table 12. Fixed-End Actions of Prismatic Beams'*

Loading

Moments*

Reactions*

Mao

-Moa

q,,L 2
12

R,,

= Ro

qoL
2

M,.a =

Pab L2 2
P ba 2

R,*  - -- (3 + b)

R,I =
pgl 2

pb

<

mdc-

L2

L3 (a + 3b)
Chapter
1-3.

M,,o

---

qoL 2
30

R,,

---

3qoL
20


/re at 0 and at 45: 0.5/0.5; +m at 0 and
at 45 and

1-51.

38.9

k.

M,, = q"L2 20
M,a, =  Or,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION R,, =- www.avs4you.com

1-5.
135 .

Ru = - 7qoL 20

180: 1/0; at 90: 0/0. 180; +/2

1-53.

8.57

in,

18.2

in.

2-45.
2-47. 2-49. 2-51.

194 MPa
RL (a)

MPa, (lower

129 rod).

MPa,
kN.

228

Chapter

1-7. 1-9. 1-11. 1-13.

1-15.

17.7 12.1 21.3 max

ksi, 2.34 ksi, 6.43 ksi, 18.2 ksi. MPa; 30 mm, 35 = 25 MPa, f min

ksi.

2-1.
2-3.
2-5. 2-7.

29.3
(a)

mm. =

10 mm,

X 10 6 psi.
(b)

2-53.
1.67
2-55.
2-59.

(a) (a) 1250 0.2274P,

1/3 k.

= 1.2P. - 120 kN, -70 5 k, -25 k.

N (middle
0.6062P. 0.65P.

wire)

Mr,, = 

4El

Or,
6El

Rt, = - _
12El 12El

6El

10 MPa. 2.11-kPa.

kN/mm. 50 kN/mm. 18.75 kN/mm.

2-61.
2-63.

Ru
4.8

=
kN.

1-17.
1-19.

- 109 psi.
(a) (c)
MPa. 6.5 2.83

psi,

- 198
(b) (d)

psi,
40.9 113

- 119
MPa,

2-9.
2-11. 2-13.

(a)
from
9.20 0.0363

0.0289
left.
mm.

in,
in.

(b)

8.57

in

2-65.

Ru

=-4P.

2-67.
2-69. 2-71.
2-73.

P/[(a/b)
37.8 C. at

 +

11.

30 MPa, 71.6 MPa,

in.
ksi.

(a) 480 k, (b) 1100 k. 83.3 N, 333 N, 583 N.

2-15.
2-17.

zk
597

=
ft.

3.7

mm.

2-75.
(b) 0.028 in.

Pyp
kN

= 376

M,, = - L-- T zk

R,,

L_  iX

1-21. 1-23.

2-19. 5.97
crc

Mi,. = - -5-_,A

6El

R = ~

1-25. 1-27.

4.81 cr.m

ksi,
=

ksi. = 100.3

MPa

2-21. 2.23.
2-25.

7.64 x 103 'g/E. 10'y/E mm.

- 4Pa/9AE.

(a)

0.122

in,

5 mm.

kN,

P

= 518

2-77.
Chapter
3-1.

2'yw2L3/3gE.
3
51.2 N/mm.

1-29.

73.6 psi,
10.7 16.4

psi, 184
in. mm.

111 psi.

psi,
(b)

902.1
0.707 m.

2-27.
2-29.
2-31.

Mb,.=M,,(-I
M;.
* For all the cases tabulated, the positive

+ 4- 3a2' L 2 ]
of the end moments and

Rb = --

6M,,a

1-31. 1-33.
1-35. 1-37.

10 k, 4.08 ksi. (a) 2.22 MPa, 13.2 kg.

2.

0.00375 graphic
2 mm

in, 0.100 solotion

large (b)

in. Try a as in Fig.

scale. 4 mm.

2-24(c). Use (a) 4 kN/mm,

3-3.
3-5.

(a)
0.325,

- 3.50
0.25.

txm, in, use

(b) 0.25
in.

147

kN. plate,

=
senses

M"a (2 - 3)
distributed method loading. in Section The
13-5.

R,.
reactions

6M, L2,a (1 - )
are the same

1-41.
1-43. 1-45.

1-39.

2-33.

A^ 7950
mm

= 5300mm mm 2, Ae

2, Ac = 3640

=
2-35. 2-37.

0.165 graphic 2-29(b).

29.3 9.9 kiN.

in,

0.0714 solution

in. Try a as in Fig.

3-7. 3-9.
3-11.

444 psi. (a) 0.20

(b)
14.

0.212

in.

3-13. ksi, in, (b) (d) 0.0367 0.448 in, in.

3-15. 3-17.

0.080
70.7 25.9

in,
MPa. MPa.

0.025

kiN.

as those shown in the first used hgre Lv that adopted

diagram for the

for uniformly displacement

special

sign

convention

0.123 in. 27 mm.

2-39. MPa. 0.864 in 2.

2-41. 2-43.

1-47. 1-49.

&max 0.909

= 14.5 in 2 vs

(a) (c)

28.7 0.565

3-23.

0.04 in. 4 mm.

41.0

(a) (b)

cr = 20(1 180 MPa,

txm.

- 0.05/r2), (c) 91.7

txm,

P-2

Answers

to

Odd-numbered

Problems

Answers

to

Odd.numbered

Problems

P-3
Chapter 9
- 7.5
97.7

3-25.

(a) [ crr Im = - 160 MPa, [ Pt [m = - 60 MPa,

- 26.3 tzm. (a) 12 in, (b)

(b) 90 MPA,

(c) 30.3

m,

3-29.
Chapter
4-1.
4-3. 4-5.

3-27.

Add

to Eq.

term

3-38.

(1 - v2)to2r/gE

7.80

in.

5-11.
5-13. 5-15. 5-17. 5-19. 5-21.

5-9.

4 k, - 0.8 k, - 17.6 k-ft; 0, - 0.8 k, 2.4 k-ft. - 416 lb, 139 lb, 832 lb-ft.

5-85.
5-87.

P/2,

-P/2,

- PR/2.

-P/2,

-PR;

O,

M = 2qtax/9 - qx3/24a + 16qa (x - 3a)/9. M = -2x + 8(x4)  -- {x -- 4)2/2 + (x -12)2/2.

6
367 1010 All 10.6 231 kN.m. k-ft. OK. k/ft. k-in.

6-79. 6-81. 6-83.

282

MPa.

I = 560 103 mm 4, Iy = -290 10 3 mm 4, Iy = 300

103

b2h2/24,

- b2h2/72.

