ABBREVIATIONS
OF
AIAA
ORGANIZATIONS
AISC
API ASCE ASME ASTM AWS SEM
h I
flexibility,
allowable stress computed stress (AISC of elasticity in shear of gravity depth of beam
of inertia of cross-sectional
(AISC notation)
notation)
area
American American
American
Institute Institute
Petroleum
of of
Aeronautics Steel
Institute
and Construction
Astronautics
K
k
L
M
Society of Civil Engineers Society of Mechanical Engineers Society for Testing and Materials Welding Society for Experimental Mechanics
ABBREVIATIONS
O!:
UNITS
allow
av
O!:
allowable
average
MEASURE
AND
OTHER
TERMS
cr
critical
F.S.
factor ft foot, hp horsepower Hz hertz in inch, k kip(s) kg kilogram(s) kip kilopound ksi kips lb pound(s) m meter,
N newton neutral
of safety
feet
per
second)
bending moment, mass moment m moment caused by virtual unit force N of revolutions per minute P force, concentrated load P pressure intensity, axial force due to unit or statical moment of area Afhj around Q first load intensity, shear flow q distributed R reaction, radius S elastic section-modulus (S = l/c) S S-shape (standard) steel beam s second(s) radius, radius of gyration
torque, temperature
t
of inertia
factor,
constant
of circular effective
cross-sectional length
factor
force
neutral
axis
per
libra,
weight)
w w
w
NA
thicknesss, width, tangential deviation strain energy internal force caused by virtual unit shear force (often vertical), volume deflection of beam, velocity total weight, work W-shape (wide flange) steel beam weight or load per unit of length plastic section modulus
load,
axial
or
radial
displacement
Pa psi
rad
pascal pounds
radian
per
square
per minute
inch
GREEK
LETTER
SYMBOLS
rpm
ult
revolutions
ultimate
yp
ROMAN LETTER SYMBOLS
yield
point,
yield
stress
Afghj
A
c
area,
area
bounded
area
of cross
width
from
by center
section
axis
line
of the
perimeter
area
of a thin
tube
b breadth,
distance
partial
area
of beam
neutral
cross-sectional
or from
center
of
twist
to
extreme
fiber
d diameter, E modulus
distance, of elasticity
depth in tension
or compression
e -/ A e 0 K k r p cr 'r qb to
coefficient of thermal expansion, shear strain, weight per unit total deformation or deflection,
normal strain
slope
curvature
angle
ratio
for
elastic
curve,
buckling
angle
problems
of inclination
of line
on body
eigenvalue
Poisson's
in column
radius
stress
radius,
of
curvature
tensile
shear
or compressive
angle velocity of twist, general
stress
(i.e.,
angle
normal
stress)
total angular
PRENTICE-HALL
IN CIVIL
Wil iam
ENGINEERING
J, Hall,
INTERNATIONAL
Editor
AND
ENGINEERING
SERIES
MECHANICS
Popov, p.
E.
P. (Egor cm. --
Paul)
Engineering
engineering Bibliography:
Includes ISBN
mechanics
(Prentice-Hall
of solids
mechanics)
international
/ Egor
P. Popov.
series
in civil
and
index. 0-13-279258-3
engineering p.
of materials.
1990
I. Strength
TA405.P677
620. I' 12--dc20
I. Title.
I.
Series.
89-8860 CIP
Cover
Interior
Editorial/production
design:
design:
Bruce
Jules
supervision:
Kenselaar
Perlmutter;
Mary
Sophie
Noonan
Off-Broadway
Papanikolaou
Graphics
Abbreviations
Preface
and
Symbols:
See
Inside
Front
Cover
XV
Cover Il ustration:
Manufacturing
buyer:
Artist's
Conception
of stress transformation.
1990
A Division
by
Prentice-Hall,
of Simon
Inc.
& Shuster
1-1
Introduction
Method
of
Sections
3 4 7
11
Englewood
Clifs,
New
Jersey
07632 Part
of
Stress
Tensor
*'1-5
Derential
B
Equations
ANALY$1$
of Equilibrium
P ALLY
$T$$
reproduced,
All rights
reserved. permission
without
in any
form
No part
in writing
or by any
means,
may
be
1-6 1-7 Stresses
Loaded
'12
the publisher.
on
Bars
Inclined Nomal
Sections Stress
in ial y
12
Mimum
Shear Stresses
in iy
Loaded
Bars
16 19
22
Printed
10987654321
in the
United
States
of America
1-8
1-9
Part
Analysis
DTNISTIC DSiN
for
BASS
Normal
AND
and
Shear
POBABIHSTC
Stresses
ISBN
Prentice-Hall
Prentice-Hall
0-13-279258-3
International
Canada
Prentice-Hall
of Australia
Inc.,
Pty.
(UK)
Toronto
Limited,
Limited,
S.A.,
Sydney
London
34
Simon
& Schuster
Asia
Pte.
Ltd.,
Limited, To3'o
*'1-12
38
*'1-13 *'1-14
Singapore
clc :oblcs
ons
47 5O
52
vi
Contents
Contents
vii
Part
2-1 Introduction
**3-4 **3-5
3-6
AND
Mathematical
Strain
HOOKE'$
Definition
Tensor
LAW
of Strain
143 145
Part
2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5
A
6O
Normal Hooke's Strain Law
**3-8
3-7
Generalized E, G and
Dilatation
Hooke's v R61ationshipss
and Bulk
Law
Modulus
for
Isotropic
Materials
146 150
Stress-strain
Relationships
60 62 64
Part
3-9 '3-10
THiN-WALLED
Remarks
PRESSURE
on
VSSELS
Pressure
Further
Deformation
Poisson's
Other
Idealizations
Strain
Remarks
Ratio
on Stress-strain
of Axial y
and
of Constitutive
Loaded
Deformation
Relationships
Bars
Relations
67 68
71 82
Cylindrical
and
Thin-walled
Spherical
Pressure
Vessels
Vessels
157
Thermal
Part
*'3-11
D
Introduction
159
Dynamic
B
Elastic Deflections
Saint-Venant's
Strain
and
Principle
and Stress
Uniaxial Method
Stress
Concentrations
84 86 91 94 96
*'3-12
*'3-13 *'3-14
Solution
of
the
General
Problem
160
165
Loads
Special Behavior
Problems
Cases of Ideally
Plastic
Thick-walled
Cylinders
167
171
Part
2-14 2-15 2-16 *'2-17 2-18
General
Considerations
Displacement
Freedom Problems
Method
with
Several
Indeterminate
Method
100
Degrees
Nonlinear
of
106
4-1
Introduction
175
4-2
Application
of the
Method
of Sections
175
Introduction
Deflections
108 112
Part
4-3 4-4
4-5
'2-19
for
Alternative
Equation
Approach
Basic
The Remarks
Assumptions
Torsion on Formula the Torsion
for
Circular
Formula
Members
Problems
125
127
4-6 4-7
4-8 *4-9
Design
Stress
of Circular
Concentrations
Members
of Circular
in Torsion
Members Problems Equation
*'4-10
Oyfincer
3-1 Introduction
Approach
197 199 201
*'4-11 *'4-12
Energy Shaft
B
4-13
and Couplings
Impact
Loads
Part
A 0ONSTTUTIVE
3-2
3-3 Elastic
RELATIONSHIPS
Relationships
Energy for Shear
FOR
for Shear
Stresses
139 141
Part
TORSIION
Shear Stresses
OF
Inelastic
INELASTIC
and Deformations
011ROULAR
in Circular
BARS
Shafts
202
202
Stress-strain
Strain
in the
Range
vii
Contents
Contents
JX
Part
*'4-15
'4-14
C TORSION
Warping
Solid Bars
OF $OHD
of Thin-Walled
of any Cross
NONCIRCULAR
207
Section
with
Part
Pure
6-1
ial
A
Iending
Ii=orce$
O;
SECTIONS
and
Iending
280
280
Open
Sections
21!
Introduction
Part
'4-16
D TORSION
Thin-walled
Problems
O: THIN-WALLED
Hollow Members
TUBULAR
213 217
BENDING
CROSS The
The
BEAMS
WITH
Assumption
Formula
SY'dMETffiC
281 283
6-2 6-3
Basic
Elastic
Kinematic
Flexure
*6-4
6-5
Computation Applications
Stress Concentrations
of Inertia Formula
5
5-1 Introduction
224
*6-6 *6-7
Elastic Beams
Curved
Energy
Inelastic
B
Bending
Part
'5-2
A
*5-3 *5-4
*5-5
CALCULATION
Classification
OF
of Beams
REACTIONS
Part
225 226
6-11
Diagrammatic Diagrammatic
Conventions Conventions
Calculation
of Beam
Part
SH=AR,
5-6 5-7 5-8 5-9 5-10
AND
Force
in Beams
WITH
AXIAL
LOADS
*'6-14
about both Principal Axes Bending with Axial Loads Bending with Axial Loads of Beams with Unsymmetric
MOMENTS OF
and Products
319
324 333
(Arbitrary)
234
Section
336
Axial
Application
of the
Moment
in Beams
Method
in Beams
of Sections
Part
'6-15 '6-16
AREA
Area
INERTIA
of Inertia
340
340 34l 343
Shear
Moments
Bending Diagrams
Principal
Problems
Axes
of Inertia
Axial-Force,
Shear,
and
Bending-Moment
240
Part
5-11
SHEAR
BY
Element
INTEGRATION
AND
BENDING
Equations
MOMENTS
248
Shear and
7-1
Stresses Ielated
Introduction
in
357
Dif erential
Shear Moment Effect
of Equilibrium
for a Beam
of the Load of the Shear on Moment
Curve
248
Part
A
7-2 7-3 7-4 '7-5
SHEAR
elimina
She Flow
STRESSES
Remks
Shear-stress Fomula
IN
57
357 361
5-12 5-13
5-14
5-15
Diagrams
*'5-16
250
252 258 261 263
The
for
Betas
367
Moment
Problems
Singularity
and
the
Elastic
Waage
7-7
*7-6
7-8
269
Some She
Shear
Limitations Stresses
Center
of Plane
of the in Beam
Sections
She-stress Flanges
Due
to She
373
Formula
Contents
Contents
xi
386
7-9
Combined
Direct
and
Torsional
Shear
Stresses
*'7-10 *'7-11
Stresses Deflection
Problems
in Closely of Closely
Coiled Coiled
Helical Helical
Springs Springs
-9-1
391
Introduction
459
Part
9-2 9-3
ELASTII
State of
ST:SS
Stress for
ANALYSS
Some Basic Cases
46!
*'9-4
Comparative Experimental
Accuracy Methods
of Beam of Stress
Solutions Analysis
466
8-1
Introduction
Part
403
470
Part
8-2 8-3
A
The Problems 8-4 8-5 Basic Problem
4O3
403
Transformation
of
Stresses
in Two-dimensional
40?
Principal
Maximum
Problems
Stresses
Shear
in Two-dimensional
Stresses in Two-dimensional
Problems
409 410
of Axial y Loaded Members of Torsion Members Criteria for Prismatic Beams of Prismatic Beams of Nonprismatic Beams of Complex Members
470 471
472
475
Mohr's
Problems
*8-7
Circle
of
of St3ess
Mohr's
Construction
Transformation
**8-8
8-9
Principal
Mohr's
Stresses
Circle for
for
a General
for
Two-dimensional
for
Circles
Stress
10-1
Introduction
498
a General
State
of Stress
424 426
State
of
Stress
Part
499
499 501
Part
8-10 8-11
B
Strains in Two Dimensions
43O
430
10-2
10-3
Moment-Curvature
Relation
*'10-4
10-5 10-6 10-7
Transformation Alternative
in Two Mohr's Dimensions Circle
of
Strain
Derivation
for
Dimensions Transformation
Strain
430
Two-dimensional
433 43.5
/'10-8
10-9
Part
8-15
8-16 '8-17
8-18 8-19 8-20
'10-10
44'
'10-11 '10-12
Governing Dif erential Equation Alternative Drivation of the Governing Alternative Forms of the Governing Boundary Conditions Direct-Integration Solutions Singularity Functions for Beams Deflection by Superposition Deflection in Unsymmetrical Bending Energy Method for Deflections and
Inelastic Deflection of Beams
Equation
Equation
504
505 505 507 523 525 529
Impact
531 535
Introductory Maximum
Remarks Shear-Stress
44!
Theory
Maximum Comparison
Energy Maximum Comparison
Problems
Distortion-Energy of Maximum-Shear
Theories for Plane Normal Stress of Yield and Stress Theory Fracture
Theory
and Distortion-
444
**Part
*'10-13
B
;THOD Introduction
Moment-Area
537
to the
Theorems
448 449
Moment-Area
Method
Criteria
450
453
*'10-14 *'10-15
Statically
Problems
Indeterminate
Beams
xii
Contents
Contents
Xll
574
11-1 Introduction
574
Part
'12-10
C
General
'11-2 11-3
Part
11-4
11-5
Examples Criteria
A
'1-11
'12-12 '12-13 *'12-14
Strain
Energy
Remarks
661
and
Complementary
Systems
Strain-Energy
of Equilibrium FO
with with
Formulas
Theorems
Castigliano's Statically
BUCKLING
Euler Euler
Restraints
THEORY
Load Loads for Columns for Columns
the Euler
COLU/INS
Pinned Dif erent Ends End
583
83 585
Elastic
Energy'for
Theorems Indeterminate
Buckling
Loads
674 676
Problems
$TA'I OALL
'13-1
INDE'ERIINA'E
686
Limitations
of
588
Generalized
Eccentric
Beam-Columns
Euler
Loads and
Buckling-Load
the Secant
Formulas
Formula
590 592
Introduction
'11-9 *'11-10
596
Alternative
Columns
Dif erential
Equations
for
Beam600
Part
'13-2 '13-3
ELASTIC
Two
Force
/IETHODS
Basic
Method
OF
for Elastic
ANALYSIS
Analysis
687
687 687 690 697
Methods
Part
'11-11 '11-12
'11-13
'13-4
General
Concentrically Eccentrically Lateral
Problems
Considerations
Stability
'11-14
Method
Method
700 703
Part
B PLASTIC
708
70
73
623
'13-8
Plastic
Limit
Analysis
of Beams
Frames
'13-9
Continuous
Beams
Problems
12-1
Introduction
634
APPENDICES:
TABLES
ANSWERS
INDEX
TO
Factors
See Inside
ODD-NU/IBERED
between
Back Cover
PROBLEMS
U.S. Customary and
Part
12-2 12-3
A
635
Conversion
SI Units:
Elastic
Strain
Energy
535
Displacements
B
by Conservation
WORK ETHODS
of Energy
537
Part
'12-4
12-5
VIIRTUAL
Virtual
Virtual
Work
Forces
Principle
for Deflections
638
642
12-6 12-7
Virtual
Virtual
Force
Forces
Equations
for
Indeterminate
for
Elastic
Equilibrium Systems
Problems
Systems
644
650
651
*'12-8 *'12-9
Virtual Virtual
Discrete
for
657
This book
Materials chanics
plement
is an update
disciplines.
the traditional
Among
rigorous treatment is selectively provided. A few more advanced topics have also VERSION been introduced. As a result, the book is larger than its predNON-ACTIVATED ecessors. This has an advantage in that the user of this text has a larger choice for study, according to needs. Moreover, experience shows that www.avs4you.com the serious student retains the text for use as a reference in professional
life.
structural analysis, modest exposure to the matrix methods, and il ustrations using the method of finite elements are discussed. Further, to conform with the more mathematical trend in teaching this subject, more
these,
topics
some treatment
2nd Ed., 1976) and Introduction Inc., 1968). It was felt important
earlier
texts,
Mechanics
of the probabilistic
to newly
emerging
to Meto sup-
of
basis for
up course
text
material
on the subject
can
for a basic
It is the belief of the author that the serious wealth of available material in the text, even should become more knowledgeable. Several
integrated
sequence
of the subject, numerous sections, examples, and with a ** can be omit ed, To a lesser extent, this also marked with a *. These guides to possibilities for delethroughout the text. In a few instances, suggestions for
by means
course
ht an intermediate
that
easily be covered in a one quarter it should prove useful for a fol ow-
is consecutive,
level.
As an aid in selecting
with no gaps
in the
in studying
of cross-referencing.
the subject
The
text
tioned
lowable
glance
thin-walled
suggests
the limitations
1-26,
design
For example,
of axial y a design.
pressure
of such
showing
histograms
loaded
while
limitations
vessels;
are place
even
The
by the ASME
a superficial
same
for two
members
the student
is true
materials,
in Chapter
is studying
examination
should
1, a mere studying
the alreveal
of Fig.
3-24
xvi
Preface
Preface
xvii
variation
structor.
can text
diately minate
depending
of the text.
of the subject and issues of possible Chapter 2 forms the cornerstone careful y. The introduced concepts
and brought
formulas for thin-walled pressure vessels. Modest exposure to some matrix solutions and il ustrations obtained using finite-element methods should arouse interest. Some exposure to the plastic-limit-state methods given in the last section of the last chapter warrants attention. In the hands of an instructor, these side issues can be discussed in a minimum of time
der Kiureghian
probabilistic
in wherever
desired.
Next,
on preference.
Further,
the sequence
For
in introducing however,
example,
of study
some
remarks
by studying
are raised. and has to be studied used in the remainder Section 2-19
on the philosophy
Herrmann (UCD), and J. M. Ricles (UCSD) gave useful Chapter 2; E. L. Wilson (UCB) offered useful comments S. B. Dong (UCLA) encouraged more rigorous development of composite beams resulting in significant improvements;
methods
(UCB)
in Chapter
provided
valuable
1; M. D. Engelhardt
assistance
(UCD)
tions.
can be varied,
couraged Roeder
suggested
useful refinements
for Chapter
(UTA),
L. R.
on
require
method approach.
assistance
imme-
an in-
velopment of the text: M. S. Agbabian (USC), H. Astaneh (UCB), D.O. Brush (UCD), A. K. Chopra (UCB), F. Hauser (UCB), J. M. Kelly (UCB), P. Monteiro (UCB), F. Moffit (UCB), J. L. Sackman (UCB), R. Stephen (UCB), R. L. Taylor (UCB), and G. Voyiadjis (LSU). Dr. K. C. Tsai (NTU) provided valuable assistance in supervising the assembly of
In addition
to these,
with oughly
The
in U.S.
in addition
to its virtually
for aXes. If needed, it can easily be modified The engineering sign convention for shear used,
however,
it is in conflict
problem
results
the
solutions
in using
integrations.
universal
it in hand
with
The introduction
the basic algebra and comprehensive meaning of the concircles is the same, two alternative methods are in general are strong advocates for each method. Therefore, both developed; the choice of procedure is left to the reader,
one remaining as a reference. of this book, over 30 people to its development. Among
of Mohr's
NON-ACTIVATED on one VERSION of the earlier books, Drs. S. Nagarajan use in design, requires no sign changes Experience has shown that fewer mistakes In producing this book, Douglas Humphrey of Prentice-Hall spared no effort in preparing circles of stress www.avs4you.com and strain presented a probsuggested
contributed
The
author
for
figures
Among the proceeding, M. D. Engelhardt, also assisted with the preparation of finite
thanks
7-13,
the remainder
9-8.
was compiled
to each
sincerely
improvements.
to this
7-14,
9-7
and
R. L. element
for
The author
a debt
also thanks
of gratitude
and Z. A. Lu,
his collaborators
who
indi-
calculations.
text
also.
an excellent Lastly, as in all previous books, the author again is deeply his wife, Irene, for unstinting support and continual help'with
uscript.
EaoR
and Sophie
Papanikolaou
P.
and
(ASU)?,
encouragement
t Letters
(UCB),
entire
UCSB),
M. E. Criswell
manuscript
J. J. Tuma and
J. L. Lubliner
and offered
made
(ASU),
(CSU),
(UCB),
numerous
useful
and
J. Dempsey
G. A. Wempner
(CU),
H. D. Eberhart
Berkeley,
California
(UCB
and A. C. Scordelis
suggestions
the fol owing
valuable
suggestions;
Clarifying
for
(UCB)
provided
ASU,
F. Filippou
text;
the A.
much
Uni versity; InstituteCSU, of ColTechnol orado ogy; State LSU, UniversitLoui y; siana CU, StatCl emson University; NTU, GINaT, Georgia e University;
Taiwan University; UCB, University of California, Berkeley; UCD, Uniof California at Davis; UCLA, University of California at Los Angeles; University of California at Santa Barbara; USC, University of Southern
in parentheses
identify
universities:
Arizona
State
California;
of Queensland;
ter
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION properly proportioned to resist the actual or probable forces that may be imposed upon them. Thus, the walls of a pressure vessel must be of adwww.avs4you.com equate strength to withstand the internal pressure; the floors of a building
In all engineering machine must construction, be assigned definite the component physical sizes. parts
1-1.
Introduction
must be sufficiently strong for their intended purpose; the shaft of a machine must be of adequate size to carry the required torque; a wing of an airplane must safely withs.tand the aerodynamic loads that may come upon it in takeoff, flight, and landing. Likewise, the parts of a composite structure must be rigid enough so as not to deflect or "sag" excessively when in operation under the imposed loads. A floor of a building may be strong enough but yet may deflect excessively, which in some instances may cause misalignment of manufacturing equipment, or in other cases result in the cracking of a plaster ceiling attached underneath. Also a member may be so thin or slender that, upon being subjected to compressive loading, it wil collapse through buckling, i.e., the initial configuration of a member may become unstable. The ability to determine the maximum load that a slender column can carry before buckling occurs or the safe
level of vacuum that can be maintained by a vessel is of great practical
importance.
In engineering practice, such requirements must be met with the minimum expenditure of a given material. Aside from cost, at times--as in the design of satel ites--the feasibility and success of the whole mission may depend on the weight of a package. The subject of mechanics of
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.'l-2.
Method
of
Sections
naterials,
work of Galileo in the early part of the seventeenth investigations into the behavior of solid bodies fol owed precedents and empirical rules. Galileo
to explain the behavior of some of the members
stif ness (deformation characteristics), and stability of the various loadcarrying members. Alternately, the subject may be called the nechanics of solid defornable bodies, or simply nechanics of solids. Mechanics of solids is a fairly old subject, generally dated from the
in the
past,
or the
involves
strength
analytical
ofnaterials,
methods
as it has
for
determining
been
traditionally
the
strength,
called
part of the subject, but this branch is left to other books. I Here the end
results of such investigations are of interest, and this book is concerned with the analytical or mathematical part of the subject in contradistinction to experimentation. For these reasons, it is seen that mechanics of solids is a blended science of experiment and Newtonian postulates of analytical mechanics. It is presumed that the reader has some familiarity in both of
these areas. In the development
dominant role.
century. Prior to his under loads, constructors was the first to attempt
under load on a rational
of this subject,
statics
plays a particularly
basis. beams
course,
members construction
has
in tension of hulls
been made
Italian
but
and
notably navy. Of
it must be
This text wil be limited to the simpler topics of the subject. In spite of the relative simplicity of the methods employed here, the resulting techniques are unusually useful as they apply to a vast number of technically
noted in passing that much is owed in the development of this subject to the French investigators, among whom a group of outstanding men such as Coulomb, Poisson, Navier, St. Venant, and Cauchy, who worked at the break of the nineteenth century, has left an indelible impression on
this
of mechanics of solids cuts broadly across all branches the engineering profession with remarkably many applications. Its ods are needed by designers of offshore structures; by civil engineers the design of bridges and buildings; by mining engineers and architectural
The
subject. subject
The subject matter The number of basic structural and machine of solids is relatively must develop an ability tities being computed.
important
problems.
of
of problems
complete
chinery
design
who and
each
by metal urgists,
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION stress are discussed in the last part of the www.avs4you.com
in
meth-
who
by nuclear engineers and chemical engifor the design of maneed the fundamental the
There are three major parts in this chapter. The general concepts of stress are treated first. This is fol owed with a particular case of stress distribution in axial y loaded members. Strength design criteria based on
chapter.
masterly
to be solved
can be mastered best by solving formulas necessary for the members by the methods of small; however, throughout to visualize a problem and Complete, carefidly drawn
subject.
of this
numerous problems. analysis and design of engineering mechanics this study, the reader the nature of the quandiagrammatic sketches
in a quicker
and more
of this
further;
subject
finally,
in order
by
electrical
to understand
how
who
to improve
need
methods
existing
of this
subject
because
It is a definite
of the
importance
of the
and
mechanical
engineering
continuum
mechanics
me-
of the
the
alongside
most
two
funda-
ap-
1=2.
Method
of
Sections
mental
other trical
basic theory.
subjects
subjects
of an engineering
as fluid
mechanics,
curriculum?
thermodynamics,
standing
depends govern
as well
as elec-
such
laws
but
of a member of Newtonian
also on
subjected
the
mechanical
mechanics
to forces
characteristics
that
of the
not the
One of the main problems of engineering mechanics of vestigation of the internal resistance of a body, that is, the set up within a body to balance the effect of the externally For this purpose, a uniform method of approach is employed. diagrammatic sketch of the member to be investigated
which
is observed of breaks,
is fabricated. The necessary information regarding the laboratory, where materials are subjected known forces and the behavior of test specimens
etc.
regard to such Determination phenomena of such as the phenomena
forces
Such a sketch is called afi'ee-body diagram. including the reactive forces caused by the
1985).
acting
6n a body
are shown
to
occurrence is a vital
W. D. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering (New York: Wiley, 1985). J. F. Shackelford, Introduction to Materials Science for Eng#eers (New York: Macmil an, 1985). L. H. Van Vlack, Materials Science for Engineers, 5th ed.,
of Stress
internal
p,,
Fig.
(c),
where
parts.
1-1(a)
into
an arbitrary
two
The
result
plane
parts.
ABCD
a process
This
separates
can
concerns completely
the
be seen wil
process
original
in Figs.
be referred
body
and
of
(a) (b)
method of sections. Then, if the body as part of it must also be in equilibrium. For some of the forces necessary to maintain section. These considerations lead to the sion: the externally applied forces to one be balanced by the #zternal forces developed
external forces are balanced by the internal
a whole is in equilibrium, any such parts of a body, however, equilibriummust act at the cut fol owing fundamental concluside of an arbitrmy cut must at the cut, or, briefly, the
forces. Later it wil be seen
Fig. t-2 Sectioned body: (a) free body with some internal forces, (b) enlarged view with components of Ap.
and
inthey
tensity
of these
forces
to forces
on the
depends
various
portions
of a section
In general,
as resistance
that the cutting planes wil be oriented in particular requirements. However, the method of sections first step in solving all problems where internal
$1
tigated.
(b)
In discussing
the
method
of sections,
multiplied
m of the
directions to fit special wil be relied upon as a forces are being investo note that some
vary
section.
from
It is advantageous
point
to point
and
to resolve
are inclined
with
intensities shown
respect
to the plane
perpendicular in Fig.
of the
and this In
parallel
to the
section
investigated.
section
As an example,
the body
the components
1-2(b).
of a
to the
The
it is significant
a force
force
particular
diagram,
so computed
is applied
acceleration,
to the
the
body
dynamic
at its mass
instantaneously
problem
center
With
is reduced
in a direction
one
op-
stress--hold
is
the directions .of AP. and of the normal to AA'coincide. parallel to the section is further resolved into components and z axes. components of the intensity of force per unit area--i.e.,
the
through
is perpendicular
true
only
at a point,
the
mathematical
definition
3 of stress
of
of
d'Alembertprinciple. of as being
of view, of static
From
body.
Fig.
t-t
Sectioning
of a
any
in static on vhich
can
before.
be shown.
equilibforces
and
then
on infinitesimal
areas
These
of a cut
are
of
where, in all three cases, the first subscript of r (tau) indicates that the plane perpendicular to the x axis is considered, and the second designates the direction of the stress component. In the next section, all possible combinations of subscripts for stress wil be considered. The intensity of the force perpendicular to or normal to the section is called the nortnal stress at a point. It is customary to refer to normal
stresses that cause traction or tension on the surface of a section as tensile
varying
(c),
magnitudes
and
as is again
and
shown
directions,
as was
1-2(a).
shown
earlier
forces
in Figs.
are
vectorial
1-1(b)
stances,
manner
associated
center
these
of mass.
body
with
forces
can be considered
units
of volume
loads
However,
those that are pushing against it are cotnnormal stresses wil usually be designated of by a double subscript on -r. A single
the
in-
3 As AA - 0, some
question
from
the atomic
point
(uniform)
of view
model
exists
for
in defining
nonhomo-
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
t-4.
Stress
Tensor
subscript then suffices to designate the direction of the axis. The other components of the intensity of force act parallel to the plane of the elementary area. These components are called shear' or shear#zg stresses. Shear stresses wil be always designated by The reader should form a clear mental picture of the stresses called normal and those called shearing. To repeat, normal stresses result from force components perpendicular to the plane of the cut, and shear stresses result from components tangential to the plane of the cut. It is seen from the definitions that since they represent the intensity of force on an area, stresses are measured in units of force divided by units of area. In the U.S. customary system, units for stress are pounds per square inch, abbreviated psi. In many cases, it wil be found convenient to use as a unit of force the coined word kip, meaning kilopound, or 1000 lb. The stress in kips per square inch is abbreviated kM. It should be noted
Some conversion factors from U.S. customary the inside of the back cover. It may be useful 1 in = 25 mm, 1 pound-force - 4.4 newtons, It should be emphasized that stresses multiplied on which they act give forces. At an imaginao, these forces, called stress resultants, keeps
to SI units are given on to note that approximately and 1 psi -- 7000 Pa. by the respective areas section, a vector sum of a body in equilibrium. In
engineering
are
stresses
generally
mechanics
are determined.
determined
of.solid,
first,
the stress
and
then,
resultants
using
established
at a selected
formulas,
section
1-4.
Stress
Tensor
plane
an infinitesimal
the
to the
section
that
the
unit
pound
referred
to here
implies
a pound-force,
not
a pound-
mass. Such ambiguities are avoided in the modernized version of the metric system referred to as the International System of Units or SI units. 4 SI units are being increasingly adopted and wil be used in this text along with the U.S. customary system of units in order to facilitate a smooth
distance
implied
away
and parallel
free
body be
would normal
to the first
of Fig.
were
I-2,
another
Then, pair,
passed
if an a cube
of infinitesimal is shown
transition. The base units in SI.are meter 5 (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, and second (s) for time. The derived unit for area is a square neter (m2), and for acceleration, a tneter pet' second squared (m/s2). The
unit of force is defined as a unit mass subjected to a unit acceleration,
i.e., kilogram-meter pet' second squared (kg-m/s2), and is designated a newton (N). The unit of stress is the newton pet' square meter (N/m2), also designated a pascal (Pa). Multiple and submultiple prefixes representing steps of 1000 are recommended. For example, force can be shown in mil inewtons (1 mN = 0.001 N), newtons, or kilonewtons (1 kN = 1000 N), length in mil #neters (1 mm = 0.001 m), meters, or kiloneters (1 km = 1000 m), and stress in kilopascals (1 kPa = 103 Pa), megspascals (1 MPa = 106 Pa), or gigspascals (1 GPa = 109 Pa), etc. 6
dimensions would be isolated from the body. Such a cube in Fig. 1-3(a). All stresses acting on this cube are identified on the diagram. As noted earlier, the first subscripts on the -r's associate the stress with a plane perpendicular to a given axis; the second subscripts designate the direction of the stress. On the near faces of the cube, i.e., on the faces away from the origin, the directions of stress are positive if
coincide
toward
the
with
origin,
the
positive
from
directions
the
action-reaction
of the
axes.
equilibrium
On the faces
concept,
of the
positive
If at a point
axes. (Note that for normal from -r to , a single subscript ambiguity.) The designations used in the mathematical
stresses
act
in the
direction
in question
a dif erent
stresses, by changing the symbol for on cr suffices to define this quantity for stresses shown in Fig. 1-3(a) are theories of elasticity and plasticity.
opposite
to the
positive
directions
set of axes
are
chosen,
the
corre-
The
stress
expressed
numerically
in units
of N/m
2 may
appear
to be
unusually small to This is because the and 1 square meter inch. Therefore, it in terms of a force
those familiar with the U.S. customary system of units. force of 1 newton is small in relation to a pound-force, is associated with a much larger area than 1 square is often more convenient in most applications to think of 1 newton acting on 1 square mil imeter. The units
for
(MPa).
such
4 From s Also
a quantity
the French, spelled metre.
usage can
are
Syst6me
be found
N/mm
2, or,
International
in preferred
d'Unit6s.
notation,
megapascals
(a)
General acting on
element
state an
in the
initial General
coordinate state
an infinitesimal
system. of stress
element
acting
system
(b)
style,
86.
a A detailed
and
discussion
of SI units,
back cover.
SocieFor ty conveni for ence,Testing anda short Materialtsable as ASTM Standard for is Met ric Practonice the E-380of conversion factors included inside
in a comprehensive
including
guide
conversion
published
factors,
by the
rules
American
for SI
(a) (b)
(7/
on
defined
of
sense.
in a rotated
coordinate axes.
All
stresses
have
positive
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
t-4.
Stress
Tensor
sponding
stresses
are
as shown
in Fig.
1-3(b).
These
stresses
are
related,
but
are
not
generally
from
equal,
one
to those
set
shown
in Fig.
1-3(a).
to another which can
The
process
is termed be defined
'iry x
B
The state components on each of the three mutually perpendicular (oraxes in mathematical terminology is called a tensor. Precise processes apply for transforming tensors, including from one set of axes to another. A simple case of stress trans-
wil
examination
be encountered
in the
8.
symbols
next
section,
in Fig.
and
1-3(a)
a more
shows
complete
is given
are three
stresses: three
manner
An
normai
a column
stresses:
-ry., -ryz, P.,
six shearing
that
there
,.y, components:
as
-ry, Py,
vector:
, . ,
Mc where area,
= 0
+
arm.
dz)(dy) correspond
(Txy)(dy
dz)(dx) respectively
= 0 to stress,
Analogously,
the
stress
components
can
be assembled
as fol ows:
(1-2)
in indicial designations
it in
'ri. This fol ows For this purpose, dy, and dz, and axis in Fig. 1-4.
Next,
it wil
be shown
directly sum Only let the the the
from
that
the
equilibrium
stress
tensor
is symmetric,
for an element. element be dx, axis such as the z are shown in the
i.e.,
*i =
planes
Similarly, it can be shown that -r. = -r and scripts for the shear stresses are commutative, interchanged, and the stre. ss tensor is symmetric. The implication of Eq. 1-2 is very important. are commutative signifies that shear stresses
the submay be
of an infinitesimal
element
are numerically
equal,
and
M = 0
is not satisfied by a single pair 1-4(b), the arrowheads of the opposite corners of an element In most subsequent situations
pairs of shear stresses wil
of shear stresses. On diagrams, as in Fig. shear stresses must meet at diametrically to satisfy equilibrium conditions. considered in this text, more than two
seldom act on an element simultaneously.
figure.
equivalent point
By
neglecting
the
infinitesimals
moment about representation
of higher
the
order,
7 this
process
about
is
change in stress from one presence of body (inertial) and proceeding to the limit, .higher order and therefore
the subscripts used before to identify the planes and the directions shear stresses become superfluous. In such cases, shear stresses designated by -r without any subscripts. However, one must rethat shear stresses always occur in two pairs. notation simplification can be used to advantage for the state of shown in Fig. 1-5. The two-dimensional stress shown in the figure
as
is referred
writ en
to as plane
stress.
In matrix
representation
such
a stress
can
t0
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
t.5.
Dif erential
Equations
of
Equilibrium
*'91-5.
An in.nitesimal dimensional
Equations in Fig.
of Equilibrium
For
thickness in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Note that the possibility of an increment in stresses from one face of the element to another is accounted for. For example, since the rate of change of x in the x direction is Ox/Ox and a step of dx is made, the increment is (0/
between The
volume
(dx)(dy)(1)
the element
is of unit
the twoelement
Ox) dx.
the inertial
of the
The
directions. or body
material.
partial
derivative
notation
has
to be used
by
to dif erentiate
weight
forces,
With
such
these
as those
notations,
caused
the
or the
magnetic
{a)
effect,
are designated
X and
Y and
are
associated
with
the
unit
(b)
Fig.
t-5
Elements
in plane
stress.
F
(1-3)
= 0---> +,
1)
x 1) = 0
obtains together the
yield fore,
selected system of axes may not NON-ACTIVATED VERSION examined on other planes. Using such procedures,www.avs4you.com it wil be shovn later that a particular set of coordinates exists which diagonalize the stress It. should
the by
b noted
that
the initial y
of
with
basic
an
most using
read
information
about
stress
the transformation,
stress
one
y direction,
--+
Ox
Oy
+x=o
(1-5)
tensor
to
O +__
Ox
Oy
+ Y=0
without loss of continuity in the
9 Sections
identified
Y
with'**
cal
be
omit ed
(1-4)
text.
Note the absence of shear stresses. For the three-dimensional case, the stresses are said to be triaxial, since three stresses are necessary to describe the state of stress completely. For plane stress 3 = 0 and the state of stress is biaxial. Such stresses occur, for example, in thin sheets stressed in two mutually perpendicular directions. For axial y loaded members, discussed in the next section, only one element of the stress tensor survives; such a state of stress is
l 7y-F-ydy
ary
dy
x +
dx
referred
cussed:
of a stress
to as uniaxial.
how this
tensor.
In Chapter
term can be resolved
8, an inverse
to yield
problem
four
8 wil
or more
be diselements
Fig. t-6 Infinitesimal element
one
Chapter
8 Some
8.
readers
may
prefer
at this
time
to study
the
first
several
sections
in
with
x forces.
stresses
and
body
t2
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
t-6.
Stresses
on
Inclined
Sections
in Axial y
Loaded
Bars
t3
The
by
from
moment
having It can
a set of
equilibrium
-r. = -ry.. be shown that
three is
of the
for the
element
three-dimensional
requiring
Mz
case,
= 0 is assured
equation
a typical
Oo
Ox
OTyx
Oy
z
OTz. r
+ X = 0
(a)
Note that in deriving the previous equations, mechanical properties of the material have not been used. This means that these equations are applicable whether a material is elastic, plastic, or viscoelastic. Also it is very important to note that there are not enough equations of equilibrium to solve for the unknown stresses. In the two-dimensional case, given by Eq. 1-5, there are three unknown stresses, ., %, and %,., and only two equations. For the three-dimensional case, there are six stresses, but only three equations. Thus, all problems in stress analysis are internally statically intractable or indetermbate. A simple example as to how a static equilibrium equation is supplemented by kinematic requirements and mechanical properties of a material for the solution of a problem is given in Section 3-14. In engineering mechanics of solids, such as that presented in this text, this indeterminacy is eliminated by introducing appropriate assumptions, which is equivalent to having additional equations. A numerical procedure that involves discretizing a body into a large number of small finite elements, instead of the infinitesimal ones as above, is now 6ften used in complex problems. Such finite element analyses rely on high-speed electronic computers for solving large systems of simultaneous equations. In the finite element method, just as in the mathematical approach, the equations of statics are supplemented by the kinematic relations and mechanical properties of a material. A few examples given later in this book show comparisons among the "exact" solutions of the mathematical theory of elasticity, and those found using the finite element technique and/or conventional solutions based on the methods
of engineering mechanics of solids.
(c)
bar
on arbitrary
planes.
bar, end.
is drawn
for To
equilibrium, distinguish.
across
the
an equal between
reaction
but
the
force
opposite applied
vector
force
force
P.
This
and
on
identification
of reactions
wil
be used
frequently
in this
text.
Finding
the
reactions
P is determined,
free-
body diagrams for the bar segments, isolated by sections such as a-a or b-b, are prepared. In both cases, the force P required for equilibrium is shown at the sections. However, in order to obtain the conventional stresses, which are the most convenient ones in stress analysis, the force P is replaced by its components along the selected axes. A wavy line through the vectors P indicates their replacement by components. For
il ustrative 1-7Co)
purposes,
three
1-.
Stresses
on Inclined
Sections
in Axial y
Loaded
Bars
The traditional approach of engineering mechanics for determining the internal stresses on arbitrarily axial y loaded bars. The first steps in this procedure 1-7. Here, since. an axial force P is applied on the
of solids wil be used inclined sections in are il ustrated in Fig. right end of a prismatic
the other
is in the
Instead, the case shown of P in the plane of symmetry in detail. One of these components
plane
of the
section.
the case shown in Fig. analysis simply becomes in Fig. 1-7(c), having only of the bar cross section, is normal to the section;
on inclined to the bar 0 with the
As planes, sides,
an
analysis of stresses in a bar 90 degrees apart perpendicular The section a-a is at an angie
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
P
on Inclined
Sections
in Axial y
Loaded
Bars
t5
bJ
Cross
section
ofarea A
The negative sign in Eq. 1-7 is used to conform to the sign convention for shear stresses introduced earlier. See, for example, Fig. 1-5. The need for a negative sign is evident by noting that the shear force P sin 0 acts
in the dii:ection
(a)
Y',
P
p cosy
x'
P
x
It is important to note that the basic procedure of engineering mechanics of solids used here gives the average or mean stress at a section. These stresses are determined from the axial forces necessary for equilibrium at a section. Therefore they hlways satisfy statics. However based on the additional requirements of kinematics (geometric deformations) and mechan'ical properties of a material, large local stresses are known to arise in the proximity of concentrated forces. This also occurs at abrupt changes in cross-sectional areas. The average stresses at a section are accurate at a distance about equal to the depth of the member from the concentrated forces or abrupt changes in cross-sectional area. The use of this simplified
opposite
Equations 1-6 and 1-7 show that the normal and shear stresses vary with the angle 0. The sense of these stresses is shown in Figs. 1-8(c) and
(e)
P cos 2 e
A
0
(c) (d)
termined from the fol owing equation: NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com where P is the applied force, and A is the
P sin e cos 0
A 1'0_90'
when the section is perpendicular to the axis of the rod. The shear stress then correspondingly would be zero. This leads to the conclusion that the maximu m normal stress (Truax in an axial y loaded bar can be simply de(Truax = O'r ' = -A
(1-8)
-90
--P sin 2 e
A
(f)
(g)
of a prismatic
0 with
bar on mutually
perpendicular
planes.
the reaction,
Equations
1-6 and 1-7 also show that for 0 = +-90 , both the normal
stresses vanish. This is as it should be, since no stresses
cross-sectional
vertical.
An isolated
to the section
well as the equilibrating force P at the section of the bar section. As shown in Fig. 1-8(b),
resolved
A/cos
The applied
coinciding
force,
is shown
act along the top and bott6m free boundaries (surfaces) of the bar. To find the maximum shear stress acting in a bar, one must dif erentiate
the shear
0. Therefore,
component,
two
the normal
equations:
-(T o
the normal
force
stress
cross
P cos 0, and
'to are given
(1-6)
as
the results,
one obtains
tan 0 = + 1
leading
acts is usually
of 0 into Eq.
-45 with
to the conclusion
1-7, one
immaterial,
Since
the sense
force area
P sin
P cos A/cos
0
0
finds
in which
of either
a shear
+ 45 or
stress
2 0
(1-10)
and
tO --
A/cos
= -
sn 0 cos
(1-7)
Therefore,
the maximum
loaded
Stress, Axial
Loads,
and Safety
normal
Concepts
stress.
the
Normal
Stress In Axial y
Loaded
Bars
17
procedure, b-b. On from the vertical is best measured as in the former case, this angle in Eq. 1-7. Hence, the subscript designating the stresses. From
P
as large as the maximum studied using Eq. 1-7. Following the same found on the section
variation
of-to
with
0 can
be
P P
and shear stresses can be noting the angle locating this plane clockwise, instead of counterclockwise should be treated as a negative quantity -(90 - 0)= 0 - 90 wil be used in Fig. 1-8(e), one obtains
sin 0
Bar
Axis
Centtold
(b)
(a)
cr0-9oo
A/sin
P cos
0
0
A sin - 0
(1-11)
and
Note axis 1-12 sense
'ro-9oo
A/sin 0
A sin 0 cos 0
P
(1-12)
(c)
f.qodA=P
a -dx(d)
dy
= PA
normal stress
dx
(e)
dz
(f)
that in this case, since the direction of the shear force and the y have the same sense, the expression in Eq. 1-12 is positive. Equation can be obtained from Eq. 1-7 by substituting the angle 0 - 90 . The of o_9o o and ,0_9o o is shown in Fig. 1-8(f). The combined results of the analysis for sections a-a and b-b are shown on an infinitesimal element in Fig. 1-8(g). Note that the normal stresses on the adjoining element faces are not equal, whereas the shear stresses are. The lat er finding is in complete agreement with the earlier general
steps
in determining
the largest
in an axial y
loaded
bar.
1-9(e).
commonly For maximum
However,
future
used.
a simplified
reference, stress
the
diagram
such
Eq. 1-8 for loaded bar
bar axis.
as shown
determining is restated
in Fig.
1-9(f)
the
the
is
coficlusion
reached
in Section
must
1-4, showing
equal.
perpendicular
planes
be
directly in customary
equation
form
added
without
to indicate
any
subscript
direction
on
of
. Subscripts,
the
however,
This
are
frequently
gives
that
shear
stresses
on mutually
largest
normal
stress
at a section
taken
perpendicular
to the
axis
of a
member.
Thus,
1-7.
Maximum
Normal
situations the maximum section, these
Stress
with
in Axial y
Loaded
Bars
to
is a
area
applied
--
or
i-
A is the cross-sectional
(1-13)
resulting
of a bar in a maximum
In calculations,
axial
it is often
force,
and
convenient
to use N/mm
normal
in Fig. free-body bar, as centroid. brated of these resultant bar with the two stress
stress.
1-9.
The
procedure
for determining
this
stress
directly
is shown
case, a of the the bar's is equiliThe sum a stress of the sense on state of in Fig.
Similar to the steps discussed earlier for the general diagram is prepared either for the left or the fight part il ustrated in Fig. 1-9(b). All force vectors P pass through As shown in Fig. 1-9(c), the reaction on the left end at section a-a by a uniformly distributed normal stress . stresses multiplied by their respective areas generate that is statically equivalent to the force P. A thin slice equal uniformly distributed normal stresses of opposite parallel sections is shown in Fig. 1-9(d). This uniaxial may be represented on an infinitesimal cube, as shown
= MPa in the SI system of units and ksi in the U.S. customary system. It is instructive to note that the normal stress given by Eq. 1-13, and schematically represented in Fig. 1-9(e), is a complete description of the state of stress in an axial y loaded bar. Therefore, only one diagonal term remains in the matrix representation of the stress tensor given by Eq. llb. This remaining term is associated with the direction of the bar axis. If dif erent axes are chosen for isolating an element, as in Fig. 1-8(g), the stress tensor would resemble Eq. 1-3. A detailed study of this topic wil be pursued in Chapter 8. Equation 1-13 strictly applies only to prismatic bars, i.e., to bars having a constant cross-sectional area. However, the equation is reasonably ac-
t8
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
t-8.