8-9.

225

kPa,

not
6.99 ksi,

permissible.

8-11.
8-13. 8-15. 8-17. 8-19.

45 MPa, - 5 MPa.
22.9 ksi, 10ksion0 (a) 18.3

5 MPa;
ksi. = 26.6 - 38.3

5 MPa,
,0. ksi on
0 0

9-1.
9-3. 9-5. 9-7.

MPa,

13.0

MPa.

4
17.9
1:0.375. 2 in.

MPa:

5-23.
in,
in.

4-7.
4-9.

3.71
0.310

5.35

in,

3.72

. MPa,

4-11. 4-13.
4-15. 4-19.
4-21. 4-23.

4-17.

(a) 0, 40.4 MPa, 8.1 _16.2 MPa, (b) 8.6 . (a) ri = 21 mm, (b) strength. (a) 0.75 .
rad/ib-in.
720/JG. 0.837T.

5-27. 5-29. 5-31.

5-33.

5-25.

- woL, 2x, M^ M^

34 k, -12 k, 30 k-ft. - 7.2 k, 9.6 k - 24 k-ft; - 3.15 k, - 12.6 k, 30 k-ft. -3k,-3k, 6k-ft. 6.75 kN, - 3 kN, 3 kN.m. 3P, -2PL.

103 mm 4, Iv, = 96.0243

103 mm 4, 0 = 32.8862

mm 4, I,

= 753.9757

Chapter
6-1. 6-3. 6.5. 6-7. 6.9.

10.0 ksi,
1.2

ksi, 47.7
MPa,

MPa,

5.06 psi. 4.81

ksi;
33.8 MPa.

10 ksi, 0.22
MPa;

5 ksi.

= 22.5 , (b) +28.3 - 10 ksi.

- 15 MPa.

ksi,

9-9.
9-11.

9.90
- 1.6

ksi,
MPa, ksi,

45.2

ksi,
- 167

kN.m.

Chapter
7-1.
7-3.

7
35.2
Use

(a) 17 MPa, - 47 MPa on = - 19.3 , (b) +32 MPa,

0.168

+ 5 MPa.

MPa,

- 83.5

MPa;
ksi, 0.51

+ P/2,

- woL2/2.

lb/in,
(a), 2.44

105
in.

lb.

8-21.

(a)

16.1

ksi

on

0 = - 28.2

9-13.

- 2.5
ksi;
764

(a) 0.264

, (b)

17 x 10 -6

5-35.

kL3/6JG. 5-37. k-in, 5.88

kx3/3. M(0) - cos (a) F, - F(a+ L),-(F wL/2)L, M = - kL414.

2x - (x - 3)3/12. + woLx/2WoX2/2. + R^x-kLx2/2 +

=-PR(sin0 + 1 0). - F(L - x), Fa; F, z), O, (b) F + w(a + wa +

I m Im

= Pa/2.

6-11. 6-13. 6-15.

(a) 704
NA.

142 kN, kN,

kN, 71.0 29

(b) mm mm

8.90 below below

kN.

7-5.
7-7.
7-9.

(a)
3.4
10.2

1.6
in,
kN.

in,
9.08

(b)
in.

8 in.

-- 56. 1 ksi, (b) +36.1 20 ksi. 8-23.

33.9

ksi,
,-4

9-15. 9-19.
9-21.
9-17.

+ 1.83
lb.

0; - 2.81
ksi. - 4.93 ksi. 18.8 k-in.

59.4
NA.

%13. 7-15. 7-17. 7-19.

7-21. 7-23.

6-17.
6-19.
6-21.

.
Negative,
26.9 k.

- 22.5
MPa, - 96.8

ksi.
MPa.

6-23.
6-25.

119
15

-kx4/12

(F

wa/2)a. + kL3x/3

mm.
tY/nax

0, 7.06 MPa, 11.3 or MPa, 35.3 MPa, 27.3 MPa, 0. 132 MPa, 139 MPa. 0, 78.2 kPa, 125 kPa, kPa, 125 kPa. 51.1 k, 197 k-in.
144 637 kN. kPa.

8-25.

8-27.
140
8-29.

0, (b)
(b)

ksi, (b) 5 ksi, t ksi. (a) 100 psi on 0 = 26.6 ,

(a)-9.5MPaon0

(b) (a)

(a) + 10 MPa
10 MPa, 6ksion0

0.

at 45 ,
= 116.6

0.272 14.1
- 40

ksi, k-in,
ksi.

+50

psi,

50 psi.
=

9-23. 9-25.
9-29. 9-31.

50.6 , - 60.5 MPa,

+25.5 MPa, 8.66
14.8

- 35

MPa.

9-27.

(b) - 32 MPa, - 6.5 MPa. - 212 psi, - 167 psi. - 16.4 MPa, 0.01 MPa.
56.3 .

(b) 241 psi, - 41 psi; 141 psi, 100 psi. (a) 17 MPa, - 6.2 MPa,

4-25.

4-27.

29.4 k-in, 10.6 X 1'0 -3 rad. (a) 62.4 lb-in,

0.302

5-39.
= 5-41.
5-43.

M
rx/L.

= --(kZ2/4
- Mx/L. =
+ b).

2) sin

(b)

4,

4-2J.
4-33. 4-35.
4-37.

2toL22/9X/3JG.
573 MPa.

(a) toL/3,

rad.

- M/L,
2P,-P(2a

0) 10)Im

=
hp.

3toL/8 and - toL/8. (a) 186 k-in, (b) 736

1 , 26 MPa.

5-47.

5-45.

5-49. 5-51.

V,
MN.m. k-ft.

IVIm

= 10k,
2P/3,

[Vlm ]Vlm [ V Imax

-+4 k, + 6 k,

= 600kN,-2.8 = 1.98k,

+Pa/3.

48k-ft.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 8-35. 45 MPa, www.avs4you.com

6-29. NA at 40 mm, 469 MPa.
6-31. 6-33. 6-35. 6-39. 6-41. 6-43. 40.3 633 122 1.7. 1.12. 1.80. MPa. k-in. k-ft.

6-27.

U = 

8-31.
8-33.

7-25. 7-27.

4.44 MPa, 10 kN <--,

7-31.
7-33.

7-29.

kN-->ea,
(a)
(b)

(a)

254

1.82

psi,

20kN

2.22 240

MPa.

(a) 28 ksi on 28. 2 , - 8 ksi, (b) x 18 ksi, 10 ksi.

p.

9-33.
9-35.