Shear
Stresses
t9
curate
an abrupt
turbation
for
slightly
change
in stress,
tapered
in the
see
members.
cross-sectional
Section 2-10.
o For
a discussion
area occurs,
of situations
causing severe
where
per. Tension
(a)
Section
= Pe
noted before, the stress resultant for a uniformly distributed stress acts through the centroid of a cross-sectional area and assures the equilibrium of an axial y loaded member. If the loading is more complex, such as that, for example, for the machine part shown in Fig. 1-10, the stress distribution is nonuniform. Here, at section a-a, in addition to the axial force P, a bending couple, or moment, M must also be developed. Such problems wil be treated in Chapter 6. Similar reasoning applies to axial y loaded compression members and Eq. 1-13 can be used. However, one must exercise additional care when compression members are investigated. These may be so slender that they may not behave in the fashion considered. For example, an ordinary fishing rod under a rather small axial compression force has a tendency to buckle sideways and could collapse. The consideration of such instability of compression members is deferred until Chapter 11. Equation 1-13 is applicable only for axial y loaded conpression tnenbers that are rather chunky, i.e., to short blocks. As wil be shown in Chapter 11, a block whose least dimension is approximately one-tenth of its length may usu-
As
Compression
(a)
(c)
(b)
tensile
a plate
il ustration
during
of stress
a rolling
irregularity
operation,
in material
plate.
(b) variation
of
(b)
ally
with
be considered
a short
block.
Fig.
1-10
A member
at stress Section
a nonuniform distribution
a-a.
be 20 in long and stil be considered a short block. Sometimes compressive stresses arise where one body is supported another. If the resultant of the applied forces coincides with the centroid of the contact area between the two bodies, the intensity of force,
may
stress, between the two bodies It is customary to refer to this 1-11, where a short block bears
on the soil, il ustrates such
can normal on
For
example,
a 2 by 4 in wooden
piece
again
stress a concrete
used
It is also important to note that the basic equations for determining stresses, such as given by Eq. 1-13, assume initial y stress-fi'ee material. However, in reality, as materials are being manufactured, they are often rolled, extruded, forged, welded, peened, and hammered. In castings, materials cool unevenly. These processes can set up high internal stresses called residual stresses. For example, hot steel plates during a rolling
a stress.
Numerous
situations
in
operation .are pulled between rollers, 12(b). This process causes the development
forces
plied bearing In havior
mechanical
force
These
problems
P by
bearing
Eq.
under
the
corresponding
stresses
washers
can be approximated
contact
for
distributing
giving
area
by dividing
a useful
concentrated
nominal
the ap-
tribute
the
equally
to the
is implied
1-13, Each
resistance
by
of the
force.
A perfect
wood
Real
homogeneity
beto consuch
the outer surfaces than in the middle of a plate. These stresses are equivalent to an average normal stress flay that may be considered to generate a force that propels a plate through the rolls. On leaving the rolls, the plate shown in Fig. 1-12(c) is relieved of this force, and as per Eq. 1-13, the flay is subtracted from the stresses that existed during rolling. The
of
metals,
material
consist
of a great
many
such
grains,
an
assumption.
whereas
materials,
is fibrous.
In real
as
stress
to the
pattern
calculated
of the residual
stresses
are self-equilibrating, .i.e., they applied forces. In real problems, and should be careful y investigated
for the initial y stress-free
normal
stresses
is shown
material.
in Fig.
1-12(c).
Fig.
occur
141
Bearing
between the
stresses
block and
materials, some particles than others. Ideal stress (e) actually do not exist stress distribution varies jagged affair somewhat,
the Goodier,
wil contribute more distributions such if the scale chosen in each particular as shown in Fig.
for
3rd
to the resistance as shown in Figs. is sufficiently small. cas.e and is a highly 1-12(a). However,
S. P. Timoshenko,
McGraw-Hil , 1970)
pier pier
For
accurate
Theory
solutions
of Elasticity,
tapered
ed. (New
bars,
see
York:
J. N.
slip
planes
the
for example, low-carbon steel, are weaker at large loads, slip develops along the planes shear stress. According to Eqs. 1-9 and 1-10, these glide or in a tensile specimen form 45 angles with the axis of a bar, maximum shear stress Xm = P/2A occurs. On the polished
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
P/2
Concepts
__
Stresses
,v, shown
P/2
in Fig. 1-13(c),
shown
a-a.
can be found
A similar
(a)
proach,
proach,
strength Section
then
surfaces
employing
force, surfaces
are available
imaginary
for transferring
in Fig. 1-13(d).
procedure
using
clamping tacting)
it is assumed
sections,
the applied
However
for determining
P by
ap-
(b)
(e)
page occurs,
from
so that prevents
that a tightened
are shown in Figs. 1-14(a) and (e). in two dif erent ways. In one ap-
is applicable
to solid members.
a sufficiently
same
bolt develops
force
a,b
a
(c)
Tav
a, b
(f)
Tar
bolt
'r in these bolts, a similar procedure as discussed One simply uses the cross-sectional area A of a bolt of the joint contact surface to compute the average
shown in Fig. 1-14(a) is said to be in single
requires as the
plate,
is transferred
(conhigh-
large
first
in Figs.
to a bolt and
1-14(b)
slip-
in
shear,
Fig. 1-t3
Loading
conditions
causing
shear
stresses
between
surface of a specimen, these lines can Laders lines. This kind of matehal In many routine engineering applications, velop at critical locations. To determine dif icult. However, by assuming that distributed shear stress develops, a using this approach, the average shear the shear force V in the plane of the
A.
interfaces
of glued
blocks.
whereas the one in Fig. 1-14(e) In bolted connections, another eration. In cases such as those
consid-
force
P is
The average nominal intensity of this pressure is obtained by dividing the force transmit ed by the projected area of the bolt onto the plate. This is referred to as the bearing stress. The beating stress in Fig. 1-14(a) is 0.b = P/td, where t is the thickness of the plate, and d is the diameter of the bolt. For the case in Fig. 1-14(e), the beating stresses for the middle plate and the outer plates are 0. = P/hd and 0'2 = P/2t2d, respectively. The same procedure is. also applicable for fiveted assemblies.
of a connection
applied,
a highly
irregular
pressure
develops
between
a bolt
Another
manner
occurs
with
of joining
fil et
welds
members
a-a
is shown
together
b-b,
in Fig.
is welding.
1-15.
The
An exampie
maximum
shear
stress
in the
planes
and
as shown
in Fig.
1-15(b).
area
or
i-
(1-14)
(a) (b) (c)
(d)
Some examples as to where Eq. 1-14 can be used to advantage shown in Figs. 1-13 to 1-15. In Fig. 1-13(a), a small block is shown to a larger one. By separating the upper block from the lower one imaginary section, the equilibrium diagram shown in Fig. 1-13(b)
-----T!
P/2
tained.
perpendicular
Also
The small
known
to the
applied
section
couple
a-a,
Pe, causing
is commonly
in honor,
snall
neglected.
normal
stresses
On
this
acting
(e)
'
t2
PI2
(f)
P/2
(h)
as Piobert
lines.
investigators.
Named
respectively,
of German
French
nineteenth-century
Fig. l-t4
Loading
conditions
causing
shear
and bearing
stress
in bolts.
22
Stress,
Axial
Weld
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
t-9.
Analysis
for
Normal
and
Shear
Stresses
23
-----I]
(a)
Section
a/b 45
c-c
These bodies.
(b)
welds discussion
in units connections
If the equations of statics suffice for determining the external reactions as well as the internal stress resultants, a structural system is staticall), deterninate. An example is shown in Fig. 1-16(a). However, if for the same beam and loading conditions, additional supports are provided, as in Figs. 1-16(b) and (c), the number of independent equations of statics is insufficient to solve for the reactions. In Fig. 1-16(b), any one of the
vertical reactions can be removed and the structural system and tractable. Similarly, any two reactions can be dispensed beam in Fig. 1-16(c). Both of these beams are statically The reactions that can be removed leaving a stable system remains stable with for the indeterminate. statically de-
with the overall dimensions of structures. Thereof obtaining the forces in members, the initial unof nenbers are used in computations.
]-9.
Analysis
for
Normal
and
Shear
Stresses
termi.nate
within redundant minate
Once the axial force P or the shear force V, as well as the area A, are determined in a given problem, Eqs. 1-13 and 1-14 for normal and shear stresses can be readily applied. These equations giving, respectively, the maximum magnitudes of normal and shear stress are particularly important as they appraise the greatest imposition on the strength of a material. These greatest tresses occur at a section of n#dnt,n cross-sectional area and/or the greatest axial force. Such sections are called critical sections. The critical section for the particular arrangement being analyzed can usually be found by inspection. However, to determine the force P or V that acts through a member is usually a more dif icult task. In the majority of problems treated in this text, the lat er information is obtained from
statics.
the
provide an introduction to the methods NON-ACTIVATED VERSION ginning with the next chapter. Problems www.avs4you.com
Procedures for solving such problems
the equations of statics require
arise
Fig.
1-16(c),
are superfluous
in practice,
etc.
and
Multiple
or redundant.
one
of the important
degrees
of statical
wil
Depending on the number of the the system is said to be indeter1-16(b), to the second degree, as in
Such
redundancies
can also
arise
of solution
with
objectives
indeterminacy
be introduced
for
of this
such
subject
gradually
frequently
problems.
is to
be-
For
the
the
fulfil ment
equilibrium
of the
of a body
fol owing
in space,
conditions:
termin. acy are considered in Chapters 10, 12, and 13. Equations 1-15 should already be familiar to the reader. However, sew eral examples where they are applied wil now be given, emphasizing solution techniques generally used in engineering mechanics of solids. These statically determinate examples wil serve as an informal review of some of the principles of statics and wil show applications of Eqs. 113 and 1-14.
multiple
degrees
of inde-
Additional
are given
(1-15)
examples
in Sections
for
1-13
determining
and 1-14.
shear
stresses
in bolts
and
welds
= o,j
lie in a single plane, such
first
y plane,
problem,
column of Eq. 1-15 in any (x, y, z) direction the summation of moments (x, y, z) direction must
states
trivial.
relations
i.e.,
all members
and forces
that the sum of all forces acting on a must be zero. The second column notes of all forces around any axis parallel to also be zero for' equilibrium. In a planar
(a)
(b)
(c)
stil
as the xvalid,
deee.
Fig. M6 determinate,
[dentic
with
identical indeterminate
conditions: ideteinate
Stress,
Axial
Weld
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
1-9.
Analysis
for
Normal
and
Shear
Stresses
These bodies.
-'-'1
c
a b
Section c-c
negligible
in comparison
(a)
(b)
welds discussion
in units connections
If the equations of statics suffice for determining the external reactions as well as the internal stress resultants, a structural system is staticall), determinate. An example is shown in Fig. 1-16(a). However, if for the same beam and loading conditions, additional supports are provided, as in Figs. 1-16(b) and (c), the number of independent equations of statics is insufficient to solve for the reactions. In Fig. 1-16(b), any one of the
of obtaining of members
dimensions
of structures.
the initial
There-
1-9.
Analysis
for
Normal
and
Shear
Stresses
Once the axial force P or the shear force V, as well as the area A, are determined in a given problem, Eqs. 1-13 and 1-14 for normal and shear stresses can be readily applied. These equations giving, respectively, the maximum magnitudes of normal. and shear stress are particularly important as they appraise the greatest imposition on the strength of a material. These greatest'stresses occur at a section of ninint,n cross-sectional area and/or the greatest axial force. Such sections are called critical sections. The critical section for the particular arrangement being analyzed can usually be found by inspection. However, to determine the force P or V
vertical reactions can be removed and the structural system remains stable and tractable. Similarly, any two reactions can be dispensed with for the beam in Fig. 1-16(c). Both of these beams are statically indeterminate. The reactions that can be removed leaving a stable system statically determi.nate are superfluous or redundant. Such redundancies can also arise within the internal system of forces. Depending on the number of the redundant internal forces or reactions, the system is said to be indeterminate to the first degree, as in Fig. 1-16(b), to the second degree, as in
that
statics.
through
treated
a member
in this
is usually
text,
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION ginning with the next chapter. Problems www.avs4you.com Equ. ations 1-15 should already be familiar
Procedures for solving such problems
Fig. arise
1-16(c), etc. Multiple degrees of statical indeterminacy frequently in practice, and one of the important objectives of this subject is to provide an introduction to the methods of solution for such problems.
wil
a more
lat er
dif icult
task.
In the
majority
of problems
the
information
is obtained
from
the
fulfil ment
equilibrium
of the
fol owing
of a body
conditions:
in space,
the
equations
of statics
require
to the eral examples where they are applied wil now solution techniques generally used in engineering These statically determinate examples wil serve of some of the principles of statics and wil show
13 and 1-14.
termin.
acy
are
considered
in Chapters
with
be introduced
multiple
reader. However, sevbe given, emphasizing mechanics of solids. as an informal review applications of Eqs. 1in bolts and welds
13.
degrees
gradually
of inde-
be-
IEe.,=0Eu.=01
Ee:=0 Euz=0
Additional
are
(1-15)
examples
in Sections
for
1-13
determining
and 1-14.
shear
stresses
given
7F
problem, y plane,
are
first
states
the (x,
summation y, z) direction
trivial.
i.e., all members and forces lie in a single plane, such as the xrelations F = 0, M = 0, and My = 0, while stil valid,
of moments must
the sum of all forces acting on a zero. The second column notes of all forces around any axis parallel to also be zero for' equilibrium. In a planar
must be
that
(a)
(b)
(c)
Identical
with
identical indeterminate
conditions: indeterminate
Stress,
EXAMPLE
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
t-9.
Analysis
for
Normal
and
Shear
Stresses
F,
The beam BE in Fig. 1-17(a) is used for hoisting machinery. It is anchored by two bolts at B, and at C, it rests on a parapet wall. The essential details are given in the figure. Note that the bolts are threaded, as shown in Fig. 1-17(d), with d
= 16 mm at the root of the threads. If this hoist can be subjected to a force of
MB = 0 + Md = 0 +
Check: Fy
=0
= 0'+ that
Rcy
= 35 kN
RBy
= 25 kN
bearing
with
that
To solve
is made
on
this
which
proble
all
m, the actual
known and
unknown
situation
of B and the first
unknown
forces
is idealized
are
indicated.
and
a free-body
This
is shown
diagram
minimum
in
Cross-sectional
The
cross-sectional
area
of a bolt;
bolt:
of one 20-mm
it.
is not the
is
of the threads
the
of the
They
long
Anet
Maximum normal tensile stress?
= 11' 82 = 201
in each of the
= BD: 39.8 N/mm 62
at C is assumed
effective proper
are
in resisting
and
and
marked for
the
horizontal
the
as Rc.. unknown
force,
The
applied forces.
only
an unknown
known
force
horizontal equations
P is shown
reaction
bolts
2 =
BD:
62 MPa
in its
location.
applied
After
solved
a free-body
diagram
is prepared,
the
of statics
Tensile stress
O'm
in the
RBy = '2.4
shank 25
2
25 x 103 2 x 201
of the x 103 = bolts
2.5
E
200
mm
/
D
Building
rl I
314
2 =
39.8
MPa
Contact
area
at
C:
A = 200
Bearing stress at C:
x 200
= 40
x 10 gmm
P=10kN
(a)
x
View
(c)
O- b
Rcy
A
_.
35 X 103 = 0.875
40 x 103
N/mm
2 = 0.875
MPa
The
Eq. l-lb
calculated
as
stress
for
the
bolt
shank
can
be represented
in the
manner
of
+39.8
0
MPa
(b)
(d)
where the y axis is taken in the direction of the applied the complete result is implied but is seldom writ en
See also discussion on stress concentrations,
load. down
Section
Fig.
t-t7
Concepts
either part is sufficient
is loaded the state 25 kN/m at the of stress 3. top with a uniformly at a level 1 m above
solved
for Normal
For comparison,
Fig. 1-18(b),
= 9.4kN
The concrete pier shown distributed load of 20 kN/m the base. Concrete weighs
Solution
included
pier above
the upper
ways.
is
of the
the section:
W = (0.5
problem,
in the calculations.
x 1 x 25/2
In this
the
weight
pier:
of the
structure
itself
is appreciable
and
must
be
From
Weight
of the
whole W ='
= 14.4kN
[(0.5
1.5)/2]
x 0.5
2 x
25
25
kN
Hence,
using
Eq.
1-13,
the normal
stress
at the level
1
a-a
is
Total
applied
force:
P = 20 x 0.5 x 0.5 = 5kN
cr = --A
This
Fa
14.4
0.5x
= 28.8
kN/m
From
F. = 0, reaction
at the base:
R = W + P = 30kN
pier
diagrams as concentrated to determine the forces at the
Using
stress
below
the lower
is compresslye
the section:
as F, acts
on the section.
Fig.
1-18(c),
= 15.6
the weight
kN
of the
These acting
forces through
are their
desired
level,
the
body
is cut
into
two
W2 = (1 + 1.5)
x 1 x 25/2
separate
parts.
A free-body
diagram
for
From
Fy = 0, the force
at the section:
= R -
F
W2
14.4
kN
P=SkN
The remainder
has a vertical
EXAMPLE t-3
axis of symmetry,
of the problem
is the same
making
the application
as before.
The
pier
considered
here
2
L
a-a( .5 m
A bracket
Pertinent
diameter.
P of 3 kips.
of negligible
dimensions
For interconnection
weight
shown
are shown
and shear
in the figure.
purposes,
in Fig.
stresses
1-19(a)
is loaded
with
a vertical
in members
(forked).
force
in in
1.5
Fig. 1-t8
Sidvieew
(c)
First, an idealized free-body diagram consisting of the two bars pinned at the ends is prepared, see Fig. 1-19(b). As there are no intermediate forces acting on the bars and the applied force acts through the joint at B, the forces in the bars are directed along the lines AB and BC, and the bars AB and BC are loaded axial y.
2 Strictly speaking, the solution obtained is not exact, as the sides of the pier are sloping. If the included angle between these sides is large, this solution is altogether inadequate. For further details, see S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier,
Themy of Elasticity, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hil , 1970) 139.
28
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
t-9.
Analysis
for
Normal
and
Shear
Stresses
29
P=3k
m/:A__ 2
3k
The magnitudes of the forces are unknown and are labeled FA and diagram.3 These forces can be determined graphically by completing of forces FA, Fc, and P. These forces may also be found analytically simultaneous equations F:. = 0 and F.,. = 0, writ en in terms of the FA and Fc, a known force P, and two known angles ct and fl. Both
cedures
to proceed components
are possible.
into F,t and FAy, as in Fig. 1-19(c). Conversely, if any one of the components of a directed force is known, the force itself can be determined. This fol ows from similarity of dimensions and force triangles. In Fig. 1~19(c), the triangles Akin and BAD are similar triangles (both are shaded in the diagram). Hence, if F, is known,
FA = (AB/DB)FA.
Any force
in a dif erent way. Instead of treating forces FA and Fc directly, their are used; and instead of F = 0, M = 0 becomes the main tool.
can 15e resolved into components. For example, FA can be resolved
However,
in this book,
it wil usually
be found
advantageous
Fc
(a)
{b}
Similarly, Fay = (AD/DB)FAx. Note further that AB/DB or AD/DB are ratios; hence, relative dimensions of members can be used. Such relative dimensions are shown by a lit le triangle on member AB and again on BC. In the problem at hand,
FA = (X//2)FA.
and
FAy
= FA.d2
0.20"
/
B
o.8,5,
0.20"
0.20"
Fc
After thinking
of resolving components
by statics, of an individual
forces, a revised free-body diagram, Fig. of force are necessary at the pin joints.
Eq. 1-13 member: is applied several times,
Mc=00+
+ FA.(3
+ 6) -- 3(6)
Fay
= 0
FA = 2(X//2)
= Fa.d2
FA. = 2/2
= +2.23
= =
+2 +1
k k
k
k k
MA
=00
+ 3(6)
+ Fc(9)
= 0,
Fc>,
Fc. = Fc.
= -2 = -2
Fc
(d)
= X/(-2)
= -2.83
(e)
(f)
Check:
Tensile stress
Fig.
1-t9
F;, = 0 EFy=O
in main bar AB:
FA.
+ Fc
= 2 -
2 = 0
FAy
-- Fcy
- P = 1 - (-2)
- 3 = 0
FA
A 0.25
2.23
x 0.50
17.8
ksi
3 In frameworks
it is convenient
to assume
all
unknown
forces
are
tensile.
negative
answer
in the
solution
then
indicates
that
the
bar
is in compression.
3O
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
MO.
Member
Strength
as
a Design
Criterion
3t
Tensile
stress
in clevis
of bar FA
AB,
Fig.
1-19(e): 2.23
(ffAB)clev|s
Compressive stress
Anet
in main
(YBC --
=
bar
Fc
A
2 x 0.20
BC:
2.83
0.875
x (0.875
0.375)
1 1.2
ksi
DESIGN
DETERMINISTIC
BASES
AND
PROBABILISTIC
0.25
12.9
ksi
critical.
pin
C and
--
the
clevis:
2.83
need stress
orb
Abearing
pin C and
Fc
--
Fc
0.375
the main
x 0.20
plate:
2.83
x 2
18.8
ksi
is [o compare them with the experimental y determined material strengths in order to assure desired performance. Physical testing of materials in a laboratory provides information regarding a material's resistance to stress. In a laboratory, specimens of known material, manufacturing process, and heat treatment are careful y prepared to desired dimensions. Then these specimens are subjected to successively increasing known forces. In the most widely used test, a round rod is subjected to tension
and the specimen to cause rupture used for this
system
Bearing
between
the
orb -- A
Double shear in pin C:
-r -
0.375
by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen, the uhitnate (stress) of a material is obtained. Figure 1-21 shows a testing
purpose. Figure 1-22 shows a tension-test
is loaded until it finally ruptures. The force necessary is called the ultbnate load. By dividing this ultimate load specimen.
strength machine
Fc
2'rr(0.375/2)
The
12.9
ksi
ever, either
For
a complete analysis of this bracket, other pins should be investigated. it can be seen by inspection that the other pins in this case are the same amount as computed or less.
Howstressed
F
Fc
Fig.
[
t Fcy
[--------a
1-20
tively, the force F, can be resolved at A, and since F4y = (y/X)FA, the applicatio n of Mc = 0 yields FAx. In frames, where the applied forces do not act through a joint, proceed as before as far as possible. Then isolate an individual member, and using
diagram,
acting on the
of the method used in the last example for finding forces now be apparent. It can also be applied with success as the one shown in Fig. 1-20. The force F, transmit ed curved member AB acts through points A and B, since the forces at A and B must be collinear..By resolving this force at A', the
can be fol owed. Wavy lines through F, and Fc indicate
are
replaced
by
the
two
components
shown.
Alterna-
complete structure,
the
determination resolve
them
If inclined
com-
Fig.
machine Systems
t-2t
Universal
(Courtesy Corporation).
testing
of MTS
Fig. test
before
Strength
a phenomenon
some
as a Design Criterion
called
of the examples the rate of load ap-
250 200
Experience
wooden where
plastica!ly
150
100 50 0
plication
with
turbines,
under
a sustained
tightened
load,
Fig.
18-8
t-23
stainless
Fa[igue
steel
strength
at
various
of
stronger at very rapidly applied loads. Likewise, the effect of temperature usually has a very important effect on the endurance limit. Some of these issues are discussed further in Sections 2-3 and 2-5. At the design level, most of these problems can be controlled by reducing design stresses.
has a major
effect,
as some
bolts
in mechanical
equipment,
creep.
materials
become
considerably
beam
temperatures
test).
(reciprocating
103
104-
10 s
Cycles
10 s
107
The aforementioned facts, coupled with the impossibility of determining stresses accurately in complicated structures and machines, necessitate a substantial reduction of stress compared to the ultimate strength of a material in a static test. For example, ordinary steel wil withstand an
ultimate stress in tension of 60 ksi and more. However, it deforms rather suddenly and severely at the stress level of about 36 ksi, and it is customary in the United States to use an allowable stress of around 22 ksi for structural work. This allowable stress is even further reduced to about 12 ksi for parts that are subjected to alternating loads because of the fatigue
characteristics of the material. Fatigue properties of materials are of t t-
gives
ultimate
is used tests
strengths
and
other
times
the force
1-23
materials cases,
of cycles
can
required
be seen
is applied
the
as the material
the
physical
properties
for
to break
Fig.
of tests 5 on Experimental
works
specimen
As
1-23, the
a number points
at a particular
materials.
of the indicate
same the
stress
level.
of
parts
tnost
the
Section cluded
can be traced
inportance
in nechanical
"fatigue
material
tests," diagrams.
For
As pointed
to disregard
of this important
(104 cycles in seismically
equipnent.
Many
out in Section
stresses.
1-7, in some
situations,
consideration.
failures
in machine
cannot structures.
(See
be ex-
also
it is also
appropriate
to consider
residual
with-
stand
materials,
an ever-increasing
notably
steels,
number
of cycles
of load
low
stresses
application.
becomes
essen-
some
of reversals of stress can take place limiting stress at which this occurs material. This limit, being dependent
tial y
horizontal.
This
means
that
at a low
stress,
an infinitely
large
number
The decision process in choosing an appropriate allowable stress is further complicated since there is great uncertainty in the nagnitudes of the applied loads. During the life of a machine or a structure, occasional overloads are almost a ce.rtainty, but their magnitudes can only be estimated at best.
Some care must be exercised in interpreting S-N diagrams, particularly with regard to the range of the applied stress. In some tests, complete reversal (tension to compression) of stress is made; in others, the applied
load is varied in a dif erent manner, such as tension to no load and
this
are now resolved using two alternative apapproach, in the spirit of classical mechanics, assigned to the applied forces as well as to the
manner, these two' principal parameters are
back
major
or allowable an unpermissible
stress
since Some
is bending. in selecting
some mamaterials
of ASTM
4 ASTM
Standards
(American
tigue,
t- J. L. Zambrow,
of Aircraft
now consisting
at Very
Society
Alloys
and M. G. Fontana,
Low
of 66 volumes,
Temperatures,"
and Materials)
divided
issues
into
"Mechanical
Trans.
Properties,
detailed Used
16 sections,
an Amzual
ASM
41 (1949):
Including
giving
Book
498.
Fa-
to in this text. However, as the complexity systems increases, less reliance can be placed a limited number of experiments. Instead, after parameters in a given stress-analysis problem, is assessed, leading to the probabilistic method safety. This approach has found favor in the offshore structures, and is emerging in structural and bridges. A brief discussion of the probabilistic design is given in Section 1-12. The traditional
is discussed next.
This wil
deterninbe largely
identification of the their statistical variof estimating strucdesign of advanced design of buildapproach to strucdeterministic ap-
proach
and Safety
Design
design
Concepts
of Members:
a stress
Design
of Members
Deterministic
Bars
Loaded
is determined
recast
of members,
and is known
to read
as the margin
ofsafeO'.
ultimate stress
deterministic
loaded minimum
stress
at the highest
bars,
O'a,o,v
stressed
determining Then,
chosen.
section
using
for
the
conventional
internal
mechanics.
material,
axial
force P at a an allowable
For
axial y
maximum
stress
caused
by
the
design
load
and federal authorities, dif erent materials, called the allowhble allowable ultimate a significant
Professional
engineering
groups,
large
companies,
as well
as city,
stresses stresses
state,
for are
Since
according
and forces
to Eq.
1-13,
stress
be converted that
times
area
is equal
the
to a force,
and Also
the
the' text as they occur, can provide reasonable estimates loads for complex systems and should be used in the F.S. as well as of margin of safety. For example, instead of designing members at working loads using alternative approach consisting of selecting member mate or limit load is becoming widely adopted. In such
load chosen to the other ever,
largely
The
newer
analytical
methods,
some
of which
wil
load
load
for
for
a member
a member
is usually obtained by multiplying the working loads by a suitably load factors. For bars in simple tension or compression, this leads same results. Significantly dif erent results may be obtained in many cases where inelastic behavior is more complex. In this text, howthe customary allowable stress design (ASD) approach wil be
application simple and
fol owed.
of the ultimate basic definition of for static loadings, allowable stress, an sizes for their ulticases, the ultimate
be pointed
out
in
This
of
always
stresses
is the basic
be greater
as
definition
than
unity.
of the factor
Traditionally
maximum
useful
of safety,
F.S.
This
ratio
must
both
area
The
that
loaded
net
is
A of
a member
material
strength
(stress)
allowable
stress
-O'al ow
(1-16)
and
type
is widely
subsequent stresses
of member aircraft
used
reading, is satisfactory
and
not
whereas for
loading
only
for
conditions.
this
axial y
loaded
defined
In the
as
industry,
As
wil
members,
become
but
apparent
also
for any
from
factor
load
of safety
is replaced
by another,
design
load
where P is the applied axial force, and trno,, is the allowable stress. tion 1-16 is generally applicable to tension members and short sion blocks. For slender compression members, the question of bility arises and the methods discussed in Chapter 11 must be The simplicity of Eq. 1-16 is unrelated to its importance. A large of problems requiring its use occurs in practice. The fol owing il ustrate some application of Eq. 1-16 as well as provide additional
in statics.
Equacomprestheir staused.
6 For example, see the American Institute Building Construction Code of any large city, ments issued by the Army-Navy Civil Commit ee
etc.
of Steel Construction Manual, ANC-5 Strength of Ah'craft Eleon Aircraft Design Criteria,
7 The
adjective
were that
fiber
in this sense
which
is used
for two
in character. filament
masons.
Many
original
ex-
EXAMPLE
t-4
Reduce
the
size
1-3 by
strength
using
of this
a better
steel
material
is approximately
such
as
120
$6
Stress,
Solution
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
650
Sec.
kN
1-1t.
Deterministic
Design
of
Members
$7
below
120/2.5 = 48 ksi. From Example 1-3, the force in the bar AB: FA = kips. Required area: Anet = 2.23/48 = 0.0464 in 2. Adopt: 0.20-in by 0.25This provides an area of (0.20)(0.25) = 0.050 in 2, which is slightly in excess required area. Many other proportions of the bar are possible. the cross-sectional area selected, the actual or working stress is somewhat
the allowable
in
stress:
O'actual
i 2.23/(0.050)
= 44.6
ksi.
The
actual
factor
of
dimensions.
0.75
if possible,
(c)
EXAMPLE
P of
'i-5
650
Select
members
kN.
Set
FC
the
and
allowable
CB in the truss
tensile
stress
of Fig.
at
1-24(a)
140
MPa.
to carry
an inclined
force
390
kN
650
kN
Solution
r/520
in all members
kN
Fc
If all members
veloped
to be found.
truss by the method of joints. However, if only a few members are to be designed or checked, the method of sections il ustrated here is quicker. It is generally understood that a planar truss, such as shown in the figure, is stable in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Practically, this is accomplished by introducing braces at right angles to the plane of the truss. In this example, the design of compression members is avoided, as this wil be
treated in the determine chapter the forces on columns. in the To members to be designed, the reactions for the
on the basis
of matrix
structural
computer
would programs
have
de-
,r
2.5 m
520kN f325 kN
(d)
Fc
(b)
whole'
structure
are computed
Only
are
reaction indicated
first.
and
force components definitely located at their on a free-body diagram of the whole structure; are determined, free-body diagrams of a part the forces in the members considered; see
1-24(b):
This
is done
by completely
disregarding
the
Using the free-body diagram in Fig. 1-24(c):
Fig.
t-24
MA
Ac
= OG
= Fc/crnow
Frc
= 86.7 x
X 0.75
103/140
+ 325
= 620
x 1 - 520
mm 2
(use
X 0.75
F-c =
= 0
+ 86.7 kN
Using
the
in Fig.
= 0 = 0
Rm
520
= 0
Rzx
520
kN
12.5
50-mm
bar)
+ +
RDy
RE
325
X 3 X
-
390
520
+ 65
x 0.5
x
=
--
520
390 X
x
2.5
1.5 RDy
=
3 +
390
1.5
0
= 0 =
0 RE =
325
65kN
kN
Using
the free-body
diagram
in Fig.
1-24(d):
Fy = 0
for example,
McGraw-Hil ,
Fy = 0
ed. Ac = Fc/crnow
--(FcB)y
= 391
8 See,
O. C. Zienkiewicz,
1977).
The
Fitrite
Element
Method,
3rd
mm 2
(use
= + 325 kN = q- 391 kN
two bars 30 x 50 mm)
38
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
142.
Probabilistic
Basis
for
Structural
Design
39
EXAMPLE
-6
AC
-0.5
'on
for
m
Consider
a frictionless
the
the
idealized
plane
system
at 10 Hz.
shown
9 If a light
is the the rod
in Fig.
1-25,
rod
where
CD
size
is attached
a 5-kg
mass
at C, and
is to be spun
the
the
allowable weight
what that
required is enlarged
Solution
.
0 10
Maximum
r I11
Mean
238
MPa
51
Tests
20
S = 26.2 V= 0.11
v=o.8
'vI
O'R
The
Fig. t-25
rod
angular the
velocity acceleration,
to is 20r
rad/s. force
The
acceleration
a of the
mass
toward
the
mass
center
m by
of rotation
figure,
direction
is to2R,
the
where
d'Alembert's
acceleration.
R is the
F acting
Therefore,
distance
on the rod
CD.
this
By
is obtained.
multiplying
As shown
the
in the op-
in the
posite F =
according
to that = mto2R
to the
of the
principle,
force
acts
ma
= 5 x (20r)
Anet an area
by
9870
2 x 0.500
-200
= 9870
mm 2
kg.m/s
2 = 9870
49.3
l, o[ , , , ,_o,rm,
20 Compression 30 40 X [MPa]
Strength
I/I I I I't
fR{r)
t
10
f(r)
100
Compression
200
300
Yield Strength
[MPa]
An
The
ered,
8-mm
is
round
additional
rod
pull
having
A = 50.3
the mass
mm 2 would
of the rod,
be satisfactory.
which was not consid-
I
(a)
.
I
(b)
at C caused
fir -- 40 R
fIR
fIR + 40 R
fIR -- 40 R
fIR
S1R + 40 a
where m is the mass of the rod per unit length, and (m mass at a variable distance r from the vertical rod AB. The by the rod and the mass of 5-kg at the end is F + F.
compression of ASTM
strength grades
for
Hemlock steels.**
(wood)*;
(b) frequency
structural systems
risk premises.
analyses
of complete
engineering
Experimental As an example the behavior of set, experimental wooden blocks steel stub columns correspond to
Evidence of the probabilistic specimens for two results of several are plot ed in Fig. in Fig. 1-26(b). a narrow range of approach based on statistics, consider sets of similar experiments. For one compression tests for identical short 1-26(a)? Similar results are shown for 22 The bar widths in these histograms compression stress for which a given
*'21-12.
Probabilistic
Basis
for Structural
Design
In the conventional (deterministic) design of members, the possibility failure is reduced to acceptably small levels by factors of safety based on judgment derived from past successful and unsuccessful performances. By contrast, in the probabilistic approach, variability in material properties, fabrication-size tolerances, as well as uncertainties in loading and even design approximations, can be appraised on a statistical basis. As far as possible, the proposed criteria are calibrated against well-established cases, as disregard of past successful applications is out of the question. The probabilistic approach has the/tdvantage of consistency in
number
In these diagrams, the inner scales apply to direct The meaning of the outer scales wil be discussed
Metals
of specimens
were
either
crushed
(wood)
or have
yielded
23 (steel).
results.
2 j. M.
Copyright,
(New
Il ston,
the factors
2o The
of safety,
remainder
not
of this
only
chapter
for
individual
can be omit ed.
members,
but
also
for
complex
2 T. V. Galambos, and M. K. Ravindra, Tentative Criteria for Steel Buildings, Research Report No. ington University, September 1973. dition
Building
York:
J. M.
Research
Van
Nostrand
Dinwoodie,
Establishment,
Reinhold,
and
A. A. Smith,
U.K.
1979),
Fig.
p. 439,
Timber,
Crown
and
Design Wash-
23 Since
9 Hz (abbreviation
for hertz),
or cycles
per second,
is the SI unit
for frequency.
Section
can in many
2-3.
yielding
applications
is accompanied
be considered
by a large
failure.
amount
of deformation,
this
con-
see
4O
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
1-t2.
fz(z)
Probabilistic
Basis
for
Structural
Design
4t
In statistical
terminology,
the
test
results
are
termed
"population"
sam-
ples.
are
other
defined
generally
computed.
of such
variance,
One
data,
S 2. For
of these
several
n samples
is sa/nple/nean
quantities
of major these
(tests),
(average),
importance
quantities
X;
are
an-
= I1 i=X; x, l
(1-17)
Area
Fz (zO
and
Dividing S by X, one obtains
S2 = I 1 i=1 (Xi
the coefficient
V =
)2
of vartaaon,-
(1-18)
z
density
Fig.
t-27
Z.
function
Normal
(PDF)
probability
i.e.,
S, is called
the
standard
,5 V, i.e.,
deviation.
of
The
(1-19)
constant
diagram
1/X/
encloses
in Eq.
1-20
a unit
is selected
area, i.e.,
so that
the
normalized
fre-
S/X
quency
In Fig.
cases are
1-26,
also
in addition
shown.
to the
These
histograms,
bell-shaped
fimctions
continuous the most form, the
(PDFs)
are based
on normal
of probability. of dispersion
+fz(z) dz = 1
which means that the occurrence ofz within its entire range is a certainty.
(1-23)
is the standard is shown in R relating them a__pplications, the X, and rz = S.
by
curves
for
the
two
of probability
density
or Gaussian
26 distribution.
These
In the previous equations [ z is the mean and Crz deviation. A typical PDF of Z with normal distribution Fig. 1-27. Il ustrations of normal PDFs of resistances to experimental results are shown in Fig. 1-26. In theoretical model is usually selected by setting [z =
For the theoretical gz and is equal
PDFs for approximating the dispersion widely used model in applied probability PDF of Z, i.e., z(Z), is given as
of observed theory. In
data analytical
are
Some
fz(z)
interesting
coefficient
defined of z(Z)
of variation experimental
wil
are
il ustrated
fz(z)
Thus,
fz(z):
V'2r1
(1-20)
(1-21) (1-22)
where and
24 In order to remove
J_+ (z
in X, instead
"
'used
dz
by n, one uses n -
Area
0.00135
of dividing
1. For
large
text.
values 25 In this
of n, the dif erence section, the notation in honor who first of the introduced great
in the on
remainder considera-
of the Gauss
(a) (b)
Fig. 1-28
mean.
Examples
of probabilities
of outcomes
at dif erent
amounts
of standard
deviation
from
the
42
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
%t2.
Probabilistic
Basis
for
Structural
Load
Design
43
from
an
Fig.
outcome
1-28(a),
between
it can
one
be seen
standard
that
in Fig.
this
are
the
deviation
probability
on either
of the
side
occurrence
of the mean
of
deareas
the from
is 68.27%.
viations
enclosed
Whereas,
on
under
as shown
side
the curve
1-28(b),
value
three
between
becomes
standard
two
95.45%.
deviations
standard
The
either
of the
tails
mean,
that
fo(q)
Load
mean are only 0.135% later, the small number eral standard deviations in appraising structural
Practical F ortnulations
outcomes. As wil become likely to take place under the mean is of the utmost
Resistance
fR (r)
0 n
city)
q orr
or resistance
x/
Qs Unsafe
R>Q Safe
Q>R
.- fR(r)
safety
or fRO'), Again
a
Fig.
functions
Load
R
R2
and
R3
unsafe
Resistance
1-29
Probability
for the two
density
main
Fig.
definition
-30
Probabilistic
of se
statistical studies show that since the loads are susceptible to variations, their effect on a member or a structure can be expressed in probabilistic form. Such load effects, resembling fRO'), wil be designated as fo(q). For a given member or a structure, these functions define the behavior of the same critical parameter such as a force, stress, or deflection. Two such functions probabilistically .defining the load effect fQ(q) and the resistance f(r) for a force acting on a member are shown in Fig. 1-29. For purposes Of il ustration, it is assumed that the load effect fQ(q) has a larger standard deviation, i.e., larger dispersion of the load, than that
for the member resistance.
random resistance).
variables
(load
and
structural
regions.
can be compressed into a single normal PDF such as that shown in Fig. 1-3 l(a). In this diagram the probability of failure, p f, is given by the area under the tail of the curve to the left of the origin. A possible magnitude
In conventional (deterministic) design, set above the observed mean. This condition 1-29. On the other hand, in order to avoid wil typically provide a material with an than specified. For this reason, calculated would be below the mean. On this basis, is simply defined as Rn/Qn. In reality, both Q and R are uncertain answer to the safety problem. To il ustrate two main variables in Fig. 1-31, ,(r) is
of apf
by
all instances to the right of As can be seen from Fig. and crR-o is standard deviation. into a more convenient form of two independent normal
may
be surmised
from
the origin. 1-31 (a), [3 cry_ o = Ix- o, where [3 is a constant For applications, this relation can be put by noting that the variance of a linear function variables, cry_ o, is the sum of the variances
Fig.
1-28(b).
A member
would
survive
in
quantities
the shown
and there is no unique interaction between the along the horizontal axis
fR-o(X) [
Failure Survival
flnJRJo)(X)
Failure
Survival
and
(q)
is plot ed
along
the vertical
axis.
For
the ensemble
of an infinite
number of possible the graph into two for the range of outcomes, respectively, member. However, and fal ing in the While enlightening, Fortunately, however,
outcomes, a line at 45 corresponding to R = Q divides regions. For R > Q, no failure can occur. For example, small and large outcomes Q, Q2, Q3, the resistance R, R2, R3 suffice to preserve the integrity of a for outcomes Q3 and R with a common point at D region where R < Q, a failure would take place. the above process is dif icult to apply in practice. it can be mathematically demonstrated that for
$ZR-O
Htn (RIO)
(RIO) ''
(a) {b)
normal
normal
distribution
distribution.
of R and
In this
Q their
manner, the
dif erence,
information
i.e.,
R implied
Q, is also
in Fig. 1-30
Fig.
1-3t
(a) Normal
and
(b)
lognormal
probability
density
functions.
Stress,
one has
Axial
the
Loads,
27 Moreover,
fol owing
and Safety
since
expression
Concepts
variance
for the
Sec. t-t2.
is a square
safety index
Probabilistic
Design
of its parts.
of standard
[3.
deviation.
variation
in design
[3 _ [.I,R-- Q _
where tance
thus,
o'R and r o are, respectively, the standard deviations R and the load effect O. A larger [3 results in fewer
a more conservative design.
of structures and machines. In ddition to the failure limit states emphasized before, the probabilistic approach is suitable for other situations. Important among these are the serviceability limit states. Among these, control of maximum deflections or limitations on undesirable vibrations can also be treated in probabilistic terms.
in the design
variables
can be explicitly
parameters,
resulting
included
in more
by using
consistent
the coefficients
reliability
of
An alternative appoach for establishing index [3 can be based on the more widely
than the normal
Fig.
rather
the
mathematical
of first
ratio index,
order,
R/Q,
convenience,
mean-value
1-31
is appropriate.
By
(b).
it is preferable
carrying
EXAMPLE
t-7
Consider two kinds of loading to be suspended by steel cases, a nominal permanent, or dead load, D,, is 5 kips. a nominal intermit ent, or live load, L,, is 1 kip, whereas
kips.
steel
approximations,
use
struction
Assume
(AISC)
for
the
of these
design
rods,
of buildings
American
Institute
ASTM
of Steel
Grade
Con-
A36
apply.
[3, reads
(a)
tions,
and
where,
O.
and
as before,
g and for
x and
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION xc2 are the mean values for the respective funcwww.avs4you.com
requires the use of the fol owing
Determine the cross-sectional allowable stress design (ASD) (b) Find the cross-sectional areas from the basics of probabilistic
areas for the rods using the conventional approach, for which cr,o, = 22 ksi. 29 for the same rods using an approach deduced concepts. According to AISC/LRFD, - this
relation:
k
qbR,,
>
i=1
iQi
structure, and qb < 1 is the
Eq. 1-27
(1-27)
resistance
reduces to
respectively,
the
coefficients
of variation
for
It c'n be noted
that Eqs.
each other.
of In(R/Q)
A graphical:
in
where
R is the
case
nominal
two
strength
of the
interpretation
is shown
factor such that qbR,, is the design resistance > 1 account for possible overloads over
in this only fypes of loading
l-3!(b). Analogous to the first approach, given by the area under the tail of the routine applications, a [3 on the order it must be recognized that the safety
of reliability
and
cannot
be considered
exact.
Nevertheless,
are
considered,
qbR,
> 1.2D,
uncertainties
and
Ang, Vol.
H. Tang, Probability Concepts in Engineering York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975). for a random variable R is defined as
Planning
where, according to the code for this case, qb is 0.90, 's are and the yield strength of the steel, cry, is 36 ksi. (c) For the four solutions found before, calculate the corresponding indices, [3, using Eq. 1-26. This equation is based on lognormal
for the variables associated with the load and resistance per
Solution
1.2 and
safety
AISC/LRFD.
1.6,
distribution
- , e
+ g,) are, respectively,
However. Wiley,
(1-)
(a)
XR = In R//I
of In R. Similar expressions apply for o(q). Q, it can be shown that Z = In(Q/R) has the normal and W. H. Tang, Probabilio, Concepts #7 Eng#eering 2--Decision, Risk, and Reliabilio, (New York:
+ g, and
= In(1
the mean
Since the total axial force P is caused + L,, and, on applying Eq. 1-16, the
by the required
dead
and
live
loads,
P = D,,
areas
are
1983).
(LRFD),
29 AISC, 3o AISC,
1st ed.
(Chicago:
of Steel of Steel
1986).
Construction, Construction,
Design
46
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
1-13.
Bolted
and
Riveted
Connections
A - D, ra,,ow+ Ln
A2
(b) Since R,,
5 22+ 1 = 0.273 in 2
= 0.909 in 2
Eq.
1.2D,,
for L, = 1 kip
= 15 kips
= 0.093.
indices,
Alternatively,
respectively, are
R2
= 1.05
x 0.909
x 36 = 34.4
kips;
Be = 0.11-
a2 = 20 kips;
On substituting
into
Eq.
1-26,
the safety
- --
5+15
22
for
Ln
= A%.,
again
from
1-16:
+ 1.6L,
and
- 3.75 - 2.48
* = 1.05 x 0.926
x 36 = 8.88 kips;
and
forLn
= 1 kip
been statisvarious probthan live lead, the most to 1.00, deof member. If such as those additional into is needed. the mean
kips;
[
for
part
(b),
p
and, alternatively,
= 1.05
x 0.235 Hence,
x 36 = 35.0
Be = 0.11;
A
= 0.926
in 2 for
L,
= 15 kips.
(c)
coefficients 1.2 for D,, 1.6 for L, and 0.90 for qb have tically determined to approximate probabilistic solutions to lems. Such studies show that dead lead is more predictable and, for that reason, has a smaller multiplier, 1.2, for obtaining probable maximum lead. The coefficient qb varies from 0.60 pending on the statistically determined strength of the type in addition to dead and live loads, other loading conditions caused by wind, snow, or earthquakes should be considered, 'Qi terms appear in Eq. 1-27. In order to solve this part of the problem, additional information The nominal values of R, and Q,, should be transformed
0.1 I, whereas
for
both loads
the coefficient
use
probabilistic formulation. For 3 R, is multiplied by a factor equal to Q,,. The coefficient in %., and the cross-sectional
BL and
of the
2 --
By comparing the safety indices are far apart using the conventional very near one another. Considering duce ,/s and qb factors for code
a good
result?
of variation
Be into
*'1-13.
Bolted
and
Riveted
Connections
of variation
as 0.25, and Be
requires
fol owing
'> --'>
employing
of this
problem32:
aQ = (aDD7
On kip m substitution, live lead, for Be2 the light = 0.189.
+ gEL7,)
1-kip live
-fiD,
+
= 0.093, and, for
(1-29)
In Section 1-8, some basic aspects in analyzing the behavior of bolted connections were given. Further details of such analyses are discussed here. The same procedures are applicable in the design of riveted connections. The usually assumed behavior of a bolted or riveted joint is summarized in Fig. 1-32. TM A connection design approach based on preventing slippage between the faying surfaces is discussed later in this
section.
lead,
Bo
the
15-
The distributed
total
force between
Based on the information for the part = 1.05 x 0.273 x 36 = 10.3 kips;
National
June
for
3 B. R. Ellingwood
American
No. 577,
et al.,
1980.
Standard
Development.ofa
A58,
National
Probability
of Standards,
Based and
Load
this
on a joint is assumed to be equally or rivets) of equal size. In many cannot be justified by elastic analysis, however, ductile deand/or slip between the faying surfaces permits an equal reof the applied force before the ultimate capacity of a con(bolts
1986).
acting
concentrically connectors
Special
lication
H. Madsen,
34.
S. Krenk,
and N. Lind,
Methods
of Stractural
Safety
(New
York:
Civil
Probabilistic 1970).
Statistics
Decisions
for
34 From
G. Dreyer,
Festigkeitslehre
und
Elastiziti tslehre
(Leipzig:
J/necke,
48
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
t-t3.
Bolted
and
Riveted
Connections
49
Shearing plane
Ii
(a)
Fig.
for
connection.-
t-32
a bolted
Assumed
or
action
a riveted
Bearin planes (b)
nection
tests?
is reached.
This
assumption
has
been
justified
on
the
basis
of
d
In contrast to the the connectors are to bend to maintain connected plates is connections of this are used for joining When connectors the net section in
Fig. 1-33 commonly joints. Bending neglected of plates in lap
bolt
holes
are closely
il ustration shown in Fig. 1-32, in simple lap joints, in single shear, and the plates near' the connector tend the axial force concentric. However, bending in the commonly neglected (see Fig. 1-33). Numerous bolted type are used in steel construction, and riveted ones aluminum alloy sheets in aircraft. are arranged as shown in Fig. 1-34(a), determining tension poses no dif iculty. However, if the rows for
assumed
stress
distribution.
from
theoretically. experiments
spaced
and
may be more likely to occur than a tear across the Methods for treating such cases are available? It to have a sufficient edge distance e to prevent a shear the c-c planes shown in Fig. 1-34(c). il ustration of a failure in bearing is given in Fig. 1-35. Although stress distribution is very complex, as noted in Section it is approximated on the basis of an average bear#zg over the projected area of the connector's shank onto a plate,
R. E. Davis, G. Joints," Trans.
tear b-b.
staggered,
as shown
in Fig.
1-34(b),
of a rivet. In the
terpreted
Therefore, previous
on the
basis
the
of this
design
inverse approach,
average
process the
stress
used frictional
acting
in design resistance
on the projected
is satisfactory. between
area
the
35 A conclusive
3a For details,
1989).
experimental
example,
for
verification
AISC,
see
Manual
and (1940):
of this assumption
H.
1193.
E.
Davis,
"Tension
may
be found
Tests
of
in
of Steel
Construction,
9th
ed.
friction force between the faying Fig. 1-36. With the use of high-strength order of 100 ksi (700 MPa), this is design. The required tightening about 70 percent of their tensile analysis, an allowable shear stress specified. These stresses are based sign of connections using high-strength
manner as that for ordinary bolts
surfaces at the connectors has been neglected. However, if the force developed by a connector is both sufficiently large and the capacity of a joint can be determined on the basis of the
surfaces. This
condition is il ustrated in with yield strength on the an acceptable method_ in structural steel of such bolts is usually specified to be strength. For the purposes of simplified based on the nominal area of a bolt is on experiments. This enables the debolts to be carried out in the same
bolts
or rivets.
The
bearing-type based
bolted
approach
and remains
by the
I
(e) (b) (c)
' . T-pressure on
--
Possible tear,
and
modes
(c)
(a) distance
net
xxxxx.xxxxxxxxxxxx,',F---length
Fig. t-36
the plate
Initial tension
bolt
resistance
force
to the
P
(b)
5O
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Sec.
t-14.
Welded
Joints
5t
Back-u
(a) (b)
same. However, the applied forces are increased using Section 1-12 and Eq. 1-27), and stresses are multiplied resistance factors. For slip-critical investigation of bolted loads, neither the net section nor bearing are checked. beyond the scope of this text?
EXAMPLE
Determine
the required
lergths
of welds
of a 3 in by 2 in by
to 20 ksi. Use i-in fil et welds, is 5.56 kips per linear inch.
of length L and L2 are the applied force P in
is to develop
*'1-14. Steel
welds. weld, weld. (a) (b)
widely used. Butt welds, such as shown in Fig. il ustrated in Fig. 1-38, are particularly common. welds is simply found by multiplying the cross-sectional
1-37, The
plate
stresses are usually expressed as a certain percentage of the strength of the original solid plate of the parent material. This percentage factor varies greatly, depending on the workmanship. For ordinary work, a 20-percent
reduction in the allowable stress for the weld compared to the solid plate
being
connected
by the allowable
stress
for welds.
equilibrium
The
allowable
sultant of the forces R and R2 developed by the welds to be equal and opposite to P. For the optimum performance of the angle, force P must act through the centroid of the cross-sectional area (see Table 7 of the Appendix). For the pur-
without
any tendency
to twist
the connection.
This requires
the re-
poses of computation,
the welds
are assumed
in 2
dimensions.
Aangle
P = Acra.ow
= 2.00
= 2 x 20
O'al o w = 20 ksi
may be used. For this percent. On high-grade efficiency for the welded using such welds. Similar such work, the AISC the American Welding
the weld as in the base
loads.
factor, the efficiency of the work, some of the specifications joint. Most pressure vessels joints are used in some specifications, based on the Society (AWS), allow the
metal in the case of butt
is said to be 80 allow 100-percent are manufactured structural frames. In recommendations of same tensile stress in
These welds are
joint
Ma=07 + M = 0 +
Check: R
+ R2
= 14.1
R = 14.1k R2 = 25.9 k
of the i-in weld,
Fil et
welds
are
designed
on
a semiempirical
basis.
designated by the size of the of equal width co. The smallest For example, a standard i-in equal to 0.5 sin 0 = 0.5 sin 45
(a)
weld,
regardless
area
metal.
of the direction
by the allowable shear stress stress is 0.3 times the elecFor example, E70 electrodes (i.e., tensile strength metal has an allowable shear stress of 0.3 x 70 force q per inch of the weld is then given as
shear
of the applied
1-38(b), which are usually made across a weld is called its throat. both legs in wide and a throat x 0.5 in. The strength of a fil et
is usually increased a craters at the beginning respect to the plane of To reduce the length Thus, in this example,
the resistance for this
the specified
value
small amount over the lengths computed to account for and end of the welds. The eccentricity of the force P with the welds is neglected. of the connection, end fil et welds are sometimes used. a weld along the line ad could be added. The centroid of
weld is midway between a and d. For this arrangement,
length
note
of welds
that
lengths
incides
force,
38 is based
on the
same
slots
resultant
and
notches
of R and
that
in the attached
R2 of the
the resultant
former
force
member
case.
accomplish
welds
occasionally
the
co-
used.
q = 21 x 0.707co
where co is the width of the legs. For
= 14.85co
a i-in fil et
[k/in]
weld, this reduces
(1-30)
to
d 1.06'
r(b)
3.71
(b)
kips
per
in; for
a i-in
fil et
of Steel simplification
weld,
Construction,
5.56
of the
kips
real
per
in,
etc.
1986).
Fig.
t-39
fil et
Fig. ;I-38
weld.
An example
of a
52
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Problems
1-6 and
Problem
0 = 20 .
53
load P if load P2 = 15 kips? for cross-sectional areas
Problems
Section
1-1. the
stress
shown.
using
t-5
1-8(g).
Eqs.
Repeat
and
1-7.
(c) Show
1-6 for a -in
the
results
square bar
as in Fig.
if P =
t-7.
Eq. similar
for
l:5a
with the
are
5 kips
t42. A bar of variable cross is subjected to two concentrated shown. in the figure. (a) Find
three-dimensional
1-2. rium
polar
Show for
coordihates
dif erential
are
of equilibproblem
in
t-8. A glued lap splice rectangular member at Assuming that the shear trols the design, what the member? Assume
joint to be 10 MPa.
ifp
in 2. (b) On two separate diagrams, plot the axial and the axial stress along the length of the bar.
Pl P2
= 10 kips,
P2 = 8 kips,
section,
held
A = 2 in 2, and A_ = 1
force
P2
5" pipe
Pl
3" pipe
conto
glued
Fig.
P1-t6
A
Fig. P1-12
A2
-o
r
I Ocro
r O0
2 *re
c 20
t-13. A bar of variable cross section, held on the left, is subjected to three forces, P = 4 kN, P2 = --2 kN, and P3 = 3 kN, as shown in the figure. On two separate
Determine the bearing stresses caused force at A, B, and C for the wooden in the figure. All member sizes shown See Table 10 in the Appendix for U.S.
of lumber.
6k
The
neglected
symbols
are
in this
defined
formulation.
in the
figure.
go 0
Body
forces
are
Fig.
PI-8
Section
t-7
diagrams, plot the axial force and the axial stress along the length of the bar. Let A = 200 mm 2, A2 = 100 mm 2, andA3 = 150mm 2.
P3
6" X
1
c
% + -- ao
\dr(/7r+-
/ / x
TOr
t-9.
dO_
a member'
If an axial
stress
tensile
is a C 12 x 20.7
sectional in the
t-10 and
art dr
areas Appendix.
0
Fig.
o
-2
%
sectional subjected
find the no bending,
mensions
dimensions to axial
points
are
made
tensile
of a W 8 x 31 section,
section? For designation
members,
force
of 110
kips
what
is applied
and
wil
the
to
A 1 A2 A3
6" X 12"
cross-
of these
Short
see
Tables
4 and
1-11.
steel
members
have
the
cross-
Fig.
PI-t3
shown compresslye
144.
Rework
P2.
Problem
thick hollow
1~13
by
circular
reversing
tube
the
of 40
direction
mm out-
--1 4'"
to a is the
Section
1-18. A 40
6'-------.
Fig.
-"--- 4'
PM7
the
Section
side
constant
diameter
shear
is subjected
of 10 Pa in the Plot
on the
axial
outside
direction,
surface
as shown
t-8
x 80 mm wooden plank is glued to two 20
t-3. On the same graph, plot the normal stress froand the shear stress , as functions of the angle 0 defined in Fig. 1-8. Angle 0 should range from 0 to 360 on
the
functions.
in the
maximum
figure.
axial
If the
stress?
tube
is 400
the
mm
variation
long,
what
of the
axial
stress
along
the
tube.
of
in
abscissa.
Identify
the
maxima
and
minima
for
these
the equal.
angles
0 where
the
Fig.
DI-10
140
400
t-5. plot
1-8.
tions.
Using
{r0 and
Identify
axes,
of angle
minima
graph,
in Fig.
func-
steel plates are fastened tofigure, by means of two 20into the holes. If the joint of 45 kN, determine (a) the
Fig.
PI-t5
t-6. A 10-mm square bar is subjected to a tensile force P = -20 kN, as shown in Fig. 1-8(a). (a) Using statics, determine the normal and shear stress acting on sections a-a and b-b for 0 = 30 . (b) Verify the results
Fig.
Pt-t
axial
compression member is made up of two pipes, as shown in the figure. If the alin compression is 15 ksi, (a) what is the
load P if the axial load P2 = 50 kips;
Fig.
l 0
mm
Pt-19
54
average no holes critical normal occur; section;
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Problems
stress in the plates at a section (b) the average normal stress (c) the average shearing stress
t-26. ure,
bolts;
the bolts
and
and
(d)
the
the
plates.
average.
beai'ing
stress
between
!
4k
For the planar frame loaded as shown in the figdetermine the axial stress in member BC. The cross s.ection of member BC is 400 mm 2. The dimensions are given in mm.
20 kN
plane
and
are joined
steel Appendix.)
by pins.
pipe
weighing Neglect
The
mast
the
28.55
is made
weight
lb/ft.
(See of the
from
1-20. A gear transmit ing a torque 2-in shaft is keyed to it, as shown -in square key is 2 in long. Determine
in the key.
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /,
HingLC.15 kN
t-29.
two
A signboard
wooden frames,
15 by
as
20 ft in area
shown in
is supported
the figure.
by
All
wooden
members
member
are
due
3 by
8 in.
(See
Table
wind
force
10 in the
load
Fig.
Pt-23
Appendix
actuating
Calculate
in each
for actual
sign.
lumber
Assume
of
to a horizontal
sizes.)
truss
wind
Calculate
joints
the stress
pinned
acts at
of 20
B
Key
Fig. Pt-20
A control
is shown
pedal
in the figure.
for
a spring
the shear
mechastress
Ib/ft
and
2 on the
that two-sixths
all
the total
are
in pins
of 10,000
A and
psi
B due
in rod
to force
AB. Both
P when
pins are
it causes
in double
a stress
shear.
the
possibility Neglect
of
1-2t. A x 6 in steel plate is to be attached main body of a machine, as shown in Fig. applied'force P = 72 kips and the welds are good for 5.56 kips/in, see Eq. 1-30, how the welds be? Due to symmetry, each weld
the same force.
' p -"diam.
t-27.
Two
steel
wires
with
well-designed
attachments
rod
are
'Section
1-22.
applied
diameter,
are in min.
t-9
What
load
and
is the
shown
it acts
shear
in the
stress
figure?
in double
in bolt
The
shear.
A caused
bolt
All dimensions
by
is 6 mm
the
in
2.68 mm and that of wire BC is 2.52 mm. (a) Determine the stresses in the wires caused by the applied vertical force. (b) Are the wire sizes well-chosen?
71. di am.
Fig.
Pt-24
T 700 N
cylindrical tank is to be supof a hanger arranged as shown in weight supported by the two hangthe shear stresses in the
-' 400200
800
ers
is
15
k.
Determine
,t 600 -< 800----*'Fig. t-28. Find the stress in the Pt-27 mast of the derrick shown
structural shown
figure.
is designed Neglecting
to
resist
the
at points A and B due to the weight the weight of the hangers and asbetween the tank and the hangers
in the
figure.
All
members
are
in the
same
vertical
20
kN
20
kN
Fig. Pt-22
t-23. dozer
shown
20
kN
Calculate if the
in the
the
total
figure.
shear
forces
Note
stress
acting
that there
8 t
pin
shear.
on each
side
of the
bulldozer.
Each
pin
is in single
Fig.
Pt-30
Fig.
Pt-25
Fig.
Pt-28
56
frame BD, bers weight,
Stress,
Axial
Loads,
and
Safety
Concepts
Problems
the bearing stress of the wood on the concrete.
7
of safety
FG, are
and 160,
determine the axial stresses DE; the respective areas for 400, and 130 mm 2.
(a) Find
(b) If the
allowable
pressure
on the
soil
is 100 kN/m
2,
60kN
t,.2 A
'1-31.
A planar
system
consists
members figure. flat the shear
of a rectangular
beam
is in in diameter.
determine in plan view the required dimensions of a square footing. Neglect the weight of the footing. t-34. For the structure shown in the figure, calculate the size of the bolt and area of the bearing plates required if the allowable stresses are 18,000 psi in tension and 500 psi in bearing. Neglect the weight of the
beams.
A = 200 mm2;
MPa,
supported?
of the
tachments.)
and
the
The
factor
ultimate
strength
rod
BC
has A = 400
of the
rods
special
mm 2. (The
areas allowable
AB
is 800 ends
has at-
-.,
t.38. made diameter be the shear. A joint by means of the diameter stress in for
in such the
applications
1-40. tension
stress
in bars
AE
and
in pin
C.
Fig. Pt[37
is
140
One bolt ., /
Bearing plates
6"
(actual)
X 10"
stress in the rods. (In Section that this ratio for the allowable assumption for many materials.)
transmit ing a tensile force is to be of a pin, as shown in the figure. If the rods being connected is D, what should d of the pin? Assume that the allowable the pin is one-half the maximum tensile
8-16, stresses it wil be shown is an excellent
1-4t.
A tower
in the figure.
If it is subjected
to a horizontal
are what member?
100 MPa in compression and is the required cross-secAll members are pin-conkN
force
of 540
kN
and
540
Fig.
Pt-34
't-32.
By
shown
means
in the distributed
load of
of
figure
numerous
load.
vertical
is designed This load,
Determine
hangers,
to support tosether
the
the
with a conthe
sec-
able
cable finuously
and haners,
can be approximated
2 kN/m.
as a uniformly
cross
What
the shown? section. size.) parallel
minimum distances a and b are required notches in the horizontal member of All members are nominally 8 by 8 in (See Table 10 in the Appendix for Assume the ultimate strength of wood to the grain to be 500 psi. Use a factor of 5. (This detail is not recommended.)
distributed
the
3.0 rn v
Fig. Pt-41
tion required [or the material is 1000 MPa is 2. (Hfi: The cable
and develops only
cable if the yield strength o[ the and the required [actor of safety assumes the shape of a parabola
a horizontal [orce at Rs lowest
t-39.
eters
are
Two
attached
high-strength
at A and
steel
C and
rods
support
of dif erent
a mass
diam-
t-42.
For
the
frame
shown
for
Problem
1-30,
find
the
at B, as shown
in the
figure.
What
mass
M can
be
and
required
and
BF.
The
cross-sectional
allowable
stress
areas
for
in tension
members
is 120
AB,
MPa
AD,
poinL
larsest
The
[orce
larser
in the
resultant
cable.)
at a support
is equal
to the
that
in compression
is 75 MPa.
Fig.
rn
Pt-35
1500
10 m
Fig. F1-32
"l
of
double to
be on a
A
3600
/.
Fig. Pt-39
't-43. shown
2400
dimensions and
can
safety designed
shear?
factor
for
must
diameter 6000 lb
of a pin in single
Section
1-11
wooden footing,
1-31. bell
force
allowable
shown
is 100
figure
a force
at A is resisted
MPa.
Fig.
Pt-43
58
resist diameter
'1-44.
the figure.
Loads,
and Safety
the the
in
and
Concepts
Problems
59
each 8 in long;
All
at A.
joints
are
applied
for
frame
The
tension
AC
allowable
pinned. member
.the
DF
stress are
Determine AB to carry
continuous
is 20 ksi.
A planar
Members
has
and
dimensions
shown
All
rod
tachments
is 1250
MPa
is-80%.
and
The
joints are pinned. Determine of a high-strength steel rod for that the ultimate strength for the that the efficiency of the end atsafety factor for
D
< L ct) P
Fig. Pt-46
regarding
the ASD
and LRFD
de-
consists
of two
4 x 3 x in angles,
the
bolts
spaced allowable
Section 1-13 1-50. Find the capacity of tension member Fink truss shown in the figure if it is made
3 by 2 by in angles
attached to a -in-thick
(see Table
gusset
the
20
rod
kN
is 2.
holes. The allowable strength bolts in 4n "' diameter stresses are 22 ksi in tension, 15 ksi in shear, and ksi in bearing on the angles as well as the gusset.
plate
7 in the Appendix)
by four
2m
2m
equal 0.5-kg masses hre attached to a 10wire, as shown in the figure, and are roa vertical axis, as shown in Fig. 1-25, on plane at 4 Hz. Determine the axial
Fig.
P1-5t
'2m
stresses
results
on
in the
a diagram
three
segments
as a function
of the
of
wire
r. Consider
and
plot
the
the
D C
(a)
masses
to be concentrated
as points.
Fig.
Pt-44
'%45.
To support
a load
P = 180 kN,
determine
the
lowance tensile
necessary diameter for rods shown in the figure. Neglect and assume that the joints
has stress to be made is 125 MPa. All
for
AB and AC for the tripod the weight of the structure are pin-connected. No althreads. dimensions The are allowable in meters.
't-48.
NON-ACTIVATEDp;VERSION OO 1,02'. Z 2 angles www.avs4you.com "<-'0.6 m--0.6 m-i< 0.6 m-- 1
P2 P
7//-7' I I 3" x 2" Section
Fig.
A bar of constant
are { in thick by are { in. (a) What rivet? (b) What are plate in rows 1-1 and
figure,
multiple-riveted is designed
10 in wide. The rivets in is the shear stress in the the tensile stresses in the 2-29.
lap for
1-1 1 75"
o 9 o I
P1-47
cross-sectional area A is ro-
ooooo
Detail at A
'
' (b)
I P4
Gusset
thick
3/8"
Fig.
2o,
Rds,l
one angular
r.
plane
weight of the a diagram
with of the
stress cr as a Fig.
11-52
11'50
Section figure.
144
%5L
W 12 x 36 beam
Find
the capacity
shown
of a standard
in the
connection
The
connection
for a
t-53.
using
Rework
- n fdlet
Example
welds.
Fig.
Pt-45
r L
Fig. Pt.48
P is shown
*%46.
A pin-connected
in the
figure.
frame
Stress
for
cr in both
supporting
the
members
a force
AB
and
essary
Members
BC
is to be the
to achieve
AB and
same.
the
BC
Determine
weight
a constant
angle
section.
a nec-
Section
1-12
minimum
have
of construction.
cross
t-49. With
10 kips. conclu-
Sec.
2-2.
Normal
Strain
6t
pter
of the applied force. With the same load and a longer gage length, a larger deformation is observed, than when the gage length is small. Therefore, it is more fundamental to refer to the observed deformation per unit of length of the gage, i.e., to the intensity of deformation.
load,
initial
During
an experiment,
the change
in gage
length
is noted
as a function
IfLo
is then
length 'AL
given
P
Fig. 2-'1 Diagram of a tension specimen in a testing
machine.
(2-1)
dimensions
of in/in,
m/m,
the extensional strain. Since stress, it is usually called the but it is customary to refer
or txm/m (microstrain).
Sometimes
This
chapter
is subdivided
into
two
considered loaded
loaded members is defined relationships are il ustrated for stress-strain behavior deflections in axial y loaded
first.
members
parts.
In Part
A,
extensional
strain
The
of 0. I percent.
to note
for
in metal
so-called
incremental
forming,
natural
as dL/L,
where
change
L is the
or true
the
strains
strabz
may
be large.
strain
engineering
in length
=
instantaneous
L.
dL/L
o
Analytically,
=
length
increment
For
such
of the
In(1
de for
purposes, specimen,
e)
one
defines dL
and
is defined
the
is the
(2-2)
In L/Lo
definition essential y coincides with the conventional the length L is set equal to Lo, the strain definition
useful
strain given
2-2.
Normal
Strain
pressing
elsewhere
Eq. Natural
an instantaneous
in this
rate
in theories
of deformation.
of viscosity
Natural
and
strains
viscoplasticity
are not
discussed
for
ex-
be selected
A solid deforms.
body For
subjected example,
distance
are
such
as A and B. Initial y,
apart. Thus,
used.. This
commonly
depending
two
initial
on the test,
distance
such
points
between
either
can
in as
shown
60
been
replaced
Since the strains generally encountered are very small, it is possible to employ a highly versatile means for measuring them, using expendable electric strain gages. These are made of very fine wire or foil that is glued to the member being investigated. As the forces are applied to the member, elongation or contraction of the wires or foil takes place concurrently with similar changes in the material. These changes in length alter the electrical resistance of the gage, which can be measured and calibrated
t Natural strains of Flow and Fracture and L. E. Malven,
glewood Clif s,
were
for measuring
these
in Fig.
deformations.
An example
of a small
clip-on
exten-
N J: Prentice-Hall,
by P. Ludwik in 1909. See A. Nadai, Vol. 1, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hil , to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium
1969).
Small
MTS
Systems
clip-on (courtesy
Corporation).
of
Axial
Connecting wires
Strains
indicate
and
the
Deformations
strain taking
in Bars
place. Such gages, suitable for dif erent
Veryfinewire .'
to
conditions, are available in a range mm (0.15 to 6 in). A schematic diagram 2-3, and a photograph of a typical small
is
100
Tool steel
Low-alloy
2.3.
In
Bonding
cement
Stress-Strain
solid mechanics, the
Relationships
mechanical behavior of real materials under load
/
Wife
-Y
strain top cover
paper
base
gage
is of primary
macroscopic served Researchers
served
tests,
provide
importance.
(overall)
not
basic
information
Experiments,
on this
behavior.
mainly
tension
In these
applied
or compression
loads is obrelationships. for the ob-
t;elnt"
Lowcar
steel
experiments,
reasons
behavior.
It should be apparent from the purposes, it is more fundamental tension or compression than to report stress is a more significant parameter material of an applied force P depends area of the member. As a consequence, mechanical properties of matedhals, the relationship between stress and grams, for most practical purposes, size of the specimen and of its gage
tomary to use the ordinate scale for
previous discussion that for general to report the strain of a member in the elongation of its gage. Similarly, than force since the effect on a primarily on the cross-sectional in the experimental study of the it is customary to plot diagrams of strain in a particular test. Such diaare assumed to be independent of the length. In these diagrams, it is cus-
I
0.20
t
0.40
Strain,
(in/in)
Typical for
dif erent
stress-strain
steels.
Experimental y determined stress-strain ferent materials. Even for the same material temperature at which the test was conducted, a number of other variables. Conventional few representative materials are il ustrated shown to larger scale in Fig. 2-6, particularly
Handbook
1987).
diagrams they
widely for difdif er depending on the the speed of the test, and stress-strain diagrams for a in Figs. 2-5 and 2-6. These are for strain. Since for most
0.01
dif er
2 See
Society
for
on
Experimental
for
Experimental
references
Mechanics
Mechanics
(Englewood
(SEM),
3.
Clif s,
A.
S. Kobayashi
NJ:
Prentice-Hall,
(ed.),
3 See,
example,
given
on page
Concret /e
-20
Strai(i n, n/in)
Fig. 2-6 diagrams
materials.
Fig.
element
2-4
Typical
metal-foil
singlegage
Division,
electrical-
resistance (courtesy
Meas. urements
strain
of MicroNorth
Measurements Raleigh,
USA).
Group, Carolina,
Inc.,
C.I./ --40
Typical for
dif erent
stress-strain
65
64
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Sec.
2-4.
Hooke's
Law
65
engineering applications, deformations must be limited, the lower range of strains is particularly important. The large deformations of materials in the analysis of such operations as forging, forming, and drawing are not pursued. An il ustration of fractured tension specimens after static tension tests, i.e., where the loads were gradually applied, is shown in Fig. 2-7. Steel and aluminum alloy specimens exhibit ductile behavior, and a fracture occurs only after a considerable amount of deformation. This behavior is clearly exemplified in their respective stress-strain diagrams; see Fig. 26. These failures occur primarily due to slip in shear along the planes forming approximately 45 angles with the axis of the rod (see Fig. 1-8). A typical "cup and cone" fracture may be detected in the photographs of steel and aluminum alloy specimens. By contrast, the failure of a castiron specimen typically occurs very suddenly, exhibiting a square fracture across the cross section. Such cleavage or separation fractures are typical
of brit le materials.
oksi1
/
True stress-strain
diagram
Convptio0al
A/
Brila I
material x"
Ductile
dim
Approximately
0.0012
0.20
(a)
A
in/in
materials
(b)
0.020
types of stress-strain diagrams may be identified from static tests at constant temperature. The curve shown in Fig. 2-8(a) is characteristic of mild steel, whereas the curves shown in Fig. 2-8(b) cover a wide range of diverse materials. The upper curve is representative of some brit le tool steels or concrete in tension, the middle one of aluminum alloys or plastics, and: the lower curve of Fig. 2-8(b) is representative of rubber.
Several
dif er
Numerically,
drastically.
However,
the
extreme
values
of strain
point
of a specimen. Materials capable of withstanding large significant increase in stress are referred to as ductile
Stresses
applies
on a stress-strain
each
The
material
"steepness"
diagram
of these
represents
characteristic
curves
the complete
curve.
also
varies
are
usually
to brit le
computed
materials.
failure
The
(rupture)
terminal
greatly.
steel.
(b)
on the
basis
neering stresses. On the other hand, it is known that some transverse contraction or expansion of a material always takes place. For mild steel or aluminum, especial y near the breaking point, this effect, referred to as necking, is particularly-pronounced; see Fig. 2-9. Brit le materials do
not
to as conventional
of the
or engi-
of a
I I
versely a lit le in a tension test and expand in a compression test. Dividing the applied force, at a given point in the test, by the corresponding actual area of a specimen at the same instant gives the so-called trt e stress. A plot of true stress vs. strain is called a true stress-strain diagram; see Fig.
2-8(a).
exhibit
it at usual
temperatures,
although
they
too
contract
trans-
I
I
Shape specimen
nearthe
of
breaking
point
2.4.
(a) A572 steel and (b) 6061T6 aluminum alloy. Brit le fracture for (c) cast iron. (Numbers refer to ASTM
Hooke's
Law
Fig.
2-7
Ductile
fractures
for
For a limited range from the origin, the experimental values of stress vs. strain lie essential y on a straight line. This holds true almost without reservations for the entire range for glass at room temperature. It is true 4 These are referred to as Cauchy stresses, named in honor of the great French mathematician (1789-1857). Definition of stress recognizing the change in crosssectional area during straining is associated with the names of Piola (1833), the
(a) (b) (c)
diameter
Original
of
specimen
designations
alloy).
that of Association
Aluminum
for
for
steel
aluminum
and
Italian
elasticJan,
and
Kirchhoff
(1852),
the renowned
German
physicist.
Fig. 2-9 Typical contraction of a specimen of mild steel in tension near the breaking
point.
66
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Sec.
2-5.
Further
Remarks
on
Stress-Strain
Relationships
67
for mild
up to very
steel up to some
close
to the failure
point,
point
as A in Fig. 2-8(a).
for many
high-grade
It holds
alloy
nearly
steels.
true
On
materials
expressed
tical purposes, up to some such point as A, also tionship between stress and strain may be said terials. This sweeping idealization and generalization
tsoi hel, otanneal her ed hand,copper, the strai alug miht num, part of or tcast he curve iron. Nevert hardlhelyess, exists ifnor concret all prace,
is known
by the
come
crystals.
generally
as Hooke's
law/
is Symbolically,
tropic.-With mogeneity
essential y
Because
assumed.
alike
of this random
in any direction.
orientation,
such as wood, in this text, complete point to point) and isotropy of materials
Relationships
7 Such
properties
materials
of materials
are called
iso-
beis
ho-
strength
v/
Yield
this
law
can
be
2.5.
Further
'on Stress-Strain
equation
(2-3)
which simply means that stress the constant of proportionality modulus, modulus of elasticity,
to the proportional limit defined in Section 2-4, several other points can be observed on the stress-strain diagrams. For inthe highest points (B in Fig. 2-8) correspond to the ldtimate of a material. Stress associated with the long plateau ab in Fig. called the yield strength of a material. As wil be brought out remarkable property of mild steel, in common with other ductile
is significant constant
an essential y
sionless, E has the units of stress in this relation. In the U.S. customary system of units, it is usually measured in pounds per square inch, and in the SI units, it is measured in newtons per square meter (or pascals). Graphically, E is interpreted as the slope of a straight line from the origin to the rather vague point A on a uniaxial stress-strain diagram. The stress corresponding to the lat er point is termed the proportional or elastic litnit of the material. Physically, the elastic modulus represents the stif ness of the material to an imposed load. The value of the elastic modalles is a definite property of a material. From experiments, it is known that e is always a very small qaantity; hence, E must be large. Its approximate the Appendix. values are
up to the proportional
large amount phenomenon
A study is so near
taken to be the same. However, it is much easier to locate the For materials that do not possess a well-defined yield strength, sometimes "invented" by the use of the so-called "offset method." is il ustrated in Fig. 2-10, where a line offset an arbitrmy amount
limit
occur
during
at a constant
yielding.
At the yield
stress.
present, those
that
The yielding
(stress) may be
This of 0.2
stress,
determining strength
240
Offset
method
of
former. one
is
For
a few E at room
for
stress-strain
material
diagram.
Point
C is then
taken
as the
yield
portion
strength
of the initial
of the
30
up to the proportional litnit of the material. This is highly significant as in most of the subsequent treatment, the derived formulas are based on this law. Clearly, then, such formulas are limited to the material's behavior in the lower range of stresses. Some materials, notably single crystals and wood, possess dif erent elastic moduli in dif erent directions. Such materials, having dif erent physical properties in dif erent directions, are called anisotropic. A consideration of such materials is excluded from this text. The vast majority of engineering materials consist of a large number of randomly oriented
with rods. In 1676, in Latin is Ut Tensio
His the
It fl ows
106 psi,
from
or 200
the foregoing
and
207
GPa.
discussion
that Hooke's
law applies
only
That a material is elastic usually implies that stress is directly tional to strain, as in Hooke's law. Such materials are linearly Hookean. A material responding in a nonlinear manner and unloaded, returning back along the loading path to its initial
state of deformation is also an elastic material. Such materials
at 0.2-percent
offset.
elastic limit is exceeded, on unloading it usually responds in a linearly elastic manner, as shown in Fig. 2-11(c), deformation, or set, develops at no external load. As wil after the study of Section 2-11, the area enclosed by the
The dif erence between the two types in Figs. 2-1 l(a) and (b). If in stressing
' Actually,
Robert
Young's
Lectures modulus
modulus
on
Hooke,
an English
Natural of elasticity.
is so called
Philosophy,
in honor
scientist,.
published
of Thomas
worked
with
springs
and
which
not
to dissipated considered
For pressions
some
ductile
not
blocks
stress-strain reasonably
through energy
elastic
close
obtained found
of elastic a material
maits
Young,
contain
the English
a definition
scientist.
of
* Rolling
materials.
operations
produce
preferential
orientation
of crystal ine
grains
in
Dissipated
E
Sec.
2-6.
Other
Idealizations
of
Constitutive
Relations
69
(a)
(b)
Permanent
Elastic
elergy
I I
Gyp
iI
/ /
set
recovery
(c)
plastic
Fig.
2-1t
material.
Stress-strain
P
diagrams:
(a) linear
materials,
elastic
such as
material,
cast iron
(b) nonlinear
and concrete
elastic
are
material,
very
and
weak
(c) inelastic
in tension
or
(a)
I
(b) (c)
but
the
For sense
the force.
and
diagrams
dif er
considerably,
it wil Sketches interpreting be
material;
Fig.
2-t3
Idealized
and
(c)
elastic-linearly
stress-strain
diagrams:
hardening
(a) rigid-perfectly
material.
plastic
material;
(b)
elastic-perfectly
plastic
It is well to note that in some of advantageous to refer to elastic bodies such as shown in Fig. 2-12 are frequently
a case,
a stress.can
range
and
shown
terminate
in Fig. 2-13(c)
anywhere
between
+%,,
and
the
2.6.
physical
Other
behavior
Idealizations
of mechanical
of
In an based
P
(a)
P
increasingly larger number of technical problems, stress analyses on the assumption of linearly elastic behavior are insufficient. For this reason, several additional stress-strain relations are now in general use. Such relations are frequently referred to as constitutive relations or laws. The three idealized stress-strain relations shown in Fig. 2-13 are encountered particularly often. The two shown in Figs. 2-13(a) and (b) wil be used in this text; the one in Fig. 2-13(c) is often more realistic, however, its use is considerably more complicated and generally wil be avoided because of the introductory nature of this book. The idealized -e relationship shown in Fig. 2-13(a) is applicable to problems in which the elastic strains can be neglected in relation to the plastic ones. This occurs if plastic (inelastic) strains are dominant. Perfectly (ideally) plastic behavior means that a large amount of unbounded deformation can take place at a constant stress. The idealization shown in Fig. 2-13(b) is particularly useful if both the elastic and plastic strains have to be included. This situation frequently arises in analysis. Both of the previous idealizations are patterned after the behavior of low-carbon steel (see Figs. 2-6 and 2-8), where at he yield stress %,, a substantial
systems.
-%,. good
The
amounts experimental
this
provides
assumption
a reasonable
is in
ap-
models over a wider range of strain. Beyond increase in strain, many materials resist additional referred to as strain hardening. In some refined analyses, the stress-strain 2-13 may not be sufficiently accurate. Fortunately,
accurate
the
elastic stress,
than
range, a phenomenon
the
previous
on
an
shown in Fig. the use of computers, much better modeling of constitutive relations for real material is possible. For completeness, one such well-known algebraic formulation fol ows. In as much as implementation of such formulations requires a considerable amount of computer programming, this approach is not intended for general use in this text. An equation capable of representing a wide range of stress-strain curves with
idealization
has been
developed
by Ramberg
and
Osgood.
s This
equation
9 is
o
where eo, o, and n are characteristic
Cro
to the
Commit ee
(2-4)
con-
stants
Parameters, used
arises
eo and
o correspond
National
n =
yield
point,
on Aeronautics,
which,
for
TN
all cases
other
(b)
plateau
stances,
in the
that
and
Fig.
2-t2
nonlinear
Linear
spring
(Hookean)
it is assumed
stress-strain
that
the
diagram
mechanical
is generally
and
properties
observed.
of the
material
In both
are
in-
8 W. Ramberg
in some
when
and
W. R. Osgood,
3/7 is chosen
Advisory
Description
formulation,
of Stress-Strain
a discontinuity
Curves
values
902, in the
9 The
coefficient
the
assumed
same
in tension
during
and
unloading,
in compression,
the material
%,,
behaves
= [ -%,
elastically.
I. It is also
In such
investigations.
m.
In this
somewhat
arbitrarily;
dif erent
1943.
by Three
function
have
been
response.
68
7O
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
2-7.
Deformation
of
Axial y
Loaded
Bars
6061-T6 aluminum
7t
n=2 2
60
75F
... .700F 500F
65 28 130
100
, 40
Fig. 244 Ramberg-Osgood
stress-strain.
diagrams.
/%
than that of ideal plasticity, is found by the offset method (see Fig. 2-10). The exponent n determines the shape of the curve, Fig. 2-14. Note that Eq. 2-4 is writ en in dimensionless form, a convenient scheme in analysis. One of the important advantages of Eq. 2-4 is that it is a continuous mathematical
Et
trai (mm/,
-lOO
50
30
10
4.8
18 -54 23
X 10 -a
10 -s
function.
For
example,
an instantaneous
or tangent
--.-! !
-1
I 4
X10
I 5
-s
,
moduhts
defined
as
I 3
Strain
(%)
(2-5)
and
Fig.
strain
2-t6
temperature
curves
Effect
for
of strain
on
6061-T6
stress-
rate
can
2-4,
equation,
be uniquely
determined.
simulations of cyclic stress-strain diagrams can be obtained. An is shown in Fig. 2-15. I In this diagram, a series of characteristic referred to as hysteretic loops since they represent the dissipation ergy (see Section 2-11), are clearly evident. Regardless of the idealization used for a stress-strain diagram,
developed
stress
by
it is advantageous as a function
aluminum
alloy.
to a constant
time; see
stress,
Fig.
the
2-17.
elongations
This phenom-
or
to work of strain.
with With
deflections
continue
to increase
with
enon is referred to as creep. Creep is observed in reinforced concrete floors and in turbine discs, for example. Likewise, the prestress in bolts of mechanical assemblies operating at high temperatures, as well as prestress in steel tendons in reinforced concrete, tend to decrease gradually
with
time.
This
phenomenon
is referred
to as relaxation;
see
Fig.
2-18.
be recognized
example
to be aware of materials
Loaded Nonelastic
of such
that it is strongly
an effect
that
and
is il ustrated
dependent
in Fig.
For
on ambient
phenomena
2-16.
2 It is also
with
temperature.
it must
example, "Method
Changes
iml
An
2-7.
Deformation
of Axial y
Loaded
member
Bars
Axial
is a design deformations parameter, are
required
in the
analysis
of statically
indeterminate
bars.
The
strain,
deflection
also
o See
in IABSE
Defined
Reinforced Behavior
M.
posium
on Resistance
Repeated
(International
of Analysis
Normal
oration
Loads,
and Ultimate
Lisbon,
Association
on Hysteric
August,
Behavior
"Influence
E. P. Popov,
1983,
p. 119. and
of Reinforced
Biaxial p. 204.
and
1973.
Deformability
for Bridge
and
of Structures
Structural
Constant
stress,
o o
Constant
Engineering)
Acted
on by Well-
V. V. Bert,ero,
Concrete
Joint."
Stress,
"Effects
Report
Properties
"Experimental
of Bond
No.
Deteri-
UCB!
0 Time
Time
of Strain
Rate
States
on Mechanical
of
of 6061-T6
Me-
Fig.
constant
2-17
Creep
stress.
in bar
under
Fig.
curve.
2-18
Stress-relaxation
1966),
72
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
2-7.
Deformation
of
Axial y
Loaded
Bars
73
du
u(L)
u(O)
e. dx
P
JOB
(a)
:u!
(b)
where
P.
of points
u(L)
D and B, respectively.
axial translation is the change
= ur and
u(O)
= UB are the
of the in length
As can
absolute
be seen
or global
from
the figure,
displacements
u(0)
is
(2-7)
Any
bar
Fig.
2-t9
An
axial y
loaded
For
appropriate
linearly
elastic
constitutive
materials,
relations
according
can
be used
to Hooke's
to define
law,
e..
e. =
.dE,
Eq.
Eq.
2-3,
2-7
where
and
. = P. dA.,
simplifying,
Eq.
1-13.
By
substituting
these
relations
Jr/to
characteristics of bars also provide the stif ness of systems in mechanical Consider the axial y loaded bar relation for axial bar deformation. held in equilibrium by the force P4.
is permit ed
in the
determined.
bar
between
to gradually
points
the
change.
B and
for
is
dx.
relation, Thus
necessary information for determining vibration analysis. shown in Fig. 2-19(a) for deriving a The applied forces Pi, P2, and P3 are The cross-sectional area A of the bar
(2-8)
L, and elastic
theme
three
these
mecan
In be
1. Equilibrium
on a bar from an initial fixed location formation of the infinitesimal element. equation for axial y loaded bars. It is to be noted that the deformations
conditions
at a section,
internal
shown
resisting
later in
where,
due
to the applied
forces,
u is the absolute
displacement
is the
text
of a point
forces
in Chapter
de-
this
problem.
chapter,
this
may
require is used
remain
of a statically
indeterminate change
after
2. Geo/net/7
in this are gen-
a bar
due 2-19(b).
to axial
to the
ofdefor/nation
axis
forces
of a bar
by assuming
in deriving
that
sections
the
initial y
in length
perpen-
of
see
erally
merical
veo'
mations.
(undeformed)
examples
small
length L, between points such as B and D in Fig. 2-19, rather than its deformed length. Rearranging Eq. 2-6 as du = e. dx, assuming the origin of x at B, and
integrating,
dimensions
throughout
(infinitesimal).
of members
derivation
this text.
This
Therefore
should
become
this
in calculations
apparent
the bitial
from
nu-
dicular
perpendicular
straining,
defor-
3. Material
normal
Fig.
deformations
stresses
properties
between
on this
to axial
(constitutive
theory
sections.
give
normal
strain
relations)
and
permit
of axial
axial
Solutions
based
correct
average
stresses
at a section,
at concentrated
74
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
2-7.
Deformation
of Axial y
Loaded
Bars
75
cross section irregular local stresses (and strains) arise. Only at distances about equal to the depth of the member from such disturbances are the stresses and strains in agreement with the developed theory. solutions based on the concepts of engineering mechanics of solids are best suited for relatively slender members. The use of this simplified procedure is rationalized in Section 2-10 as Saint-Venant's principle. Several examples showing application of Eq. 2-8 fol ow.
EXAMPLE 2-t
A.E
- AE
-
= A-
Hence,
I pL]
It is seen from Eq. 2-9 that the deflection of the rod is directly proportional
(2-9)
Consider
bar
BC
of constant
cross-sectional
area
A and
of length
L shown
in Fig.
2-20(a). concentrated
Solution
Determine
force
caused material
by the is E.
application
of a
A graphic interpretation of the solution stant axial bar strain fol ows by dividing the axial strain is constant, the displacements directly with the distance from the origin is possible at the left end.
the applied force and the length Since Eq. 2-9 frequently occurs
fol owing form:
is shown in Figs. 2-20(f)-(h). The conthe constant axial force P by AE. Since of the points on the bar increase ofx at a constant rate. No displacement
to
The deformed bar is shown in Fig. 2-20(b). to think of such elastic systems as springs;
it is often 2-20(e).
convenient
proportional it is meaningful
A definition or [N/m] for the
diagram a-a
axial
part 2-20(c).
everywhere
of the From
2-8,
loaded this
and
bar diagram,
is equal
that
A. = A,
a constant.
By
applying
(a)
(b)
' - C
C'
(f)
(g)
This stiess
equation k reading
is related
to the
familiar
k = p/A
[lb/in]
o
0
Axial
force
L
L
represents for
section,
a unit segment
deflection, of length
i.e., A Li and
cross
(c)
AE
I ki=AiE1---]
Li
(2-12)
Axial
strain
{d)
between of k defines =
such
shown or [N/m]
in Fig.
2-20(e)
is evident.
(2-13)
1/k
(e) (hi
Displacement
A-
PL
AE
The
force,
constant For
i.e.,
represents
P = 1.
resulting loaded
Zi
of a unit section,
(2-14)
the particular
Axial
displacement
Fig.
2-20
AiE
76
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Sec.
2.7.
Deformation
of
Axial y
Loaded
Bars
77
The analysis,
systems,
concepts including
the
and
f become
flexibility problems.
more
are For
involved.
widely more
used complex
in structural structural
Soldion
By inspection,
EXAMPLE
2-2
ahvays be made before starting a problem. The variation of the bar is determined by taking three sections, a-a, 21(a) and determining the necessary forces for equilibrium
grams
the relative displacement of point D from cross section shown in Fig. 2-21(a) caused forces P = 100 kN and P3 = 200 kN acting P4 = 50 kN acting to the right. The respective and CD are 1000, 2000, and 1000 mm 2. Let
O for the elastic by the application to the left, and areas for bar E = 200 GPa.
algebraically applicable
be writ en
in Figs. 2-21(b)-(d).
that withh
in P,. along the length b-b, and c-c in Fig. 2in the free-body dia-
Such
a check
must
2000
mm
+ .AcZ>EK __
O and D is
50 x 103 x 1500
PcoLco
(a)
O
(b)
A a100 kN' :
250 kN -150 kN 250 kN 200 kN
,o kN kN
Using
the
this
subscripts
relation,
x 103
-
identify
the relative
x 2000
+
the
segments.
displacement
150 x 103
between
x 1000
mm
100
(c)
(d)
stresses in the bar, the elongation of the solution is shown in Figs. in the bar segments by the corresponding obtained. These strains are constant
strain segment.
diagram These
small. and (g). By AE, the axial within each bar of the bar gives the to those displayed
is very 2-21(0
before.
(e)
+50
kN
o
Axial force
EXAMPLE
2-3
Determine
w lb/in;
Soldion
Axial strain
see Fig.
Lhe deflection
2-22.
The
bar OB caused
area
is A. Assume
by its own
that
weight
E is
given.
0.5
(f)
X 10 -3
0.25
X 10 -3
I mm
0.625
mm
1 mm
The free-body diagrams of the bar and its truncated segment are shown, respectively, in Figs. 2-22(a) and (b). These two steps are essential in the solution of such problems. The graph for the axial force P. = w(L - x) is in Fig. 2-22(c). By applying Eq. 2-8, the change in bar length A(x) at a generic point x,
(g)
Relative
axial
displacement
=
A plot of this
_o
A.,E
AE
1
in Fig. 2-22(d),
- x) dx =
with its maximum
as B.
Fig.
2-2t
function
is shown
78
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Sec.
2-7.