88.9
3 x4in.

mm

outside

diameter.

kN

x 106 mm 4,
7.69
MPa, plate

(b)

31 psi.

', 20kN

<--,

250

- 15 ksi,

$.

8-37.
8-39.

5p,

5 MPa.
.

ksi.

9-37. 9-39.
9-41.

1600 lb, Rectangular

N/mm.
W12 S10 S18 x x x

2 ft. section,
30. 25.4. 54.7

2.13

51.6

or

5.49

MPa,

MPa,

8-41.

18.7

MPa.

(a) 7 MPa, MPa, 2.52

4-39.

10.5 +2

6-45.
6-47.

(a) 73.0 kN.m, MPa, -+ 33.2

102 kN.

(c) MPa. (b) 108

+35.7

Angles
48.2 MPa.

2.5

MPa.

0, (b) 4.48 MPa, - 3.36 MPa, 9.3181

9-43.

8-43.
kN/m,
8-45.

7-35.
7-37.

(a)
415 5.30

83.0
kN/m. mm.

kN/m,

194

(b)

(a) 18, - 120, - 1872,

19.1646

9-49.

9-45. 9-47.

d = do(x/L)
(a)
+

v3.
6 =
79 in

44
6 =

50 in,
from

(b)
center.

73

4-41.
4-43.
4-45. 4-47.

(a)
rad.

85 MPa,
X ][0 3 mm psi, 0.691/G

(b)
2.
4.

89

x 10 -6

5-53.
5-55. 5-57.

= 3 kN,
10 k-ft. - 24 k-ft.

6-49.

(a)

54
D. MPa.

kN.m,

470 11.1

3R/t,

t2/3R

6-51.

m
and 126

12 MPa,
MPa,

NA
+9.57

through
MPa,

7-39.
7-43.

e = 2R(sina-acosa)/ (a - sin a cos

e =
- 50

MPa, - 10.4827 MPa, (c) (-18.3 0.47, ksi, 0.20,0, - 38. 0.83 6). ksi. 0, - 1000 txm/m;
4.58; +5.76 81.9
4.57

9-51. 9-53. 9-57.

Chapter
10-1.
10-3. 10-5. 9-55.

a).
a.

rad/in.

4-49.

(a) 33 and 10 -6 rad/mm.

67%,

(b)

5.3

Chapter Only and the

5 largest M are given RAy = 5.11 values of P, in many k. V,

5-63. 5-65. 5-67. 5-69. 5-71.

5-73.

5-59. 5-61.

- 700 lb, 625 lb-ft. 20 kN, 40 kN-m. - 10 k, 50 k-ft. R^ = 35k, RB = 50 N,10 N.m.
- 68
kN.m.

+2qoa, 1.5qoa,

2.5qoa 0.625qoa

2.

aR/sin

8-51.
kPa, kPa, kN.
8-57.

8-49.

1128

2.

6-53.

6-55.
6-57. 6-59. 6-61.

+24.6
28 mm. 282 MPa. 15.6 mm. - 18 ksi.

7-45. 7-47. 7-49.

0, - 154
kPa.

kPa; kPa;
kPa.

- 700 - 1500 1.24

0, -195
- 120

8-53. 8-55.

(0, 0, 1). ksi; 75.7 . MPa, 11.4 MPa;

.

txm/m,

- 128

- 26.6 .
txm/m;

161 mm. 6.8 in. 600 lb. 2 in.

iO
800
483 - kx.

mm,
ft.

200

MPa.

20k.
60

t51

N/mm,

6 0

kN,

---24

kN,

6-63.
6-65.
6-67.

- 174
150
420

psi.
kN,
N.

10-7. 10-9.

5 kN.
- 5.34
- 50 to 100

problems.
5-3. 5-5.

Chapter
ksi.
mm.

8
P/A; VQ/It; PJA My/I, + My/I; Tr/J; P/A, Tr/J.
10.2 - 5.91

5-1.

5-75.
k,
5-77. 5-79.

6k, 24k, 6k. 0, 0, 18 k-ft; 0, - 4.5

9 k-ft.

5-81.

100 2k,
N.m.

I V Imax
Iglm-

kN, 400 70k-in.

= 2P/3,

kN-m.

4Pa/3.
3.2

6-69.
6-71.

16.0
From

ksi,

8-1.
8-3.

160N,
4

6-73.
6-75.

R/4.
27.6 ft.

5-7.

4 k, - 2.8 k, - 15.2 4k, - 0.8 k, -' 15.2

k-ft; k-ft;

5-83.

M=

10)3/3.

900x-

6-77.

(a)

40.5

kN,

e =

25

mm,

8-5.

(b) 0.667 txm/m.

txm/m,

1.33

39.8 MPa, 14.3 MPa; MPa, - 14.3 MPa. - 12.1 ksi, 5.24 ksi; ksi, - 5.24 ksi.

(_:4 _6)
-12 8 8 6 8

10-11.
10-13.

8-59.
8-61.

2Vo,
Cryv/(1
--

X/ 7o.
- v + v-j

2L3)/6 EIv= 4LS)/60L EIv=

rx/L.

EIv= L2)/2. EIv=

M(x

2- 2Lx

- P(x 3 - 3L2x + for origin at P. - W(x 5 - 5L4x + 2. -k(Lhr) 4 x sin

'xl/9

~, %./(1

10-15.

EIv=
for origin

Mo(x3/L
on the

- Lx)/6
fight.

8-7.

- 2 psi,

3 psi.

Answers 10-17. 10-19.

to

Odd-numbered

Problems

Answers

to

Odd-numbered

Problems

EIv=
for

O-<x-<

P(4x
for

L/2.

3 - 3L2x)[48
O-<x-<a;

10-75.

4.1.

EIv=

10-21. 10-23.

= Pa(x2/2 - Lx'/2 + a2/6) for a-<x-<L-a. EIv= p(x3/12 - Lx2/16)

for O-<x-<L/2.

aLx/2)

P(x3/6

+ a2x/2

10-79. 10-81.

10-77.

10-83.

5.74 1.15

(a) P = 11bh2ctyp/12L.
mm, mm, 0.00137 0.00094

10-85.
10-87. 10-89.
10-91.

I v^l = 19Wo an/8EI, [ 0A[ = 11woaa/6EL Iv^ I = M, a2/4EI, [ v^[ = Ma2/6EI, Iv^ 1 - Pa/12m,
= 13Pa2/28EL

rad. rad.

11-7. 11-9. 11-13. 11-15.

5.08 k. 10.4 k. 2.5 in. 2 in.