Deformation
of Axial y
Loaded
Bars
79
wL
}wL
FwL4
2.23k
x
Fig. 2.22
The
0
(c)
0(d)
(a)
deflection of B is
(b)
2.83k -----6"
(a)
"
B
(c)
Fig. 2-24
L
where
bar
I i
wL
2AE
WL
2AE
Solution
W = wL If a concentrated
OB at end B,
is the
total
force
the total
by
superposition
as
L I -- _ -I
I I
As found in Example 1-3, the axial forces in the bars of the bracket are CrA = 17.8 ksi and Crac = 12.9 ksi. The length of member AB is 6.71 in and that of BC is 8.49 in. Per Table 1A in the Appendix, for the specified material, E = 10.6 x 103 ksi. Therefore, according to Eq. 2-9, the individual member length changes
17.8 x 6.71
A =
PL
+ 2AE =
WL
[P
AE
(W/2)]L
10.6
10 3
--
11.3
10 -3
in
(elongation)
In problems where the area of a rod is variable, be substituted into Eq. 2-8 to determine deflections. sufficiently accurate to analyze such problems rod by a finite number of elements, as shown
each one of these elements are added to obtain
a proper fitnction for it must In practice, it is sometimes by approximating the shape of a in Fig. 2-23. The deflections for
the total deflection. Because of
12.9
8.29
10.3 X 10 -3 in
BB2, are 2-24(b).
CB2
(contraction)
These in relation
Fig.
2-23
the
rapid
variation
in the
cross
section
shown,
the
solution
would
be approximate.
elongated
and
with
the physical
bar
and in Fig.
respective that points B and B2 meet at common point B3. in Fig. 2-24(b). However, since in classical solid
(infinitesimal) it is customary deformations, to assume an approximation that short arcs of
requirements
must
of the problem.
around
their
Therefore,
small analyses,
bracket B caused
stif ness
in Example force
Assume that
1-3,
P =
the
the
large
circles
can
be approximated
by
normals
B4.
to the
members
along
which
the
alloy
have
areas, 2-24(a).
i.e.,
neglect
First
introduced
in 1877.
8O
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Sec.
2-7.
Deformation
of
Axial y
Loaded
Bars
8t
required numerical nometry. Here the If A is the deflection and changes in bar
results lat er
obtained either is fol owed. of point BB2 and AAB and lAB
graphically
B to position = BB,
or
B4,
by
using
Fig.
trigo2-24(c),
A
nu-
O C
' ' L -
COS
01
substituting one the
ratios Ac
..
for
and
obtains
cos cos
02 0
IBc lAB
10.3 11.3
X 10 -3 X 10 -3
0.912
(c)
However,
since
02
it fol ows that
180 -
45 -
26.6
0
108.4
lb)
Fig.
2-25
cos
02
cos
108.4
cos
0 +
sin
108.4
sin
0,
and
cos
cos 01
cos
108.4
Therefore,
**EXAMPLE
2-5
Two hinge-ended elastic bars of equal lengths and cross-sectional areas attached to immovable supports are joined in the middle by a pin, as shown in Fig. 2-25(a). Initial y, points A, B, and C are on a straight line. Determine the vertical deflection A of point C as a function of applied force P. Consider small deflections only.
tan
Based on this result,
0 =
1.29
and
O =
52.2
I
forming an angle the of 11.2
= IAa/cos
with constant
P
0 =
the vertical.
18.4
10 -3
in
The given structural system is incapable of supporting any vertical force in its initial configuration. Therefore, equilibrium of the system in a slightly deflected condition must be examined, Fig. 2-25(b), where initial bar lengths L become L*. For this position of the bars, one can write an equation of equilibrium for joint C' and express elongations of the bars via two dif erent paths. One such relation for elongation of each bar fol ows from Eq. 2-9 and the other from purely geometric considerations. On these bases,
P TL*
AE
from
= 2T sin
equilibrium,
0
Since
is given
Arm
by
= A cos
spring
11.2 = 18.0
x 10 -3 in, the
vertical
stif ness
of the
bracket
lvert
This problem neglected; mon practice contains therefore, for geometric fghe solution many engineering
18.0
X 10 -3
167
kips/in
which deformations, has been a com-
and
L*
L*
L'cos0
Hence,
T =
AE(1
cos
0)
On substituting
this
expression
P =
for
2AE(1
T into
-
the
cos
first
equation,
0
....... -
0) sin
82
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Final
shape
Further,
by expanding
cos
0 and
sin 0 into
Taylor's
series,
e = 2AE
On retaining only one term
+ ..
p AEO
)(
3
0-7.,+. .
)
deflections, angle
Poisson's
ratio.
4 It wil
be denoted
P
(a)
(2-16)
Final
shape
However,
A/L. Therefore,
since
the
analysis
is being
made
for
small
axial strains are caused by uniaxial or compression. The second, alternative the lateral and axial strains are always
of v fluctuates as 0.1 (some for dif erent materials
only, i.e., by simple form of Eq. 2-16 is true of opposite sign for uniover a relatively as 0.5 narrow occur.
P
This result, relationship
encountered
AE A3
lead
or
to linear
A = L
relationships
AE '
exhibits of the
between loads and
(2-15)
dis-
axial
The
value as low
range.
values
Generally,
value
it is on the
wil
clearly most
concretes)
order
of 0.25
and
as high
to 0.35.
In extreme
(rubber)
cases,
be
The
during
lat er
placements. The more accurate solutions of this problem show that imate solution just obtained gives good results for A/L, on the order In this problem, the effect of geometry change on equilibrium was whereas in Example 2-4, it was neglected because the displacement
small.
son's ratio wil be used only when materials In conclusion, note that the Poisson effect
no additional stresses other than those
plastic
flow
is the
and
largest
signifies
possible.
constancy
It is normally
of volume.
attained
considered
behave exhibited
earlier
elastically. by materials
anless
15 In this
by materials
text,
Pois-
(b}
the trans-
causes
to axial
effect).
forces
2-8.
In addition
Poisson's
to the
Ratio
deformation of materials in the contraction where direction takes deformations of the place. applied
force,
of lateral nomenon
namely,
another
that
(transverse) is il ustrated
at right
remarkable
angles
property
expansion in Fig.
to the applied
or 2-26,
can be observed
uniaxial
the
force,
in all solid
a certain
materials,
amount
Consider a careful y conducted experiment where an aluminum bar of 50-mm diameter is stressed in a testing machine, as shown in Fig. 2-27. At a certain instant the applied force P is 100 kN, while the measured elongation of the rod is 0.219 mm in a 300-mm gage length, and the diameter's dimension is decreased by 0.01215 mm. Calculate the two physical constants v and E of the material.
Solution
Transverse or lateral strain:
exaggerated. For clarity, this physical body is subjected to an axial tension, hand, if it is compressed, the material
this in mind, directions of lateral deformations are easily determined, depending on the sense of the applied force. For a general theory, it is preferable to refer to these lateral deformations on the basis of deformations per unit of length of the transverse
dimension. Thus, the lateral deformations on a relative basis can be
0.01215
50
/. = 300
mm
0.000243
since the
mm/mm
diameter of the bar de-
case,
by/X,.
the
lateral
strain
et is negative,
lateral bear
pressed
strains. a constant
in in/in
Moreover, relationship
or m/m.
These
it is known to the
relative
from longitudinal
unit
lateral
experiments
deformations
or axial
are termed
in 1828.
4 Named
after
S. D. Poisson,
1950).
the French
scientist
who
formulated
this
concept
like
McGraw-Hil ,
s A.
Nadai,
Theory
of Flow
and
Fracture
of Solids,
Vol.
1 (New
York:
= 50
mm
Fig.
2-27
83
Axial Strains
Axial strain:
and Deformations
A
in Bars
For
0.219 300
85
a decrease
e,,
Poisson's ratio:
= -
0.00073
mm/mm
in temperature,
thermal is shown
bT assumes
negative
EXAMPLE
v ..
2-7
e, e,,
( - 0.000243) 0.00073
0.333
Determine
temperature
Eq.
70 GPa
the displacement
of 100F.
See
Fig.
Of point
2-29(a).
B in Example
2-4 caused
by an increase
in
Next,
since
E-
the
PL
AA
area
-
of the
100
1960
rod
103
X
A = x
X
0.219
x 502
=70x
= 1960
103
mm 2, from
N/mm 2 =
2-9,
Soldion Determining to the solution the deflection of Example at point 2-4 for B due finding to an increase the deflection in temperature of the same point is similar caused
300
by stress. 2024-T4
expansion 2-18,
for
(b)
In practice, when a study it is best to work with the the quantities determined
behavior. Also note that
quantities, such as E and v, is being made, stress-strain diagram to be assured that with the elastic range of the material
dif erence whether the initial or the final
AAB ABc=
Here change
= 12.9 12.9
x 10 -6 x 10 -6
X 100 X 100
X 6.71 X 8.49
= 8.656 = 10.95
B4,
x 10 -3 in X 10 -3 in
(c)
lengths
are
used
in computing
strains,
since
the
deformations
are
very
small.
2-9.
With perature change renheit,
Thermal
changes
Strain
and
Deformation
of temperature, solid bodies and contract on its decrease. The in temperature from To to T measured can be expressed as
caused
by
manner:
of bars
surface.
Fig.
2-28
resting
Thermal
final
on
lines
frictionless
expansions
for an
Dashed
cos
represent increase
shape in temperature.
Forming values
for
equal AAa
of these leads
equations, to the
substituting
fol owing
= 0.7905
numerical
result:
COS cos
02 0
AAB Ac
8.656 10.95
X 10 -3 X 10 -3
Fig.
2-29
(2-17)
8 2
o is an For
constant. thermal
experimental y moderately
narrow
determined ranges
coefficient in temperature,
for length
of
strains develop in every direction isotropic materials. For a body of temperature, the extensional deformation of T = T - To is
B 26.6o
(b) (a)
B
At = a(gT)L.)
(2-18)
86
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Sec.
0 = 71.6 0; therefore,
P
2.10.
Saint-Venant's
Principle
and
Stress
Concentrations
P
87
Here,
however,
02
45 +
26.6
cos and
Hence,
Based on this result, COS
02
02 0
= 02
cos cos
=
71.6 71.6
0.500
cos + sin
02 71.6
and
sin tan
02
71.6
sin 0.7905
0z
--
COS
0 =
= 26.6
tan
2.575
(b)
1.38703,,
Oma x = 1.027oav
{d)
A T -- ABc/COS
forming
01 =
18.4 with
12.2
the
X 10 -3
horizontal.
in
(a)
It is interesting
an
angle
of 45 -
to note
that
0 =
Fig.
2-30
Stress
distribution
near
a concentrated
force
in a rectangular
elastic
plate.
the small
to the
displacement
Ar is )f comparable
force P in Example
order
2-4.
of magnitude
to that
found
due
applied
vertical
2-10.
Saint-Venant's
Principle
and
Stress
Concentrations
of
and often can
The analysis of axial y loaded bars based on engineering mechanics solids is very accurate for bars of constant cross section when transmit ing uniformly distributed end forces. For such ideal conditions stresses strains are uniform everywhere. In reality, however, applied forces approximate concentrated forces, and the cross sections of members
is also shown on these diagrams. From these it can be noted that at a section a distance b/4 from an end, Fig. 2-30(b), the maximum normal stress greatly exceeds the average. For a purely elastic material the maximum stress theoretically becomes infinite right under the concentrated force, since a finite force acts on a zero area. In real situations, however,
using Figs.
of elasticity gives the results shown in average stress av as given by Eq. 1-13
change
abruptly.
This
causes
stress
deformation
imity of such forces and changes situations were studied analytically ticity. In such an approach, the infinit.esimal elements is formulated
a truly some
force
exhibit stress
is
and
strain
disturbances
in the
prox-
and
mechanical
properties
in cross sections. using the mathematical behavior of two or and the conditions
of material
6 are
In
The It was
of the second
member observation
to note two basic aspects from this solution. First, the all cases, being based on conditions of equilibrium, is Second, the normal stresses at a distance equal to the
are essential y il ustrates uniform. the famed
satisfied
subject
to the prescribed merical procedure a discrete number analysis is carried method of analysis. two methods can gineering mechanics solutions by these bution at concentrated with those found
solids.
boundary conditions. More recently has been developed, where a body is of finite elements, such as squares or out with a computer. This is called the The end results of analyses by either be very effectively used to supplement of solids. An example showing the two advanced methods for the nature force fol ows. These solutions provide by applying the method of engineering
a powerful nusubdivided into cubes, and the finite element one of these solutions in enmore accurate of stress districomparison mechanics of
enunciated
Using the finite element method,8 the results of a solution for the same problem are shown in Fig. 2-31. The initial undeformed mesh into which the planar block is arbitrarily subdivided, and the greatly exaggerated deformed mesh caused by the applied force are shown in Fig. 2-31(a). By placing the mesh on rollers as shown, only the upper half of the block
27 S. Timoshenko, and J. N. Goodier, McGraw-Hil , 1970, p. 60. Fig. 2-30 8 For this subject see for example, Method, 3rd ed. (London: McGraw-Hil Numerical Methods in Finite Element Hall, 1976). R. H. Gallagher, Finite
N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975).
terms it simply means that the manner of force application is important only in the vicinity of the region where the force This also holds true for the disturbances caused by changes
load or unconciously carrying this principle is nearly systems.
by
the
great
French
elastician
Sa#zt-Venant's in 1855.
In
principle. common
al-
forces problem
6 These
as use ineering
mechanics
of solids.
Treaty of Elasticity, 3rd. ed., New York: is adapted from this source. O. C. Zienkiewicz, The Finite Element Ltd., 1977). K. J. Bathe and E. L. Wilson, Analysis (Englewood Clif s, N.J.: PrenticeElement Fundamentals (Englewood Clif s,
88
Deformed mesh 100
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Sec.
240.
Saint-Venant's
Principle
and
Stress
Concentrations
89
2.8
30 25
2.6
2.4 K
2.2
2.0 1.8 1.6
1.4
2.7
o.v
1.2
. .f2.
2..
10
1.0
1.5
%v
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
rid
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Stresstension.
factors
for
flat
(a)
distributions
Fig.
2-3t
.(a) Undeformed
at b/4
and
b/2
and
below
deformed
top.
mesh
of an elastic
plate.
(c) Normal
stress
this
members. to one-quarter
For
the
scheme,
normal
before, Hence
stress
calculated stress contours in Fig. 2-31(b) clearly show of large stresses in the vicinity of the concentrated solution based on mathematical elasticity, in the finite stresses at the applied force are very large, but finite, mesh size. As to be expected, the corners carry no distribution at b/4 and b/2 below the top, shown in reasonable agreement with the more accurate results 2-30(b) and (c). Better agreement can be achieved by This versatile method can be applied to bodies of any load distribution. Its use in accurate stress analysis an ever wider use. However, because of the simplicity discussed in this text, at least for preliminary design, pensable.
needed
to be analyzed
because
of symmetry
around
the
mid-section.
The
'mx=Kg a =KP-P1
A
(2-19)
K 'is an appropriate
stress per Eq. 1-13.
stress-concentration
factor,
and
P/A
is the
particularly signScant stress-concentration bars are shown in Fig. 2-32? The Ks that give the ratio of the maximum normal stress
as shown in Fig. 2-33. at the root of threads. of the cut. For ordinary
factors for flat axial y may be read from the to the average stress
stress to a large concendegree
threads,
"Factors
1935, vol. 57,
the
of Stress
stress-concenConcentration
The appear
such
since
force.
theoretically There
relation materials,
ratio of
to the depend
the
average only
stress on the
to the
as given geometrical
average stress
by
Eq. proportions
the
are
Photoelastically
0 This
figure
is adapted
Determined."
from
Trans.,
M. M.
ASME,
Frocht,
p. A-67.
\
linearly of a member.
stress-concen-
elastic The
of
(New
maximum
is called
the
,)
Oav K = max
gav
K =
tration
in technical
factor,
literature
and
designated
W.
1975).
19 as functions
C. Young,
in this text
Formulas
as K. Many
of
for
geometrical
Stress
such
factors
andStrain,
parameters
5th
are available
ed.
Fig.
(b) K.
9 R. J. Roark
York: McGraw-Hil ,
stress-concentration
243
Measing
of the
factor
(a)
9O
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Sec.
24t.
Elastic
Strain
Energy
for
Uniaxial
Stress
tration factor is on the order of 2 to 3. The no dif iculties, provided proper graphs or past many such factors have been determined toelasticity (see Sec. 9-4). An example of low-cycle fatigue fracture bolt with a minimum specified strength of Fig. 2-34. Note that the fracture occurred
EXAMPLE 2-8
application tables
centration
in tension of a high-strength 120 ksi (830 MPa) is shown at the root of the threads.
stress across the net section occurs prior The previous argument is not quite than mild steel. Nevertheless, the tendency material is unusually brit le, like glass. to situations where the force is gradually It is not applicable for fiuctuating loads, For fatigue loadings, the working stress locally determines the fatigue behavior
is practically
eliminated,
and a nearly
permissible
at points
most
Find
Soldion
the
maximumstress
in member
AB
in the
forked
end
A in Example
1-3.
machine
stress
Geometrical
proportions:
radius of the hole
-
are of paramount importance, although some machine designers feel that the theoretical stress concentration factors are somewhat high. Apparently, some tendency is present to smooth out the stress peaks, even in
members
of high
parts
is set from
stress.
can be traced
an S-N diagram
to progressive
to necking. as true for materials less ductile is in that direction unless the The argument presented applies applied or is static in character. as found in some machine parts. level that is actually reached of the member. The maximum
uniform
distribution
of
(Section
In machine
design,
then,
cracking
1-9). Failure
concentrations
that
stress
originates
of
3/16
Fig. 2-3
fatigue
A325 steel
fracture
Low-cycle
bolt.
of 7/8
tensile
in
net
width
1/2
0.375
From
Fig.
2-32?
K - 2.15
for
r/d
= 0.375.
= 11.2 ksi. x 11.2 = 24.1 ksi. increase in stress occurs
at this
apparent junctures
From
the previous
subjected
to cyclic
discussion
loads.
machine of elements
and
accompanying
charts,
it should
the
be
at a hole
Fig.
2.35
Stress
in an
elastic-ideally
distribution
bar
force
with increasing P.
Average stress fi'om Example 1-3: Crav = P/A,et Maxhnum stressr Eq. 2-19: Crmax = Kcrav = 2.15 This answer indicates that actually a large local hole, a fact that may be highly significant.
222-11. Elastic Strain Energy for NON-ACTIVATED VERSION the product of a force times the distance www.avs4you.com
In mechanics,
moves. areas
Uniaxial
in the direction
Stress
to do work,
by their The product
energy
is defined
deformations
as the capacity
In considering stress-concentration factors in design, it must be remembered that their theoretical or photoelastic determination is based on the use of Hooke's law. If members are gradually stressed beyond the proportional limit of a ductile material, these factors lose their significance. For example, consider a flat bar of mild steel, of the proportions shown in Fig. 2-35, that is subjected to a gradually increasing force P. The stress distribution wil be geometrically similar to that shown in Fig. 2-33 until O'ma x reaches the yield point of the material. This is il ustrated in the top diagram in Fig. 2-35: However, with a further increase in the applied force, f max remains the same, as a great deal of deformation can take place while the material yields. Therefore, the stress at A remains virtually frozen at the same value. Nevertheless, for equilibrium, stresses acting over the net area must be high enough to resist the increased P. This condition is shown in the middle diagram of Fig. 2-35. Finally, for ideally plastic material, stress becomes uniform across the entire net section. Hence, for ductile materials prior to rupture, the local stress con2 Actually, the whether it is empty stress concentration or fil ed with
a bolt
forces.
two
quantities
internal
is the internal
work
deformable and
bodies,
is stored
work
that
and
in an elastic
done
in a body
body
by externally
as the
respective of these
the force
applied
work
is
internal
2-36(a),
elastic
sub-
energy puting
Consider
an infinitesimal
strain loaded
such
as shown
next.
for com-
jected to a normal stress .. The force acting on the right of this element is dy dz, where dy dz is an infinitesimal
element. where
Because of this force, the element elongates an amount e. dx, e. is normal strain in the x direction. If the element is made of a linearly elastic material, stress is proportional to strain; Fig. 2-36(b). Therefore, if the element is initial y free of stress, the force that finally acts on the element increases linearly from zero until it attains its ful
value.
place
which
is - . dy
The
average
it acts
is the
work
acting average
strain
done
while done
element.
a perfectly
is taking through
elastic
body,
no energy
internal an infinitesimal
is dissipated
energy. element
and
the work
Thus, subjected
the
internal to uniaxial
on the element
elastic stress
strain is
is stored
en-
depends or pin.
on
the
condition
of
the
hole,
22 This
section
can be postponed
until
study
of Chapter
12.
Axial
Strains
and Deformations
in Bars
0r
Sec. 2-tt.
Elastic
Strain
Energy
for Uniaxial
Stress
(2-23)
U = f
ol
dV
on force and distance. For a particular material, substitution into Eq. 2-22 of the value of the stress at the proportional limit gives an index of the material's ability to store or absorb energy without permanent deformation. The quantity so found is called the modtthts of resilience and is used to dif erentiate materials for 3, whereas applications where energy of Douglas must be absorbed by members. For
sion
of the equation for the elastic strain although they mask the dependence
example,
lb/in
Fig. 246 (a) An element in
a steel
with
a proportional
grade
uniaxial
Hookean
tension
stress-strain
and
(b)
a
(a) (b)
diagram.
dU =
2 :,dydz
average
force work
x e:,dx
distance
where
dV
is the
volume
of
the
element.
= xexdxdydz
(2-20)
of 6450 psi and an E of 1,920,000 psi has a modulus (1,920,000) = 10.8 in-lb/inL By reasoning analogous to that before, the area
a good
of resilience
of 2/2E
limit
of 30,000
fir,
= (30,000)2/2(30)106
having
psi and
a proportional
an E of 30 x
= 15 inlimit
of resilience
under
of (6,450)2/
diagram, Fig. 2-37, gives a measure of a material's ability to absorb up to fracture and is called its toughness. The larger the total area the stress-strain diagram, the tougher the material. In the inelastic only a small part of the energy absorbed by a material is recoverMost of the energy is dissipated in permanently deforming the maand is lost in heat. The energy that may be recovered when a spechas been stressed to some such point as A in Fig. 2-37(b) is
since
a complete
stress-
OD,
by
all materials
the
triangle
essential y
ABC.
Line
behave
AB
of this
elastically
triangle
upon
is parallel
the
release
to
By
Thus,
recasting
Eq.
2-20,
one
obtains
the
strain
energy
stored
in an elastic
body
per
unit
volume
of the
material,
or its strain-energy
density
Uo.
Dissipated
Stronger
material
UoThis
area
d U
d-
o'xex
Tougher
material
2
2-36(b).
as an area
axis
(2-21)
The corresponding
under the
com-
clined
expression
enclosed
line
on the
by
may
the
stress-strain
be graphically
line
inclined
diagram;
interpreted
the
and
Fig.
in-
vertical
is called
the
e:.
a concept to be used in Chapter 12. For linearly elastic areas are equal. Expressions analogous to Eq. 2-21 stresses %. and and to the corresponding normal
may
Since
be
in the
elastic
as
range,
Hooke's
dU Ee}
law
applies,
ty}
. = Ee.,
Eq.
2-21
Permanent set JT
(a)
_,le resilience
(b)
Hyperelastic
resilience
Uo-
dV-
2 - 2E
(2-22)
Fig.
247
Some
typical
properties
of materials.
94
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Sec.
2-t2.
Deflections
by
the
Energy
Method
95
EXAMPLE
2-9
Two same
2A
elastic amount
proportions delivered
by
the
(2-24)
tions,
bar
Soldion
compare
is A, and that
the
stresses
of the right
in the
bar
two
bars.
2A
The
cross-sectional
as shown.
area
of the
left
is A and
The bar shown in Fig. 2-38(a) is of uniform normal stress ch is constant throughout. Using volume V of the bar, one can write the total
(a)
and
the
the the
is reached in a manner similar Therefore, the external work multiplied by the deflection in next section, this approach wil
EXAMPLE 2-t0
applied.
In this
This means
treatment,
that,
it is assumed
as it is being
to We the be
that
that shown in Fig. 2-36(b) for stress. is equal to one-half of the total force direction of the force action. In the generalized for dynamic loads.
applied,
the
external
force
on a member
is gradually
(b)
Fig.
2-38
fv0.I
where The stress Again, that the A is the cross-sectional bar shown in Fig. or2 acts in the lower by using Eq. 2-23 total energy that area
' fv
0.7
.
of the bar, and L is its length. 2-38(b) is of variable cross section. Therefore, if the part of the bar, the stress in the upper part is EO' t 2 and integrating over the volume of the bar, it is found this bar wil absorb in terms of the stress or2 is
Find area
Soldion
cross-sectional
If force P is gradually applied to the rod, external the deflection of the end of the rod. The expression
U of the rod was found in Example 2-9, and since
p2L 2AE
PL
AE
--
U
U2
and
Then,
from
We
U,
p A
AL) =
Hence, for the same energy load,
AL
the stress
or
in
0.2 = 1.2650.
the "reinforced" bar is 26.5 which is the same as Eq.
p2L
. 2AE
and
2-9.
percent over
design
bar.
The detrimental.
enlargement This
of the situation
area in the
members.
The
use of Eq.
Since
2-24
internal
can
strain
be extended
energy
to bar
is a positive
systems
consisting
scalar
quantity,
of several
the
2-12.
Deflections
by
the
Energy
Method
energies for the several members can be simply added arithmetically. This total strain energy U can then be equated to the external work W, caused by one force for finding the deflection in the direction of that force. To
il ustrate, for the bracket
U-
The principle of conservation of energy may be very effectively used for finding deflections of elastic members due to applied forces. General methods for accomplishing this wil be discussed in Chapter 12. Here a more limited objective, determining the deflection caused by the application of a single axial force, is considered. For such a purpose, the internal strain energy U for a member is simply equated to the external work W,, due to the applied force, i.e.,
shown
in Fig.
+
2-24
for
Example 1
2
2-4,
1 P,BLAB
2 AABE
..
1 PcLBc
AacE
pA
where
deflection
the
subscripts
A of force
P.
refer
to members.
A solution
of this
equation
gives
96
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Sec.
2-t3.
Dynamic
and
Impact
Loads
97
This
method
any any
number direction.
in
of
problems at any
with
point
in
spring
evenly
elastic
*'232-13.
Dynamic
and
Impact
Loads
delivers such ideal-
pay,/k, spring.
W is As,
constant
=
system
W/k.
k, the static
Similarly,
may
be treated
the
deflection
as an equivalent
maximum
sprhg.
deflection
Using
the
=
deflections
dynamic in terms
A freely fal ing weight, what is called a dynamic forces may be analyzed izing assumptions:
or a moving body, that strikes a structure or impact load or force. Problems involving rather simply on the basis of the fol owing
Pdyn = As---- W
This relationship is shown the instant the spring the fal ing weight is transformed fore, an equation representing strain energy may be writ en At in Fig. deflects
as
Amax
(2-25)
of
1. Materials at the
deformation
behave
point of
of
elastically, impact
materials.
or
of energy takes place owing to local inelastic be neglected. to the magnitude or statically
of a system resisting an impact may of a system is directly proportional force whether a force is dynamically
2-39(b). its maximum amount, all energy into the strain energy of the spring. Therethe equality of external work to ,.'nternal
1
ap-
W(h + Amax)
A graphical interpretation that a factor of one-half since the spring takes
= Pdyn
Amax
(2-26)
Then, using the principle of conservation of energy, it may be further assumed that at the instant a moving body is stopped, its kinetic energy is completely transformed into the internal strain energy of the resisting system. At thi instant, the maximum deflection of a resisting system occurs and vibrations begin. However, since only maximum stresses and deflections are of primary interest, this subject wil not be pursued. As an example of a dynamic force applied to an elastic system, consider a fal ing weight striking a spring. This situation is il ustrated in Fig. 239(a), where a weight W fal s from a height h above the free length of a spring. This system represents a vety general case, since conceptually, 23 This is an optional section.
is shown in Fig. 2-39(c). Note of the strain-energy expression, Then, from Eq. 2-25,
1 (A max)
2
--
Ast
or
hence
(Amax)
2 -- 2Ast
Ama x -- 2h Ast
= 0
Ama x - Ast
q- '/(hst)
2 q- 2h As,
or
and
Ast
Deflection
Amax = Ast 1 +
again using Eq. 2-25,
+ AstJ
(2-27)
Amax
External
work
of
Strain
energy
fal ing
weight
(a)
of spring
(b) (c)
Pdyn = W (1 +
system under an impact force.
+ j
Eq. occurring 2-28 giveg
(2-28)
in a spring struck the maximum
Fig.
2-39
Behavior
of an
elastic
the
from
maximum
a height
deflection h, and
98
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Sec.
2-t4.
General
Considerations
Long bolts
99
by the formulas derived earlier. dynamic force Pdyn is found, it may be used in comforce. The magnification effect of a static force when
To apply applied
these known
O'max--dyn
The large dif erence
-- 177
in the
1+
stresses
1 + 1.66 x
for the two solutions
-6
= 243 MPa
suggests the need for
dynamically applied is termed the impact sion in parentheses appearing in Eqs. surprisingly large in most cases. For elastic system suddenly, i.e., h = 0, force gradually applied. If h is large
is approximately.
For
equal
to st.
factor and is given by the expres2-27 and 2-28. The impact factor is example, if a force is applied to an it is equivalent to twice the same compared to A st, the impact factor
where stopped
the external Therefore,
flexible systems for resisting dynamic taking into account the results obtained that for obtaining the smallest dynamic
1-. select a material with a small elastic
loads.
A further study of this problem, and in Example 2-9, leads to the conclusion stresses for the same system, one should:
(a)
modulus;
Short bolts
Similar moving
body.
equations horizontal y
this body, purpose,
may with
using
be
be derived a velocity
it is necessary a consistent
a weight W by an elastic
work
2. 3.
make stress
the the
concentrations.
by the kinetic
a moving
fal ing
weight
in the
shown
preceding
that
derivation
of units.
by the
kinetic
energy
since
the
Several
cases
can
be cited
as il ustrations
of practical
situations
where
(b)
of gravity,
energy
it can
of a moving
body
is Wv2/2g,
where
g is the
acceleration
Pdyn = W
where direction.
EXAMPLE
l)2 -st
A.t
is the In Eq.
2-tt
static 2-29,
. and
Amax = Ast
W acting units.
/ gAst 112
in the
(2-29)
in operation,
are used. Wood is used in railroad ties per unit volume of the material is small.
development
of this equipment,
is uniformly
very
stressed
in tension.
In the early
stages
design
and
fail- pneumatic
cylinder.
-- _F __4 kg
15 1.5 m
m
mass shown
steel
Determine
the
maximum
freely and
200
stress
through another
GPa,
in the
and
steel
rod
shown
in Fig.
2-40
caused
one For
by a
as
244.
General
Considerations
E =
k =
mm
Solufion
round rod
The
Sohttion
4-kg
mass
for
PL
applies
rod with
P
a static
washer:
force
P = ma
= 4 x 9.81
= 39.2
N.
The
rod
area
A = 'rr x 152/4
= 177 mm 2. Note
39.2 x 1500
that
the rod
39.2
length
is 1500
mm.
I
Rubber
6mm
washer
Ast --AE
+ k
As pointed out in Section 1-9, for some structural systems, the equations for static equilibrium are insuff icient for determining reactions. In such cases, some of the reactions are superfluous or redundant for maintaining equilibrium. In some other situations, redundancy may also result if some of the internal forces cannot be determined using the equations of statics alone. Both cases of such statical indeterminacy can arise in axial y loaded systems. Two simple idealized examples are shown in Fig. 2-42. For the system shown in Fig. 2-42(a), reactions R and R2 cannot be
compression
f max--dynFig. 2-40
A
without washer:
17 ( 39.
1+
1 + 8.71 x
= 3.58
MPa
equations of statics alone. 2-42(b), whereas the reaction of forces between the two springs In both instances, the deformation tem components must be considered. There are various procedures for resolving
in Fig.
using
However, for the system can be readily found, the requires additional concharacteristics of the sysstructural
Solution
for
rod
in order
to reduce
a problem
to statical
determinacy
such
that
indeterminacy
the internal
tO0
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
245.
Force
Method
of
Analysis
forces three
fied:
can basic
readily concepts
before
procedures, and
must
1. Equilibrium
local and global
conditions
sense.
must boundaries
for
be
the
among
satisfied.
system
the
must
deformed
relations)
be assured
parts
for the
both
of a body
materials
in the
and
of the
2. Geonetric
at the
conpatibi[ity
relations
3.
Constitutive
(stress-strain
system
must
be complied
with.
Two
general
methods
of these reaction
This
for solving
is the force
methods such
simpler
problems
of analysis,
removing condition
wil be presented.
since
is obtained directly for the unknown reaction forces. compatibility of displacements of adjoining members aries is maintained throughout the loading process, placements are obtained from equilibrium equations.
merit method of analysis.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 2-43 Force (flexibility) method of elastic analysis a statically indeterminate axial y loaded bar. Deformations are greatly exaggerated.
for
external internal
statical
of (a)
(b)
2-15.
Force
Analysis
any one of these methods, the three basic requirements: with constitutive relations. is immaterial.
the
funequiThe
is temporarily removed, making the system statically an arbitrary choice is made to remove the upper the system of two bar segments to deform, as shown a simplified structural system is referred to as the from the point of view of statics, it can, by itself, (However, from the point of view of strength, the be necessary and, thus, in the actual field situation,
determinate. Here R, permit ing in Fig. 2-43(c). Such prbnao, systen, since, carry the applied load. redundant reaction may cannot be removed.)
reaction
here. Therefore, of bar, as at point the deflection
(2-30)
indeterminancy, indeterminancy.
As an example of the force method of analysis, consider the linearly elastic axial y loaded bar system shown in Fig. 2-43. The initial y undeformed bars are shown in Fig. 2-43(a) with zig-zag lines as a reminder that they can be treated as springs. On applying force P at B, reactions R and R2 develop at the ends and the system deforms, as shown in Fig. 2-43(b). Since only one nontrivial equation of statics is available for determining the two reactions, this system is statically indeterminate to the first degree. Here the upward direction of the applied force P, as well as that assumed for R and R2, coincides with the positive direction of the x axis. For this reason, these quantities wil be treated as positive. With this sign convention, if an applied force acts downward, it would be taken as ative. A calculated reaction with a negative sign signifies that it acts in the opposite direction from the assumed. Adherence to this sign tion is desirable, although in axial y loaded bar problems, it is not
since the directions of deflections and reactions can be usually seen
bar segment is stressed occurs at A, at the top of the lower elastic bar is f2,
f2P
the B.
This result, dition at A. In the unloaded caused by the these bars are
shown in Fig. 2-43(c), violates the geometric boundary order to comply, the deflection a i caused by R acting bar ABC is found next; see Fig. 2-43(d). This deflection stretching of both bars. Therefore, if the flexibilities f and f2, Fig. 2-43(a), the deflection
A = (f + f2)R
conon is of
(2-31)
The
compatibility
of deformations
at A is then
achieved
by requiring
that
(2-32)
inspection. complex
sign convention
However, problems
discussed
becomes
for
method
computer in Chapter
necessary.
In applying
the force
to axial y
Ao+ A= 0
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
2-15.
R 2
Force
Method
of
Analysis
i03
By substituting
has
Eqs.
2-30
and
R
2-31
= ---P
into
f,_
Eq.
+ f2
2-32
and
solving
R1N
x3P
1.75P
f,
The
also
rection
negative
holds
from
true
the
sign
for
assumed.
of the
A .
result
As
to be expected,
indicates
that
R t acts
according
in the
to Eq.
opposite
2-31,
this
di-
{P
-F
R 2
I
P
-1.75Pf
The algebraic
reactions becom6 known, the previously discussed procedures mining the internal forces and deflections apply. Inasmuch as member flexibilities are particularly useful solutions by the force method, this approach is also known bility tnethod of analysis.
complete sum
0.75P I
0 - 1,25P
Axial force
t---2.50Pf
Displacement
{e)
as the flexi-
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
text. This principle is based upon the premise that the resultant stress strain in a system due to several forces is the algebraic sum of their effects when separately applied. This assumption is true only if each effect linearly related to the force causing it. It is only approximately true whe the deflections 0r deformations due to one force cause an abnormal chan in the effect of another force. Fortunately, the magnitudes of deflections are relatively small in most engineering structures. In that regard, it important to note that the deformation shown in Figs. 2-43(b) to (d) greatly exaggerated. Moreover, since the deformations are very the undeformed, i.e., the initial, bat' lengths are ased in calculat#g
throaghout.
the principle
The algebraic
ofsuperposition,
be frequently
as before,
encountered
is an application
in this
of
doubling a displacement, say from A to A2, also doubles the load. This is not so for a nonlinear system. Therefore, for linear systems experiencing small deformations, the sequence or number of loads is immaterial. The procedure just described is very general for linear systems and any number of axial loads, bar cross sections, dif erent material properties, as well as thermal effects on the length of a bar system can be included in the analysis. However, the force method is not favored in practice because a systemic selection of the redundants for large problems is difficult.
Fig.
2-45
examples loaded
2-12
fol ow
elastic
bar
il ustrating systems.
applications
of the
force
method
to
ear systems
F
An
il ustration
is shown
of force-deformation
in Fig. 2-44.
relationships
systems
for
linear
considered,
and
nonlin-
here
An elastic coefficients
bar
at both f and 2f
in Fig. segments
2-45. are
The shown
known
Determine
2F
the
for the
reactions
bar.
and
plot
the
axial
force
and
the
axial
displacement
dia-
grams
Solution
"Nonlineal
system
F 1
of linear
Remove the lower support to obtain the free-body and calculate A 0. Since the applied forces act convention adopted in Fig. 2-43(b), they carry caused by R2 on an unloaded system is calculated 32, the reaction R2 is determined. The remainder procedure as that described in Example 2-2.
diagram shown in Fig. 2-45(b) downward, because of the sign negative signs. The deflection next. Then, on solving Eq. 2of the solution fol ows the same
Ao = f,P,
i
= -2fP
- f(2P
+ P)
= -5fP
104
Axial
and
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
2-15.
Force
Method
of
Analysis
105
A,
A a tensile
= (2f
-F A2
+ f + f)R2
= 0, In problems
Eq.
= 4fR2
= 1.25P
and
Since
A
A0 + A = 0,
= Rf
R
RL
AE
Since
R2 where
-ot(T)AE
Note
and
the
forces
determined
sectional
The
flexibilities
together
at the top.
are supported
using
by a compressive
2-14.
with
the elastic
moduli
reaction
and
at the bottom
are given,
force
the cross-
_bottom
The
are
axial
tensile
third
force
displacement
forces
diagram
is plot ed
the
the
satisfied
at both
remainder
bar.
a downward
in Fig.
2-45(d).
of the
deflection
In this manner,
the kinematic
bar
0.75P
of 1.25P
compr.essive
boundary
+ 1.75P
x 2f = 2.5Pf.
in the
that
EXAMPLE
2-14
of the three elastic bars caused by applied force and their elastic modulus shown P. The is E. in Fig. 2-47(a), cross-sectional determine area A of
conditions
such
each
EXAMPLE
2-13
An
elastic
bar
is held
at both
ends,
as shown
in Fig.
2-46.
If the
bar
temperature
increases
Solution
by T, what
axial
force
develops
diagram of the assumed primary system with the support from the removed by cutting it at point B is shown in Fig. 2-47(b). Then, by using statics, the forces in the bars are determined, and the deflection of pcfint D is calculated using the procedure il ustrated in Example 2-4. Since bar BD carries no force, deflection 0 at point B is the same as it is at point D. Recognizing
symmetry,
First, the upper support is removed and A0 is determined using Eq. 2-18. The raising of the temperature causes no axial force in the bar. Thus, by using Eq. 2-13, A is calculated. By applying Eq. 2-32, the axial force in the bar, R, caused
by the rise in temperature is found.
Ao
Ro=O
F0
and
2F20
P et
cos
et = P
et(gT)L
Since
L4z
cos
et = L,
L4t
= L/cos
et
Fig.
F
2-47
F2
F F2 Fm Fm=0 F20
F21 L
{a)
(b)
D
Fig. 2.46
=0
rR 1
(e)
t06
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
2-16.
Introduction
to
the
Displacement
Method
t07
Hence,
per Eq.
2-9,
the stretch
of bar AD
in the primary
PL
system
is
// / / ,
(A,D)O
However, since Ao equals DD4 in Fig.
-- 2AE cos 2 a
2-47(c),
__
__
R R/?/A/ /
kaA
Ao cos
a = (AAO)O
and
Ao
PL
2AE
cos
3 c
where The
2-9
by the force F; see Figs. 2-47(d) and (e). However, the deflection increased by the stretch of the bar BD. The lat er quantity is calculated
again. On this basis,
FL FL
that applies
is downward. deflection
of point
of point using
D caused
B is Eq.
A -- AE
By
2F2
applying
cos
a = P, on
Eq.
2-32,
simplification,
i.e.,
A0
+ A1 = 0, and
noting
from
statics
that
F +
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 2-48 Displacement (stif ness) method of analysis for a statically indeterminate axial y loaded bar.
P F = 2cos 3a + 1
2-16. Introduction to the
and
seen that the displacement AB and tension in the lower stif nesses for the bars, k2 A. These internal forces at points A, B, and C in the node points. The sense of bar is in compression and equilibrium equation for the
Another well-organized procedure for problems is based on determining the and providing information for finding As an example of this displacement elastic axial y loaded bar system shown = AiEi/Li, Eq. 2-12, for the bar segments k and k2. An applied force P at point B forces and the displacement A at B are
A A -
k2 A -3- P
P
(2-35)
(2-36)
k
k2
The
equilibrium
equations
R = -k
for
A
the
flee-bodies
and R2
at i nodes
= -k2 A
A and
C are
(2-37)
in the positive
minate
there is only one such quantity and therefore the problem is said to one degree of kinematic indeterminacy, or one degree of fi'eedom. Thi s:
plex cases with the bars, giving
next section.
placement
is the
The main
to the
A, the principal
class of problems
objective
first
direction
degree.
of the x axis.
This
problem
is statically
indeter-
in this method
parameter
that
of analysis
of the problem.
in this
is to determine
In this em
More
the
Hence,
with
R
the
=
aid
of Eq.
2-36,
and R2 -k
only
is discussed
section.
k P k + k2
k2 P + k2
(2-38)
negative
direction
signs
from
in Eq.
the
2-38
assumed.
indicate
that
the
reactions
act
in the
op-
t08
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Sec.
2-t7.
Displacement
Method
with
Several
Degrees
of Freedom
t09
Since
in
often
called
this the
bar
stif nesses
are
employed,
this
procedure
is
EXAMPLE
2-15
An
k 1
elastic
stepped
in Fig.
stif nesses
2-49.
Using
k and k2,
the
displacement
as well as their
method areas
Soldion
find the reactions. The bar A and A2, and E are given.
P2[ [
k 2 (A 2 --
According
respectively,
to Eql
are
2-12
the
stif nesses
k's
for
the
upper
and
lower
bar
segments
k = AE/a Therefore,
Fig, 2-49
and deflection
P]
k2 A at B due
= A2E/b
P3
per
Eq.
2-36,
the
to downward
force
P is
k3(A 3 -- A4)
k + k2
According previous to Eqs. expressions R 2-37, for Rt = -kA A, k and k2, P aA2/bA
AE/a
+ A2E/b
,/
By substituting the
1 +
andR2
--
k2 A.
LJ
P.
(b) (c)
and
R2
1 +
P bA/aA2
P4
Fig. with
freedom.
2-50 four
Axial y degrees
loaded of
bar
(2-3[
(a)
i.e.,
*'242.17
' Displacement
In this section the displacement method is extended bars to include several degrees of freedom (d.o.f.). most widely used approach for solving both linear and However, the discussion wil be limited to linearly already noted in the previous section, solution of nonlinear this method is beyond the scope of this text. The displacement method is perfectly general and analysis of statically determinate as well as indeterminate this in mind, consider a bar system consisting of three stif ness defined by their respective spring constants
of Freedom
Method
with
Several.
for This nonlinear elastic
Degrees
axial y method
is
in a geometrically compatible manner, as shown both the applied forces and the node displacements positive sense coinciding with the positive direction
An application
one
d.o.f.
per
of forces
node.:-'
at the nodes
causes
' '
of freedom,
to displace
in Fig. 2-50(b). Here are shown with the of the x axis. Possible
displacernents
deflEtion
at the
at the nodes
ends,
one
give
has
a statically
rise to several
indeterminate
special
cases.
problem.
With
no
If,
can
segments ki's,
for
however, only one node point is held and forces or displacements are applied at the other nodes, the problem is statically determinate. However, if a displacement is specified at a node, it is not possible to also specify an applied force and vice versa. With imposition of the applied forces and/or displacements, internal forces develop in the bar system. The magnitude and sense of these forces can be arrived at in the fol owing manner. With the adopted sign convention, the bar segment extension 25 between the ith and the (i + l)th
ofwhiare chcommon tothtewaodjobar inisegment ng Each nodri s. fortihsegment ebarthiente,trnal ensi folrce e(az--A/ )k/ +det isermined.
marked inthefigurefrom1to4,ispermit etoddisplace verticalily 2 Thicsanbeclarifiebynot d inthge f ect onabarsegment ofnode displacements taken one at a time.
11o
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
2-17.
Displacement
Method
with
Several
Degrees
of Freedom
1'il
Free-body applied
each
is
The problem
node.
obtained:
node
diagrams forces
Thus,
is resolved
beginning
- A2) - A2)
by writing
with
nodes in Fig.
node
equilibrium
showing 2-50(c).
these
fol owing
internal
as well
as
1, the
equation
set of equations
= = : :
F. = 0 for
analysis
exarnp.
The
displacement
of large
complex
method
problems
is very
with
extensively
used
in practice
Two
simple
in the
P, - k(A P2 + k(A P3 P4
- k2(A2 + k2(A2
A3) A3)
-- k3(A3 + k3(A3
-- A4) -- A4)
0 0 (2-40) 0 0
EXAMPLE
For the
cross
Solution
ends, using
It is to customary
recast
these
-kl A2 + k2) A2
equations
-k2
into
A3
form
= P = P2
kl A - k A +(k,
-k2 A2
+ (k2 + k3) A3 -- k3 A4 = P3
-- k3 A 3 + k3 A 4 = P4
(2-41)
Here only A2 and A3 have to be found has two degrees of kinematic freedom. each segment of the bar. Applying Eqs.
-k
2k -k
In most problems, the applied forces Pi's Pi's occurring at nodes of zero displacement these equations can be applied tO a broader
ifying displacements instead of applied forces. node must have a known (often zero) displacement develop. As noted earlier, at any one node,
applied force or a displacement, simultaneously for the unknown quantities. In typical applications of the displacement
tions tomary A/s or reactions to recast Eq.
k -kl 0
0
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION but not both. These equations are solved www.avs4you.com In this problem, the force method would be simpler
In such cases, at least one where a reaction would one can specify either an
be anticipated, bottom one
distort
ment
are known, and the remaining are reactions. However, range of problems by spec-
A2 A2 A2
By solving
then from
the first
deflects
the
second
and
means is supported
since
and
third
equations
in effect, the upper load is hung at the base. The middle segment
through a distance
one degree of static
R = R2 = P. This
of A2
simultaneously,
A2 = A3 = -P/k,
from the top and of the bar does
= A3.
result,
which
could
the not
Fig.
2-51
method,
and
matrix
for form:
method
there
is only
indeterminacy.
it is cusEXAMPLE 2-17
a k
-k k + k2 -k2
0
-k2 + k3
-k3
-k3
L4l
A3
L:l
(2-42)
(a) Consider the same and free at the bottom; reaction. For this case, 3P/k upwards.
Solution
loaded bar as in Example 2-16 supported only at the see Fig. 2-52. Determine the node displacements and R = 0. (b) Rework part (a) if the free end is displaced
top the
This equation shows how the system symmetric stif izess matrix is up from the member stif nesses. The pattern of this matrix repeats any number of node points. This formulation more clearly than the earlier case of single d.o.f. system shows why this approach is often referred as the stif lyess method. Excellent computer programs are available for solving these equations simultaneously?
26 E. L. Wilson, and the CAL/SAP CAL-86, Development Computer
displacements, determinate
A2, problem
A3, has
and three
be deof freea k
dom.
Applying
Eqs.
2-41,
-k
one
2k -k
A2 A2 A2
has
-k +2k -k A3 A3 A3
= = = = R -P -P 0
ment
1986.
of Civil
Engineering,
University
System,
of California,
Assisted Report
-k +k
A4 A4
Berkeley,
California,
=o
By
solving
the
last
three
equations
simultaneously,
A2
= 2P/k,
A3
= A4
Fig.
2-52
11:1
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
248.
Statically
Indeterminate
Nonlinear
Problems
113
-3P/k, checked
whereas
must
and then from the first equation, R = 2P. These results by the procedures discussed in Part A of this chapter.
the first
revised
can be easily
established
magnitude A4 = 3P/k.
for part
system
-kA3
kA4
= R2
appropriate constitutive laws, including ment of supports, can be included in formulating bar behavior is linearly elastic, with the aid equation becomes
RL -AE
Any
maintained
these separated
in equilibrium
by the forces
convenient A's
at the cut.
last 2-9,
for
the of the
the four
applicable
equations
Since culating
able.
R2L2 -A2E2
(2-45)
no restfictions deflections
with
are
in Eq.
placed 2-44,
on numerous
the
constitutive nonlinear
relations problems
for
are
caltract-
2-18.
tive
Introduction
Problems
to Statically
Indeterminate
statically
Nonlinear
internal statical indeterminacy can be solved in a It must be emphasized, however, that, except for conof linearly elastic material, superposition cannot be used procedure. Several examples using the just-descfibed
discussed
of linearly In this
in the preceding
elastic
three
symmetric bars in Fig. 2-47 can be analyzed regardless of the mechanical properties in each part of a two-part system. On the other hand, the bar in Fig. 2-45(a), having two degrees of kinematic indeterminacy and three distinctly dif erently stressed segments, is not susceptible to this kind of
analysis.
approach,
indeterminate
sections
are very
axial y
loaded
effec-
procedure,
EXAMPLE
as well
248
as some
other
variations,
fol ow.
at both ends at immovable has a cross-sectional area of the bar is elastic with
by the
of discontinuity
the reactions
R and
In this extended approach, the forces remain the unknowns and related at the juncture of the two systems by a compatibility condition. In su6h problems, a global eqtdlibrit m equation can always be writ en for a system. For example, for the bar in Fig. 2-53, such an equation is
= 1200 m m2, a = 750 mm, b = 500 mm, and the material is linearly elasticperfectly plastic, as shown in Fig. 2-54(d), determine the displacement A of the step as a function of the applied force P. Let E = 200 GPa. (c) Assuming that at the instant of impending yield in the whole bar, the applied force P is removed,
determine the residual force in the bar and the residual deflection at the bar step.
of the section?
R2 caused
Use
Eqs.
application
2-43
and 2-45.
of an axial
(b) If A = 600 mm 2, A2
force
diagram
for
the
during
application
for
each
R+ R2+ P = 0)
Then, ends
bar
(2-43)
deflections
BC
to assure A and
at B are determined
cotnpatibility
and
C are held,
using
two
of bar AB
dif erent
of the two
paths.
bar segments,
Therefore
to be divided throughout
lower part
at B is A4B
and
is ABc;
it fol ows
the
action using
2-44
Fig.'2-53
material.
A bar
of nonlinear
R
R2
P
114
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
2-t8.
Statically
Indeterminate
Nonlinear
Problems
115
R
. R
R = 1 + 750 x 1200/(500
Hence, the normal stresses are
P
x 600)
and
P
and
and
R2
-P/1600
3P
cr = R/A
or2 -- R2/A2
At this
tionship
400
MPa
the magnitude
load,
the
at impending
P,
between
of yp = cryp/E
cr2 and
of the
= 2 x 10 -3. Therefore,
= 640
bar just
yield
is found
reaches
by setting
yield,
cr2 = -400
from
the previous
the
strain
attains
MPa.
rela-
gX
10 a
Pyp
and
= 1600
tryp
x 103 N = 640 kN = 1 mm
x// / 4
'/ /x
A 2 = A = ypb
quantities locate point
= 2 x 10 -3 x 500
2-54(e).
(a)
(b)
(d)
Material
properties
P1
Oyp
720
On increasing P above 640 kN, the lower part of the bar continues to yield, carrying a compressive force R2 = CrypA2 = 480 kN. At the point of impending yield for the whole bar, the upper part just reaches yield. This occurs when R = CrypAl = 240 kN and the strain in the upper part just reaches gyp = CrypiE.
Therefore,
These
A in Fig.
640
A ,
:"'"" Contained
--lastic range
plast floicw
64 mm
(f) Strain
upper
720
kN
X 103
www.avs4you.com
and
2 ' X 10 a
/x = eypa
P = 720
= 2 x 10 -3 X 750
is the
= 1.5 Inm
or limit
These
is uncontained
quantities
the
and
locate
point
B in Fig.
kN
2-54(e).
ultimate
Beyond
load,
of
this
system.
load
point,
of the
In
the plastic
rod.
flow
no
plastic
Note
information
simplicity
on the
of calculating
deflection characteristics
the
limit
which,
the
however,
general,
provides
0.375
1.5
(e)
limit
path
bar
analysis
elastic-plastic
is simpler
load-deflection
than
'elastic
analysis,
relationship.
which
when 2-54(e),
kN.
in turn
the the
On
is simpler
than
tracing
reaches plastic.
the bar
in
(g)
Strain
lower
path
bar
in
the
Fig.
2-54
point
and
applied whole
removing
From
compatibility: A = A 2 or
gl a
R2b A2E
AlE
By solving
these
two
equations
P
simultaneously,
elastically (see Section 2-6). In the with an opposite sign from that of solution found for part (b) based on caused by the removal of the force P residual force Rr in the bar is equal parts less the reduction in these forces Hence, for the upper part of the bar,
elastic equations, such a force must the initial y applied force. Therefore, Eqs. 2-39, the upper and lower reare, respectively, - P/4 and - 3P/4. to the initial force in either one of caused by the removal of the applied
R = 1 + aA2/bA
yielding the same result as found
of data (b) By direct substitution into
and - R2 - 1 + bA1/aA2
in Example
Eqs. 2-39,
P
(2-39)
Re
= R
P/4
= 240
720/4
= 60 kN
2-15.
Lik.ewise,
part
-
of the bar,
3P/4 = 480 3 x 720/4 = 60 kN
116
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
2.18.
Statically
Indeterminate
Nonlinear
Problems
117
Both
bar
results
The residual
discontinuity.
as they
should
be, as no applied
force
remains
using
at the
either
Solution
force, based on Eq. 2-9, it contracts aPt/(4AE) deflection is 1.5 - 1.125 = 0.375 mm, as shown
by the dashed
can be determined
line BD is parallel
*(d) The strain histories for the two parts of the bar are given in Figs. 2-54(f) and (g). As shown in part (b), the lower segment begins to yield first. At that instant, /x = 1 mm and the strain in the lower bar is A/b = 2 x 10 -3, whereas in the
the figures.
problem.
mm. Therefore, the strains in both parts of the bar have increased by a factor of 1.5 and are so shown in the figures by their respective point.s B. No increase in the stress can occur in the lower bar during this time, as it is in a state of pure
bar begins
are identified
to yield
occurs
by points
at /x = 1.5
A in
of deformations. However, since the requirements deformations involve displacements, a connecting erty of materials must be added. Let subscripts a and s on P, e, and cr identify aluminum and steel, respectively. Then, noting that
This
is internally statically indeterminate since the manner the force P is distributed between the two materials total axial force at an arbitrary section can easily be For an internal statically indeterminate problem, the remain valid, but an additional condition is necessary
auxiliary
condition
comes
from
the requirements
of statics condition
involve based
of compatibility
forces on the
the
the
and propfor
by a force placement
elastic
From
plastic
deflection /x = 0.375 mm. Hence, the corresponding residual strains A/a and /x /b are, respectively, 0.50 x 10 -3 and 0.75 x 10 -3 m/m. The corresponding points are identified by points D in Figs. 2-54(f) and (g).
EXAMPLE 2-19
deformation.
load is completely
removed,
the residual
response
has
as being is supported
the disassuming
equilibrium: Pa + Ps = PorP2
From
compatibility: Aa = As or a ' Es
A 30-in long atuninum rod is enclosed and (b). The two materials are bonded
the two materials can be idealized as shown, end deflection wil occur for P = 80 kips
sectional
areas of steel
within a steel-alloy tube; see Figs. 2-55(a) NON-ACTIVATED VERSION together. If the stress-strain diagrams for www.avs4you.com As and of aluminum A are the same and equal to 0.5 in 2.
respectively, in Fig. 2-55(d), and for P2 = 125 kips? The what crossFrom material properties:
and
es
crdEs
o ksi
By
Steel
A s
20C
From
psi.
noting
the diagram
that
cr = P/A
the elastic
and
moduli
crs=
PdAs,
one
can
solve
the
three
equations.
Thus,
(b)
150
i
/
1.67 4 5 6.67
(d)
era
Hence,
=20k,
Ps = [AEd(AE)]P
andP = 60k.
= 3P,
and
P + 3Pa
= P = 80 k; therefore,
P
dx
Fig. 2-55
(a) (c)
100
10
By
applying
A
Eq.
-
2-9
to either
material,
-
the
tip deflection
=
for
0.120
80 kips
in
wil
be
Aluminum
PaL AaEa
which solution.
20 0.5
x 103 x 30 x 10 x 106
This
corresponds
of 0.120/30
tX10
since
elastic
response,
satisfies In fact,
= 4 x 10 -3 in/in.
the strain
In this
from
force
can reach
P can
stress
reaches can
5 x 10 -3 in/in
range,
both
for both
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
248.
Statically
Indeterminate
Nonlinear
Problems
119
the
although
Therefore
aluminum
the
strains
rod
can
may
be counted
continue
upon
to increase.
must
to resist
Therefore,
only
Pa
= Aao'yp
beyond
= 0.5
P = 100 kips,
X 50
Solution
25 kips.
The
crs=
in/in.
100/0.5
Therefore,
for
remainder
P2 = 125 kips,
of the
100 kips
applied
toad
stress
level,
x 10 -3
be carried
must
be carried
e = 200/(30
by the
x 103) = 6.67
in
in aluminum,
steel
by the
tube:
steel
Hence,
tube.
x 10 -3
P is sufficiently large to close the small gap, a force P wil steel rod and a force Pc, in the copper tube. Moreover, upon rod wil compress axial y A, which is as much as the axial
the copper tube plus the initial gap. Hence,
A = esL
Note rod flow.
x 30 = 0.200
from the
unique
10 -3
that can
in/in;
strain
it is not
carry.
Thus,
corresponds
possible
the
of 50 ksi,
which
strain
steel same,
tube i.e.,
is all that
the
aluminum
since
no
From compatibility:
Ps
Pcu
25,000
lb
would terials
If the
minum bonded
axial
set (stretch)
rebound broken,
applied
deformations
of (6.67
force
P2 = 125 kips
Thus, tube would
incompatibility Instead,
in
- 5) x 10 -3 = 1.67
both materials. In
if one imagines the bond between return to its initial shape. But
were
removed,
both
materials
in the
ma-
rod
By applying Eq. 2-9, A = PL/AE,
15.0025
As
Ac.
0.0025
substituting,
+ 15
and
0.0025
simplifying,
x 10 -3 in/in
would
the
which
if the
aluminum
two maintain
occur
materials
rod
in the aluthe
remains
are same
slightly solution
compressed of this
kind
and the steel tube is slightly stretched. of problem is il ustrated in the next
EXAMPLE
2-20
for the
2 x 30 x 106Ps
- 3 x 17 x 106Pc"
= 10,000 lb
= 0.0025
A steel
rod
with
a cross-sectional
area is 15.0000
of 2 in 2 and
a length If an axial
of 15.0025
in is loosely P = 25 kips
Pcu
6900
lb
and
Ps cross-sectional
18,100
lb areas gives
inserted
sectional
into
area
a copper
of 3 in 2 and
tube,
as shown
in Fig.
in long.
2-56.
The
copper
force
tube
has a cross-
is
and
dividing
these
forces
by the
respective
what stresses wil develop in the two materials? Asof steel and copper are Es = 30 x 10 6 psi and Ecu
crcu
= 6900/3
stresses were
note
= 2300
too
Ls
psi
were small
and
ors =
the
considered
18,100/2
limit above
are
= 9050
of its solution
small,
psi
or if
material
would
it is suffi-
not
that
since
ciently
0.0025"
accurate Solution
to use
= Lc,.
Alternative
Steel
rod
A s = 2 in 2
Lcu =
force.
materials.
The
remaining
to close the gap may the rod acts as a "spring" force P' causes equal
found first, using Eq. 2-9. In and resists a part of the applied deflections A and A, in the two
be
Fig. 2-56
Copper tube
= 3 in 2
F ..
AAsEs
Ls
0.0025
x 2 x 30
15.0025
106
F=
10,000 25 -
lb 10
= =
10 kips 15 kips
P'
=P-
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
2-t8.
Statically
Indeterminate
Nonlinear
Problems
Then
From
resisted
by the copper
by the steel
tube,
rod,
in addition
to the force
F, and
tightened. Find the stress in the tube if the temperature of the assembly is raised from60 Fto 160F. LetE = 17 x 106 psi, Es = 30 x 106 psi, a = 9.1 x
10 -6 p.er F, and a = 6.5 x 10 -6 per F.
Solution
p;
From compatibility:
cu
+p'
cu
= P'
15
or
P;Ls AsEs
Ac,E
If the copper tube and the steel bolts were free to expand, the axial thermal elongations shown in Fig. 257(b) would take place. However, since the axial deformation of the tube must be the same as that of the bolts, the copper tube wil be pushed back and the bolts wil be pulled out so that the net deformations wil be the same. Moreover, as can be established by considering a free body of
P' = 20 17 Ps ,
tha t Pu =
presslye
are
From
th assembly
equal.
force
above
Hence,
P in the copper
some
arbitrary
section
such
as A-A
force
in Fig.
2-57(a),
the com-
statics:
If (cryp)s = 40 ksi and (cryp)c = 10 ksi, the limit lead for this assembly
Pull = (Cryp)sAs
both
parts
Pu
Ps
can be
From
compatibility:
+'(f yp)cuAcu
yield,
At the ultimate
initial lengths
lo&d,
of the
materials
is of no consequence.
EXAMPLE
2-21
= 110 kips
with
PsLs
the
aid
of Eqs.
2-18
PuLcu
A copper
caps made of Invar27; see Fig. 2-57(a). Four -in steel arranged parallel to the axis of the tube and are lightly has an a 0 and for and watch springs.
a cross-sectional
area of 3 in 2 is placed
or, since
9.1 x
L
10 -6
in 2 is the cross
106
section
of one
bolt,
is a steel alloy which at ordinary temperatures is used in the best grades of surveyor's tapes
Elastic deformations
3 x = 6.5
17 X
10 -6
100
Ps
4 x
0.442
30
10 a
Thermal
d
By solving the two equations simultaneously, P = 6750 lb. Therefore, in the copper tube is crc = 6750/3 = 2250 psi. The kinematic expression just used may also be set up on the fol owing statement: the dif erential expansion of the two materials
Final
the
stress
change
that
in temperature
place
is accommodated
materials.
by or is equal
to the elastic
position
take
in the
two
EXAMPLE
2-22
A steel
washers
bolt
Fig.
2-57
(a)
see Fig.
2-58(a).
of total
having
If the bolt
thickness,
a cross-sectional
in this
L, each
assembly
having
area
A = 1 in 2 is used
the cross-sectional
is tightened
to grip
initial y
area A2 = 9 in2;
so that its stress
two
steel
1:22
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
2-t8.
Statically
Indeterminate
Nonlinear
Problems
123
By solving
ml
simultaneously,
P
1 + A2/A
1 +
= 0.1P
1500
lb.
= 9A 1
Section
a-a
t t--tft
h
h
tt
hh+x (c)
tit
Y
stress in the bolt after the application of the force P becomes 21,500 psi. This remarkable result indicates that most of the applied force is carried by decreasing
the initial compressive force on the assembled washers The solution is not valid if one of the materials ceases if the applied force is such that the initial procompression
is destroyed.
Therefore,
the increase
of the stress
in the bolt
is X/A
= 1500 psi,
and the
parts
prac-
or
(a)
(b)
Fig.
2-58
tical applications. A hot rivet used in the assembly of plates, upon cooling, develops within it enormous tensile stresses. Thoroughly tightened bolts, as in a head of an automobile engine or in a flange of a pressure vessel, have high initial P = 15 kips is
tensile
occurs
Situations
approximating
the above
idealized
problem
is 20 ksi, what
applied
Solution
wil
assembly?
be the final
stress
in this bolt
after
a force
to the
crucial y
stresses;
in the
important
so do the steel
tensile
initial
that
on applying
stresses.
tendons
the working
in a prostressed
loads,
only
concrete
a small
beam.
increae
It is
force
in the washers.
the tensile force in the bolt,'and Y is the the washers due to P. As a result of these remain in contact, the bolt elongates the elastically. Hence, the final conditions are
From statics:
P is applied
is shown
From
to the initial conditions of the assembly tensile force in the bolt, and Ic is the initial
statics,
in Fig.
It = Io A free-body
is in Fig. 2NON-ACTIVATED VERSION compressive plastic range of material behavior and plot 2-58(c), where X designates the increase in www.avs4you.com
EXAMPLE 2-23
of the assembly
after
the
Extend
havior
the solution
the
of Example
2-14
decrease in the compressive force on forces, X and Y, if the adjacent parts same amount as the washers expand as fol ows:
cross-sectional
area
A of each
yielding
bar
is the
a force-displacement
Assume
shown
in Fig.
ideal
2-59(a)
elastic-plastic
diagram.
into
The
the
be-
with
material
at crvp.
Ovp A
B
P +
or since Ic = I,
(I-
Y)
(I,
+X)
A '
I +
2 cosa
F2
F,
F2
I + 2 cos 3 a
X+Y=P
x,
o
Elastic
range
From
compatibility:
c
Abolt
By applying Eq. 2-9,
Awasher
s
c'
P P
AlE
COS 20
O,p L
(b)
(c)
XL
YL
A2
(a)
A
- A2E
Fig.
2-59
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Sec.
2-19.
Dif erential
Equation
Approach
for
Deflections
't25
Solution
,.282-19.
equilibrium equation for forces
F
Alternative
Deflections
Dif erential
Equation
Approach
for
The
is
atjoint
+ 2F2cosat
C, Fig.
2-59(c),
= P
recognizing
symmetry,
bars
The
AC'
compatibility
and
DC'
with
equation
that
of bar
at joint
BC'
C, Fig.
is
2-59(a),
at
relating
the elongations
in
by solving
In Section
a first-order
elastic du/dx
this problem as a second-order equation. materials fol ows from two observations. = = cr?E = P/AE, one has
dif erential
deflection
ex = du/dx,
determined
A 2 =
A
COS
p = AEx x
using Eq. 2-9 and the es-
(2-46)
ever,
that the deformations are small. the bar material behaves elastically
plastically.
tablished
By noting
compatibility
that
F2[L/cos
the inclined
equation,
bars
FL --cosat
AE
are L/(cos
ct) long,
a typical
with
SinceFx
at]
AE
or
F2
= Fcos
2at
a positive
element
relation element
= 0ordP
sense
For
to the previously
= 0, and
adopted
all forces
sign convention.
are shovn
for an inconsider
By substituting simplifying
leads-to
F = 1 + 2c0s 3at.
It is seen from this solution that
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION dx P and F2 1 + 2c0s P 3at www.avs4you.com This equation states that the rate of change
cos 2 at (2-34)
the maximum force occurs in the vertical bar.
into
equation 2-14:
at joint
C, and
n
with
(2-47)
At the impending
yield
Fl = crypA,
and,
P = crypA(1
By substituting
force
P is equal
AE
to the
negative
of the
applied
+ 2 cos 3 a) at
at A = CrypL/
assuming
constant,
By increasing force P above the first yield remains constant, and the equation of statics force F2 until the stress in the inclined bars
CryvA.
At the impending
the joint C equilibrium equation corresponds to the plastic litnit of finding this load is rather simple,
limit load of the is reached. collapse In Chapter mechanism.
yield
in the inclined
in the vertical bar, force F = crvpA at joint C is sufficient for determining reaches Cryp. This occurs when F2 =
xx
2a This
panying
= AE xx
is optional; can
or
after
AE dx 2 Section
Px
unit
p
the
(2-48)
accom-
gives P = CrypA(1 q- 2 cos ct). This load for the system. Note that the proas the system is statically determinate
13, such a limit load is associated with
bars,
bar already
section
examples.
be studied
2-7 before
lb per
length
At the impending yield in the inclined bars, per Eq. 2-9, A2 = (CrypiE)[L/cos or] and A = A2/cos ct = CrypL/(E cos 2 cO. This value of A locates the abscissa for point B in Fig. 2-59(c). Beyond this point, all bars continue to yield without bound
based on ideal plasticity.
P+dP
-dx
element
bar.
Fig.
2-60
of
Infinitesimal
an
axial y
loaded
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in Bars
Problems
The constants of integration C and C2 can be found by noting that the deflection t is zero at both ends, i.e., u(0) = 0 and u(L) = 0. Hence, from the last equation,
AEu(0) = 0 and C2 = 0
tion.
and
is defined
boundary elastic
terminate
that
The
of kinematics
requirements
by Eq.
2-3.
through
of statics
statically
constitutes Equation
A solution
the
are satisfied
use
indeterminate
2-48
a solution is equally
of Eq.
of Eq.
2-48
2-6.
by making
problems.
subject
The
constitutive
use
of Eq.
to the prescribed
for
relation
2-47,
AEu(L)
Since u'(x) = du/dx,
= poL2/2
from
R2
+ CL
Eq.
= P(O)
= 0
and
C = - poL/2
However
2-46,
= AE u'(O) = -poL/2
of
solution
px/AE
several alternatives are possible. solutions for each segment of a bar at the junctures? This is related to discussed in Section 2-7, and to the considered in Sections 2-16 and 2-17. function. s, discussed in Section 5-16,
direct use of Eq. 2-48 for bars where
should
be a continuous
function.
One of them consists of and enforcing continuity the statically determinate statically indeterminate For concentrated forces, can be used to advantage.
several axial loads are
When
the
function
is
The
Similarly,
negative
sign
R
shows
= P(L) that
that
this
= AE
force
u'(L) forces
is generated
= poL/2 are shared
by compressive
= poL/2 equally by the
stresses.
These
ports.
results
indicate
the applied
two
sup-
statically
cross sections change becomes cumbersome. Therefore discussed before, including the scheme for dividing probdeterminate and indeterminate ones, are more useful
The example
function.
applications.
constants These
solution
found
be determined -- O; hence,
in (a) remains
AE
from
applicable.
u'(O) the
However,
il ustrates
EXAMPLE
R3
2-24
the procedure
when
px is a con-
and
C2 = -poL2/2
(a) Consider
a bar
of uniform
cross
section
placements
Solution
same
u(x)
bar
be along
is supported
the bar?
only
held
between
two
rigid
supports
what
spun
AEu
PO (L 2_ 2
x 2)
dis-
As
is to be
expected,
R3
=AEu'(L)
= poL
Po\
(a) Using
Eq.
2-48,
and
noting
Eq.
d eu
du
2-46,
on integrating
twice:
AE x2 = -(-Po)
AEu -
= po
+ Cix + C2
Problems
Section 2-4
and
12 mm
in diameter,
what
axial
stress
is caused
by
the
= 75
applied
GPa.
force?
Assume
elastic
behavior
and
let E
AE xx = pox + C = P
pox 2
2
(a)
(b)
Fig.
2-61
nuity
29 This
to be equal,
requires
the
discontinuity where
displacements
of the
be in equilibrium. at a discontinuity
forces
abutting
the
acting
(See, force
on an isolated
for
bar
segments
at a
2-t. A standard steel specimen of in diameter is elongated 0.0087 in in an 8-in gage length when it was subjected to a tensile force of 6250 lb. If the specimen was known to be in the elastic range, what is the elastic
modulus of the steel?
Section
2-7
2-3.
infinitesimal
must for an aluminum m/m. If the rod rod due to an is 400 mm long
A steel
transmit
rod
a tensile
10 m long
force
used
of 5 kN
in a control
without
mechanism rod?
stretching
strain is 10 -3
stress Give
of
Strains E =
and 210
Deformations GPa.
in
Bars
Problems
the
design?
1800
rum
2-4. Revise the data in Example 2-2 to read as fol ows: P = 10 kips, P3 = 100 kips, and P4 = 30 kips, and the bar segments AB, BC, and CD are, respectively, 4-, 2-. and 3-ft long. Then find (a) the force P2 necessary for equilibrium and (b) the total elongation of
rod AD. The cross-sectional area of the rod from A to
60"
2400
100"
Bis
ment
1 in 2, from
diagram
B to C is 4 in 2, and
from
C to D is 2
Fig.
Pinned
P245
in 2. Let
2-$.
able 2-6.
cular
E = 30 x 103 ksi.
along the bar.
(c) Plot
constant
2-2. L, Z2,
cross
the axial
for
and
section
joint
Find
cross Assume
member
the
section
axial
that
of
spring
in Example segments
variable
the
L3
vertical placements
Fig. P2-'11
2-'16.
the
of the
in Problem
tionless shown,
600,
500, length
and and
weighing 500 kg is placed in the position wil be the elongation of rod AB? Let 2. the shortening of steel tubular
The cross-sectional area
bars, BD as shown
stress
A planar
are
mechanical
small, small).
the.horizontal
dis-
system
consists
AB,
rod
Each
of two rigid
2-7.
lem
Find
2-6.
the
axial
spring
constant
for
the
bar
in Prob-
2-8. consists
gether applied
long to-
240. In a California oil field, a very pipe got stuck in hard clay (see figure). essary to determine at what depth this engineer on the job ordered the pipe
large upward tensile force. As a result
long
in the figure. When axial force P is system, a strain gage attached to the indicates an axial strain of 873 IJ.m/m. (a) the magnitude of applied force P. (b) If the behaves elastically, find the total elongation of Let Es, = 210 GPa, and E^ = 70 GPa.
to
shown the
pipe came up elastically 2 ft. At the same time, elongated 0.0014 in in an 8-in gage length. where was the pipe stuck? Assume that
the
cross-sectional
spreader
nec-
C and
D.
of tensile
of the
tube
forces
is 100
at
mm 2. Let
(a) Determine the vertical deflection E, and G caused by the application lb. (Since vertical displacements zontal displacements are negligibly
the
deflected
shape
displacements.
for
the
system,
greatly
exagger-
area
of the
pipe
was
constant
and
20"
20"
in Problem
C
/
surrounding of the
pipe
Fig.
derrick
P2-'12
'2-13.
1-43 wire.
Determine
the
elongation
in rod
AB
aluminum-alloy
- 20" I
2-]7. Jr
F P=300Ibr G
Fig. P246
in the
for
the
20-mm-diamframe in Prob-
Fig.
P2-8
Pipe Clay
2-'15. hangers
ers
whose Fig. P2-10
constructed as shown in the
part AD as shown
cold-worked
E =
of
modulus
(Ni-Cu)
material
2-9. Two wires are connected in the figure. The wire on the wire psi.
how
= 0.10
aluminum-alloy
as shown having A
2-1t. A wall
yields
bracket
is
(b)
bar
Where
would
remain
should
the
horizontal?
weight
be located
such
that
the
figure.
Steel ber rod
All
AB
joints
may
a cross-sectional beam.
be
If
considered
area a 1000-mm
pin-connected.
of 5 mm diameter 2. Memfric-
BC
has is a rigid
hanger pair BF. Determine the deflection that would occur at D by applying a downward force of 10 kN at C. Check hanger stresses to assure that an elastic solution is applicable. Sketch deflected member AD, greatly exaggerating the vertical displacements (since
area
is 50 mm 2 for
at approximately
hanger
600
pair
MPa.
AE
The
and
cross-sectional
in xampie
2-3,
what 0.250
the rod
sou]d in under
is a ] in umium
its length its ow
free
be weight?
of the
100 mm 2 for
deQecdoa
of the
end
rod in xamgJe 2-3 , instead of ooke's law, stress-straJ relatiosig is = g", were n is a her dependent on the progenies of the material?
2-]9. A rod of two derent cross-sectional areas
made
of soft
cogget
and
is subjected
to a tensile
load
t30
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
20 rnm
I1 i1
Problems
change in the length of the rod due to the application of force P. Assume that the support provided for the rod by the surrounding material varies linearly as shown. Express the answer in terms of P, A, a, and E, where E is the elastic modulus of the rod. 2-26. For the same frame as in Example 2-4, Fig. 2-24, find the horizontal and vertical deflections at
A = 1 in 2 /e'
A = in 2 '
25
mm
Fig.
P249
600
150 rn
mm
point
at B.
2-27.
B caused
Assume
Determine
by applying
linearly
horizontal
a horizontal
elastic behavior
and vertical
force
of the
elastic
of 3 kips
material.
dis-
as shown in the figure. (a) Determine of the rod caused by the application kips. Assume that the axial stress-strain
is
5
75 rnrn
of load dimensions
point shown
two-bar figure.
system Assume
havthat
= call6,000
where cr is in ksi. (b) Find upon removal of force P. ing, copper behaves as a an E equal to the tangent origin.' 2-20. A two-bar system in the figure. The cross-sectional
0.200 in 2 and for bar BC
+ (cr/165)
3
Fig. P2-2i ' '2-24. Find bar of constant in the figure, the
for
Fig. P2-23
each
bar,
AE
= 104 kips.
the residual bar elongation Assume that during unloa.dlinearly elastic material with to the virgin cr-e curve at the
weight volume
is E.
100"
has
the
is 0.150
diagram for the rods is bilinear would each wire elongate due tical force P = 4 kips?
shown AB
2-22.
is
plate
its
so that
both
bars
Bar
entire
of ver-
1 in wide bars
same
to the
of the
-A
4-54-
a constant
Determine
have
a constant
width
the
of 2 in throughout
at the
LA/LB
thickness
of
B is to be
Each
bar is to be subjected
ratio
3 in wide
wil
load
the
same
amount.
Neglect
so that
the
bar.
2-28. linearly
For
the
tical
ksi.
displacements
A jib
elastic
of load
the
point
B. Let
E = 10 x 103
shown
X 103 ksi
'
Fig. P2-22
Fig.
'2-25. is bonded thickness An elastic rod having to the surrounding a, as shown in
P2-24
a cross-sectional material, which the figure. Determine area has the A
a
figure.
2-29.
and tube BC, 320 mm 2. (a) Find the of the crane at point B. (b) Determine
caused
E = 200 GPa.
Rod
AB
crane
has
has
a cross-sectional
application
dimensions
vertical the
area
flection
Let
by the
of force
of 300 mm 2
in the
cone supported at the large end on a rigid shown in the figure. Determine the deflection
piece
plate. caused
base
2-2'i.
figure increase
The
is cut in
small
from length
tapered
symmetric.
piece
shown
Determine by
its
in the
the own
of the
of
a 4-mm-thick of this
elastic coordinate
modulus
axes
Rod
2000
P2-29
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Problems
Sections 24'1
the
t33
and 242
B caused using Eq.
Section
2-30. A steel
2-8
bar 2 in wide and 0.5 in thick is 25 in
long, as shown in the P, the bar width becomes Estimate the magnitude
elongation take E = of the
figure.
On
narrower of applied
Assume and v =
force applying
2-16.
2-41.
P2-37
G in
By
Problem
Eq.
vertical
2-24,
find
deflection
the
deflection
of point
of point
B caused
30
bar. 10 3 ksi
Fig.
Fig. P2-32
2-42.
Find
the
dency
contraction.
expansion
Fig.
P2-30
2-33. tical
a rise
concentration factors from Fig. 2-32. Where a potential fracture occur? A machine part of constant thickness for transcyclical axial loading should have the dimenshown in the figure. (a) Select the thickness
by the
2-43. by the
applied
Find applied the
load
in Problem
2-27
using
of point 2-29 using
Eq.
2-24.
B caused Eq. 2-24.
2-44. spreader
2-3t,
wide
A
and
10-mm-thick
2000 mm
figure.
low-alloy-steel
long is subjected
plate
to a set
150 edges,
transin the
mm
of uni:
formly
as shown
distributed
in the
frictional
If the
forces
total
along
decrease
its two
verse plied
gation
= 200
150-mm forces
of the
GPa
dimension at section a-a due to the apis 15 x 10 -3 mm, what is the total elonbar
and
elastic behavior and use a and E given in Table 1 the Appendix for 6061-T6 aluminum alloy. 2-34. For the data given in Problem 2-29, find the tical and horizontal displacements of point B by a rise in temperature of 80 C only in the rod.
E
a = 11.7 x 10-6/C.
needed in the member for transmit ing an axial force of 12 kN in order to limit the maximum stress to 80 MPa. Approximate the stress concentration factors from Fig. 2-32. (b) Where might a potential fracture
occur?
four
of steel rods,
a steel AC,
forces.
Both
area
The
mm
of 20 mm 2, arid
cross-sectional
2. Let E = 200 GPa.
both
area
bars
of the
A
AD
and
spreader
DB,
bar
40 mm 2.
is 100
in the
v = 0.25.
longitudinal
Assume
direction.
that the steel
Let
be-
haves
as a linearly
elastic
material.
Section
150
_Px N/mm
16oo
Fig. P2-31
2-35.
hole of
A 6 by
25
]4oo
aluminum-alloy
figure. (a) Determine
2-'10
75 mm
diameter
plate
600
mm
long
has
a circulm
Find
mm
located
in its
center.
the
Fig.
P2-38
kN
the total of stress
cross-sec-
2
1
force
that direction
MPa.
can
be without
applied
to this
plate
exceeding
an
of
220
2-36. tensile
ened by
by which application
section, as shown
is
in
2-39. A long slot is cut out from a 1 by 6 in steel bar 10 ft long, as shown in the figure. (a) Find the maximum stress if axial force P =' 50 kips is applied to the bar. Assume that the upper curve in Fig. 2-32 is ap-
Fig.
P2-44
figure.
Section 2-9
stress
Since
concentrations.
the
bar
is to be loaded
cyclically,
plicable. elongation
concentrations
(b)
For of the
and
the rod.
assume
Section
2-`13
of dif erent
2-45.
bars
Compare
the dynamic
diameters
2-32.
uprights,
A rigid
as shown
bar
C.
rests
in the
Assume
on bar
the
and
the
steel
inP
!" radius
P
tional gation
for rod
24
in.
the
Assume
elonthat
shown
stresses
in the
in the three
figure
in their
steel
clination
ature of
of the
100
horizontal
after
coefficients
a raise
in temperof thermal
expansion for aluminum alloy and steel to be, respectively, 23.2 x 10-6/C and 11.7 x 10-6/C. To a greatly exaggerated scale, sketch the position of the bar after the raise in temperature. (b) What stresses would develop in the upright members if their tops
were prevented from expanding? Let the elastic mod-
1
2
P2-36
0.020 in per inch at a stress of the load in part (c), what Let E = 30 x 106 psi.
2" wide slot (1"radii at ends)
115 mm
15 mm
Fig.
uli
GPa
for
and
aluminum
alloy
and
steel
the
be,
obtained
respectively,
75
those
given
200
in Table
GPa.
Compare
1 of the Appendix.
Hint:
stresses
The
with
2-37. mensions
cyclic
A machine shown
loading.
10 mm in the figure,
If the maximum
part
c,_.+
to
Fig.
I
(a)
10
turn
(b)
(c)
0mm1Tn
. 1F
ten-
MPa,
determine
allowable
force
P.
Approximate
P2-39
Axial
response tance
Strains
through no
and
energy
Deformations
a dis-
in Bars
Ab,, force the deflection at a. LetA at b due to the application = 2A2. (In Section 13-4, of a unit it is shown
Problems
of
to 1.5-kg 1 m. Let
freely Assume
is
dissipated surfaces,
at supports.
through
nor at points
plastic
of the
stresses
impact occurring
that
tems.
this
reached
relationship
It is widely used
is true
in analysis.
in general
This
for
conclusion
elastic
syscan
downward force of 5 kN, as shown in the figure. Initial y, this force is equally distributed among the three wires. The stresses in the wires are well within the linearly'elastic range of material behavior. (a) Determine
Section
2-56. An axial force of the bar
2-t6
elastic bar held at both ends P, as shown in the figure.
is constant. (a) Determine
be
by
inspection
for
statically
for the system shown in the figure, for stopping of 1 kg moving at a velocity of 3 rn/sec such that, impact, the spring deflection would not exceed
Neglect frictional effects.
2-46.
Determine
the
stif ness
required
in the. spring,
bars.)
2-49.
sume
Consider
that ends
the
A and
bar
given
D are
in Example
held and that
2-2
P2
and
=
as-
A---
the forces
in the wires
10mm
Determine strain,
kN
and
P3 = 200
and there
kN
act
(b)
in the
Plot
the diagrams.
directions
axial
force,
shown.
applied
(a)
in the
x 10-6/C.
middle
2, L = 2000mm,
wire
wire.
would
caused
(b) At what
E=
Properties
by a temperature
200 x 103N/mm
change
slack?
of the wires:
in temper-
2,
interpret applied
assuming
the force.
that
of the diagram
it become
2-50.
forces, reactions
x 10-6/F.
If in Problem
is a drop would develop
2-49,
in addition
of
to the
2-51.
Fig. P2-46
cross-sectional
the reactions,
elastic
axial-displace-
bar
and
Fig.
P2-56
shown
(b) plot
ment
Section 2-t5
diagrams.
the
axial-force,
Let
E = 10 x 103 ksi.
axial-strain,
and
the
Fig. P2-53
2-57.
(a). (b),
combined
For
symmetrically
spring
constant
arranged
k = n
in series, k fol ows
springs
ki;
in parallel,
see
figure
2-47. An elastic bar of variable cross section, both ends, is loaded as shown in the figure. ibilities.of the bar segments are /2, , and mine the reactions, and plot the axial-force
held
The flex. Deterand axial-
at
1/ki,
or,
alternatively,
and
= n
fi,
where
is sysspring.
. displacement
diagrams.
2-52.
pended
force wil
If a load
by
tem
flexibility,
i the
flexibility
of an ith
Fig.
P2-51
wires
taut.
additional
of 1 kip
wires
is applied
to a rigid
The
bar
sus-
three
as shown
each
in the
figure,
if the of the
left wire slips out 3 mm from steel wires is 2000 mm long, area of 10 mm 2, and an elastic
be resisted
by
wire?
outside
wire
GPa.
is
in the
(b)
IP
P2-47
elastic bar of variable cross-
wire.
Fig.
in the two alternative figures. A,b at a caused by the applicaat b, and show that it is equal
---200
200
>
to
Alum.
wires
A = 0.3
L = 25'
Steel wire
in 2
A2
l./4
L/4
L/4
t I
A = 0.2
/. = 50'
in 2
P=3kN
1
P2-54
: k = 300
k2 = 200
N/mm
N/mm
clination
spaced a mass steel
2-55.
area
Rework
of bar
angles
BD
Example
as
a to 30 and
2A. The
2-14
taking
cross
by changing
the
sections
cross-sectional
of bars
the
bar
inAD
P = 6.2 kN
k = 250
N/mm
/ /,.
// / ,
7
Fig.
P2-48
2-53. tached
equally support
wires developing
and DC
remain
equal
to A.
Fig.
P2-58
i36
the
total
Axial
Strains
and
Deformations
in
Bars
Problems
i37
relationships
deflection
given
distributed
in Problem
between
2-57.
the
(b) How
upper
is the
two
springs? 2-59.
method.
are
there?
(c)
Find
the
forces
acting
on
Rework
An elastic
Problem
bar
2-52
of variable
using
cross
the
section
displacement
and held
linearly
The
area
A rigid elastic
mm
of the
applied
wire
at B is 60 mm 2 and
the reactions
by a pin C, as shown
for
at A and in the f
the
one i
and Fig. P2-65
2-60.
C is 120
2. Determine
at A,
B,
at both ends is axial y loaded, as shown 'in the figure. The cross-sectional area of the small part is A and of the larger, 2A. (a) Using the displacement method, find the reactionS. (b) Plot a qualitative axial-displacement diagram. Hint: Use the relationship given in Problem 2-57 for determining the combined stif ness of the bar
segments to the left of P.
caused
by
force
P = 6 kN.
2-66. Rework Problem 2-65 Hint: The degree of kinematic reduced by using a relationship
1000
after
Section
2-t8
based ultimate
-500o5+500oFig.
'2-6t. A bar of constant
2-67. A material possesses a nonlinear stress-strain relationship given as cr = Ke n, where K and n are material constants. If a rod made of this material and of constant area A is initial y fixed at both ends and is
then loaded as shown in the figure, how much of ap-
Cryp = 60 ksi and E = 30 x 106 psi, and for concrete, Crano, = 2000 psi, Cryp = 3600 psi and E = 2 x 106
psi. (It has been shown experimental y yields, the concrete "yield" strength that when steel is approximately 0.85crut, where Cru, is the ultimate compresslye strength of an unreinforced cylindrical specimen of the same material, age, and curing conditions. In order to
achieve ductile behavior of columns, the use of lateral
Assume For
that
steel,
P2-60
thickness and held at both
plied
Fig. P2-63
force
P is carried
by the left
support?
ends
the Hint:
bar.
reactions First
caused the
by stif ness
shown
the for
axial y the
in the figure.
applied tapered
Determine
force part
2-64.
Five
P. of the
area ner,
assembled figure.
in a symmetrical manAssume that the steel bematerial with E = 200 GPa. of joint A due to downward that, initial y, the rods are
Fig.
P2-67
2-68.
A rod
is fixed
at A and
loaded
with
an
axial
force
-7-
taut.
in the with
of
200
MPa.
Prior
to.loading,
a. gap
fixed for
of 2 mm
exists
C. (a) point value
mm
bePlot asfor
2 and
or spiral reinforcement is essential.) A rigid platform rests on two 10 7 psi) each 10.000 in long. A (E = 30 x 106 psi) and standing in long. (a) What wil be the if a force P of 100 kips is applied How much do the aluminum bars be the ultimate (plastic) strength
(E of is
tween the end of the rod and the load-displacement diagram suming P increases from zero
the rod. The cross section from
(ffyp)Al
= 40 ksi and
(Cryv)St
= 60 ksi?
P
that
in addition, each having
indeterof freeFig. P2-64
from
force?
B to C is 100
displacement
mm 2. (b) What
B upon release
wil
be the
of the
reap-
sidual
plied
of point
-l- 2 mm
cross section and held
section for the A. (a) Compare
A = 2 in 2
Section
2-t7
AI
St
!AI
L
A=4in
ends
is axial y
Determine
Fig. P2-62
degrees
of kinematic
loaded
at several
points,
larger
as
the::
I---250mm---250 mm
Fig. P2-68
A = 2 in 2
the reactions
and static
indeterminacies.
(b)
2-69.
The
cross
section
of a short
reinforced
concrete
diagram.
column
is as shown
in the
figure.
Four
1-in
round
bars
Fig.
P2-70
t38
2-7t. A force P = 1 kN is applied
Axial
by three of equal wires, as shown size and the same
no slack between
2'/ / / / / /,
Strains
to a rigid
and
bar
Deformations
sus-
in Bars
2-73. An aluminum tube is axial y compressed between the two heavy nuts of a steel bolt, as shown the figure. If it is known that the axial stress in the sleeve at 80 C is 20 MPa, at what temperature does this prestress become zero? For the aluminum tube:
wir,
pended wires
initial y, applied
are A = 80 mm 2, E =. 200
there load were distribute
// / / / / ,
GPa,
in the material.
and
L = 4 m. If,
how wil the
figure. For
All each
pter
A = 1000mm 2, E= 70 x 103MPa, andct = 23.2 x 10 -6 per C. For the steel bolt: A = 500 mm 2, E 200 x 103 MPa, and ct = 11.7 x 10 -6 per C.
Aluminum tube
200
mm
100
mm
100
mm
4000
mm
_
100 _ '
Fig. P2-73
Steelbolt
Section
assuming
bar is three
P
Fig. P2.71
2-72. An aluminum rod 7 in long, having two cross-sectional areas, is inserted into a steel shown in the figure. If at 60 F no axial force the aluminum rod, what wil be the magnitude
2-74.
elastic
Rework
modulus
Example
E1 for the
2-23
middle
after
bars,
that
E2 = E3
the
=
3-1.
Introduction
smaller
3E.
than
that
for
the
outside
i.e.,
force
Ctst
when
the
temperature
10-6/F.
x 10-6/F;
Steel link:
rises
to 160 F? E^,
= 107
2-75.
Problem
that
area of each bar parallel to rod is 0.35 in 2
the
0.30
in 2
Section
*2-76. 2-77. *2-78.
tinuity
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION A of this chapter. In Part B, general mathematical www.avs4you.com and shear strains are given. Then, by employing
Plot the load-deflection diagram for joint A in
2-64 caused by the applied force P,
yield
stress
for
the
material
cryp
= 250
MPa.
In addition to the normal strain discussed in the previous chapter in connection with axial y loaded bars, in general, a body may also be subjected to shear strains. For the purposes of deformation analysis, such strains must be related to the applied shear stress. This topic is discussed in Part
2-t9
and
con-
position, the generalized Hooke's and strains for a three-dimensional walled pressure vessels and shells eralized Hooke's law is 'employed important elements of construction.
solution for thick-walled cylinders
the method law is synthesized, relating state of stress. Next, in Part of revolution are considered.
for the deformation
definitions
for normal
Aluminum
rod,
0.40
in 2
of a typical boundary-value problem ticity, and, at the same time, provides equat ions mechanics. established for thin-walled solid
is developed.
In the concluding
This
analysis
in the mathematical theory of elasbounds on the applicability of the pressure vessels using engineering
il ustrates
part,
Part D, a
a solution
Fig.
P2-72
SHEAR
CONSTITUTIVE
Relationships
An example
RELATIONSHIPS
for Shear
of such deformations
FOR
3.2.
cause
Stress-Strain
shear deformations.