12-35. 12-37.

0.604 0.0587

mm. ft.

12-59.

See

answer

for

12-21.

13-11.

12-61.

EI0

0.336PL2/EI.

Rdy

- 0.714P.

= 2.29P,

Rdx

12-39.

'+ buckling, 2.
+ L).
12-41.

EI/
+

11-17.

10-25.

EIv= -3Lx3/48 EIv=

sin

xx/L

- Wo(X4/24 + L3x/48). -, ( kL/'rr ) [(L3/r)

- x/2

= Ma//12EI.

10^
O. Io^

For rigid bar  ,rr2IL3/48Ia

tan
53.3

'trR2/2 q- 4LR)]. A = rPa3(1/EI

3/G J)/2.

= P[2L3/3

+ R(rL

12-63. 12-65.
12-67. 12-69.

A, = 25woa4/EI._. EIO^ = woa3/(X/2/3

+ 1/2).
0.628 Center in.

13-13.
13-15.

Mab = woL2/60, woL2/12, Mcb= 3woL2/20. 0b = - pL2/2EI,

- pL3/3EI. Rb = 250 N, EIOb

Mb
Ab
=

=
=

11-21.
11-23.

kL
k.

k(a

12-43.

Ax = - pL3/2EI, Ay = 2PL3/3EI + PL3/GJ, .z

----- O. 33.6 k. 18.75 k.

reaction

11-25.

(a)

9.16
30.1
30e

ft,
ft.
- 40.

(b)

548

mm,

12-71.
12-73.

R^

33woL/16.

10-27. 10-29.

EIv= - r5/120 + klex2/48 - kLS/80.

+ 3Lx2/2

- L,c].

3 mm.

11-27.
11-29.
11-45. 11-47.

(a)]
+

(c)

cr]
ksi,

= - 2.5e 2
30.4
1070

10-93.

[ v]

+ 64a3)/24

= 3VoX(X

EI.

3 - 8ax 2

34.3
51.5. 1109

ksi.
k.

12-45. 12-47. 12-49. 12-51.

12-53.

- 13kL3/120.

= 9kL2/40, = 10EI/L 2.

M^

13-17.
13-19.

- 25L 2, EIO = - 75L 2, EI/% = - 58.33L 3.

= Fd
4.17 kN.

3kL/2.

woL4/384EI. PR3(2/'rr(a) PR/'rr, (b)

12-75.
1/2)/EI.
A =

Pc
q3
9.01

F 11.68 kN,
=

8.96 kN, =

kN, F - 4.17 =

F 3.67 kN,

= Ff

Chapter

EIv=
for

P(5x3/3
O-<x--<L/2;

- L2x)/32
EIv=

10-95.
10-97. 10-99. 10-101.

Iv Imx

10-31.

10-33.

P[5x/3 - 16(x - L/2)/3 - Lr]/32 for (a) v = (3x2/2L 2 - x3/2L3). Eslv = P(x 3 - 5L2x/4)/
12 for
x)/12]/12

224/EL 8/3EI.

2x/2 Ma2/9EI. ] v Im = Mla2/6EI. ] v ]m = 0.078 in. Iv^[ = 832/EI,]OA[

k vs

11-49.

(a)

126,
k. k.

(b).

134.

11-51.
11-53. 11-55.

P./P,o, ,
144 117

=
k,
lb. k. k.

1.47.
k.
12-55. 12-57.

11-57.
11-59. 11-61. 11-63.

116
742 146 121

14.7

(a) F^c - 7.98 (b) F^ 1.36 k, F^ = Av =

0.482PL/AE.

= 10.3 k, FAr = k, F^ = - 6.52 k; = 6.41 k, F^c = FD = - 5.32 k, - 3.71 k. 1.34PL/AE, A, =

13.1.
13.3.

(2L 2 + 3a 2- 6La)/6L.
k.

13-21. 13-23.
13-25.

(a) (a)
W

13-5.

R

3 k.

13-7.

10-103.
-

I Vc ! = 64/3EI,
5/EI.
5.64

I Oc [
10^ i =

0 = woL3/384EI.

= p[(L-x)

O-<x-<L/2;
for

3 - 7L2(L

E^Iv

13-9.[ 2 0.89-0180 j 13-27.

-0.80

See

answer

for

12-53(b),.

(b) 0.172PL. 3.90 k/in, CO) 0.055 in. 11.25 < Wul < 15 lb/in.
14 x 26.

0.41L, w =

0.89

- 0.45

45

13-31.

13-29.

4.92
E.

< Pl

<

5.

Plastic

hinges

at C and

10-105.
10-107.

Iv^

I = 18/EI,
ft.

10-35.

(a) EIv= wo(L3x-Lx3)/_ 6;'(b) Vm = woL419X/3, v(L/2) = woL4/16.

W18 x 50.

L/2-<x-<L.

10-109.

7P/8.-

10-39.

10-111. 10-113.

10-4'1.
10-45.

EIv= 95ax
EIv=

(a) (c)

S18 14.2

10-47.

Wo(10ax - 4{x - a}4)/96. pb2(b - 3a)x 6(a + b) 3

2 P

x 70, (b) S24, ksi, 6.14 ksi.

RL (a) 26,
in.

= 93.36 25 k-ft, (c) 0.036

kN.

(b)
in,

W16
0.207

10-115.

10-117.
10-119.

Pab2x

10-121.

11M^L/80EI. (a) - 240/7 (b) 208/EI. End moments:

M/M^

(a)

R^

= 2/5,
k-ft,

0.382P.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

102.3.

11-65.

(a) P = 733 lb at Lh' = 102.3, (b) strength governs below Lh' =

Chapter
12-1.

q2

[ 0^ I =
12-3.
=
=
M

(a) / = PL/AE 9GA + 2PL3/3EI 33.6, 63.3;

+ 20PL/ +

PL/GJ;

(b) 0.5,
(c) 0.02,

2.8,
0.1,

_+M,/4.

34.7, 65.1. PL/48EL

10-49.

EIv= ka2x3/18

2(a + b) 2 -- a} 3

6
+

10-123.
10-125.

M^
3W/10.

= - WL/15,
/L 2.

R^
M
k-ft,

12-5. 12-7.
12-9.
12-11.

8.54 ksi. - 0.348 in.

120, 160(2
11.2.

- kx'5/120 - 41ka4x/360

+ 6EI/

+ X/).

10-127.
10-129.

M^
-

=
7PL/66.

- 5PL/33,
- 14.33
k-ft.

12-13.