In addition discussed
to the normal strains related to the axial strains in bars in Chapter 2, a body may be subjected to shear stresses that
is shown
in
t39
140
Hooke' Law, sPressure Vessel and sT,hiWal ck. lCyl ed inders '
planes in a body defines shear strain t (gamma). For infinitesimal elements these small angles are measured in radians. The / subscripts shown Fig. 3-1 associate a particular shear strain with a pair of coordinate Transformation of shear strain to any other mutually perpendicular of planes wil be discussed in Section 8-13. For the purposes of deformation analysis, it is essential to establish relationship between shear strain and shear stress based on experiments As wil become apparent in the next chapter, such experiments are mo conveniently performed on thin-walled circular tubes in torsion. The ments of such tubes are essential y in a state of pure shear stress. An il ustration of the conditions prevailing in a tube wall are shown in 3-2. The corresponding shear strains can be determined from the priate geometric measurements. Note that per Section 1-4, the shear stresses on mutually perpendicula planes are equal; see Fig. 3-2(a). Moreover, since in this discussion, stresses and strains are limited to a planar case, the subscripts for can be omit ed; see Fig. 3-2(b). By using experiments with thin-walled tubes, the generated shear stress-strain diagrams, except for their scale greatly resemble those usually found for tension specimens (See Figs. 2-
Sec.
3-3.
Elastic
Strain
Energy
for
Shear
Stresses
t41
Fig.
3-1.
The
change
in the initial
right
angle
between
any
two
imaginary
I tJ
(a)
(b)
material.
Fig.
3-3
Shear
stress-strain
diagrams;
(a)
typical
and
(b)
idealized
for
a ductile
where ticity,
3-4.
material.
EXAMPLE
For
emphasis,
of proportionality of rigidity.
the relationship
Like
given
of elasa given
Fig.
3-4
and
Linear
or
strain.
Hookean
relation
stress
between
pure
shear
in Pig.
3-t
3-1
Possible
of
shear
an element.
el astic-perfectly spectively,
just stress
Two
,-/di_agrams
yield
In numerous
as for and
the
strength
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION Fig. 3-3(b), ,yp and /yp designate, retechnical problems, the shear stresses do not exceed the of the material. For most materials www.avs4you.com in this range of stress,
plastic yield behavi or, shear stress
are shown in Fig.
and
3-3.
In the
idealized
diagram
of
the
shear
yield
strain.
has G = 0.64
Neglect'the
Solution
stif ness
N/mm
mountings shown
2. Determine
of the
outer
metal
the shear
plates
spring
to which
constant
pad
mechanical of Grade
the
ks for this
rubber
equipment 50 rubber
is bonded.
mounting.
a linear can
relationship be 'postulated.
between Therefore,
pure
shear mathe-
GA
t
(a)
Further,
Therefore,
This
at the
'ks
solution
two
F = ,ab - G Aab t
F
A
small
Gab
t
local
0.64
20
8
40
,x
=
since
64 N/mm
no shear stresses act
Fig. 3-5
(b)
neglects
boundaries.
effects
at the
ends
3-3.
o
Fig.
shear.
Elastic
Strain
Energy
strain
for Shear
energy in a manner an element for
Stresses
an infinitesimal analogous to that in a state of shear, element in for one in as shown
(b)
An expression for the elastic pure shear may be established uniaxial stress. Thus, consider
Malaysian
3-2
Element
in pure
(a)
P. B. Lindley,
Rubber
Engineering
Producers'
Research
Design
with
Association,
Natural
Rubber
1978).
(Hertford,
England:
Hooke's
Law,
Pressure
Vessels,
and
Thick.
Walled
Oylinders
Sec.
3.4.
Mathematical
Definition
of Strain
43
GENERALIZED NOOKE'S
CONCEPTS
LAW
OF
STRAIN
AND
**33-4.
Since strains must relate extensional Some points
x
Mathematical
Definition
of Strain
(a)
generally vary from point to point, the definitions of strain to an infmitesimal element. With this in mind, consider an strain taking place in one direction, as shown in Fig. 3-7(a). like A and B move to A' and B', respectively. During strain-
Fig.
3-6
An
element
for
deriving pure
energy
due
to
(b)
in Fig.
where it is assumed that the bottom plane of the element is fixed in position. 2 As this element is deformed, the force on the top plane reaches a final value of dx dz. The total displacement of this force for a small deformation of the element is ' dy; see Fig. 3-6(b). Therefore, since the external work done on the element is equal to the internal recoverable elastic strain energy,
3-6(a).
The
deformed
shape
of this
element
is shown
in Fig.
3-6(b),
is t q- A u, since in addition to the whole element Ax, On this basis, the definition
ing,
point
A experiences
a displacement
u. The
displacement
of point
=
lim
A u
A x
du
dx
3 This
text.
and
the
fundamental concepts
next
section
definition of stretching
can
be omit ed
of extensional or extending,
D' C' -
without
strain, can
DC
loss
be
of continuity
more amenable expressed, using
in the
to the Fig.
(3-6a)
dUshear
where dV is the
= 'r dx dz
average force
4 A more general
(3 -2)
ex =
axo
lim
DE
distance
volume
of
the
infinitesimal
element.
where DD'.
Also
By
recasting
Eq.
3-2,
the
strain-energy
density
for
shear
becomes
see
8-11
displacements deformations
and
12.
of points considered
C and here,
shear
By using
as
2
Eq. 3-3 may
(3-3)
be recast
A,
,A'
Ax
B
., B'
'
X, U
y,
+ Au
.+dy
U
Hooke's
law
for
shear
stresses,
= G',/,
(a)
(U)sher=
or
- sher--2G
ol
(3-4)
+ dy
v
1
dy
Ushe = fv
Note
a state of
dV
'to Eqs. 2-20-2-23
in Chapters
less general.
(3-5)
for elements
4, 10, and 12.
the similarity
uniaxial stress.
of Eqs.
equations
not make
3-2-3-5
are
the
in
8x dx
X U
Applications
2 This assumption
of these
does
given
expression
x, u dimensional
(c)
Fig.
3-7
One
in
strained
initial
and
twoand final
elements
(b)
positions.
t44
mensional
entiate between the directions of the strains. For the same reason, it is also necessary to change the ordinary derivatives to partial ones. Therefore, if at a point of a body, u, v, and w are the three displacement components occurring, respectively, in the x, y, .and z directions of the coordinate axes, the basic definitions of normal strain become
Sec.
3.5.
Strain
Tensor
case in Fig.
is strained
3-7(b),
in orthogonal
subscripts
directions,
must
be attached
as shown
to e to dif er-
for
a two-di-
'Yxz = 'Y=
In Eqs. missible sequences
In
Ox + Oz
subscripts
distinction
3-9,
'Yyz
'Y
Oy + Oz
This
the
six strain-dis-
(3-10)
is pertwo
Ou
Ov
examining
3-7,
subscript.
and
ax
Note
for these
Ox
analogously
Oy
to those of stress, can
(3-7)
that
double
strains.
subscripts,
Thus,
be used
placement
equations
depend
these equations cannot be independent. Three can be developed showing the interrelationships 'xy, 'yz, and -=. The number of such equations two-dimensional case. The derivation and the
only
on three
displacement
components
in-
u,
(a)
ap-
given
(3-8)
plication
in texts
of these
on the
equations,
theory
known
of elasticity.
as the equations
of compatibility,
are
**3-5.
Strain
Tensor
where one of the subscripts designates and the other, 'the direction of the elongations. In addition to normal strains, an strain as shown for example in the the sides of the deformed element Since v is the displacement in the direction, Ov/Ox is the slope of the tesimal element. Similarly, the vertical On this basis, the initial y right angle + Ou/Oy. Therefore, for small angle strain associated with the xy coordinates
direction
can
of the
Positive
line signs
element, apply
to
The normal and the shear strains defined in the preceding section together express the strain tensor, which is highly analogous to the stress tensor already discussed. It is necessary, however, to modify the relations for the shear strains in order to have a tensor, an entity which must obey
(b}
also
experience
a shear
certain
laws
of transformation.
5 Thus,
the physically
attractive
definition
x-y plane in Fig. 3-7(c). This inclines in relation to the x and the y axes. y direction, as one moves in the x initial y horizontal side of the infiniside tilts through an angle Ou/Oy. CDE is reduced by the amount Ov/Ox changes, the definition of the is
may
of shear
The
3-8(b).
from horizontal
defor-
the
'7y = '7yx Ox Oy
To arrive are equal
Ov +
(3-9)
,
mation is shown to consist of two 'y/2's. 3-8(a) and (b) can be obtained by rotating rigid body through an angle of 'y/2. The the correct one for defining the shear-strain a tensor. Since in this definition, the element the strain is said to be pure or #'rotational.
redefines the shear strains as
2
The deformed elements in Figs. the element in Fig. 3-8(c) as a scheme shown in Fig. 3-8(c) is component as an element of is not rotated as a rigid body, Following this approach, one
(c)
Fig.
3-8
Shear
deformations.
the
3-7(c).
shear
shear
(This
3-9:
strain
at this to the
deformation
see
applies
for
when
1-4.)
corresponds
the element
strains
is deformed,
positive
directions yz planes
as shown
of small Positive
(3-11)
in Fig.
similar
of the
appreciation
--
stresses;
Fig.
The
to Eq.
definitions
the
shear
xz and
are
5 Rigorous
transformation
of it wil
for
discussion
a two-dimensional
develop,
of this question
however,
case
is beyond
after
is considered.
the
study
the scope
of Chapter
of this text.
8, where
A better
strain
t46
Hooke's
Law,
Pressure
Vessels,
and
Thick-Walled
Cylinders
Sec.
3-6.
Generalized
Hooke's
Law
for
Isotropic
Materials
147
From
assembled
these
as
equations,
fol ows:
the
strain
tensor
in matrix
representation
can
be
have
the three
properties
nine
orthogonal
in the longitudinal,
independent
directions.
radial,
Such
constants,
material
materials,
and transverse
whereas,
referred two.
directions,
as it wil
to as orthotropic,
i.e.,
in
be shown
?yx
?yz
(3-12)
in the next section, isotropic materials have only tropic crystal ine materials the number of independent can be as large as 21.6 In this book consideration isotropic materials, although by properly selecting the developed procedures can be applied to orthotropic examples of these are wood and man-made materials,
sheets or fdament-reinforced plastics.
For ful y anisomaterial constants is basically limited to the directions of axes, problems. Notable such as corrugated
strain, such as shown or expansion of a is being stretched or
The strain tensor is symmetric. in the last expression is particularly in continuum mechanics (elasticity, the stress tensor, using indicial
tensor.
notation employed and has wide acceptance rheology, etc.). Just as for can write e u for the strain
According
to the basic
Analogously to the stress tensor, the strain tensor can be diagonalized, having only el, e2, and e3 as the surviving components. For a two-dimensional problem, e3 = 0; and one has the case of plane strain. The
tensor for this situation is
shown
concept
of Hooke's
in Fig.
caused
of the lateral deformation ratio (see Section 2-8). by stresses applied along in Fig.
where
law,
a linear
relationship
Fig.
between extensional
3.9
Linear
uniaxial
strain.
relation
stress and
for-
are
Consider
first
2-3,
(:;
defined in
yy
i)
and
1-4,
or
of strain
suggested
be
Ee,
stress
one
that
has
O'x, as shown
the element
shown
and
e' = rx/E,
e' is the
3-10(b).
in Fig.
along
3-10(a)
strain
this
is subjected
in the
case,
x direction.
from
o' = re4th
only
the
y and
Theory
z axes,
of Elas-
or
e2
(3-13)
ed.,
6 A. P. Boresi
(New
(New
by
Eq.
in
3-13
wil
be
considered
in
ticity
York:
and O. M. Sidebottom,
Wiley,
McGraw-Hil ,
chanics
of a Continuous
York:
1985).
I. S. Sokolnikoff,
1956).
Advanced
E. Malvern,
Medium,
(Englewood
L.
Mathematical
Mechanics
NJ:
Introduction
of Materials,
Prentice-Hall,
Clif s,
to the
1969).
Me-
dif erences
wil
between
discussed
plane
the
strain
next
and
section
plane
after
stress,
the
introduction of the generalized Hooke's law. The reader should note that in discussing the concept of strain, the mechanical properties of the material were not involved. The equations are applicable whatever the mechanical behavior of the material. However, only small strains are defined by the presented equations. Also note
placements
that
strains
give
do
not
only
affect
the
the
relative
strains.
displacement
of points;
rigid-body
Initial shape
(a)
Final
shape
(c)
3-6.
Generalized
Hooke's
Law
for
Isotropic
Materials
In this article, six basic relationships between a general state of stress and strain are synthesized using the principle of superposition from previously established simpler stress-strain equations. This set of ec tions is referred to as the generalized Hooke's law. These equations applicable only to homogeneous isotropic materials, i.e., materials having the same properties in all directions. Hooke's law for anisotropic materials. For example, wood has decidedly
Final
[ '"'
shape
(b)
%
(d)
Finalshape
axes.
Fig.
340
Element
deformations normal
directions
stresses
of
coordinate
caused acting
by
in
t48
Hooke's
Law,
Pressure
Vessels,
and
Thick-Walled
Cylinders
Sec.
3-6.
Generalized
Hooke's
Law
for
Isotropic
Materials
149
stressed,
strains
using Poisson's ratio, Eq. 2-16, and are expressions for strains e, e, and e apply as shown in Fig. 3-10(c), and again for
expressions
for the
as shown
for
normal
in Fig.
strains
3-10(d).
can
ex,
be
By superposing
ey, and
treated as
e = when strains
the
For
example,
the
nor(3-15)
e are
Since
Cartesian
axes
the
general problem into Eq. 3-1 are above, six equations elastic materials
only, the introduction needed. for the generalized for use with Cartesian
of the
Hooke's law
when
Similar
strains
useful
relations
vary
comments
apply along
generalized
Hooke's
some
coordinates
O'x
E
O'x O'x
O'z
not
O' z
shows that Crx and o'y may exist. If either one or both of these stresses are present, according to the third Eq. 3-14, a normal strain e wil develop. Conversely, in the plane strain problem, defined by Eq. 3-13, the normal strain e must be zero. Therefore, in this case, if either O'x and/or % are present, it can be concluded from the third Eq. 3-14 that cr should
be zero.
are
distinction
The
similarity
in
and
the
dif erence
between
the
two
kinds
of
problems
strains
can
shown
be further
Plane
matrix
clarified
Stress
form.
from
the
Plane
table,
Strain
where
the
stresses
and
(3-1<
0
0
-/2
0
e,-/20)
ey
0
0
0
'/2
0
ey
0 e
,r 0
c& 0
These taneously
as an exercise.
have stresses
an inverse, in terms
i.e., of strains.
they
can
This
be is left
EXAMPLE
3-2
If normal stresses are compressive, the signs of the corresponding change in the previous equations for the normal strains. The positive of the shear strains corresponding to the positive direction of stresses (Fig. 1-3) is shown in Figs. 3-1 and 3-2. In the next wil be shown that in Eq. 3-14, the three elastic constants, E, are not independent of each other, and that for isotropic materials, are only two constants. If a body experiences a change in temperature, the three normal equations should be modified by adding to each the expression Eq. 2-17. No changes in shear strains due to a change in temperature
A 50 mm cube of steel is subjected to a uniform pressure of 200 MPa acting on all faces. Determine the change in dimension between two parallel faces of the
cube. Let E = 200 GPa and v = 0.25.
it
Solution
Using
given
a compressive
in Eq.
3-14
and Eq.
3-15,
and noting
that
pressure
is
place
in all
in isotropic
directions.
materials
be clearly understood
since If the
determine
such
that
materials
Eq.
deformation
have
3-14 gives
the
strains,
same
i.e.,
mm/mm
200 X 10 3 -x 50 = -0.025
200 x 10 i
mm (contraction)
It should
Ax
of
= xZx
= -5
x 10 -4
mations
member,
per
in
unit
order
length.
to
strain
the
is constant
of
along
such
the
length
In this case
A = Ay = Az.
a member,
t50
B
Hooke's
Law,
Pressure
Vessels,
and
Thick.Walled
Cylinders
Sec.
3-8.
Dilatation
and
Bulk
Modulus
t5t
3-7.
E, G, and
v Relationships
first it 3~11(a), This can'
a trian then with
()
In order to demonstrate the relationship among E, G, and v, be shown that a state of pure shear, such as shown in Fig. be transformed into an equivalent system of normal stresses. shown in the fol owing manner. Bisect square element ABCD by diagonal AC and isolate element, as shown in Fig. 3-11(b). If this element is dz thick, area associated with sides AB or BC is dA, and that associated
diagonal
AC
is V dA.
acting toward
Since
the shear
stress
acting
on the areas
'V
other
dA
element between extensional
001 002 T
, the forces
normal
the components
forces acting
to AC.
parallel
on these diagonal
force
to diagonal
BD develop
by
a resultant
normal
components On the
stresses
of
dA act
00
Fig.
342
force
'(b) Force diagram
on area X, dA associated with diagonal AC. This gives rise 00X/ dA shown in the figure. Since the shear stress resultant
must be equal,
and
This
is equilibrated
the
deformation shear
Kinematics a relationship
and strains.
of
for
it fol ows
that
stresses
are
to a and
shown
establishing
t
3-11(c) By isolating proceeding 002 = -'. This representa. Fig. 3-1 l(a). represented stresses, as
Eq.
cannot be treated as forces. an element with a side BD, as shown in Eq. 3-11(d), in the same manner as before, a conclusion is reached The results of the two analyses are displayed in Fig. tion of stress is completely equivalent to that shown Therefore, a pure shear stress at a point can be alternative by the normal stresses at 45 with the directions of the shown in Fig. 3-11(e), and numerically,
001 --02 'r
v E = (1 + v)
relations for the strain along the
(3-18)
shear
(c)
Equating
the
two
alternative
v)
(3-19)
A B
(d)
This important stress transformation enables one to proceed in establi: ing the relationship among E, G and v. For this purpose, consider deformed element shown in Fig. 3-12, and determine the strain in DB on two dif erent bases. In one approach, determine strain from stresses; in the other, from the equivalent normal stresses. Considering only infinitesimal deformations, and let ing sin - and cos -- 1, it fol ows that displacement BB' due to shear is The projection of this displacement onto diagonal DB', which, to the of the approximation adopted, is equal to the stretch of DB, is
is the
basic
relation
between
E,
G,
and
v; it shows
that
these
quan-
tities
are not independent'of one another. If any two of these are deterexperimental y, the third can be computed. Note that the shear G is always less than the elastic modulus E, since the Poisson a positive quantity. For most matedhals, v is in the neighborhood
4.
Therefore,
Hence,
since
the
length
of DB
Eq.
is Va,
its normal
strain
45 is
Dilatation
and
Bulk
Modulus
recalling
that
' = C,W,
3-1,
one
has
-o 2
e45o = -
of
(3-15
(e)
Fig. 3-1t
pure shear equivalent
Transformation
stress normal into stresses.
However, the shear stresses causing the deformation shown in Fig. 12 are equivalent to the normal stresses represented in Fig. 3-1 l(e). fore, if the x axis is directed along diagonal DB, the first Eq. 3-14 applied by taking 00, = 00, cry = -002, and 00z = 0. In this manner alternative expression for the normal strain in diagonal DB is found.
extending some of the established concepts, one can derive an equafor volumetric changes in elastic matedhals subjected to stress. In the process of doing this, two new terms are introduced and defined. The sides dx, dy, and dz of an infinitestimal element after straining become (1 + e,) dx, (1 + %) dy, and (1 + ez) dz, respectively. After g the initial volume from the volume of the strained element, change in volume is determined. This is
Study of this section is optional.
52
Cylinders
(e + ey + ez) dx dy
and Spherical
Pressure Vessels
r I = Inside
where the products of strain e.ey + eyez + eze, + e,eyez, being are neglected. Therefore, in the infinitesimal (small) strain theory, change in volume per unit volume, often referred to as dilatation,
fined as
small e, is
(a)
oa p
pLridO_ r;dius
O2
e= ex+ ey+
The
terms
Based
shear
of stresses
on the generalized
and
strains
cause
no
change
material
Hooke's
in volume.
constants.
law,
For
2v
the dilatation
this
purpose,
c an be found
the first
Eqs.
3-14
must
be added
together.
This
--(cr.
1 -
yields
0 2e P
(f)
e = ex + ey + ez which
normal
+ cry + cr0
P
can
means
stresses.
that body
dilatation is subjected
is proportional
tensity
If an elastic
p, so that
to hydrostatic
NON-ACTIVATED i.e., no bending VERSION of the walls takes place. A sphere is an ideal a closed pressure vessel if the contents are of negligible weight; then from Eq. 3-21, www.avs4you.com ends, a matter to be commented on in more detail in the next
to the algebraic sum of
The walls of an ideal thin-walled pressure vessel act
for analysis
of thin-walled
cylindrical
pressure
vessels.
as a membrane,
pressure
of uniform
drical
vessel
is also
good
with
the
exception
of the junctures
e =
The
bulk
E
k represents
in volume
P
the ratio
and
or
is called the
= k modulus
3(1
2v
pressure
The analysi
to the
quantity
modulus.
decrease
of the hydrostatic
of compression,
compressive
isolated from this vessel by passing two planes perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder and one additional longitudinal plane through the same axis, shown in Fig. 3-13(b). The conditions of symmetry exclude the presence of any shear stresses in the planes of the sections, as shear stresses would cause an incompatible distortion of the tube. Therefore, the stresses
that can exist on the sections of the cylinder only be the normal
vessel
s of pressure
such
as a boiler,
vessels
as shown
wil begin
in Fig. 3~13(a).
by considering
A segment
is
the respective
inder
stresses,
cr! and
3-9.
In this
Cylindrical
vessels:
section,
and
Spherical
and spherical.
Hooke's
Pressure
toward
Vessels
of these
.types
sure
portance.
cation
very- widely
of the
In analyzing
used in industry;
generalized
cylindrical
attention
is directed
such
vessels
hence,
law
for
this topic
is required.
Both
two
elastic
is of great
deformations,
types
of thin-walled
of vessels
Let the internal pressure in excess of the external pressure Pa (gage pressure), and let the internal radius of the cylinder the force on an infinitesimal area Lri dO (where dO is an infinitesimal of the cylinder caused by the internal pressure acting normal pLri dO; see Fig. 3-13(c). The component of this force acting izontal direction is (pLr dO) cos 0; hence, the total resisting
in equilibrium
areas
cr2, shown
against
on which
in Fig.
the
they
3-13(b).
internal
act, maintain
pressure.
These
the element
stresses,
multiplied
of the cyl-
by
practical
an
im?
acting
on the
cylindrical
segment
is
2P
= 2
pLri
cos
dO
= 2prL
Hooke's
Law,
Pressure
Vessels,
and
Thick.Walled
Cylinders
symmetry, half of this total force is resisted at the top the cylinder and the other half is resisted at the bottom. stresses 0-2 acting in a direction parallel to the axis of the c do not enter into the above integration. Instead of obtaining the force 2P caused by the internal pressure integration, as above, a simpler equivalent procedure is available. an alternate point of view, the two forces P resist the force developed the internal pressure p, which acts perpendicular to the projected are A of the cylindrical segment onto the diametral plane; see Fig. 3-13( This area in Fig. 3-13(b) is 2riL; hence, 2P = Ap = 2riLp. This is resisted by the forces developed in the material in the longitudinal cut and since the outside radius of the cylinder is to, the area of both gitudinal cuts is 2A = 2L(ro - ri). Moreover, if the average acting on the longitudinal cut is 0-2, the force resisted by the walls of t cylinder is 2L(ro - ri)0-. Equating the two forces, 2riLp = 2L(ro - ri)0. Since ro - ri is equal to t, the thickness of the cylinder wall, the expression simplifies' to
from
Etowever, development
this
(3 -25)
(a)
Note that for thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessels, 0.2 0.#2. An analogous method of analysis can be used to derive an expression for thin-walled spherical pressure vessels. By passing a section through center of the sphere of Fig. 3-14(a), a hemisphere shown in Fig. 3is isolated. By using the same notation as before, an equation idento Eq. 3-25 can be derived. However, for a sphere, any section that asses through the center of the sphere yields the same result whatever the inclination of the element's side; see Fig. 3-14(c). Hence, the maximum membrane stresses for thin-walled spherical pressure vessels are
(b)
The normal
stress
given
by Eq.
ferential or the hoop stress. Equation 3-24 is valid only for thin-w cylinders, as it gives the average stress in the hoop. However, as is in Example 3-6, the wall thickness can reach one-tenth of the inte radius and the error in applying Eq. 3-24 wil stil be small. Since Eq. 24 is used primarily for thin-walled vessels, where ri to, the for the. radius is usually omit ed. Equation 3-24 can also be derived by passing two longitudinal as shown in Fig. 3-13(e). Because of the assumed membrane action. forces P in the hoop must be considered acting tangential y to the c The horizontal components of the forces P maintain the horizontal ponent of the internal pressure in a state of static equilibrium. The other normal stress 0-2 acting in a cylindrical pressure vessel
(3-26)
analyzed
showing
the
normal
stresses 0- and 0-2 viewed from 3-14(a), and 3-14(c). According .ociated with these normal Which these shear stresses act ward a section through the wall
the outside are indicated in Figs. 3-13(a), to Eq. 1-10, the maximum shear stresses stresses are half as large. The planes on may be identified on elements viewed to-
Thin-walled pressure
vessel.
of a vessel.
Such
a section
is shown
in
-*----t
o-
a simple
peri:
The force
veloped longitudinal
forces and
by the internal pressure is prr, and the force developed stress 0-2 in the walls is 0-2(rr - rr2). Equating
solving
these
by the
The stresses fol ow by direct application of Eqs. 3-24 and 3-25:
of
maximum
stresses
prrT
0-2 -I
= 0-2(xPo
prT
- rrT)
prT
(ro
+ r)(ro-
ri)
0'2 =
pr =
t
10 x 10 -3
0.8 x 1
80MPa
Fig. 3-15 In yielded steel pressure vessels shear slip planes at 45 can be
observed on etched
specimens.
'55
Hooke's
Law,
Pressure
Vessels,
and
Thick.
Walled
Cylinders
Sec.
3.10.
Remarks
on
Thin.Walled
Pressure
Vessels
and
0'2 = 2t
pr
2 x 10 x 10 -3 = 40 MPa
0.8 x 1
Hence,
decreases side. crBei it can be onegl setting cr t=o zero cry, %.on =theor2,outand = n0g insmal thel, first expressi n ectiend. Eq. Hence, 3-14, one
obtains the hoop strain el:
For an industshown rial lainborat unit iswilto operat emple oy ata pressure e dimensions Fig. ory 3-16. a pi Thelot vessel an internal vessel pressure of thof
.7 MPa. If for this unit 20 bolls are to be used on a 650 mm bolt circle diameter, what is the required bolt diameter at the root of the threads? Set the allowable
Bolts
EXA[VIF
650
mm
-----
600
mm-----
el = - v
On pressurizing condition, the
strained and
the initial h6op
0'
0'2
- 200 x 103
80
4 x 200 x 103
40
= 0.35 x 10 -3 mm/mm
in tension
the stress
is 2.
assume
the
circumferences
+ A)
vertical force F acting on the cover is caused 0.7 MPa acting on the horizontal projected area
gasket, i.e.,
p of rubber
gl =
By
earlier,
2r(r
2xr
-- 2rr
--
r
value for el
(3-27
F = 0.7
x 106
x 'i1(600/2)
distributed
2 = 198
among
x 109 N
the 20 bolts,
Figure
3-t6
recasting
this
expression
and
substituting
0.35
EXAMPLE 3-4
x 10 -3
the
numerical
per
that
this
force
= 9.90
is equally
x 109 N. Using
the given
bolt
area
stress-concentration
the
force
A at the root
of the
109
125
x 106
= 158
mm 2
Consider
ness
of 10 mm.
a steel
spherical
(a) Determine
pressure
the
vessel
maximum
of radius
membrane
1000
mm
stresses
having
caused
a wall
Hence
by
internal caused
Solution
MPa. Let
lb) Calculate the change in diameter E = 200 GPa, and v = 0.25. Assume
in the that ri
min. tively
Note from Example 2-22 that initial small increase in total bolt stress
the required
bolt diameter
d = 2X/-
in a rela-
= 14.2
Remarks
maximum membrane normal stresses fol ow directly from
= 40 MPa
on to note stress
Thin-Walled
The
Eq.
3-26.
0'1 = 0'2
expansion
The same
pr
2t
2 x 10 x 10 -3
example
0.80
radius circle.
r due to this cause, A = er, where However, from the first expression
of the sphere
procedure
as in the previous
due to pressurization.
Hence,
can
if A is the increase
strain
be used
has
x
for finding
on the
in the
el=-v
0'1
0'2
E-200x
40
103
4x200x
40
half as large as that in a cylindrical one. The reason for this can be clarified by making reference to Figs. 3-17 and 3-18. In a cylindrical pressure vesthe longitudinal stresses, 0'2, parallel to the vessel's axis, do not contribute to maintaining the equilibrium of the internal pressure p acting on the curved surface; whereas in a spherical vessel, a system of equal stresses resists the applied internal pressure. These stresses, given by Eqs. 3-24-3-26, are treated as biaxial, although the internal pressure p acting on the wall causes local compressive stresses on the inside equal
Study of this section is optional.
103
= 0.15
10-3mm/mm
Hooke's
Law,
Pressure
Vessels,
and
Thick.
Walled
Cylinders
Sec.
3-.
Introduction
(heads)
pressure
of pressure
undesirable.
plates
vessels
must be very
in Fig.
see
are
Fig.
careful y
with
and
designed.
from
9 Flat ends
given
sheets used in
(a)
the
shear ends
o 1
dif erent
An vessel. element cylindrical of a
Fig. 3-t8 thin-walled pressure An element spherical of
types
vessels
are show.n
joints.
vessels by means
1-14.
Some
3-20,
comments
preference
should
based
curved of welds
on welded
derived
to the
joints
thinpres-
In conclusion, :ases
as in the
it must
be emphasized
that
the formulas
for
vessel.
of internal
pressure
vessels
case
pressure.
in the preceding
If a vessel
tank
to this pressure. As already pointed out in Example 3-3,. such stresses small in comparison with the membrane stresses 0. and 0'2, and are erally ignored for thin-walled pressure vessels. A more complete sion of this problem is given in Section 3-13 and Example 3~6. A more important problem arises at geometrical changes in the shape
vessel. These can cause a disturbance in the membrane action. An
of a vacuum
or a submarine,
is to be designed
section
instability
for
be used
on the
external
only
(buckling)
for
Fig. 3-20 Examples used in pressure Double-fil et lap (b) double-welded with V-grooves.
(b)
the
ulas
walls
can
may
be
occur,
meaningless.
and
stress
calculations
previous
of
of each
tration of this condition is given in Fig. 3-19 using the numerical found in Examples 3-3 and 3-4. If a cylindrical pressure vessel has hemispherical ends, as shown Fig. 3-19(a), and' if initial y the cylinder and the heads were
other,
under
pressufization
they
by the dashed lines. In general, the cylinder by dif erent amounts and would tend to create as shown at A. However, physical continuity tained by local bending and shear stresses juncture, as shown in Fig. 3-19(b). If instead
and the ends would a discontinuity in the wall} of the wall must be in the neighborhood of of relatively flexible
Analysis discussed
of thick-walled cylinders under internal and external pressure in this part. This problem is related to the thin-walled cylinpressure vessel problem treated earlier. In order to solve the posed problem, acharacteristic method of the mathematical theory of elasticity is employed. This consists of assuring equilibrium for each infinitesimal and, through the .use of geometric relations, allowing only their (possibl) deformations. The equilibrium conditions are reto those of deformation using the generalized Hooke's law. Then
0.35
mm
Detail A
(b)
R
= 1000
mm
tained
governing dif erential subject to the from that used in statical indeterminancy assumption in each chanics of solids, it
the
using
the methods
was
of the mathematical
established on the preceding bases is boundary conditions. This approach difmechanics of solids, where the internal resolved by means of a plausible kinematic case. Occasionally, in engineering menecessary to draw upon the solutions ob-
theory
of elasticity.
This,
discontinuities
problems
Deformed
already resorted to in treating in axial y loaded bars. Solutions using the finite-element approach,
Vessel Code gives theory is beyond the formulas for thin-walled
of cases.
at
are
in
shape
(a) (c) Deformation of the same
9 The
cylindrical
at a flat head
pressure
vessel
practical information on the scope of this text. In spite of cylinders developed here
Fig.
3-t9
Exaggerated
deformations
of pressure
vessels
at discontinuities.
o The
suitable
remainder
of this
chapter
can
be omit ed
in a first
course.
t60
Hooke's
Law,
Pressure
Vessels,
and
Thick-Walled
Cylinders
Sec.
3-t2.
Solution
of the
General
Problem
'16'1
Mathematically,
solution
respects In both
similar cases,
is carried
it clearly
cylinders.
solution for
displays
the problem
to the methods of the mathematical one seeks solutions to boundary-value the characteristic
further
of thick-walled
including
by
method
and
cylinders
inelastic
used
plastic
behavior
in elasticity.
is rather
theory of problems
of thi,
a characteristic of reasoning.
the axial stresses cry, on the two faces of the element normal to the plane of the paper. stresses acting on an infinitesimal element having
elasticity solution pr6ceeds along
the
wailed
amined.
Both
of the
the
problem cylinders.
other
elastic-plastic
of thick-wailed
the
states
under
are
Equilibrium element chosen the desi must be in static is 1 x r dqb; equilibrium. To express err + dcrr this acts matheis 1 x
The
cylinders
pressure
earlier
of extrusion
provides
thin-wailed
molds
bounds
and.
on the applicability
This
mechanicai
solution
equipment.
of the equations
is also useful
for
err acts
of forces stresses
that
on which
**342.
Solution
of
the
General
Problem
inder be pi and the outside, or external, pressure be po. Stresses in the wall, the cylinder caused by these pressures are sought. This problem can be conveniently solved by using cylindrical nates. Since the cylinder is long, every ring of unit thickness perpendicular to the plane of the paper is stressed alike. A typicai
itesimai element of unit thickness is defined by two and an angle dqb, as shown in Fig. 3-21(b). If the normal radial stress acting on the infinitesimal tance r from the center of the cylinder is err, this distance r + dr wil be crr q- (do'r/dr) dr. Both normal radii, r and r +
element at a
a long cylinder with axial y restrained ends whose cross dimensions shown in Fig. 3-21(a). The inside radius of this is ri; the outside radius is ro. Let the internal presst/re in the c'
+ dr) dqb; and each area on which crt acts is 1 x dr. The weight of the itself is neglected. Since the angle included between the sides of the element is dqb, both tangential stresses are inclined dqb to the line
erpendicular
0,
to OA. Then,
summing
the forces
aiong
a radiai
line, Fr
Simplifying, and VERSION neglecting the infinitesimais of higher NON-ACTIVATED www.avs4you.com crt -- crr -- r-F-F = 0 or d-Z- + -dcrr dcrr Crr-
= 0
(3-28)
of defor-
two faces of the element stresses in a thin cylinder, of symmetry, every element
be stressed
Lamfi
variable stress tangential are err. These stresses, are equal. Moreover, at the same radi
stresses act on
at
it can
the
aiike,
no
shear
is done of materiais
unknown stresses, fit and cry. Intermediate this equation in terms of one unknown
by introducing into the the geometry
so
problem.
is sometimes
This
problem
was
to as the
originally
solved
problem.
by Lamfi,
a French
engineer,
in
:tric
The
deformation . directions.
a cylindricai surface of radius r, Fig. 3-21(a), displacement or movement of the adjacent Hence, the strain er of an element in the radial
u+du
and
u + rr du dr ) - u
dr
(b)
du
dr
(3-29)
Thick-walled
(a)
The
fol ows
cylindrical
by subtracting surface
62
Hooke's
Law, Pressure
the
Vessels,
lat er
Cylinders
cylinder of radius
u
r
of the General
stresses are
Problem
by
s. 3-29
2w'
3-36
by expressing
and 3-30;
then
them
the
radial
in terms
and
of the
tangential
displacement
u, as given
(3-37)
Note
unknown
that
variable
Eqs.
of Material
3-29
u.
and
3-30
give
strains
expressed
Properties
(1 - v)(1 - 2v)
law relating strains to stresses here in the form 2 is given by
Vrr
Eq. 3-28 and simplifying, the desired
Hooke's be restated
by substituting
dif erential
these
equation
values
is obtained:
into
(3-31
k
of the Dif erential can be verified the radial
dr 2 +
Equation
r dr
r2
= 0
(3-38)
in the case of the thick-walled cylinder with axial y the problem is one of plane strain, i.e., e, = 0. The then leads to a relation for the axial stress as
O' x = V(O' r q- O't)
solution on the
of Eq. cylinder,
3-38, is
which
(3-39)
Introducing taneously
gives
this
and
them of strains:
the
the boundaries
constants
u is not
A and
of the body.
A2
must
be determined
the
from
the
outer
conditions
boundary
Unfortunately,
2v) 2v)
for
the
+ v)(1
E
[(1
known
determination
at either
of the
inner
constants
or the
A and
A2,
the
of
Stresses
-
the cylinder's
acting
wall.
on the
However,
elements
the known
at the
respective
pressures
err(to) =
radii.
are equal
-po
Hence,
to the radial
(3-40)
+ v)(1
O'r(l'i)
= --pi
and
These
elastic
equations
material.
bring
of the Dif erential
the
plane
strain
Equation
condition
into
the
problem
)Ver,
equilibrium equation,
one
since
the
minus
Formation
Now
one variable
2 Since
two
into
u as given
the
by Eqs.
signs
expression
by Eq.
3-37
are
used
for
3-39
to indicate
O'r given
and
du/dr
compressive
by Eq.
stresses.
More-
given
become
the
u. Thus,
sides,
eliminates
be
Eq.
3-28,
the
element
strains
can
be expressed
;r and
an
e, from
in terms
Eqs.
an
tween
an infinitesimal
of its
system.
it can
cylindrical
treated
as if it were
includes
an infinitesimal
element
(3-41)
in a
coordinate
t64
Hooke's
Law,
Pressure
Vessels,
and
Thick.
Walled
Cylinders
Sec.
3.13.
Special
Cases
Plane
'165
of
Trnax
Solving
these
equations
simultaneously
for
A
and
A2
yields
It is these stress-strain However, the resulting 38, and the radial and .walled cylinder that a dif erent constant radial displacement u.
A becomes
relations that must be dif erential equation tangential stresses are and are given by Eq. A must be used in The constant A2 remains
used in the solution process. remains the same as Eq. 3also identical to those in the 3-43. The only dif erence is Eq. 3-39 for determining the the same as in Eq. 3-42,
Po =0
Or = --Pi
max
A to
1 - vpri
r2 _ r2
po
2 - por2o
(3-46)
Fig. 3.22
*m
These constants, radial displacement specified pressures. aries of the cylinder If Eq. 3-39 and equations cylinder
used in Eq. 3-39, of any point on the Thus, displacements can be computed. its derivative, together
when
permit the determination elastic cylinder subjected of the inner and outer with stresses the constants at any given point by
An
element
occurs.
in
*'3-13.
Ec s. 3-43
Special
pressure simplify only, to
Cases
i.e., pt 0 and = 0, Fig. 3-22. For this case,
which
3-42,
are
substituted
for
are
into
and These
Eqs.
tangential are
C2
3-37,
and
the results
are simplified,
of an elas
O'r
O'r ' Cl
r2
where
Note that
C2
(3-47,
and
maxum
(3-43
is mimum
so occurs
at r
= r. Similarly,
a tensile
stress,
atr=
over
the
whole
cross-sectional
area
the
also inder.
cylinder.
constant
This
over
means
the entire
that
the
cross-sectional
axial
stress
area
cry, as given
of the
by
thick-walled
Eq.
3-34
For brit le mater,s, However, for ductile adopt the criterion mated's capacity ise for thin-wed
the second Eq. 3-47 genery governs the design. materies, such as md steel, it is more appropriate for the if itiation of yielding due to shear rather than for resisting normal stress. This issue does not cylinders. In such problems, the mimum radi
stress
shear nomal
Remarks
on
the
Thin-Disc
Problem
stress-strain relations used for a thick-walled plane strain condition. If, on the other to be considered, the plane stress condition + c&,)/E) governs. (See the discussion this case, the stress-strain Eqs. 3-31 and
hand,
cylinder corres an annular thin (i.e., cry, = 0 and at the end of Section 3-32 reduce to
1
to Eq. 1-10, the relationship between the mimum stresses is simple and dkect, being *m = */2, or she yield can be used as a criterion. However, cylinders, the radial stress r may be of the same as *t. For such a case, the maximum shear stress
equal
to pt,
i5 neglible
in comparison
with
,.
Therefore,
ac-
by supeosing
the effects
in Fig. 3-23. inner surface
from
both
of the lge
nom
stresses
their
3 in the
found
manner vues
in this manner
shown at the
should
be comped
with
stresses The
the mimum
reach mimum
shear
where
stress
stress
f yp
8r = _(O'r -- l/O't)
and by solving
E
and
simultaneously,
, = (-vcrr
+ err)
can yield
attain. stress
these
equations
Tmax =
(fit)max
has
-- (fir)max
r2o - r/2
between
p,r2o
-- O'yp
(3-48)
and
13 The
axial
this
stress
stress
cr z given
an intermediate
by Eq.
3-34
does
value
not
enter
the
or, and
problem,
err.
since
for
Fig.
transformations
maximum
3.23
Stress
shear
for
stresses.
obtaining
t66
'Hooke's
and
Law, Pressure
Vessels,
and Thick-Walled
Cylinders
Sec. 3.t4.
Behavior
of Ideally
Plastic
Thick-Walled
Cylinders
67
0'y(ro
2r2o
only,
i.e.,
pi = 0 and po O. For
43 simplify
r/2 (1 -'r/ ) O'r -- r2o-P"--2Since r/r 2 -< 1, both stresses compressive stress is crt and are
occurs
(3-5
(at)av = 10pi
(ar)rnin
= 0
(at)av
({/t)rnin = 9.5Pi
= Pi
Equations 3-50 must not be used for very thin-walled ling of the walls may occur and strength formulas give
EXAMPLE 3-6
The
)max = 10.5pi
(at)max
Radial
= Pi
stresses
- 'Pl
Tangential stresses
ylinders. misleading
(a)
G = 1.1q
or t=O.
lq
(b)
q =4qrt
i=3
Fig.
3-24
stress
can
is plot ed
in Fig.
this figure.
3-28(b).
The
A striking
average
variation
tangential
of the tangential
stress given by
given
see
stress distribution caused by the formula in Section 3-12 with the for thin-walled cylinders of Section 3-9 if
Fig. 3-24.
3-24,
be using
(a)
Using
Eq.
3-47b
for
or,,
1 = 5Pi
stress.
The
(O"t)r=r i = (O't)max
while,
3-24 is
(1.1ri 2r,)2']
hoop
radial
= 10.5pi
shrunk
computed by using Eq. 3-47a for in Fig. 3-24(b). no matter how thick a cylinder
err, and
the
results
inner
act
in tension.
instead of using a single cylinder, another cylinder one, which sets up initial compressive stresses in the stresses in the outer one. In operation, the compressive is released first, and only then does this cylinder begin range of operating pressures is obtained thereby.
is made
to resist
are
3-24(a).
Note
particularly
that
in using
Eq.
Behavior Cylinders
case
yield
of
Ideally
cylinder section,
Plastic
under Eq. cylinder
Thick-Walled
internal 3-49 was pressure derived alone the was onset
shear.
(b) By using
stresses
are obtained
as before.
These
of a thick-walled in the previous at the inner surface 2uent increase the outer surface,
Problem 3-21.
and
for
progresses in the
cyl-
]4 See
68
Cylinders
the
the cross section c also increases until, plastic at the ultimate maximum shear criterion
*max
As noted earlier, this implies fi, and fir. A reexamination in the elastic range, provided this applies only if the ratio certain value. 5 For v = hence, the solutions to be long as ro < 5.75r (with v = is more complicated when the scope of this book.
--
fit
fir
fiyp
2
value this to plastic is less to valid and
(3-51
betwei be ran be
only
Elastic Plastic
that fi, has an of Eqs. 3-34 and that 0 < v < of outer to inner 0.3, this ratio can obtained in this 0.3). The task of this condition is
intermediate 3-47 shows 0.5, but in the radius, ro/rt, be established section wil be finding the stress not satisfied
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig.
3-25
5.75
fir = fiyp
lB r + C
be expressed
(3-53)
cylinder
(zero
is be'
external
with
inner
pressure)
fir(b)
radius
can
a and
outer
radius
as
b, the boundary
con(3-54)
In b + C as
Plastic
The the but Static
Behavior
of Thick-Walled
Cylinders
equations of static equilibrium are applicable, elastic or plastic state is considered. Hence, must be supplemented by a yield condition. equilibriu/n, Eq. 3-28:
dfir
dr
Hence,
the
integration
constant
is
C =
In b
tangential
stresses
are
then
obtained,
using
Eqs.
3-53
and
(3-55) (3-56)
Thus,
fir
-r
fit
Yield
condition,
Eq.
3-51:
fit -fir fiyp
by shows
Eqs.
in Fig. 3Since
collapse Eq.
3-55,
By
comes
combining
these
two
equations,
the
pult
Behavior
given cross any
= fir(a)
of Thick-Walled
= fiyp In a/b
Cylinders
the yield i.e.,
(3-57)
dfdrir
The solution of this can
fiYr P = 0
be writ en
or
as
dfir = fiyr__ppdr
5 See niversary
251.
Partial y Mechanics
Tubes," H. Stam,
Biezeno 1953),
232
value of pt that is intermediate to by Eq. 3-49 and Eq. 3-57, respectively, section of the cylinder between the radius c is ful y plastic, whereas b is in the elastic domain, Fig. 3-26. yield condition is just satisfied, and the Can be computed using Eq. 3-49 with r =
and ultimate values pyp < pt < pult, the inner radius a and an interthat between c and the outer At the elastic-plastic interface, corresponding radial stress X c and ro = b; hence,
68
tually,
elastic.
with
the entire
As the pressure
a limiting
radius
cross
section
increases,
c beyond
as before, be assumed
becomes
the radius
which
ful y
c also
the
the maximum as
plastic
increases
section
at the ultimate
shear
until,
criterion
load
'rmax
As
(3-51)
betwe
Elastic Plastic
noted
earlier,
this
implies
this
certain
applies
value?
only
For
if the ratio
(with
book.
v = 0.3,
of Eqs. 3-34 and 3-47 shows this to be tru. that 0 < v < 0.5, but in the plastic ran of outer to inner radius, ro/ri, is less than
this ratio can be established to be a cylinder (zero
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig.
3-25
fir
= fiyp can
In r + C
(3-53)
to be obtained in this section wil be valid only v = 0.3). The task of finding the stress when this condition is not satisfied and is be'
Cylinders
with external
radius
as
b, the
boundary
con(3-54)
= 0 = fiyp C is given
In b + C as
Plastic
Behavior
of Thick-Walled
The equations of static equilibrium are appl/cable, the elastic or plastic state is considered. Hence,
but must be supplemented by a yield condition.
Static equilibriutn, Eq. 3-28:
--+--=0 dr
is
C =
--fiyp
In b
obtained, using Eqs. 3-53 and
(3-55) (3-56)
tangential
stresses
are
then
Thus,
dfir
fir
-r
fit
Yield
condition,
Eq.
3-51:
fit -fir fiyp
given by Eqs. 3-55 and 3-56 are shown in Fig. 33-25(b) shows the elastic stress distributions. Since represents the ultimate collapse of the thick-walled internal pressure, using Eq. 3-55, is given as
By
comes
combining
these
two
equations,
the
basic
dif erential
equation
Behavior
Pult
= fir(a)
= fiyp
In a/b
(3-57)
of Thick-Walled
Cylinders
dfdrir
The solution of this can
fiYrP = 0
be writ en
or
as
dfir = fiYr__2 dr
any
of p that is intermediate to the yield and ultimate values 3-49 and Eq. 3-57, respectively, i.e., pyp < pi pult, the of the cylinder between the inner radius a and an interc is ful y plastic, whereas that between c and the outer
elastic domain, is just satisfied, using Eq. 3-49 Fig. 3-26.