11PL/384EI.

ka(x-a}4/24 + k(x-a)S/120.
10-53. 10-55. 10-57. 10-59. 10-61. 10-63. 10-65. 10-67. 10-69. 10-71.

M^
=

=
- 8.67

- 0.391

in.

- kaS/15EI. 13PL/192EI.
6.48 8.13 2.03 531 47.1 96.8 kN. lb. k. N
N. F.

Chapter
l -l. 11-3.
11-5.

q
3k/2. k/a Pa
Pa
Pa

12-17. 12-19.
12-21.

12-15.

518/EL (a) PL3/3EI,

0 = 13 woL/648EI.

Co) 5PL/6EI.
A = MoL,(3L + 2L2)/6EI.

and
-

3k/a. k
Pa
Pa

k
k

12-23.
12-25. 12-27.
0 0 Pa k

A

= 2Pa3/EL
0 =

in

middle

bar.

Av 
5P/EI.

= 92/EI. = 80P/3EI.

0.0437

in,

0.121

in,

0.0462
0 , 69.2%
10-73.

in,

0.653
86.2

in;
, 90 .

13

0 k Pa Pa

0 0

12-29.
12-31.
12-33.

0 = 66P/EI.
A^ =_l.97Pa3/EI, pa2(X/2 + 3)/2EI,
3Pa2/2EL
1.57 in.

O^ O =

1.28

in,

t3 = 78.8

center
front

of twist
center)

(see of, 228

Shear

of variable
plastic

Abbreviations

and

cover

symbols,

inside

480

cross-section,
of, 314, 708

298,
of, of,
304,

classifications

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

208
of thin-walled tubular

Allowable stress, definition of, 34 design (ASD), 35, tables of, A-I, A-2 Angle-of-twist, of circular members, of noncircular solid
members,

built-in
cantilever,

(see
228

fixed-end)
229

analysis
A-11

plastic radius reinforced

section
shear shear

section

modulus

315,

470,
189 bars,

608

215,

Angle

Anistropy,
Answers

sections, designing, 147

to

properties

A-9,

for A-10

continuous, fixed-end, overhanging, planar, prismatic, restrained, simple, simply uniform

229 229
224

of curvature concrete,

282,499 318
A-

297 229

odd-numbered

composite

228 supported, strength Constant cross

301 strength, 282, 306

moduli of, 294, A-6, 8, A-9, A-10, A-12 in, 236 stress in, 357, 367

228 (see
strength) section
480 337

statically
506,

indeterminate,
517, 524, 686

23,
506

of,

supports unsymmetrical

for,
336

225,

bending

of,

319,

Area-moment Areas,

problems,
Moment-area

method

A-15

288, (see method) constant curvature, curved,

moments second

of moment

inertia of,

of, 285, 285

340

useful
Axes,
neutral,

properties
284

of, 319,341

A-4

definitions deflection design elastic

elastic

of, 224, A-13 of, (see Deflection) of, (see Design) curve for, 261,499
section modulus of, 293

principal,
Axial force, loads definition deformation stresses

15,

235 see Columns), 16, 235 due to, 71, 94 to, 12, 16, 87

elastic

strain
531

energy

in,

299,

Axial
Axial

force

diagrams,
(also of,

74,

240

due

flexure formula for, 283,339 inelastic bending of, 311 deflection for, 534 lateral stability of, 623 limit analysis of, 534, 708 maximum bending stresses
286, 321
relations moment-curvature

warpage of, 373 Bearing stress, 21 Bending, of beams, 281,336 with axial loads, elastic, 324 inelastic, 333 deflections due inelastic, 311 pure, 280 unsymmetrical,

to,

498

319,

336

strain

energy

in,

299

in,

stresses due to 280, 339 Bending moment, and elastic curve, relation between, 285, 501 and shear, relation between,
250

Beam-columns, Beams, bending bending calculation

230,

596,

600

for, moment neutral of two

moments in, 237 stresses in, 283 of reactions for,

267

283,337, 499 diagrams for, 241,252 axis in, 284, 320 or more materials, 288,
Biaxial

definition diagrams diagrams

shear,

of, 237 for, 240 by integration

252

of
238

301

sign

convention
stress, 10

for,

IN-2
Bifurcation Boundary for for
Buckling

Index

Body

forces,

point,
8

580 198

Concentration
Stress)

of stress
47 47 50

(see

superposition

for for

beam-columns, columns,

bars beams

conditions, in torsion, in bending,

525

method

for, 529 for,

for
for

element
torsion in

equilibrium,
circular

11
197

Fatigue,
Fiber Finite

of columns,
method

584,
for,

505 601,602 586, 602

670

Connections, bolted, riveted, welded,

unsymmetrical by virtual of energy,

94, of frameworks, 215, 637

642

force
644

bending, method 391 A-13

bars,
106,

Dilata{ion,
Dirac

members,

delta

152

stress, element

32
467

Indeterminate
definition method,
actions of, of 698

members

of, 34 87, 373,

Index, beams, I-1 of beams,

Statical,
systems)

(see indeterminate

function,

265 700

Conservation

energy

principle

of,

Euler load, generalized Bulk modulus,

583,585 Euler 152

formula,

590

displacements by, 95, 215, 638 Constant strength beams, 480 Consistent deformations, method of, (see Force method) Constitutive relations, 68, 139,
146

of helical Deflection
Deformation,

springs, of beams,
loaded
84 of freedom,
73,470

Displacement
Doublet Dynamic
697

195,697,

method,

106,
533

108,

Fixed-end definition table,

Inelastic

behavior,
202

311

A-14

of circular

torsion deflection,
534

members,

of axial y
thermal, Degrees

71
195,

or dipole, loads,

265 96, 199,

Flange, Flexibility,
Flexibility definition reciprocity Flexibility

definition

of,

299

Design,

Cantilever,

229 -666
665

Castigliano's
first,
second,

theorem,

Continuous analysis definition

beams, of, 517, 556, of, 23,229 diagrammatic,

factors

of axial y

loaded

members,
480 475

34,

687
225
U.S.

of

Conventions

for

supports,
for

for

statically
systems,

indeterminate
670

Conversion

beams, non-prismatic, prismatic, of columns,

Effective Eigenvalue, Elastic Elastic Elastic

Elastic Elastic Elastic

column
curve,

426,

design energy

472, 605
608 611

Center

Centroids

Centroids

of twist
and

of areas,

(see
A-4

moments

284,

Shear

of inertia

338

centet9
Couplings, Creep,
Critical Curvature, Curved deflection stresses

inside

customary

back

to SI units,
cover

concentrically aluminum
steel, wood,

loaded, alloys, loaded,

610 616

608

for

axial y

limit, modulus, strain

66

length, 581 261,499, for strength, methods,

66

587
337, 503

75, 191 coefficients, of, 688 of, 690 method, 102,

Inelastic
of Inertia, beams,

of torsion 194,
308 285

members,
of, 285,340

204

690

moment

Flexural
Flexure for

rigidity,
formula, curved

509
beams, beams,

634,

470

661

principal, product Inflection,

Interaction Interaction
617

342 of, 340, 342 point of, 262

curve, formula forces, 4, 335 for 176, columns, 234, 284

for
Force Fracture Frameworks,

energy, loaded
buckling, 299,
stress,

straight generalized, method,

criteria,
105,687

339
100, 441 194, 687

bars,
674

636

Internal

of areas,

Channel Coefficient Collapse

Circumferential

sections,

designing,
84

properties
stress,
A-8

for expansion,
154

33, section,
bars,

shaft, 71
22,

201
470

radius
of,
in,

Curvature-area

of, method,
650
308

282,499

536

of thermal

Columns, critical critical design

mechanism,

574 load, 584 stress, 588 of, 605

plastic,

711

Cylindrical

thick-walled, thin-walled,

pressure

159 152

vessels,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

allowable
616

eccentrically

stress

methbd,
482

interaction of complex of connections, of circular

185

members,

method,
47

617

for column in bending, complementary, for multiaxial for shear, in torsion,

for uniaxial

deflection definition of,

of, 3

79,

85,

Internal
Invariant, of of strain, stress,

strain
299, 436 408,

energy,
635

94,

200,

636 665

Free-body,
635

141,636 200, 215,637 stress, 91

426

Gage Gages,

length, 62,
state

60 438
of stress, 7

Isotropy,

definition

of,

146

Elastic

stress

analysis,
66

461

General

torsional

members,

deterministic, probabilistic,
load

and

resistance

31, 34 31, 38
45, 608

factor

Elasticity, definition modulus Endurance Energy

principal

stress,

424

Kern,

332

of,

67

Kinematic

indeterminancy,
195,697

106,

of, limit,

32

dissipating
711

mechanism, equations of 11 640

eccentrically loaded, 582 effective length for, 587 Euler formula for, 585

double-modulus

theory

for,

591
Deflection, of axial y
of

(LRFD),

Helical Hinge,
Hooke's

springs, plastic,
law,

389 710
stress

d'Alembert's

principle,
loaded Castigliano's
665

38
bars, theorem, 499, method, 531 507
644

formulas formulas
long,

loaded,

for for

concentrically
608

beams,

74,

94

coefficient normal probability

40

of variation, distribution, density

40
42

Equilibrium, dif erential

function,
Euler

element equations stability formula,

limitations generalized,

intermediate
secant

loaded,
589 592
591

eccentrically
length,
616

by

592
582 formula
689

short,

formula

for,

tangent-modulus

slenderness

ratio

of,

589

due to governing

by integration, dummy-load due to impact,

shear,

531 dif erential

for,

equations
501,505

for
method

beams,
for,

probability of failure, 43 sample mean, 40 sample variance, 40 standard deviation, 40 of torsion members, 185,471 Deviation, tangential, 540 Diagrams for beams, axial-force, 240 bending moment, 240, 252
shear, 240, 250

equilibrium, of statics, 22, of, 574, 585 of, 588 590

for for

for

shear uniaxial

isotropic

materials,
stress,

and
66

strain,

146,

130

148

generalized, Hoop stress, Horsepower

I

146,
186

148 torque relation,

Lame problem, Lap joint, 48 Lateral stability Limit analysis

Line

160 of beams, design,

or 45, strain,

154 and

Load
Load Loads,

and of zero stress and resistance (LRFD), factor, 35

623 708
326 608

factor

design

Factor
Factors

of safety,
of

34

stress-concentration,

Compatibility

641,659,
661

equations,

100,

145,

moment-area
537

Complementary
Concentrated

strain
moment,
diagrams,

energy,
effect on
258

92,

by singularity strain energy

531

functions, method
integration for, 507,

for,
514

523

Dif erential for axial y for beam

505,

equation, loaded deflection,

for
bending, 248

bars,
beams

501,504,

125
in

for helical in bending in tension

flat

springs, 391 of flat bars, or compression

bars, 89 of circular
188

297

Identity matrix, 704 1-shape steel beams, crippling in, 478 properties for designing,
A-6

A-5,
376,
199,

concentrated, 87 dead, 45 distributed, 227 factored, 45 impact, 96, 199 live, 45

of
shafts,

shearing
Impact, deflection factor, loading,

stresses
385,478 due 533 to,

in,
96,

381,
531

Localized

stress
stress-concentration)
154

(see

Factors

of

in torsion

Longitudinal
Lower Luders

stress
solutions, 20

in cylinder,
716

moment

successive
method

of equilibrium

Failure,

theories fi'acture

of (see criteria)

YieM

and

98, 96

bound lines,

Index
Lumber, sizes, properties for
Moment-curvature relation for

Index
beams, 499 of inertia of areas, 285, 289
340

IN-5
Strain Strain
Strain

designing,

A-13

Margin

Materials, brit le, ductile, homogeneous,

of safety,
65 65,

35

Moment definition, parallel-axis

Principal Principal
Probabilistic

strain, stress,
basis

436 409,424
for structural

theorem
axes A-4 for, through 341

for,

291,

Properties,

anisotropic,

66,
67 67

147,

polar, principal table

179 of, A-12

of angles, of channels

design, for

of standard by,
of pipe,
plastic

38 designing, A-9, A-10 (C), A-8 (S) steel A-11

moduli

Section elastic, plastic, tables,

modulus, 294 315 A-5

through

A-12

Shaft Shape

coupling, factor,
center, deflection

beams,
for

A-

Shear Shear

709 382

201
of beams,

Statically indeterminate beams, analysis by, Castigliano's method, 670 displacement method, 697 force method, 687 flexibility method, 687 integration of dif erential equations, 507, 514

energy
energy)