Partial y Mechanics
Tubes," H. Stam
Biezeno
Ai
and
with
interface, stress
70
Hooke's
Law,
Pressure
Vessels,
and
Thick.
Walled
Cylinders
Problems
}blerns
x
Sections
3-7
and
3-8
,ction
3-2
the shear mounting shear spring constant to a square pad with in Example ks, but 10-mm-thick 3-1 changing
rub-
3-5.
to
Using Using
moduli customary
the
alloy
values
calculate and
for
steel.
E and
Poisson's
G given
ratios
in Table
for 2024-
1A
3-6.
bulk U.S. Section
alloy
'ion Consider
3-6 a 4-in
biaxial tensile
3-9
square
stresses
steel
of
bar
20
subjected
ksi in the
to
x
3-7.
A stainless-steel
cylindrical
shell
has
a 36-in
inthat es-
Fig.
3-26
crvp b2 b--2 c2 2
condition to be used in
and 10 ksi in the y direction. to be in a state of plane stress, in the z direction and the elongations the x and y directions. (b) Assuming a state of plane strain, determine the and the elongations of the bar
: bar
Let E = 30 x 103 ksi and
v =
the plate to be
the and z y
what is the allowable working pressure? Assume appropriate hemispherical ends are provided. Also timate the bursting pressure. to a hydroelectric If the diameter
lowable quired? 3-9. A tank
and is 0.5 in. thick. If the tensile strength is 80 ksi and the factor of safety is 5,
3-8.
A "penstock,"
stress
with
radius
Eq.
3-53
c. Hence,
for
a ful y
plastic
err(C) = -X =
and
By substituting region is obtained
segment
with
inner
radius
a and
out
A piece of to uniformly (see the figure). change in 'these forces? ness as in part
50 by 250 by 10 mm steel plate is subdistributed stresses along its edges (a) IfPx = 100 kN and Py = 200 kN, thickness occurs due to the application (b) To cause the same change in thick(a) by P, alone, what must be its mag-
i.e.,
a pipe
for
conveying
water
age of gasoline
is to be 40 ft in diameter
bottom
and
and
16 ft high.
row assume
of
C =
this
as
O-yp 2 b 2 b- 2 c 2
value of C into Eq.
Crvp In c
3-55, the radial stress in the
the efficiency of welds at 80%. Add in to the computed wall thickness corrosion. Neglect local stresses at vertical walls with the bottom. (Specific gasoline to be stored is 0.721.) (b) bottom of the tank does not restrain
of the tank occur at the walls, bottom? what increase E = 29 x
103
approximately to compensate
the juncture
gravity
in
for
diameter and
v =
In c
Gyp b 2 -- c 2
2 b 2
Fig. P3-3
(NH3)
vapor of the
3-t0.
A cylindrical
at the
pressure vessel
maximum
of NH3 material
vessel
temperature
is used
for
storing
of
The with
50
ammonia
C.
thickness a tensile
The
stress
in the
plastic
zone
becomes
at 50 C is 20 atm. is limited to 20 mm
3-4.
75
A rectangular
has the
and
steel
foilowing
c = 100
block,
dimensions:
mm. The
such
faces
as shown
of this
in Fig.
b
block
O'2yp
mm,
b 2
ected
to uniformly
distributed
(tension)
in the x direction,
200 kN
(tension)
in the y
in diameter
strength of 400 assuming that all what can be the For the selected
that
MPa. (a) If the factor of safety is 5, welds wil be inspected with X-rays, maximum diameter of the vessel? (b) wall thickness, calculate the change
would occur with ammonia at 50 C.
pressure pi at which the plastic using Eq. 3-61, simply as'pi ro.-b, provide the necessary
in the elastic zone.
and 240 kN (compression) in the z direction. the magnitude of a single system of forces in the y direction that would cause the same in the y direction as the initial forces. Let
0.25.
3-11. An air chamber for a pump, the sectional side view of which is shown in mm on the figure, consists of two pieces. Compute the number of 19-mm bolts (net area 195 mm 2) required to attach the chamber to
the cylinder at plane A-A. The allowable tensile stress
'72
Hooke's
Law,
Pressure
Vessels,
and
Thick.Walled
that
2.
Cylinders
Problems
'173
and 343
tangential a thickpressure
cylinder
stress determine
kN/m
to be completely
Let
the cylinder.
3-t5. An the diameter
rigid,
(a) determire
a = 2 x 10-s/C
the
-t7.
and E = 7 x
as
onto
Sections
3-19. 3-20. stress walled
3-12
in the figure.
A A
thickness
tiate
is 10 mm.
the
For
the wire:
(In
inside
mm. what
= 23.4 vessel
A = 0.060
calculations,
and
mm 2, E =
the
of
tube
interface
Fig.
P34t
the assembly to If the composite additional hoop tube? Assume that expand, preventing stresses, i.e., cry,
Verify the solution of Eq. 3-38. Show that the ratio of the maximum to the average tangential stress cylinder subjected only to internal
for
is di-
(1 + [32)/(1
3-2t. Show
+ [3), where
that no matter
[3 = roh'i.
how large the outside
Est = 200 x 103 MPa. Hint: The say , between the two materials tension in the outer tube and hoop
inner tube.
only tangential
has a 6-in
to internal stress
ID (inside
presis not
di-
An
and
alloy-steel
a 18-in
Ifthi
oft
If it is subjected
to an internal
in the
is 1.5
bolts
MPa.
is 40 MPa,
water tank made
and
the
of
and
staves
air
is
pressure
5 m in
3-t2.
diameter and 4 m high. Specify mm stel hoops if the allowable is set at 90 MPa. Use uniform
meter of the tank's height.
the spacing of 30 by 6 tensile stress for steel hoop spacing within each
cylinder deformation
same would
pressure
radial cipal)
ofpi
and tangential shear
= 24,000
stress stress.-(c)
psi (p,,
Determine
the
show
results
nal and
0.3.
on a plot.
internal
(b) Determine
diameters.
distributions
the
the
maximum
change
and
(prin-
the
of the
E = 30
x 106 psi
in exter-
and
v =
a
of
caused
by the
pull
3-23. 0.45
Fig. P347
ID pressure
and
3-t3. A cylindrical pressure vessel of 120 in outside diameter, used for processing rubber, is 36 ft long. If the cylindrical portion of the vessel is made from 1-in thick steel plate and the vessel operates at-120-psi 'internal pressure, determine the total elongation Of
he circumference and the increase in the diameter's
light-weight by employing
and
using
pi = 160 MPa (po = 0), (a) determine the radial and tangential stress distributions and show the results on a plot. (b) Determine the maximum (principal) shear
stress. ternal 3-24.
MPa.
as a
Fig.
P345
binder.
dimension
caused
by
the
operating
pressure.
29 x 106 psi and v = 0.25. 3-t4. A thin ring is heated in oil 150 C above room temperature. In this condition, the ring just slips on a solid cylinder, as shown in the figure: Assuming the
of
in
and
0nly
aments
of a filament-wound cylinder is If the winding is needed to resist the helix angle a = 90 . If, howclosed, both hoop and longitudinal
Problem
Problem one-half
with
with cylinder
p = 0 and
p = 160
= 80
and 3-25
is to
'ces develop,
and
the requi.red
of unit width
used
in all
calculations
involving
the
diameter.
a = 2). Verify
and
helix
this
angle
result.
of the fil(Hint:
length
of Problem
the
brass
cylinder
is heated
100
F above
a developed
perature, it exactly fits over is at room temperature. What cylinder when the composite
6
perature?
10.7
= 6.7
x 10-6/F.
x
For
brass:
For
steel:
EBr
as in the if F is a force
figure.
For
is cut
such
by each
an element, n is . on hoop
section.
the
Therefore,
same
by Design
'a plane through the integrating the tangential areas, show that the
for
axis
the
is
as
10-6/F.
in a filament and a section, Py = Fn sin y. An equation based the longitudinal and the the required result.)
the number of Force P. can be the known ratio stress leads to
3-27. diameter
a thick-walled an internal
cylinder
pressure
to provide: (a) a factor ing in the cylinder, and ultimate collapse. The
is 36 ksi.
50
mm
Filaments
3-28. A 16-in OD steel cylinder with approximately a 10-in bore (ID) is shrunk onto another steel cylinder of 10-in OD with a 6-in ID. Initial y, the internal diameter of the outer cylinder was 0.01 in smaller than the external diameter of the inner cylinder. The as-
Developed
element
inder
sembly
in oil.
was
For
accomplished
both
cylinders,
the
by
pressure
heating
the
larger
cyl-
Fig.
P3-t4
Fig.
P346
Steel
tube
Fig.
P348
v = 0.3.
(a) Determine
Hooke's
between in the
decrease modates
Law,
Pressure
Vessels,
and
Thick-Walled
Cylinders
the diameter
two
cylinders. of the
outer
3-29. Set up the dif erential equation for a thin rotating with an angular velocity of to rad/s. The weight of the material is % Hint: Consider an elem as in Fig. 3-21(b) and add an inertia term.
Section 3-30. outer For radius 3-14 a thick-walled b = 2a, cylinder (a) calculate of inner radius the internal a
inders.) (b) Determine the 'tangential and radial stresses caused by the pressure found in part (a). Show the results on a plot. (c) Determine the internal pressure to which the composite cylinder may be subjected without exceeding a tangential stress of 20,000 psi in the inner cylinder. (Hint: After assembly, the cylinders act as one unit. The initial compressive stress in the inner cylinder is released first.) (d) Superpose the tan_gential stresses found in part (b) with the tangential stresses resulting from the internal pressure found in part (c). Show the results on a plot.
at which the elastic-plastic (b) determine the radial butions due to the internal and show them on a plot,
boundary is at r = 1.5 a tangential stress pressure found in part and (c) calculate the
and
collapse fectly
load. plastic,
-][.
Introduction
Detailed axial y
methods of analysis for determining loaded bars were presented in the for members subjected to torques
first
about
stresses two
their
and chapters.
chapter. chapter
to the
of a single
disThe
causing
ory
the
members having circular. cross sections, of such elastic and inelastic problems dures of engineering mechanics of solids. having noncircular cross sections,
the
in Chapter
major
of this
chapter
of elasticity
dif erence
in
order
(or finite
to
make
elements)
the
reader
must
either solid or tubular. Solution can be obtained using the proceFor the solution of torsion probmethods of the mathematical theaware
be employed.
Further,
of
the
dif erences
This
topic
is briefly
in
such
from
that
for
circular
members.
to lend
emphasis
to
in the solutions discussed, this chapter is subdivided into parts. It should be noted, however, that in practice, members torque, such as shafts for motors, torque tubes for power etc., are predominantly circular or tubular in cross section. numerous applications fal within the scope of the formulas
in this chapter.
Application
gardless
engineering solid
of the
mechanics,
Method
in analyzing
of Sections
the basic method problems discussed
members
for
torque,
re-
'Torsion one relevant equation member, such an equation minate systems, there ' this torque, an analysis pendicular to the axis
be isolated and the
Sec. 4.3. Basic of statics. Thus, if the x axis is directed along is M, = 0. Therefore, for statically can only be one reactive torque. After begins by separating a member of a section pe of a member. Then either side of a member
torque found. This internal torque must
Assumptions
for Circular
Members
T
It may be seen intuitively that for a member the maximum internal torque causes the maximum host severe condition on the material. Hence,
internal
ance
torques
the
lems, the formal calculation of a reaction may be bypassed by isolatin a bar segment with the unsupported end. Nevertheless, an equilibrium the whole system must always be assured. In statically problems, the reactions must always be found before one can the internal torques. Some guidance on calculating reactions in indeterminate problems is provided in Section 4-9 of this chapter. For simplicity, the members treated in this chapter wil be "weightless" or supported at frequent enough intervals to make of bending negligible. Axial forces that may also act simultaneously
the bars are excluded for the present.
are equal,
externally
but have
applied
opposite
torques,
sense.
i.e.,
In statically
the
external
determinate'
and
the
intern
ore
;critical
several sections may have to be examined internal torque. A section where the largest :d is the critical section. In Example 4-1, the
internal critical
Fig.
4-2
Alternative
representations
of torque.
dif icult
between may
to decide
points
B and
where
C. If the
the
material
torsion
is critically
member
varies computed
stressed.
in size,
Several
it is
eral Instead
Fig.
section. These situations are analogous to the case of an axial y rod, and means must be developed to determine stresses as a of the internal torque and the size of the member. In the next sections, the necessary formulas are derived. of curved arrows as in Fig. 4-1, double-headed vectors fol owing
have
to be investigated
and
stresses
to determine
right-hand
4-2.
screw
rule
sign
convention
wil
also
be used
in this
text;
EXAMPLE
4-t
Find
acted
Solution
the internal
upon by the
trque
three
at section
torques
K-K
indicated.
Members
torque and the stresses it sets
The 30 N.m torque at C is balanced by the two torques of 20 and 10 N.m at and B, respectively. Therefore, the body as a whole is in equilibrium. Next, passing a section K-K perpendicular to the axis of the rod an3 and B, a free body of a part of the shaft, shown in Fig. 4-1(b), is obtained. upon, from , Mx = O, or
up
in members
to make
with
in addition
two
assumptions,
circular
solid
homogeneity
to the
the
and
validity
tubular
of the
of which
material,
cross
sections,
wil
are
be justified
as fol ows:
it is nec-
1. A plane
externally
the conclusion shaft between
applied
torque
internal Similar
= internal
or resisting considerations
torque
torque lead developed to the in
section
of material
perpendicular
to the axis
of a circular
subjected to D'O03C
to torque,
that
the
internal
torque
resisted
by the
shaft
between
B and
10 N-m
C is 30 N.m.
30 N.m
10 K 20 N-m
C B B
30 N-m
as DO03C
moves
axis reaching m,, at the periphery. in Fig. 4-3 and means that an imaginary
the torque
This
is applied.
plane
as-
N.m
if an imaginary radius 03C is considered fixed in radii initial y at 02B and OD rotate to the respective 02B' and OLD'. These radii remain straight.
20
N.m
internal
A
torque
Fig.
4-1
(a)
(b)
VI.
negligible. Advanced
it is also distance
details, Theory
deformations
implied apart.
are very
small,
York:
Strength
stresses
Van
of Materials, Nostrand,
not considered
are
1956),
3rd.
ed., Chap-
here
%,x
Variation member
of strain subjected
in to
Torsion
cular
Formula
Trnax
be emphasized
and tubular
members.
that
these
For
assumptions
this
class
of members,
hold
only
for
D'
assumptions
limit
work
so well
that
they
apply
beyond
the
limit
rmax
r=G7
Cord
Fig. 4-4 assumption Shear
stress
If attention
applies,
strain. For
deformation
is confined
and,
this
to the linearly
complete
elastic
stress
is found
these
material,
is proportional
between
assumptions.
Hooke's
'to
derived
Shear
variation
it fol ows
case
that
based
shear
Hooke's
law
agreement
on
determined
and
and
computed
formulas
quantities
of elasticity.
with
the
strain
Shear
variation
stress
dA
shear circular
leading
strain
distribution
to elastic
in
member.
their
mathematical
validity
can
theory
be rigorously
demonstrated
by the
methods
of
q-max fA p2 dA = T
c
(4-1)
of a cross-sectional area, area. It wil be designated 2xp dp, where 2xp is the width dp. Hence,
4-4.
The
Torsion
Formula
case, on the basis of the previous to strain, and the lat er varies
to the section
stress
parallel
intensity.
the
center
the
normal to the axis of a rod. NON-ACTIVATED VERSION use of Hooke's law for shear, Eq. 3-1. This is the case of an axial y loaded rod, this stress is -] qTC4IT4d) www.avs4you.com
fol ows
taken
since the
However, fA p2 dA, the polar/noment of inertia is also a constant for a particular cross-sectional ! J in this text. For a circular section, dA = umference of an annulus 2 with a radius p of
lie
J =
fAfo
92 dA =
2'I103 dp=
2r
[- i 'iTc4
2
If c or
aid 4
32
(4-2)
directly
(4-2)
The
O and
maximum
is designated
linear
shear
stress
q-max.
occurs
These
at points
points,
most
such
points
distance
C and D in Figs.
c from
center.
variation,
of a section
once
d is the
diameter
of
a solid
circular
shaft.
d is measured
in
at any
bitrary
distribution
The
'resisting
point
at a distance
at a section
torque
can be expressed
is established.
p from
O, the shear
For
in terms
stress
equilibrium
of stress
is (D/C)q-max.
this
internal
the
units J for
in 4. area,
sisting
torque
must
equal
the externally
applied
torque
T. Hence,
(4-3)
fP Tmax
,stress
,force
dm
area,
p = T
arm,
to'que
expresses
equation
dimensions
the
is the maximum
the
integral sums up all torques developed on the cut by the forces acting at a distance p from a m.ember's axis, O in Fig. the whole area A of the cross section, and where T is the
be expressed
annulus work
of a member.
area
well-known shear
4 in newton-meters,
contained instruments.
In applying
N-m,
name
this
formula,
or inch-pounds,
concentric been
internal
shafts torque
c in/neters
by
torque
that and
2 An
is an
between
two
circles. immortalized
It was
developed
on
electric
by Coulomb,
a French
His
engineer,
has
in about the
1775
in connection J is used
its
use
At
any
can
given
be
section,
writ en as
q'max
and
c are
constant;
hence,
the
relation
a practical unit of quantity in electricity. 1 N-m is equal to 1 joule (J). However, the polar moment of inertia of a section.
in this
text,
symbol
only
SO
Torsion
or inches,
shear stress
r=G7
or pascals
(Pa)
in SI units,
or
r = G2'7
circular
Fig.
4-6 an
Elastic
member
behavior
in
torsion
of a
having
{a) lb)
material.
inner
core
of soft
for
a shear
stress,
, at any
If a circular bar is made from two dif erent materials bonded together,
is
Tp
shown
Equations 4-3 and 4-4 are applicable with equal rigor to since the same assumptions as used in the previous derivation apply. is necessary, however, to modify J. For a tube, as may be seen 4-5, the limits of integration for Eq. 4-2 extend from b to c. Hence,
a circular tube,
j = fAp2dA
or stated the outer otherwise: diameter
shear
in Fig. 4-6(a), the same strain assumption applies as for a solid For such a case, through Hooke's law, the shear-stress distribecomes as in Fig. 4-6Co). If the shear modulus for the outer stif er G and that of the inner softer core is G2, the ratio of the respective stresses on a ring of radius OB is G/G2.
For
the
torsion
mechanics
problem
of solids
of circular
as used
shafts
above
the
may
three
be summarized
basic
concepts
in the
of
manner:
J for a circular tube equals +J for a solid and -J for a solid shaft using the inner diameter.
1. Equilibrium
conditions
at a section. varies
are used
from the
for determining
axis of a shaft.
the internal
resisting
of the
For. very
tube,
thin
J reduces
tubes,
ifb is nearly
to a simple
equal
approximate
to c, and c - b = t, the
expression:
2. Geometry
strain
torques
of deformation
linearly stregses case
is extended
(kinematics)
and Hooke's
to non-linear
is postulated
are used
such
of shear
that
stresses preceding
shear
shear
at
J 2xrR3at
where
tions. Tmin Truax
3. Material
strains
accurate in some
discussion.
13.
a section.
to shear elastic
This
properties
(constitutive
permit
relations)
calculation
to relate
Ray
(b
c)/2,
which
is sufficiently
a linear
using
law
is considered
material behavior
in the
in Section
4-
These large
of circular
basic
concepts
shafts.
are used
However,
for
determining
similar
to the
both
case
stresses
for
axial y
and
anglesloaded
the
Fig.
an
stresses
strains
stresses in cross
are
described
of application to Saint-Venant's
by the
developed
of concentrated principle
theory
4-5
elastic
Variation
circular
of
tube.
stress
in
a distance Typically
factors.
local
about
equal stresses
of a shaft by using
from stress
these con-
Torsion
4=5.
Remarks
shear
on only indeed
the
Torsion
Formula
have been thou to the axis of resisting the 4-4
stresses as given by Eqs. 4~3 and in the plane of a cut perpendicular they are acting to form a couple
(a)
applied torques. However, to understand the problem further, an tesimal cylindrical element, 5 shown in Fig.4-7(b), is isolated. The shear stresses acting in the planes Phrpendicular to the axis of rod are known from Eq. 4-4. Their' directions coincide with the direct of the internal torque. (This should be clearly visualized by the read
On adjoining
opposite
cuts
the
directions.
taken
parallel
normal
However,
to
planes
of a disc-like
axis
the
these
of
shear
element,
stresses
a rod
cannot
acting
stresses
these
exist
in the plane
alone, as
stresses
act
4-9 Fractured torsion
photograph
widely
shows
Fractured in torsion.
the
shown
in Section
1-4.
Numerically,
equal
shear
must
act
on
axial
requirements
planes
(such
Shear stresses acting intensity as do the shear of the rod. This variation
of static
as the
equilibrium
planes
aef
in the axial planes fol ow the stresses in the planes perpendicular of shear stresses on the mutually
for an element.
and
bcg
in Fig.
4-7(b))
same
pert
to ful al
variation to the
specimen
of A322
separated.
specimen
on fhe
right
not
normally specimens).
(Threaded
the bar
planes
removed
Truax
is shown
for the
in Fig.
purposes
4-7(c),
where
a portion
of the
shaft
has
of il ustration.
According an equivalent
shear each shear failure 4-8.
and
stresses (see Fig. 3-11). Numerically, these stresses other in the fol owing manner: , = ch = -or2. strength of a material is less than its strength in takes place on a plane perpendicular to the axis This kind of failure occurs gradually and exhibits
planes
surfaces
in Fig.
Another
stresses
along
a helix
examples
of a brit le
forming
an angle
of 45 with is shown
fracture
the
for sandstone
stress
transformation
brought
into
previous
discussion,
of wood
since
on planes
in dif erent
For
example,
directions.
wood
exhibits
The
sheafing
drastically
strength
to anisotropic properties
of
(c)
5 Two
Existence on mutually
of shear
such
two
perpendicular
are
perpendicular circular
torque.
shaft
planes subjected
in a to
6 Note that maximum shear stresses, as shown actually act on planes perpendicular to the axis through the axis of the rod. The representation free surface of a shaft is fi'ee of all stresses.
Ductile material
an element
at dif erent
expressible
radii
to the
mathematically
are
axis
used
of the
to isolate
rod,
two
in cylindrical
this
planes
element.
the
to the grain is much less than on planes perpendicular although equal intensities of shear stress exist planes, wooden shafts of inadequate size axial planes. Such shafts are occasionally used
4-2
the
shaft
maximum
from A to
torsional
C is 10
shear
mm in
stress
diameter.
in shaft
AC
shown
in Fig.
4-1(a).
Assume
failureplane
T T
From
be 30 N.m.
Example
Hence,
4-1,
the maximum
T = 30 N-m,
1d 4
internal
and
c = d/2
torque
resisted
= 5 mm.
by this
From
shaft
Eq.
4-2,
is known
in
torsional
ductile
Brit le failure material surface
J = 32
twisting
'i X
32
10 4
982 mm 4
in the classroom
in
Ordinary
a piece
chalk behaves
of chalk
similarly.
to failure.
torsion.
Pirtz).
(Experiment
by D.
'83
Torsion
and from Eq. 4-3,
Tmax
This maximum shear
of Circular
Members
in Torsion
be seand of ma-
Tc
J
-at
30
103
982
-- 153
axis of the
MPa
rod acts in the
designing
5 mm
from
the
to the axis
the shear
equal.
stresses
on mutually
two
perpendicular
the
and
the
planes
for a cylindrical'
solution
longitudinal a Cartesian
can be
ele
It is instructive
to note
of this
'in
matrix
form
by
elements
in a stress
tensor
as
ing gives
0
tubes. Solid members are often used in power equipment, many fatigue experiments are done. the shear strength of ductile materials is only about half as as their tensile strength. The ASME (American Society of MeEngineers) code of recommended practice for transmission shaft-
available information
on thin-walled as torsion
o
with the ful y
1 3
o
stress tensor
MPa
allertl fter
given by Eq.
and
considerations.
an allowable
value
in shear
stress
of 8000
is
the
This
is to be
contrasted
populated
ortions
EXAMPLE 4-3
torque
to be transmit ed
is selected, as
by a shaft
according
is determined
to
and.the
the
Consider a long tube of 20 mm outside d, twisted about its longitudinal axis shear stresses at the outside and the
Solution
diameter, do, and of 16 mm with a torque T of 40 N.m. inside of the tube; see Fig.
From
Eq. J ..
4-5,
(4-8)
trea
,r(d4o
32
,i .(C 4 _ b 4)
2
_ &4)
,17(204
32
_ 164)
9270
mm
and fi-om
Tmax
Eq. 4-3,
Tc
40
103
10
9270
43.1
MPa
Tmin
--
Tp
J
40
x 103
9270
x 8
34.5
MPa
Fig.
442
In a thin-walled tube, all of the material works at approximately the same level. Therefore, thin-walled tubes are more efficient in transmit ing torque solid shafts. Such tubes are also useful for.creating an essential y uniform of pure shear stress needed for establishing ?-,/relationships (Section 3-2). avoid local buckling, however, the wall thickness cannot be excessively
provide the required value of J/c. The reader should careful y note that large local stresses generally deat changes in cross sections and at splines and keyways, where the ue is actually transmit ed. These questions, of critical importance in design of rotating shafts, are briefly discussed in the next section. Members subjected to torque are very widely used as rotating shafts for transmit ing power. For future reference, a formula is derived for the conversion of horsepower, the conventional unit used in the industry, into torque acting through the shaft. By definition, 1 hp does the work of 745.7 One N.m/s is conveniently referred to as a watt (W) in the SI units.
Eq.
By using be determined.
of a member.
4-8 by varying
a solid
the ratio
of the outer
and Eq. 4-8, the required radius of tubular shafts can be chosen
J/c
= rc3/2,
de-
radius
to the inner
radius,
of a shaft to satisfy
outside
c/b,
it wil
8 Recommendations
example,
McGraw-Hil ,
see J. E. Shigley,
1977)
1967).
other
or R. C. Juvinal,
Mechanical
may
Engineering
Stress,
be found
in machine
Strain,
Design,
and
Strength
McGraw-Hil ,
Torsion
Sec.
4-7.
Stress
Concentrations
plied
do 2rfT
measured in radians, through which the shaft rotates per unit of time. a shaft rotating with a frequency of f Hz, 9 the angle is 2rf rad/s. if a shaft were transmit ing a constant torque T measured in N.m, it
c =
7.72
mm
or
d =
2c
15.4
mm.
ractical
MPLE 4-5
purposes,
a 16-mm
shaft
would
probably
be selected.
N.m
of work
per second.
x 745.7
r =
Equating
this
to the horsepower
hp
or
= 2rfT
119
f
159 x kW
[N.m/s]
[N.m]
x hp
1 applies
4-11,
to the low-speed
shaft
and
2 to the high-speed
shaft.
From
or
T =
[N.m]
applied
applied
work
tained:
second, (revolutions
In the
or 550
U.S.
customary
1 hp does
63,000 xhp[in_lb]l
N
rotates above
J - -- T
16
630,000
63
in 3
- --
or
d =
63)
= 321
in 3
Hence,
d = 6.85
in
and
d2 = 0.685
in
EXAMPLE
stress
4-4
is limited
machines
shaft
to 55
This
example
tubes.
Select
a solid
for
MPa.
a 10-hp
motor
operating
at 30 Hz.
The
maximum
il ustrates
the reason
tendency
to use high-speed
shafts is by using
Solution
From
Eq.
4-9,
Stress
Concentrations
119
f
and from Eq. 4-8,
J ... C
x hp
119
30
10
39.7N.m
T Tma x
39.7 55
10 3
722
mm
J
C
,'ITC 3
2
or
c 3 ...
2 J'
2 x 722
4-3, 4-4, and 4-8 apply only to solid and tubular circular shafts material behaves elastically. Moreover, the cross-sectional along the shaft should remain reasonably constant. If a gradual Variation in the diameter takes place, the previous equations give satissolutions. On the other hand, for stepped shafts where the diameters of the adjoining portions change abruptly, large perturbations of stresses take place. High local shear stresses occur at points away
the
mm 3
ratio the center of the shaft. Methods of determining these local concenof the
uations
= 460
of stress
9 1 hertz
(Hz)
= 1 cycle
per second
(cps).
true
are beyond
maximum
shear
the scope
stress
of this
factor
to the
text.
maximum
However,
stress
by forming
given
by
.q. 4-3,
a torsional
stress-concentration
can
be obtained.
An
anal-
88
Torsion
3.4
of Circular
2-10,
elastic
Members
matedhal
(a)
'ss concentrations
to.be
analogous
somewhat
to those
high.
based
pointed
on the
behavior
out in Section
of linearly
the theoretical
3.0
2.6
Angle.of-Twist
this
of Circular
for
Members
circular
2.2
1.8
X,'2'=7
-of-twist
section,
attention
solid
and
wil
tubular
be directed
to a method
elastic
shafts
for determining
subjected
the
to
(b)
1.4
Fig.
concentration
443
Torsional
factors
stressin
1.0
I
0 0.08
r
i
O. 16
d/2
0.24
circular
diameters.
shafts
of
two
geometry
axial y
ogous
method
loaded
of a member.
members
was
used
(Section
for
obtaining
Stress-concentration
2-10).
the
These
stress-concentration
factors
factors
for
depend
various
only
factors
to design it only to be strong enough: it also must not deform Then, magnitudes of angular rotations of shafts are needed the torsional vibration analysis of machinery. Finally, the angular twist members is needed in dealing with statically indeterminate torsional problems. According to assumption 1 stated in Section 4-3, planes perpendicular deformation
the axis of a circular
is important
loading.
to predict
The
interest
the twist
in this
of a shaft
problem
per se since
is at least
at times
threefold.
it is not
Fig. 445 Circular before and (b) applied.
First,
after
shaft
torque
(a)
is
tions
of stepped round shafts To obtain the actual stress shaft, a curve for a particular stress
to the given r/(d/2) the curve. Lastly,
are shown in Pig. 4-13. at a geometrical discontinuity D/d is selected in Pig. 4-13.
from ratio,
in its undistorted
of the
type
rod
form
shown
do not
in Fig.
in Fig.
warp.
4-15(a).
4-15(b).
The
elements
From
The
such
shaded
of a shaft
a'shaft,
element
undergo
a typical
is
shear
is obtained
from
the modified
of a Then,
In the element shown, a line on its surface such as CD is initial y parallel the axis of the shaft. After the torque is applied, it assumes a new )osition CD'. At the same time, by virtue of assumption 2, Section 4-3, radius OD remains straight and rotates through a small angle dqb to a new
alternative expressions for the arc DD':
ent of length
dx is shown
isolated
in Fig.
4-16
similar
to Fig.
4-3.
from
arc DD'
geometry,
= dqb c
arc DD'
where
the
= 'ymax
dx
or
the
shear
stress
is made.
Tc/J
is determined
for
the
smaller
shaft.
the
A study
need
shaft
for
of stress-concentration
a generous stress attaching
diameter
fil et
radius
factors
also
r at all sections
shown
in Pig.
where
4-13
both
angles
are small
and
/,
are measured
dx = dqb c
in radians.
Hence,
(4-13)
for a key, Fig. 4-14, is no longer a circular member. However, to the procedures suggested by the ASME, in ordinary design, tations for shafts with keyways may be made using Eq. 4-3 or 4-8 , the allowable shear stress must be reduced by 25%. This
compensates
area.
increases pulleys
and
makes /m=
for
the
stress
concentration
and
reduction
in cro,.
sion
the
angle-of-twist
Hooke's law applicable. Therefore, according to Eq. 3-1, the angle is proportional to *mx, i.e., /ma,, = *mx/G. Moreover, by Eq. 4-3, = Tc/J. Hence, /mx = Tc/(JG). By substituting the lat er expresinto Eq. 4-13 and simplifying, the governing dif erential equation for
is obtained.
"tube" to linearly
Because
Fig. 4-14 keyway. Circular shaft with a
of some
figure
632.
inelastic
of Circular
or nonlinear
from a paper
and Variable
response
by L. S. Jacobsen,
Diameter,"
in real
matedhals,
Trans. ASME
Concentrations
(1925):
0 This
in Shafts
is adapted
gressively
ference
The foregoing
p from
in derivation
becomes
argument
smaller
the center
consists
can be carried
out in terms
of any % which
to BD
and using
an arc corresponding
The only
pro-
Tp/J instead
of Tc/J for .
an arbitrary
dif-
circular
'truax
torque.
element
due
of a
to
Torsion
Sec.
4-8.
Angle.of.
Twist
of Circular
Members
191
dqb
dx
T
JG
or
dqb
Tdx
JG
axial y
2-9,
Eq.
loaded
4-16
can
bars.
be recast
Here
or tor-
to
kt as
This
tesimal of-twist
is
gives
distance
the
relative
angle-of-twist
To
find
the
of two
total
angle-of-twist
adjoining
apart, expression
sections
qb between
an
(4-17)
the
Schematic
of _a torsion
between
sections
of a shaft
of a linearly
elastic
This
constant
axial y
or
1. It depends
represents
loaded
bars,
shaft,
only
on the material
the torque
required
properties
to cause
torsion
members
a rotation
of 1 radian,
for a circular
i.e.,
as springs;
see Fig. 4-
As
reciprocal
hollow
of k, defines
flexibility
ft. Hence,
where
the length
Equation
A. The internal
direction
qbB and
of a shaft.
of the
rotation torque
qb4 are,
respectively,
The direction
for
not polar
necessarily moment
T.
the global
torque
of the angle
and
be zero. of inertia
shaft
rotations
of twist
circular
at en&,
qb coincides
shafts,
ft = kt- JG Lin-lbJ
identifying -17 and 4-18.
Gi/mi
L [rad
or
[rad]
LN.m j
of a unit torque,
(4-18)
i.e.,
fol ows from thb sured in radians. the deformation il ustrate applications
EXAMPLE 4-6
4-15
is valid
assumptions used in the Note the great similarity of axial y loaded rods. of these concepts.
both
solid
hollow
the rotation resulting from application by the torque T, one obtains Eq.
4-16. a number
The previous
(f t)i = mi/JiGi.
equations
are widely
used
Find
the
relative
rotation
of section
B-B
with
respect
to section
A-A
of the
sential
are required
elastic' through
Solution
in Fig. moment
4-17
when of inertia
T is being area J is
measured
case, T. = T and Jx = J; hence, from Eq. 4-15,
Lastly,
the
arhount'of
in the design
of members
For
n These considered
such
in mechanical
it should
or calculated
be noted
In this
for a specimen
from
that
the
can be determined
dimensions
since
in a torsion
applications,
for torsional
vibration
analyses
of
stif ness
note
of a specimen,
test,
both
parameter. purposes.
that
when
In axial y
modulus
J, rather
it is
from
Eq.
4-16
G ='TL/Jcb.
JG
A B
JG
JG
JG
4-7
Consider the stepped shaft shown in Fig. 4-19(a) rigidly attached to a wall at E, and determine the angle-of-twist of the end A when the two torques at B and at are applied. Assume the shear modulus G to be 80 GPa, a typical value for
12 According
Fig.
radians.
In applying
Also
observe
Eq.
4-16,
the
note
great
particularly
similarity
of this
that
the angle
relation
qb must
to Eq.
2-9,
be expressed
A =
Errst
York:
Van to recognize
to S. P. Timoshenko,
Nostrand, and
study
1937),
Vibration
H.
Frahm, problem.
Problems
a German
in Engineering,
engineer,
2d ed.
was
Torsion
Sec.
25 mm
4.8.
'It
Angle.of-Twist
4
of Circular
Members
193
T o = 1000
N.m
'It
_
a-a b-b
segment at points
(a)
(c)
1250
-'
I 200.
J 300
ram_
1.
500 mm
the
values
of T or J change
qb =
the last
1150
JxG =
so each
J
reverts
.Je
JcG
+
are constant
solution,
TczLcz JczG
150 X
--JcDG
Eq.
+
4-16. Hence,
JDG
group
TIN-m] [
0
integral
of integrals,
T's and
TecLec
200
to a known
J's
between
the limits
con-
15o I
Torque diagram
=
=0+
q---q---
TzLz Jz>G
103 X 300
1150
103
500
575
80
103
X 103
rad
A B
(d)
-23.3
Angle-of-twist
x 10 -3 + 12.5
the angles-of-twist
x 10 -3 = 23.3
for the four shaft
x 10 -3 rad
segments
-13.5
-12.5
diagram
Fig.
Solution
4-t9
10 -3 rad. Summing these for the angle-of-twist shown in Fig. 4-19(d). Since
must be zero
0 -3 rad occurring No doubt local
starting
As can
from
be noted
the above,
at E, as required
direction
quantities beginning from A, in order to obtain the along the shaft, gives the broken line from A to E, no shaft twist can occur at the built-in end, this
by the boundary condition. Therefore,
9.8 x 10 -3 rad,
1.0 x 10 -3 rad,
and 12.5
to the
adopted
Except for the dif erence in parameters, to that of Example 2-2 for an axial y to assure equilibrium. Then internal left segment of a shaft, such as shown
of the
torque
vector
T coincides
This between
with
solution of this problem is loaded bar. First, the torque at E is torques at arbitrary sections, in Fig. 4-19(b), are examined. If the
the
in the disturbances
sign
convention,
the
angle-of-twist
occur
at A is -23.3
at the applied con-
centrated
the shaft.
torques
these
are
and
local
the change
effects
having
in the shaft
limited
size,
influence
as well
on the
as at the built-in
overall
behavior
end.
that
of the
positive
x axis,
it is taken
B
4-8
(a)
positive, is no
or vice
torque,
versa. whereas
leads
that
between internal
D and torques,
E is + 1150 identified
is is drawn
between + 150
shaft
Determine that
the the
torsional rubber
metal
rubber shaft
and
bushing the
in Fig. tube,
4-20. which
TA
The polar
O,
are
J
Teo
found
=
=
of
Tec
inertia
=
Eqs.
d 4 -32
Tco
for the
=
4-2
--
150
two
N.m,
kinds
and
of cross
To
sections
1150
N.m
is attached
Solution
to a machine
in the
housing.
parts
The
of the
shear
assembly.
modulus
is G. Neglect
moments
this
problem
using
Jc -
and4-5
X
32
giving
254
38.3
103
mm
area
;ymmetry of the problem, on every imaginary cylindrical r, the applied torque T is resisted by constant shear of the imaginary surface is 2rrL. On this basis, the equilibrium
(b)
Fig.
4-20
Torsion
Sec.
4-9.
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
195
T and r is
the
resisting
torque
developed
by
the
T =
(2xrL)?r
[area
stress
arm]
Such problems remain simple to analyze regardless of the number kinds of applied torques or variations in the shaft size or material. Torsion problems also occur with bzternal statical indeterminacy
Ec
and
such as
From
1, the thickness
this
shear
relation,
dr,
x = T/2rr2L.
can 4-20(a), be
from
Hence,
determined the for
fol owing
by using
Hooke's
law
tube
given
of radius
by
;hown
dsite
strain Fig.
an infinitesimal relation:
T
part of the member. Therefore, the particularly simple to apply to linearly roblems, the torque Ti for each ith part of the and 4-17. The total applied torque Tis then
shafts
built
up from
cases,
two
the angle-of-twist
or more
tubes
displacement (stif ness) elastic problems. In such shafts is Ti = (kt)iqb, Eqs. the sum of its parts, i.e.,
(4-21)
qb is the same
or materials,
in
for each
L
J2
/ - G - 2rLGr
This shear infinitesimal this angle strain angle
is
2
through
tube limit
T= i(kt)iO)
For complex
dqb = /dr
r
.imilar
over the rubber bushings,
to that given
is limited
kinematic
externally
degrees
statically
to the
in Section
of freedom,
case
indeterminate
the
d.o.f.
of one
general
elastic
cases
displacement
problems
can
Here,
however,
method
with
be analyzed
tile
to
The
infinitesimal
total
rotation
rotations,
qb of the
i.e.,
shaft
is an integral,
From
which
4-21,
described in Section 2-16. Applying one can write the fol owing two
T + T2 + T = 0
this basic
approach equations:
(4-22)
Fig.
indeterminate
4-2t
Externally
bar
in torsion.
statically
For
geometric
compatibility:
k, - qb - 1/d 2 - 1/D 2
rLG
qbAB
= qbBc
A and
(4-23)
fixed.
(4-1
According
and
to Eq.
4-16,
that
for linearly
ends
the twists
elastic
C are
behavior,
*4-9.
The allels with degree tions, problems redundant port. member
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
shear
dif erent Solutions
bars.
TL -J G
T2L2 J2G2
analysis of statically indeterminate members subjected to twist the procedures discussed earlier in Part B of Chapter 2 in c axial y loaded bars. In considering linearly elastic problems of external indeterminacy, i.e., cases where there are two the force (flexibility) method is particularly advantageous. are reduced to statical determinacy by removing one of reactions and calculating the rotation qbo at the released The required boundary conditions are then restored by at the released end through an angle qb such that
qbo+ qb = 0
moduli
are given
in the d.o.f.
as G and
G2 to provide
fol ow
the
bars
elastic
procedure
given
cross
and
in Example
2-18
than
for
circular,
axial y
such
loaded
as dis-
The
previous
in Sections
procedures
4-14
having
problem
can
sections
be applied
other
to the analysis
method
of statically
4-16.
example
of an application
fol ows.
of the force
for a statically
in-
Torsion
2 mm
Equation
Approach
for Torsion
Problems
--TiLi
T, has the
TAX103
= (147
units of N.m.
x 10 -6 + 17 x 10-6)TA
defining rotation in the
'38.3x103x80x103 450
direction
= 164 x 10-6TA
+575x103x80x800
of T, as positive,
rad
one
103 )
has
To
500mm I
Hence,
Eq.
4-20
and
-23.3
(b}
x 10 -3
and
+ 164
TB =
x 10-6TA
1150 -142
= 0
= 1008N.m
TA
142N.m
The
isolated iSitive.
torque
diagram for the shaft is shown if the direction of the internal shaft segment coincides with that Note that most of the applied torque
4-7,
A to C is more flexible than from
As in Fig. 4-19(c) of T on the left part of x axis, it is taken as the end E. Since the
torque develqps
from
A.
a small
(d)
X 103
0-142
Torque
diagram
rad
Calculating the angles-of-twist for the four segments of the shafts, as in Example the angle-of-twist diagram along the shaft, Fig. 4-22(e), can be obtained. of this diagram is left as an exercise for the reader.) The angle-ofwist at A and E must be zero from the prescribed boundary conditions. As to expected, the shaft twists in the direction of the applied torques. Whereas this problem is indeterminate only to the first degree, it has three kinematic degrees of freedom. Two of these are associated with the applied torques and one with the change in the shaft size. Therefore, an application of displacement method would be more cumbersome, requiring three simulequations.
taneous
(e)
0
-11,6
Fig. 4-22 EXAMPLE 4-9
-11,1
Angle-of-twist
-11,0
diagram
Alternative
Torsion
Problems
Dif erential
can be recast
Equation
into a second-order
Approach
dif erential
for
4-
Assume
that
the
stepped
shaft
of Example
4-7,
while
loaded
in the
same
as shown in Fig. 4-22. Determine for the shaft. Apply the force
the
method.
end
Preliminary to this step, consider an element, shown in .Fig. subjected to the end torques Tand T + dTand to an applied distributed ue t, having the units of in-lb/in or N.m/m. By using the right-hand
This and the next two sections can be omit ed. in-lb/in
T+ dT
const,
ant JG,
Eq.
4-14
There
are
two
unknown 10 -3 rad.
reactions,
T, and
TE.
One
of them
can
be considered
qbo = 23.3
A is found
redundant, diagram
shown
and,
x
using
applying
Fi'om
Example
4-7,
J,c
= 38.3
4-16.
bar, as shown
x 103 mm 2 and
in Fig. 4-22(c),
JcE=
end rotation
575
x 103 mm 2.
qb at
-< dx
Fig.
element
4-23
of
Infinitesimal
a circular bar
subjected
to torque.
Torsion
Sec.
441.
Energy
and
Impact
Loads
199
having
screw
rule
a positive
for
the
sense.
torques,
For
all these
equilibrium
quantities
of this
dT
are
infinitesimal
shown
in
element.
TA
TB
JG dx
d4
=
=
d24
= 0
=
tx = -to
hence,
toL
2
t dx + dT = 0
On dif erentiating Eq. 4-14 with respect
or
to x,
dx
t
J G xx = T T(0)
T(L)
tox
2- + C
C = 0
I JGd24 dT -tx1
dx 2 dx
JG4 = - 6- + C2
4B = 4(L)
of a shaft,
toX 3
= 0 = -
that the
hence, - 6toX 3
C2 = 6
toL 2
The
determined
constants
from
appearing
the
boundary
in the
conditions
solution
of this
at the
ends
dif erential
equation
JG4
those
that of the positive
toZ 2
the
conditions
the
rotation
for 4 should
4 or the
torque
in Section
be evident
T must
equation
from
be specified.
the problem,
The
rotation
wl-/ereas
determinate functions,
4-26
means x axis.
(a).
torque
vector
acts
in the
direction
oppos.ite
Except
same
in the boundary
conditions,
x
the
solution
procedure
is
The applied
JG d24 dx 2
d4
JG4
application
of Eq.
when
=T=
---+C
to x2
2L
---
to x3
6L
Cx C2 C
+ = =
C2 0 toL
6
**EXAMPLE
4-t0
= 4(0)
circular
= =
0 0
hence, hence,
Consider
varying
A is free
Solution
its length
torque
and
an
elastic
and
that
the
&, as shown
end
reactions
B is built-in,
at ends
in Fig. 4-24.
(b)
bar
having
a constant
A and
Determine
JG
assume
B for
that
two
the rotation
cases:
ends
subjected
both
(a)
of the
Assume
of the bar al n
bar
to
that
JG4
toLx
6
toX 3
6L
T(O) = T(L)
toL
2
+--
toL
6
toL
6
toL
3
the
constants solution
of integration is determined.
Energy
X to
and
Impact
Loads
and impact members,
be
ions
Fig.
4-24
deflection
concepts of elastic strain energy 2-12 and 2-13 for axial y loaded pure shear, transfer directly
of a member can
loads as well
by
discussed as those
equating
in Secin Section
to the
determined
torsion
problem'.
For
the
example,
internal
200
dA = 2rp dp c rma'
Truax
p
Torsion
Sec.
4-t2.
Shaft
Couplings
20't
applied
shear
strain
(Example
EXAMPLE
force,
energy
2-10),
4-tt
Eq.
as well
2-24.
U.h for
as for elementary
This
a member
concept
to the
can be applied
solutions
external
work
of dynamic
to static
W,. due
problemi
to th
-12.
Shaft
Couplings
(a) Find the energy absorbed by an elastic circular shaft torque in terms of maximum shear stress and the volume 25. (b) Find the rotation of the end of an elastic circular
built-in
Fig. 4-5
end
when
a torque
T is applied
at the
free
end.
Solution
(a) The
from
distance 0 from the center of the cross section is 'rmxO/c. and integrating over the volume V of the rod L inches long,
the
shear
longitudinal
stress
in an elastic
axis.