(see
438

Elastic 69

strain

hardening,
rosettes,

Strength,
Stress,

ultimate,
A-2,

32

allowable,
bearing, biaxial, circumferential,
concentration

1, 32,
A-3

608,

610,

612,

Moving A-2, 36, ANatural

bodies,
90,

isotropic, mechanical
orthotropic,

146' properties,
147

199,

forces

531

caused

standard,
section

Shear
beams,
A-12
Shear Shear

diagrams
flow, forces

in

wide-flange
A-11

steel
lumber, (WF)

strain, axis, surface, stress,

403

61 284 284

Matrix

structural
657,

661,703

analysis,
444

Maximum
Maximum Maximum Maxwell's
Members Membrane,
Method definition

theory,
449

distortion
normal

energy
stress theory, 442

Neutral Neutral Normal combined definition

Necking,

65

of rectangular of wide-flange
beams,

definition

beatns) 361 in beams, of, 236

(see

Shear'

forces

moment-area,

551.

singularity
solutions, stif ness

function
523 method, of, 23 indeterminate 702

21 10 154
factor,

steel

A-6

diagrams diagrams
sign
Shear Shear Shear load, convention modulus strain, stress,

for, 240 by integration

250

superposition, three-moment of
141 definition Statically

527 equation,
systems,

559

definition for axial y

89

of, 86 loaded 297 391

for circular

members,

Proportional
shear stress,

limit,

66

with
of, 5

for, 237 of elasticity, 140, 144

analysis by, displacement

697

method,
670
100, 687

106,

in bending, in springs, in torsion

187

bars,

displacements,
288,
209

shear theorem

stress

theory, of reciprocal
691

Radius,
members,
336

in axial y
17

loaded
286,

14,

of curvature,

282,499

of composite
301

materials, for torsion,

O

in bending,

analogy
3

of sections, of,

Octohedral

448

shear

stress

theory,

for
for

axial y
beams,

16

loaded
234

members,
175
329

14,

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

calculation of,
514, 687

of gyration, Ramberg-Osgood Reactions,

590
formula, 69 230,

Reciprocity
Redundant

Reinforced
Relation
Relation Relation

of flexibility coefficients, reactions, concrete

318

690 23,551,672

definition of, 6 due to axial force, 14, 20 in beam flanges, 380 in beams, 357, 367 in circular shafts, 179 in non-circular shafts, 207 in rivets and bolts, 21, 48
in thin-walled tubular

energy force

methods, method,

flexibility stif ness virtual

653

method, method,
work

102, 690 108, 702 methods, 650,

651,653 112,708, for through

definition of, 4 engineering, 65 fiber, 34 flexure, 283,286 hoop, 154

impact,

axial y loaded, 99 in frames, 99, 105, nonlinear problems,

713,721

in curved
maximum

96

bars,
and

306
minimum

beams,

304,

members,

213

maximum,

410

for
Middle-third Mises' Modulus, bulk, of

torsion
yield
152

members,
rule, condition,

Parallel-axis

theorem,

291,340

among
between between

E,
shear

G, moment,
curvature

and
and

v, 250
and

150

on

perpendicular
369, 410

planes,

9, 16,

in torsion, Steel shapes,

194 properties

Mohr's normal, plane,

normal, circle 5, 22 9, 149

15, of, 414

16

Pipe,
Plane Plane

standard
strain, stress, 149 149,

steel,
467

A-11

designing,
A-11

A-5
of, 75 191,209, 702

principal,

409,424

bending bending
336, 501

448

of elasticity,
resilience,

66
93

Plagtic Plastic
of

hinge, limit
continuous

710 analysis,
315, mechanisms 534

moment,
71

285,

principal, 410 superposition of, 386 SI units, facing inside back Sign convention,
for for for moment shear stress, in beams, in beams, 7, 405 238 237

cover

of rigidity, of rupture of rupture

shear, tangent, 141
70

141

of beams, collapse

Relaxation,

Stif ness, definition torsional, coefficients,

215

in,
beams and

711 206 710

Repeated
Residual Resilience, Restrained

loading,
stress, modulus beams, 19,

32
205,316 of, 93 551

reciprocity
Stif ness Strain, definition matrix,

of,
110,

703
702

in bending, in torsion,

314 204

frames, of torsional Plastic moment,

Photoelastic method

721 members, 315,

of

535,
stress

Mohr's for for

circle, strain, stress,

252

435 414,

417,426

Moment Moment
Moment-area
generaI,

(see Bending diagrams for

method,
537

tnoment) beams,

240,

Point Poisson's Polar Potential, Pressure Principal

for
theorems,

indeterminate
538

beams,

551

Principal Principal
Primary

analysis, of inflection, ratio, moment total, vessels, axes, shear stress system,

469 262
82 of inertia, 674 thin-walled, of inertia, 179

Rigidity, Rigidity, Rosettes, Rupture,

$

flexural, modulus strain, modulus

509 of,
438 of,

Simple Singularity Skew

141
204, 314

definition of, 228 functions, 263,523 bending (see Unsymmetrical bending) Slenderness ratio, 589 S-N diagrams, 32 Spherical pressure vessels, 155 Spring constant, 75
torsional, 191,209, 215

beams,

of,

extensional, h-rotational,
maximum, 436

61, 61 145

143

residual, t9, 205,316 shear, 19, 22 state of, 7, 405 tangential, 160 tensile, 5 tensor, 7, 446 three-dimensional, torsional, 179,208, transformation of,
424

10, 424 214 403,407,

triaxial,
true, 65

10,

424

319,

152 341

Safety Sandheap

index,

stress, circles,
101,688,

410 428
696

St.
St.

Venant's
Venant

44 analogy principle,
181,467

for
207

torsion, 15, 74,

210 86,

torsion,

Springs, helical, 389 Stability of equilibrium, columns, 574, 674 criteria for, 578
Euler load,

Mohr's natural, plane, principal, pure,

circle 61 146,

for, 149 433,436

435

Secant

formula

for

columns,

592

Statical

moment

583,585 of area,

362

145 shear, 140, 144 tensor, 145 thermal, 84 transformations true, 61

two-dimensional, 407 uniaxial, 10 Stress-strain, diagram, 62 idealization, 67, 69 relationships, 62 for shear, 139 Stress trajectories, 470 430

of,

Stretching, Suddenly

143 applied
531

loads,

98,

199,

IN-6
Superposition, of deflection, of strain,

Index
113,525 statically
problems, noncircircular thin-walled
213

indeterminate
194 solid tubular
209, 215 stif ness,

Vertical
bars, members, 207

shear

(see

Shear)

333

Virtual

displacement
658

method,

640,

of stress, of shear principle statically

113,319, 324 stresses, 386 of, 102 indeterminate problems solved

525

for
191,

static

Torsional 325,

spring

constant,
191

Virtual

101,

195,

319,

by,

Torsional

for

deflections, elastic

force

659

equilibrium,

642,653,
642

method,
659 systems,

641,658

386,

Toughness,

93

Supports

diagrammatic
simple,

225

conventions
226

for,

fixed,

226

Trajectories, stress, 470 Transformation, of moments of inertia, 341 of strain, 430 ' in two dimensions, 430 of stress, 403 for general state of stress, 424, 426

for

for condi642, tions

for trusses, work,

of compatibility,
644
644

Virtual

for beams for indeterminate

for

and

frames, systems,
657

645

650

Tables,

index

of,

A-1

in two
Transformed
302

Tensile Tensor,

Temperatur6
deviatoric dllatational

Tangential Tangent

deviation, modulus,
test, 31

or thermal

540 70, 59

dimensions, cross-sectional
444

407
area,

von

principle,
Mises

external, internal,

discrete

640, 641, 641 640, 642

yield

systems,

638

condition,
373

448

strain,

84

stress, stress,

446 446

Tresca Triaxial True True

yield condition, stress, 10 strain, 61 stress, 65

distortion
spherical
strain, stress,

stress,
stress,
145 7, 446

446
446
8
Uniaxial

Ultimate

stress,

strength,

10

31 beams strength (see

for,

Uniform 441 120

Uniform

zero-rank Theories Thermal

(order), of failure, stresses,

235

Thick-walled Thin-walled
Thrust,

cylinders, cylinders,
176

159 152

Unit,

beams) stress, conditions (see St. Venant's principle) dummy load, 644

strength Constant

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com

Warpage
Web,

Warpage

of beams,

of thin-walled

open

sections,

211

definition

of,

299

Welded
Wide

flange

joints
A-6

(WF) properties

(connections),

steel for

beams, designing,
work)

50

Wood,
Work, external, internal, principle Working

(see
(also

Lumber)
see Virtual 637 638 of least, 671 stress, 36, 607

Torque,
Torsion,
circular

internal,
members:

Unit

impulse

265 319

(or

step

function),

Unsymmetrical due to, 189, 177

Upper bound

bending
solution,

of beams,
715

angle-of-twist assumptions elastic elastic

205

Yield and fracture

Yield

inelastic,

energy torsion

202

of theory, in, 200 formula,

Tresca,
von

condition,
Mises,

criteria,
and point,
66

441
67

444
444

179

Variable

cross-section,
480

beams

of,

Yield

Young's

strength

modulus,

ENGINEERING

MECHANICS

OF SOLIDS

by

Egor

P. Popov

Noted Errata
Page
vi
x

in 1st Printing
Should read or be

April 23, 1990

Line 18 28

15

4 11

16 39
42 61 -

y' (prime y' (prime

1-26 Fig. remove 2-10

missing) missing)

Fig.
33
14

caption:
1-3fl

replace * by 21, and ** by 22.

bar over epsilon

67 7O

Fig:

missing

curve

(see fig.)

Fig.
22

2-i4

missing
replace fOX.

curve
with

(sec fig.)


75,
79 85

Fig. 2-29Co)

98 103
107

Fig. 2-40
13
12

change 6 mm to 16 
add fi3g. gl after An 
remove i after at

add sub T to delta

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rim2

110

Last paragraph
of the "leltas

Add for clarity:

In  _2-42 to

must be zero and its P fXe, g.,

Add R2 to bottom more after arrow

112

Fig. 2-53

361
433

Fig. 7 .d
17

reverse
remove remove

arrow direction
approach

for Fa
casco

18
641

add at end: for a

10
HALF

- iLLeXl,i
e on W
of t remove

last subscript
R, is to middle is positive:

A-4
TUBE

OF THIN

A-13

X=,, = v(0)

-.

BASE

SI

UNITS

* Derived

unit

(ks.naYs

2)

Quantity length mass force* time

Unit meter kilogram newton second

(Symbol) (m)
(kg) (N)* (s)

RCOMMENDED

MUL'riPLE

AND

SUBMUL'r!PLE

UNiI'S

inches (in) inches (in) foot (ft) square inches (in 2) cubic feet (ft 3)
G M

To Convert

mil imeters meters meters square cubic

To
(m) (m) meters meters

(mm)

Multiply

(m 2) (m 3)
2 (m/s 2)

25.400 0.025 0.304 0.000 0.028

1.0 9.81

By
400 800 645 317

Multiplication
1 000 000 1 000

Factor
1 000 0.001

Prefix
kilo mil i

SI Symbol
k m

000 000

giga mega

cycles per second (cps) acceleration of gravity,

standard

hertz (Hz) meters/second

0.000

0.000

000

001

001

micro
nano

ix

with

for example,
mN

A dot is to be used to separate

which

a newton-meter
stands

for

mil inewtons.

is writ en
SI unit.

units

that are multiplied

N.m

and must

not be confused

together.

NON-ACTIVATED VERSION (kip) www.avs4you.com per square

Thus, units,
pound-mass pound-force kilopound-force pound-force
foot

(lb) (lbf)

(psf)

kilogram (kg) newtons (N) kilonewtons (kN) newtons/meter a

(N/m 2 = Pa)

0.453 4.448 4.448 47.880 a 6.894

592 222 222

except

Use of prefixes
for

groups of three, separated to the left and to the right

system

For numbers
of

kg since

is to be avoided
kg is a base

in the denominator

of compound

having

37 638.246

units.

15 instead

by spaces instead of commas, counting both of the decimal point. Thus, for example, write of 37,638.24615 as writ en in the U.S. Customary

four or more

digits,

the digits

should

be placed

in

pound-force inch (psi) kilopound-force

square
newtons

per square
inch (ksi)
square

per
meter

kilonewtons/meter (kN/m 2 = kPa) meganewtons/meter

(MN/m
-- MPa)

757

2 = N/mm

6.894
1.0

757

(N/m

2)

per

pascals newton-meter
newton-meter

(Pa) (N.m)
(N.m)

inch-pound
foot-pound
horsepower
ft-lbf/s)

force
force
(hp

(in.-lbf)
(ft-lbf)
= 550

0.112 1.355

985 818

newton-meter (N.m/s)

per

second

745.700

* For further details see Standard for Metric Practice, E380-86, ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, and Recommended Practice for the Use of Metric (SI) Units in Building Design and Construction, NBS Technical Note 938, U.S. Department
of Commerce, Washington, D.C.

Gravitational
lkgf= 9.81N

acceleration

U.S.

units:

g = 32.1740
g = 9.806

ft/sec"65 m/s 2

in SI units:

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