Hence,
circular
the
shaft
shear
subjected
stress
acting
to a torque
Then, one
on
an element
varies
linearb
Eq.
where the available lengths of shafting are for maintenance or assembly reasons, it is desirable to make up a long shaft from several pieces. To join the :es of a shaft together, the so-called ranged shaft couplings of the type in Fig. 4-26 are used. When bolted together, such couplings are rigid, to dif erentiate them from another type called flexible that vides for misalignament of adjoining shafts. The lat er type is almost / used to join the shaft of a motor to the driven equipment. Here rigid-type couplings are considered. The reader is referred to ma:hine-design texts and manufacturer's catalogues for the other type. For rigid couplings, it is customary to assume that shear strains in the bolts vary directly (linearly) as their distance from the axis of the shaft.
at tic
between
the
flanges
is neglected.
Therefore,
analogous
to the
using obtains
shear
problem
Ush =
=
=
9dV
= Jv 2--c 2 2rpdpL
stresses in the bolts also from the center of a coupling. to be uniform and is governed
of circular
shafts,
if the bolts
vary The
linearly as their respective shear stress in any one bolt by the distance from its center
are
of the
same
mater.
ial,
its cross-sectional
of the coupling.
area,
the
Then,
force
if the shear
in a bolt
is found.
stress
in a bolt
On
this
is multiplied
basis,
for
2G
vol
If there
were
uniform
shear
stress
throughout
the
member,
www.avs4you.com
a more efficient
bolts of equal size in two "bolt circles," the forces on the located by the respective radii a and b are as shown in Fig. 4-26(c). The moment of the forces developed by the bolt3 around the axis of a shaft gives the torque capacity of a coupling. The previous reasoning is the same as that used in deriving the torsion
formula for circular shafts, except that, instead of a continuous cross a discrete number of points is considered. This analysis is crude, since stress concentrations are undoubtedly present at the points of conof the bolts with the fl&nges of a coupling. The outlined method of analysis is valid only for the case of a coupling which the bolts act primarily in shear. However, in some couplings,
for their
absorbing small
a shaft.
energy G values
would provide
be obtained. an excellent
Rubber device
(b) If t. orque T is gradually applied to the shaft, the external work We = where (b is the angular rotation of the free end in radians. The expression for internal train energy Ush, which was found in part (a), may be writ en in a
convenient
=
form
by noting
that
rm, = Tc/J,
the volume
and
'rrC4/2.
Thus,
the bolts
act
initial
tension in friction.
are tightened
in the Under
so much
that
the coupling
acts
in a dif erent
entire
coupling analysis
fashion.
is
Ush = 'r2G x
Then, from We = Ush
Tqb
which is the same as Eq.
2
4-16.
and
qb
JG
(a) (b) (c)
TL
Fig.
4-26
Flanged
shaft
coupling.
202
Eight 30-mm bolts
Torsion
Sec.
4-t3.
Shear
Stresses
and
Deformations
in Circular
Shafts
203
not
valid,
or is valid
the stresses in the bolts be reduced. bolts are used, there is lit le danger of the coupling may be greater than
in shear. 14
only
as a measure
of the
ultimate
strength
hap
if
be if i
act
EXAMPLE
4-t2
(b)
(e)
Estimate the torque-carrying capacity of a steel the shaft, shown in Fig. 4-27, as controlled by MPa in the eight bolts. The bolt circle is diameter
Solution
Area of one bolt:
Assumed
strain
(c)
(f)
A
Fig. 4-27
Allowable force for one bolt:
= (1/4)r(30)
2 = 706
mm
variation
Pano,
= A%no,
= 706
Since
rnow
eight
= 28.2
bolt
x
are available
103 x 120
at a distance
x 8 = 27.1
x 40
= 28.2
103N
the central
axis
= 27.1
103
(g)
Corresponding
stress distribution
(d)
Stress-strain
relations
members
Fig.
4-28
Stresses
due
to torque.
in circular
section
periments 443. Shear in the Stresses Inelastic and Deformations Range in Circular
(d).
case.
The
is shown
through
schematically
a shaft
is shown
corresponding
in the
in Fig.
same
figure.
4-28(a).
shear stress
strain is found
The torsion formula for circular sections previously derived is ba Hooke's law. Therefore, it applies 0nly up to the point where the portional limit of a matedhal in shear is reached in the outer annulus
shaft. Now the solution wil be extended to include inelastic
is shown
Some
The
possible
linear
strain
to the
in ex(c),
fight
me-
made
the equilibrium requirements assumption of linear strain Only the dif erence in matedhal
on High-Strength
AISC
torque
T = fA ('r dA)p
integral must be evaluated over the cross-sectional area of the
(4-27)
shaft.
I by
4 See
E.
J. Ruble,
"Symposium
Proc.
(1950).
Also
Bolts,"
see
Section
Part
and
Torsion
Elastic stress distribution
Stresses
and Deformations
in Circular
Shafts
205
Inelasticstressdistribution
Fig.
4-29
the
For
thin-walled
Although the shear-stress distribution after the elastic limit is ex( is nonlinear and the elastic torsion formula, Eq. 4-3, does not apply, sometimes used to calculate a fictitious stress for the ultimate torque. computed stress is called the modulus of rupture; see the largest of the dashed lines on Figs. 4-28(0 and (g). It serves as a rough the ultimate strength of a material in torsion..For a thin-walled tube, stress distribution is very nearly the same regardless of the mec properties of the material; see Fig. 4-29. For this reason, with thin-walled tubes are widely used in establishing the shear strain ?-/diagrams. If a shaft is strained into the inelastic range and the applied then removed, every "imaginary" annulus rebounds elastically.
r MPat
160 [- ,
7,/,'
2 d
(b)
MPa
7X
10 3
(a)
51 MPa
between stresses
of the material,
in the stresses
strain paths, which cause permanent develop. This process wil be il ustrated
of twist form:
dx
set i n
/
89.7
MPa
of the examples that fol ow. For determining the rate can be used in the fol owing
3 MPa
of a circular
shaft
or tube,
Eq.
89.7
MPa
(e) Residual
' 51 MPa
stresses
Here from
shear diagram
EXAMPLE
4-13
Elastoplastic
stress
'(d)
Elastic
rebound
Fig.
4-30
the
small
contribution
?max
to the
--
total
of the
first
integral.
MPa
--
Tc J
574
103
(r/32)
~
x 12 = 211 X 244
in Fig.
steel shaft of 24-mm diameter is so severely twisted that only an elastic core remains on the inside, Fig. 4-30(a). If the material idealized, as shown in Fig. 4-30(b), what residual stresses and wil remain upon release of the applied torque? Let G = 80 GPa.
At
7'residual residual
4-30(e).
For
clarity,
results
the
are replot ed
from
to the 0 to 160
4-16. Same
hzelastic:
At 9 = 4 mm,
The rotation direction,
residual torque is clockwise; an exactly direction in the inner portion of the is best determined by calculating
from
the vertical
line.
In the entire
equal
shaft. the twist
residual
shaded
of the
portion
torque
: ' elastic
when
4-27 elastic two
stresses.
the
stress
is a conskant
applied
160 MPa
for
9 > 4 ram.
Ec
= 2 x t0 -3. The'
between length responds
elastic
and initial
rebound
the
elastic torque
of the shaft
twists is reapplied
is given
gives
the in the
by
be used to determine the stresses, and Eq. 4-3 applies; stress distributions, corresponding
torque T. The release of torque see Fig. 4-30(d). The dif erence 1: to no external torque, gives the
dqb dx
Elastic:
% p,
2 X 10 -3 4 x 10 -3
0.50
rad/m
+
= (16
(160)2*rp
+ 558) x
2 dp
103 N.mm = 574 x 103 N.mm
574
103
103
- JG
(r/32)
x 244
X 80
103
0.22
rad/m
2O6
Torsion
Sec.
Residual:
4.t4.
Solid
Bars
of
any
Cross
Section
207
found in the preceding example, line i is the residual 0 for the same problem. It should be noted that in machine members,
matrials, ' minor the
importance.
AB
elastic
rebound,
here
and
point
ultimate
static
capacity
of the
properties is often
as the proportional'limit
Solution
Fig.
4-31(a).
The
shear
yield-point
in shear,
%.
stress,
Typ,
is to be taken
as being
the
If a very large torque is imposed on a member, large strains take except near the center. Corresponding to the large strains for the idealized considered, the yield-point shear stress wil be reached everywhere except the center. However, the resistance to the applied torque offered by the located near the center of the shaft is negligible as the corresponding p's Fig. 4-31(b). (See the contribution to torque T by the elastic action in 4-13.) Hence, it can be assumed with a sufficient degree of accuracy that a cons
44.
scope
Solid
of this
Bars
treatment
of Any
of solid
Cross
noncircular
Section
members in torsion is beyond
first
two bers.
assumptions Sections
book.
The
stated perpendicular
Mathematically,
the
problem
is complex.
for
s The
a
responding 4-31(c)
shear
stress
everywhere
on the
Tult =
Since ihe maximum
4 Typ TfC 4
3 c 2
f ('rypdA)p
this value, of torque is shown
=
3
4 TypJ
c
fo c 2'Irp2'ryp
torque
considered.
limit
The
torque.
torque
is applied. section
can
nature be surmised
of the from
in a recmem-
2C3 do = --Typ
shaft
shear stresses at of the long sides. 4-33 shows the shear-stress distribution along three radial lines from the center. Note particularly the dif erence in this stress compared with that of a circular section. For the lat er, the is a maximum at the most remote point, but for the former, the is zero at the most remote point. This situation can be clarified by
problem developed
this
4-3, and Tuft is times of that at yield. A plot ful plasticity develops
elastic
torque
the remaining torque capacity after yield T vs. 0, the angle of twist per unit distance, in Figure 4-31(c). Point A corresponds to
T Asymptote
capacity
of a solid
is Typ = TypJ/c,
Venant
remained
6 An
experiment
is sometimes
type
with
referred
a solution
unsolved
of distortion.
a rubber
to as the
for
until such
eraser
St.
on which
a rectangular
problem.
B. de torsion
grating
is ruled
Tui t = Tvp
/ /
T.-Typ Tpl /
ResidualO
do/dx
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig.
4-3t
(a)
(b)
208
Torsion
t is useful to recast for a rectangular the section, second
giving
209
Tk, - 4)
Formulas
Fig. 4-33 Shear stress distribution in a rectangular shaft subjected to a torque.
[3bt3
for many solved other mathematically, types of
(4-31)
crossa re-
areas
such
Fig.
shown
4-34
cannot
The
shear
exist.
stress
For
cases
considering
existed
at the
a comer
corner,
element,
it could
be resolved
as shown
in Fig.
into
two
4-34.
components
If a shear
stres
lem
similar must
tble
has been devised.9 It equation that must be identical to that stretched over a hole.
cross section on one side
at
happens that the solution of the solved in the elastic torsion probfor a thin membrane, such as a This hole must be geometrically
studied. Then
to the edges of the bar. However, as shears always occur in pairs on mutually perpendicular planes, these components would have to met by shears lying in the planes of the outside surfaces. The lat er uation is impossible as outside surfaces are free of all stresses.
must be zero. Similar the boundary. All shear act parallel to them. been The considerations stresses
the
pressure can
of
be
the
in the
used
Analytical
solutions
for
torsion
4-33)
are however,
of rectangular,
imum
be put
shear
into
stress
the
(see
fol owing
Fig.
form:
and
to other near
points
are
scope of interest.
elastic
members
1. The shear stress stretched membrane 2. The direction of a to the slope of the 3. Twice the volume
any point is proportional to the slope at the same point, Fig. 4-35(a). particular shear stress at a point is at right membrane at the same point, Fig. 4-35(a). enclosed by the membrane is proportional
angles
to the
torque
carried
by the
section.
the angle-of-twist,
these
results
Torsional
s R. J. Roark and W. C. Young, Formulas McGraw-Hil , 1975). Finite-element section are also available. See, for
Analysis
of Irregular
Shapes,"
for Stress and Strain, analyses for solid bars example, L. R. Herrmann, J. Eng. Mech. Div., ASCE
5th
*max -- cT
where T as before and t is the thickness is the applied or width
recorded in the
and
[3 depend
4) - [3
long
9 This
in 1903.
analogy
was
introduced
by the
German
engineering
scientist
L. Prandtl
The
these
values
values
of parameters
are
c and
upon
For
the
thin
ratio
sections,
b/t.
A few
b is much
Table
b/t
greater
than
for
1.50
t, the values
Rectangular
2.00
of c and
Bars
3.00
[3 approach
.
Weightless
of Coefficients
1.00
x7
6.00 10.0 m
cap
0.208
0.231
0.246
'0.267
0.299
0.312
.
McGraw-Hil ,
7 S. Timoshenko
0.141
1970),
and
0.196
312.
J. N.
0.229
The
Goodier,
0.263
is adapted
Theory
0.299
from
of Elasticity,
0.312
source.
3rd ed. (New
0.333
Stretched membrane
,<['
lb)
Membrane
''d'x
region,
table
this
(a)
Torsion
of Thin-Walled
Open
Sections
-t ' a
,k- t
Membran,_.x
t -----t
Section
Y
' slope
box
Maximum
ized
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Fig.
4-37
Members
of equal
cross-sectional
areas
of the
same
thickness
carrying
the
same
torque.
(a)
(b)
(c)
)the
MPLE
analysis
4-t5
indeterminate procedures
section
are
susceptible
4-9.
Fig.
4-36
Il ustration
of the
membrane
analogy
for
a rectangular
bar
in torsion.
The foregoing analogy is called the membrane its value in experimental applications, it is visualizing stresses and torque capacities of sider a narrow rectangular bar subjected to 36. A stretched membrane for this member such a membrane is lightly stretched by
through the membrane is a parabola, maximum slop6, hence maximum Fig. 4-36(c). No shear' stress develops hess t. The maximum shear stresses volume enclosed by the membrane the member can carry at a given Fig.
4-36(b). For this surface stress, occurs along the along a line bisecting the bat' along the short sides are small. is directly proportional to the maximum stress. For this reason, sections shown in Fig. 4-37 can carry approximately the same torque the same maximum shear stress (same maximum slope of the since the volume enclosed by the membranes would be the same in all cases. (For all these shapes, b = L and the t's are e However, use of a litfie imagination wil convince the reader that contour lines of a soap film wil "pile up" at points a of re-entrant Hence, high local stresses wil occur at those points. Another analogy, the sand-heap analogy, has been developed for
shear
analogy. In addition a very useful mental aid members. For example, torque T, as shown in is shown in Fig. 4-36(a). internal pressure, a
using
with
Jtion
the
membrane
analogy,
in 4 given
x 65 steel
determine
in the
AISC
beam;
Manual
see Fig.
an approximate
of Steel
4-38.
Compare
value
for
Construction.
the calcula{ed
the
torsion
comparing
the
bar,
equations
Eq.
4-30,
given
it can
for
4 for
be concluded
a circular
as implied
that
from
section,
Jquv
the
Eq.
= f3bt 3. Further,
4-37(e), by
both for
4-16,
with
that
three
I
0.605"
'
65
section
can
be
approximated,
in Fig.
table
separate
narrow
that
for
bars:
the
two
web
flanges
is 10.91/0.390
and a web.
= 28.0,
Since
is 12/0.605
cases,
. Hence,
--0.390"
be
10.91"
Jequiv
value
problem
numerical
= (2 x 12 x 0.6053
in the .AISC
is identical.
+ 10.91
is larger (2.18
inside point
x 0.3903)
in4). The
corners. of view
= 1.99
discrepancy
using Eq.
in 4
can
4-21. The
given
work
Manual
to neglecting can
2.00" O.E!5"
Fig. 4-38
tic
torsion?
Dry
sand
is poured
onto
a raised
flat
surface
having
shape of the cross section of the member. The surface of the sand so formed assumes a constant slope. For example, a cone is formed a circular disc, or a pyramid on a square base. The constant slope of the sand corresponds to the limiting surface of the membrane the previous analogy. The volume of the sand heap, hence its weight, proportional to the ful y plastic torque carried by a section. The
items in connection with the sand surface have the same
Warpage
solution
section
of Thin.Walled
general
associated
Open
torsion problem
name of Saint-Venant.
Sections
discussed
membrane
of the
is
elastic
with
in the
Solutions
prefor
the
thin-walled
This
In
this
open
rigorous
sections
approach
22 may
As pointed
result
(which
in significant
out in connection
discussion
includes
inaccuracies
with
important
analogy,)
in some
twist
as
as those
McGraw-Hil ,
in the
1950).
applications.
section presents
such
the
to
of
2o A. Nadai,
only
a qualitative
neither
of
are hollow.
of this
referred
topic.
simply
Sec,
4-t6.
Thin-Walled
Hollow
Members
2t3
oA
-16.
Fig. 4-39 Cross-sectional
Thin-Walled
solid noncircular
Hollow
members,
Members
thin-walled tubes of any shape can be
warpage
torque.
due
to applied
(a) (b)
bar,
no
that length
shear
along smfacei
as for:
shown
simply -of-twist
analyzed caused
in Fig.
shape
Fz,
by
for
4-40(b). on the
with to torque
F2,
of the to the
shear tube.
be in equilibrium
are
such from
stresses Thus,
and consider
the
under
in as
the
of curved
forces
to
bars. In this sense, an I section, shown in Fig. 4-39, bars, and, during twisting, the three middle surfaces of thes develop in-plane deformations. of symmetry, this I section twists around its centroidal axis: case is also the center of twist. During twisting, as the
hear
stresses
acting
cut
planes
multiplied
by the
respective
areas.
flanges
about surface warp, members,
displace
laterally,
the
undeformed
point A, Fig. 4-39(a). Similar of the other flange. In this i.e., cease to be plane, during the sections perpendicular
4-3, assumption
cross-sectional
warpage,
or its restraint,
particularly
sections, including rectangular hand, for thin-walled torsion automobiles, ships, bridges,
middle
surface
abcd
rotate
Hence, x2t2 dx = ? t dx, or t = 1'2t2. However, since the longitudinal sections were taken an arbitrary distance apart, it fol ows from the previous relations that the product of the shear stress and the wall thickness is the same, i.e., constant, on any such planes. This constant wil be denoted by q, which is measured in the units of force per unit distance
and
along
the
perimeter.
Therefore,
its units
are
either
N/m
or lb/in.
may
its
have
an important
Section 1-4, Eq. 1-2, tually perpendicular planes at a corner such as A in Fig. 'r4tl = w3t2, or, in general,
dicular mulated. to the axis The inner
In
it was established that shear stresses on muare equal at a corner of an element. Hence, 4-40(b), 'r2 = '3; similarly, z = 4. Therefore, q is constant in the plane of a section perpenthis basis, of the an wall analogy can be can thought be forof as
effect
23
on
member
strength,
on
stif ness.
being
tity
compatibility 4-39(b),
beam distance beams,
Such
is restrained in many engineering an end of a steel I beam to a rigid cannot warp. To maintain required
of water
the boundaries
steadily
of a hannel.
circulating
in this
Then
channel.
In this
arrangement,
a constant
quan-
the
t1
M,'shown effectively
F3
from cutouts,
This effect is local in character becomes unimportant. Nevertheless, warpage:restraint effect is dominant.
and,
portant
subject. Israel
are Elastic
topic
See Translations,
shown
is beyond
Vlasov
his book,
in the
the
scope
of 1940
of this
Elastic
text?
Beams,
23 V.
Z.
in a series
24 Shears 25 For
not
that
occur
papers
made
Structures,
details,
see,
2nd
for example,
ed.
diagram.
in the flanges
(New
and
York:
efficiently
McGraw-Hil ,
Services,
carry and
1961).
2nd
basic
ed.
contributions
(Washington,
to
part
1981).
torque of
(a) (c)
J. T. Oden
E. A. Ripperget,
Fig.
4-40
Thin-wall
tubular
member
of variable
thickness.
2t2
2t4
Torsion
quantity of water flowing through a plane across the channel Because of this analogy, the quantity q has been termed Next consider the cross section of the tube as shown The force per unit distance of the perimeter of this tube, previous argument, is constant and is the shear flow q. is const the shear in Fig. 4-40 by virtue of This shear
Sec.
In the elastic range, Eqs. For inelastic behavior, analysis of tubes
446.
Thin.Walled
Hollow
Members
shape of t is conscope of
4-34 and 4-35 are Eq. 4-35 applies of more than one
ential length. The product of this infinitesimal some convenient point such as O, Fig. 4~40(c), an element to the resistance of applied torque
this,
multiplied
by the length
ds of the perimeter
gives
a force
q ds per
book. 27 For linearly elastic materials, the angle of twist for a hollow tube can found by applying the principle of conservation of energy, Eq. 2-24. this derivation, it is convenient to introduce the angle-of-twist per unit of the tube defined as 0 = dqb/dx. The elastic shear strain energy the tube should also be per unit length of the tube. Hence, Eq. 3-5
the elastic
= 1 x t ds. simplifying,
strain
By
--
energy
substituting
here
Eq.
T 2
reduces
4-35 and
to Ush
then
T 2
= J'vo (,2/2G)
Eq. 4-34
ds
dV,
this
where
relation
into
T = rq ds
where the line of the
be writ en
integration perimeter.
as
process Since
tube this
along equation
the
in the last
Usa ' 8Q2G-----' -ds - - 8(2 5the constants are taken outside the integral. = TO/2,
(4-36)
length
becomes:
expression,
T= qfrds
Instead of carrying out the actual integration, a simple inter of the integral is available. It can be seen from Fig. 4~40(c) that r ds twice the value of the shaded area of an infinitesimal triangle of altit r and base ds. Hence, the complete integral is twice the whole bounded by the center line of the perimeter of the tube. Defining this
Equating
as We
this
relation
to the
the
governing
external
work
dif erential
per
unit
equation
of member
by a special
symbol
(),
one obtains
-' ds
to express
a prismatic
(4-37)
the torsional
tube subjected
stif ness
to
for
T = 2()q
proximately an outside surfaces line of the wall's is slit, when Eqs. Since for any the definition of
the wall thickness
or
to thin-walled
q - 2()
tubes. The area () is
portant members
F.XAMPLE
kt - qb- ds/t
cross-sectional for tubular fol ows
4-t6 Example of 10 and 4-3 8 ram, using Eqs. respectively, 4-34 and and the 4-35. The applied tube torque has outside is 40 N.m. and
(4-38)
This
equation
26 applies
average of the two areas enclosed by the inside and of a tube, or, as noted, it is an area enclosed by the contour. Equation 4-34 is not applicable at all if the 4-30 should be used. tube, the shear flow q given by Eq. 4-34 is constant, shear flow, the shear stress at any point of a tube
is t is
only
very
tubular
im-
inside
The
mean
York:
radius
McGraw-Hil ,
of the
tube
is 9 mm
1981).
and
the
wall
thickness
is 2 mm.
Hence,
engineer
26 Equation
who
developed
4-34
is sometimes
it.
called
Bredt's
formula
in honor
of the
27 j. T. Oden,
and
E. A. Ripperger,
Mechanics
of Elastic
Structures,
2nd
ed.
*Torsion
Problems
Fig.
t 20mmJ
12.7
mm
x-
q _
t
2()t-
2,r x 92 x 2
40 X 103
-- 39.3 MPa
X-max
..
Tc
50.4
103
10
J T
32.1
= = 31.6 46.7
MPa
MPa MPa
103 103
4-t
Note that by using Eqs. 4-34 and 4-35, only one it is just about the average of the two stresses thinner the walls, the more accurate the answer, It is interesting to note that a rectangular tube, thickness of 2 mm, for the same torque wil have
that of the circular tube. This is so because its
shear stress is obtained and t computed in Example 4-3. .or vice versa. shown in Fig. 4-41, with a nearly the same shear stress
enclosed area is about the
*2-m
= ebt 5 = 0.267
T
x 30 x 102
*3-m - 2()t
Stress Tl-max Occurs along the
2 x 40 x 20 x 3
perimeter of the knob,
T2.ma x at the
midheight
of
(reentrant)
tube.
However,
corners
some
of a square
local
stress
tube.
concentrations
stresses
great
lets
EXAMPLE 4-t7
concentrations
advantage
to determine
the solution
be considered be particularly
walls
the location
precise. important.
of the tube.
of stress
manner,
indeterminate
In mechanical Membrane
Due
to the approximations
analogy
concentrations.
such
applications, can
Generous
for
stress be used to
m?de,
fil-
as needed
elastic problems,
vibration
would
for
An
300 N.m
aluminum
is applied,
extrusion
(a) determine
parts
stress
has
the
cross
the maximum
member, and
section
shown
shear
(b) find
stresses
in Fig.
4-42
that would
If torque
sufficiently
accurate
since
local
effects
such
as stress
concentrations
play
de,
or
in the
the
Solution
three
member.
dif erent
Neglect
of the
concentrations.
the
torsional
stif ness
The cross section consists essential y of three parts: a circular knob (), a tangular bar (), and a rectangular hollow box with variable wall-thickness,
During application of torque T, each one of these elements rotates through
same
angle
qb, and
therefore
each
element
by the for (kt)[s constants
Probeores
4-2.
6-in
diameter
core
of
3 in
radius
is bored
out
resists
a torque
(kt)iqb.
Hence,
;hown
solid in mm
on
cylindrical the
figure,
shaft of is acted
variable upon
by
size, the
as tor-
from
a 9-in
diameter
solid
circular
shaft.
What
per-
centage
ation?
of the
torsional
strength
is lost
by
this
oper-
to Eq. 4-21, the total torque resisted for the three parts. The expressions by Eqs. 4-17, 4-31, and 4-38. These
sum are
of these
quantitiei
ques
the
indicated.
shaft,
and
What
between
is the
55
what
maximum
two
pulleys
torsional
does
stress
it
N'm
880 N-m
(kt)3 = 4Q2 G_
4
4 x (40 x 20) 2
evaluating of the
6.98 x 104 G
in
Fig. P44
'
4-6
4-3. A solid circular shaft of 2-in diameter is to be
2000
A 120-ram-diameter solid-steel sht ansmits
where tion,
=
By adding
9.34 x
the
104G/L.
the member
are 300
the
box
torsional
three
integral extends
for
stif ness
in
40 mm.
4-4.
(kt)i/
The
applied
(kt)i.
this
basis,
is
distributed
among
the are
x (1.57
parts
104G/L)/(9.34
224 N.m using,
a ratio
for
by
a hollow
mbe
circular
is limited
tube.
to 3 in,
If the
what
outside
must be
dithe
Detemine be the
the requked
maximum sh
shear diameter
to operate
at 4 Hz at the same
a set
figure, on
mimum
sess?
of the
tube
for
the
same
linearly
elastic
ma-
stress?
Determine
shafts.
of ges, drives a line at 630 m. Thiy hp e the right; 90 hp on the left.
Torsion
Problems
Section 4-8
200-ram
be the length
that
= 27
pitch
4-10.
minum
What
wire
42 MPa?
must
so
ofa
be
5-mm
twisted
diaineter
through
Through
diameter;
what
angle
if at A
pitch
it could
a torqu.e
complete
of
revolution
G
without
GPa.
exceeding
steel line
a shear
shaft s
-15.
AB
is prevented
of 560 N.m
4-1t.
The
solid
50-mm-diameter
in the
Find the
figure
maximum
is driven
torsional
by
a 30-hp
stresses
motor
in
at 3 Hz.
sections
A circular
of twist
(b) Let
steel
from
is applied
shaft
rotating?
of the right
of the dimensions
G = 84 GPa.
shown
tor-
Fig.
P447
Select The
a solid allowable
round shear
shaft stress
throughout.
BC, angle
CD,
and of twist
(b) E. Let
ues.
G = 84 GPa.
along
the
rotation of the free end if d] = 6 in, d2 = 2 in, L =
diam.
bore
the
a hollow exceeding
ratio
steel
of the
shaft a shear
solid
outside
Bearing 5hpoff
N
15hpoff
10hpoff
jected
Determine 4-18.
the A thin-walled
to torque
T = 27,000 of strain
torsional
apply,
in-lb. in prismatic
Assume
that
and
flexibility
circular
the shafts
usual sub-
(b)
elastic
frustum
has
the
inside
instead?
diameter.
(b)
What
shaft
could
be
used
dimensions sional
Fig. P4-tt
shown
stif ness
torof
4-7. A 100-hp motor is driving A at 26.3 rpm. Bevel gears cement mixers. If the power driven by gear B is 25 hp and are the required shaft diameters? stress in the shaft is 6000 psi. bearing is provided to avoid
a line shaft through gear at B and C drive rubberrequirement of the mixer that of C is 75 hp, what The allowable shear A sufficient number of bending.
for
is used as
Fig. P445
of
torque
the
this
material
member?
per
unit
angle
of twist.
The
torsional
shearing
flexibility
modulus
4-12.
A hollow
steel
rod
6 in long
spring. The ratio of inside to outside diameters is The required stif ness for this spring is of a de per 1 in-lb of torque. (a) Determine the outside ameier of this rod. G = 12 x 106 psi. (b) What is torsional spring constant for this rod?
4-t3. and
shaft shaft
d.
A []
d:z
A solid 1000 mm
of the would
is employed
an
exhaust
to calibrate
300
fan
at 20
the
apart,
Hz.
re1" diam.
1/2r"Wall
thickness
shaft
dynamometer
and
disks
consists
attached
of a 12-mm-diameter
to the shaft
mm
solid
aluminum-alloy long is to be
outer exceed
shaft replaced
50 mm by a
in
same neither
diameter twice
such the
of
that maximum
the tubular
the
as shown in the figure. tube at the input end; The relative displacement stroboscopic light the given
One
the
Section
4-8. A solid
20
Fig. P4-7
- 10'-:-
stress
What
nor
should
the
GAI
criteria
angle
be the
of twist
inner
of the
radius
aluminum
= 84 GPa.
shaft.
(b)
(a)
power
speed.
input
was in hp required
Let
is fastened through a other is near the output end. of these two disks as viewed found to be 6 0'. Compute
disk
diam.
G = 84 GPa.
to operate
the
fan
at
Fig.
P448
shaft?
of the
Let
two
= 28 GPa
governs?
and
Gst
Two shafts,
attached jn the
gear
at B
449. The loading on a control torque eron of an airplane may be idealized varying torque t = kx in-lb/in, where (see the figure). Determine the angle
free end. Assume JG to be constant.
300
mm
chined
down
to a diameter
of 75
mm
along
a part
of
/ 3000mm
12 mm
the
eters,
shaft.
the
If,
fil et
at the
radius
transition
is 12 mm,
point
what
of the
maximum
two
diamshear
stress plied
be
is apstress of
if
6000 mm
Motor
Dynamometer
Fan
Fig,
P446
4-.9.
the
a 6-iri shear
Find
shaft
diameter
the
required
is limited
shaft
with
fil et
a 4-in
radius
psi.
diameter
for
the juncture
the
Fig.
P449
segment
A solid
Fig. P444
tapered
end
steel
(see
shaft
the
is rigidly
is subjected
Find
fastened
the
to
angular
transmits
stress
and
maximum
at the
support
other
at one
end
and
figure).
to a torque
shaft
is idealized
end,
see the
fig-
")20
Torsion
bution and
4-23.
'N.m/m
Problems
on a graph. (b) Determine flexibility of the shaft.
A tube of 50-ram outside
221
the
torsional
and
diameter
it is equal
the application
2-:8.)
of a unit
torque
at b, and show
J = 3J2.
at a. Let
at b due to the
(See
that
is attached at the ends to a solid shaft of 25-mm figure. If both the tube and same linearly elastic material, torque T is carried by the
25 2
:tions
(a) Using the force method, for the circular stepped The applied torques are T and T3 = 200 lb-in. Th 2.83 in and d2 = 2.38 in. (b)
for the shaft along
Fig.
P4-20
its length.
d2
shaft Plot
Fig.
P4-32
d
of torque
the angle-of-twist
T ;. see
the
q>(x)
figure.
diagrams.
Plot
the
torque
T(x)
and
10 x
103 ksi.
*4-33. Section
reactions
ure
the
end.
The
'4-21.
A 2000-mm
long
circular
along rigidity
shaft
attached
at one-
end_and free at the other ing distributed torque figure. The torsional stant. Determine the caused by the applied
is subjected to a linearly varyits length, as shown in the JG of the shaft is conangle of twist at the free end torque.
T I
4-24.
the
of 200
500
Fig. P4-23
. "
4-23,
is subjected
in this condition
dl
along
gram Section
I T'
T2
, , T3
for
Using Eq. 4-26 and continuity conditions (see 2-19) or singularity functions, determine the caused by a uniformly distributed torque to one-half of the shaft length, as shown in the figProblem 4-28. Sketch the angle-of-twist dia-
along
the 4-'i'i
shaft
length.
Assume
rigid
N-m
that
plates,
and maintained
in Problem
the shaft
prior
wil
to
to
end
2000--
welding
the shaft
process.
upon
Using
the displacement method, determine for the shaft shown in Fig. 4-21 for the data: T = 40 k-in, L = 15 in, L2 = 10 in, in 4, J2 = ,r/2 in 4, and G = G2 = G = 12
103 ksi.
shaft along
Also
its
What
residual
torque
remain
is subjected to a uniformly distributed torque to per length along one-half of its length, as shown in figure. (a) Using the force method, find the reac(b) Determine the angle of maximum twist and the angle-of-twist diagram along the shaft length.
torsional rigidity JG of the shaft is constant.
4-34. A circular stepped shaft has the dimensions shown in the figure. (a) Using an energy method, determine the angle of twist at the loaded end. G is given. (b) Check the result using Eq. 4-16.
--3 d
plot
the
angle-of-twist
elastic
angle
diagram
for
length.
4-26. shown
Fig. P4-2t
Consider in the
determine
the
two
same alternative
the
stepped
figures. of twist
T
circular
Using the qb,b at a
N
to
Fig.
P4-34
method,
Section
Fig. P4-28
4-'i2
Section
4-9
that cross
Assume
that
the
shaft
in
Problem
4-20
is at-
4-35. A coupling is made with eight -in-diameter high-strength bolts located on a 10-in-diameter bolt circle. (a) Calculate the torque that can be transmit ed by this coupling if the allowable shear stress in the bolts is 10,500 psi. (b) Find the hp that can be transmit ed
when 4-36. sectional the shaft A flange area and couplings are rotating at 250 rpm. coupling has six bolts having a crossof 0.2 in 2 each in a 8-in-diameter bolt
tached
(a)
(a)
the the
force angle
method, of maximum
de-
103 ksi.
a torque
(a) What
T = 200
stresses
k-in?
would
Show
be caused
the shear
by applying
stress distri-
and
shaft length.
plot
the
angle-of-twist
diagram
along
the
circle,
4.t0
and
six
bolts
having
bolt
a cross
sectional
If the is the
area
allowtorque
of
Rework
Rework
Steel
Problem
Problem
4-20
4-21
using
using
Eq.
Eq.
4-26.
4-26.
capacity Section
of this 443
coupling?
(b)
Using 2-19)
Fig.
P4-22
Fig.
P4-26
at the
ends
continuity functions,
caused
by
conditions determine
the
application
(see the
4-37.
diameter
A specimen
and
450-mm
of an SAE
length
failed
1060
steel
at a torque
bar
of 20-mm
of 900
Torsion
N-m.
torsion?
Problems
of this
and
223
What
is the
modulus
shaft such
of rupture
of 20-ram diameter that. a 16-mm-diameter
steel
1000 core
in
elastic
into
the
600-MPa
range.
x-- dia
9ram
for
A solid steel long is twisted
the
two
materials
are
4-40 the the residual
critical
il ustrated
in the figure:
torque pattern?
Determine
4-38. mm
the the
figure. yield
Find
is relea Draw
the
values.
i< 120mm-- 8
Fig. P4-45
sidual stress distribution that would the torque. Draw the residual-stress critical values. Assume the idealized erties for the material given in Fig.
4-13.
sidual
angle
of twist
per
unit
length
of shaft.
Section
4-14
,torsional
Using
the sand-heap
moment
of resistance
an.logy,
determine
for
a rectangular
4-42.
and
Compare
a circular
the
members for a square
section.
maximum
of equal section,
All members
shear
length a
stress
and
are
and
cross-
an
the
is 100 mm
of a by 2a. (Hint: First, using the analogy, Eq. 4-29 for a solid circular shaft, where the of the heap is CXyp. Twice the volume included heap yields the required results.)
on 4-16 a member having the cross section shown
Fig.
P4-48
the
2O T
same
torque.
and Compare
tubes
The
the rectangular
circular
torsional
section
section
diameter
is 25 mm
MPa. there
4-49.
4-43.
thin-wailed
the
of
strength
cross section
and a longitudinal
stif ne
of lira
centerline
Is Use
circular
For
A shaft
having
elastic (see
the
material figure).
with
and
without
Fig.
4-39. If the shaft in Problem
P4-38
4-38 is twisted at the free
end
through
critical
an angle
values.
qb = 0.25 the
rad
and
then
released,
'what shear
the
find
the residual
pattern with
figure, find the maximum shear stresses and anof twist per unit length due to an applied torque 1000 in-lb. Neglect stress concentrations. Comment the advantage gained by the increase in the wall thickness over part of the cross section.
figure timate
components, and calculate the stresses in each part, neglecting stress (b) Find the angle-of-twist per unit
length
103
GPa.
caused
by the
applied
'3 mm
torque.
Let
G = 25
4-40.
a solid
tube
rod
of nickel-alloy
of mild
is shrunk
cross-sectional
onto
in mm
by
on
100
mm
:ram
30
mm
dimensions
on
shaft
of the
figure.
if the
composite
the
shear
shaft
torque
stress
are
deYeloped
measured
shown
the
Determine
maximum
this
the
4-44. An agitator shaft acting as a torsional is made by welding four rectangular bars to a pipe, as shown in the figure. The pipe is of 4 in diameter and is in thick; each of the rectangular
0.20"
Fig.
A thin-walled cross
P4-47
section in the form of a sim-
elastic
to this
shear is'limited
member?
stress, to 8
airfoil
is shown
in
the
figure.
Determine
the
torque
it would
carry
at a maximum
shear
stress
of 20
Fig.
P4-49
Alst loeyel
Mild steel o
120 MPa
4-45. A torsion member
Fig.
P4-44
has the cross section
Fig.
P4-40
in the
figure.
Estimate
the
torsion
constant
Jequiv.
Sec.
5-2.
Diagrammatic
Conventions
for
Supports
?chapter
ems wil be ful y analyzed for these quantities. Special procedures to developed in subsequent chapters are required for determining reacin.statically indeterminate problems for complete solutions. Extenion to members in three-dimensional systems, where there are six posinternal force components, wil be introduced in later chapters and wil rely on the reader's knowledge of statics. In such at a section of a member there can be: an axial force, two two bending moment components, and a torque. probshear
as
;.2.
5=][. Introduction
Diagrammatic
for and
Conventions
for Supports
The
effect
of axial
forces
and torsion
applied beams.
laterally main
act materials,
are
an axle of a car is a beam. Many shafts as torsion members and as beams. is a dominant member of construction.
forces objective members necessary of this previously for eq chapter.
on straight
members
was
treated
desi
determination of the system of internal of any beam segment wil be the main For. the axial y or torsionally loaded
only one internal force was required at an arbitrary section to satisfy conditions of equilibrium. However, even for a beam with all forces the same plane, i.e., a planar beam problem, a system of three force components can develop at a section. These are the axial force,
shear, and the bending moment. Determining these quantities is
of this chapter.
it is essential to adopt diagrammatic conand loadings inasmuch as several kinds of of loads are possible. An adherence to such inventions avoids much confusion and minimizes the chances of making These conventions form the pictorial language of engineers. types of supports are recognized for planar structures. These are by the kind of resistance they offer to the forces. One type of physically realized by a roller or a link. It is capable of resisting in only one specific line of action. The link shown in Fig. 5-1(a) can resist a force only in the direction of line AB. The roller in Fig. 5can resist only a vertical force, whereas the rollers in Fig. 5-1(c) can only a force that acts perpendicular to the plane CD. This type of ort wil be usually represented in this text by rollers as shown in Figs. and (c), and it wil be understood that a roller support is capable a force in either direction 2 along the line of action of the To avoid this ambiguity, a schematic link wil be occasionally to indicate that the reactive force may act in either direction
(a)
Roller
IRA
Fig.
The
is divided into three parts. In Part A, methods for are reviewed; in Parts B and C, two dif erent the internal shear and bending moment and their along a beam are discussed. At the end of Part C, on singularity functions for solving such problems is
largely confined to consideration of single wil be shown in the horizontal position. problems of planar frames resisting axial moments is also given. Only statically
of statics two components type of support a support is realized such supports wil
and the next three
equations the
5-4).
A reaction
applied. For inclined reactions, the ratio is fixed (see Example 1-3). that may be used is a pin. In construction, by using a detail shown in Fig. 5-2(a). In this be represented diagrammatically, as shown in
sections are an informal review of statics.
of this
are
type.
corresponds
to a single
unknown
This
2 This
Attention wil be which, for convenience, discussion of related shears, and bending
y from the beam; in other words, the beam is not allowed to lift off from support at A in Fig. 5-1(b). In this figure, it may be helpful to show the roller top ' the beam in the case of a downward reaction in order to make it clear constrained against moving vertically at the support. This practice
wil be fol owed in the text.
imples
that
in the actual
design,
a link
must
be provided
if the reaction
(c)
Fig,
of supports. possible
reactions dashed
5-1
Link
lines
are lines.)
and
roller
types
of the
the
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
Sec.
5-3.
Diagrammatic
Conventions
for
Loading
227
L Beam
(a)
Rcx
P
RAx
P
b)
actual,
Fig.
5-2
and
Pinned
roller
Simple
5-4
or a link
Three supports:
basic
resists
directed
supports resists
force.
two
for
Fixed
(c)
a fixed
and
(a)
(b)
(b)
diagrammatic.
support
resists
two
force
components
and
a moment.
Concentrated
loading
on a beam,
(a) actual,
and
lb) idealized.
Fig. 5~2(b). A pinned support direction of the plane. Hence, may have two components, direction. Unlike the ratio
between determine the these reaction two components components,
is capable of resisting a force acting in general, the reaction at such a one in the horizontal and one in the applying to the roller or link support,
for two the pinned equations support of statics is not must
in
types
loads.
could
loads uniformly
easily
be an idealization
loads
these,
and
of the
two the
warehouse
kinds uniformly
are
just
be u.
Fig.
5-3
Fixed
support.
third type of support is able to resist a force in any and is also capable of resisting a moment or a couple. Physically, a support is obtained by building a beam into a wall, casting it into crete, or welding the end of a member to the main structure. A s
of a is it
The
three forces can exist at such a support, two components of force moment. Such a support is called afixed support, i.e., the built-in fixed or prevented from rotating. The is shown in Fig. 5-3. To dif erentiate fixed supports from the roller and pin supports, are not capable of resisting moment, the lat er two are termed supports. Figure 5-4 summarizes the foregoing distinctions between three types of supports and the kind of resistance offered by each In practice, engineers usually assume the supports to be of one of three types by "judgment," although in actual construction, supports beams do not always clearly fal into these classifications.
idealization are shown in Fig. 5-6. per unit length of the beam, unless In SI units, it may be given as newtons per
in the U.S. customary units, as pounds per inch (lb/in), as foot (lb/ft), or as kilopounds per foot (k/ft). Uniformly varying loads act on the vertical and inclined walls of a vessel Containing liquid. This is il ustrated in Fig. 5-7, where it is assumed that vertical beam is one meter wide and /(N/m 3) is the unit weight of liquid. For this type of loading, it should be careful y noted that the intensity of the load of qo N/m is applicable only to an infinilength of the beam. It is twice as large as the average intensity
by such a loading on a beam
(qoh/2)
'5-3.
Diagrammatic
Conventions
for Loading
to support to a beam 5~5(a). Such the beam forces. other hand, portion piled up along a variety of loads. through a post, a arrangements apply and are idealized for These are shown in many instances of the beam. In a the length of a
Horizontal bottoms of vessels containing liquid are loaded uniVarious aerodynamic loadings are of distributed type. it is conceivable to load a beam with a concentrated moment to the beam essential y at a point. One of the possible arrangefor applying a concentrated moment is shown in Fig. 5-8(a), and
N,
and
its resultant
acts
at a distance
h/3
above
the
vessel's
Uniformly varying
load
Structural members are called upon example, frequently a force is applied or a bolted detail, as shown in Fig. force over a very limited portion of purposes of beam analysis as concentrated grammatically in Fig. 5~5(b). On the forces are applied over a considerable house, for example, goods may be
Such
distributed
per
loads
are defined
by their
load
intensity
at any
point
i
Fig. 5-6
(a}
(b)
qo N/m
(max)
= 3,'h
wall.
'1
Fig.
5-7
a vertical
Hydrostatic
loading
force
unit
length.
Distributed
loading
on a beam,
(a) actual,
and
lb)
idealized.
on
228
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
1,1/
Sec.
5-4.
Classification
of
Beams
229
A method a concentrated
to a beam.
for
;Pulley
its diagrammatic
5-8(c).
(a)
1,1/
(b)
(b)
(c)
representation
to be used
in this
text
is shown
in
(c) (f)
A less artificial example of the application of a concentrated to a member, frequently occurring in the design of machine and elements, is il ustrated in Fig. 5-9. In order to maintain the applied P in equilibrium at joint C, a shear P and a moment Pd mt at the support, Fig. 5-9(c). These forces apply a concentrated
and an axial force, as shown in Fig. 5-9(b).
The
necessity
notations
supports and forces cannot be overemphasized. the kind of resistance offered by the dif erent types the manner of representation of the forces at such
wil be used to construct free-body diagrams
for
for
a complete
understanding
of the
foregoing
(d)
(g)
Fig.
540
Types
of beams.
*54.
Classification
of
Beams
of supports
or rollers, and (b).
Beams
are classified
the
used.
The
A
beams beam
Thus,
into
if the supports
Several
of
if the ends have fixed supports. Likewise, fol owing the of nomenclature, the beam shown in Fig. 5-10(d) is a beam end and simply supported at the other. Such beams are also ted beams, as one end is "restrained" from rotation. A beam
at one end
the
and
completely
projects the
free
at the other
a support, in Fig.
has a special
the
name,
a cantilever
to have an
beam.
Fig.
5-10(e).
and
are either
Figs. beam,
Fig.
(c)
B
Fig. 5-10(g), the beam is termed a continuous beam. For the distance between supports is called a span. In a there are several spans that may be of varying lengths. In addition to classifying beams on the basis of supports, descriptive pertaining to the loading are often used. Thus, the beam shown Fig. 5-10(a) is a simple beam with a concentrated load, whereas the in Fig. 5-10(b) is a simple beam with a uniformly distributed load. types of beams are similarly described. For most of the work in engineering solid mechanics, it is also meanto further classify beams into statically determinate and statically ate beams. If for a planar beam or a frame, the number of reaction components, including a bending moment, does not exceed three, such a structural system is externally statically determinate. unknowns can always be found from the equations of static equi-
If intermediate
beam Thus,
beyond
supports
beam
are. provided
shown
for a physically
5-10(f)
continuous
member
{a)
{b)
librium.
The
next
section
wil
briefly
review
the methods
beams. is given
of statics
for
Fig. 5-9
moment
Loaded
to
the
vertical
horizontal
member.
member
applies
an axial
force
and
a concentrated
:omputing
reactions mg reactions
for
statically in indeterminate
determinate beams
A procedure in Chapter
for
10.
230
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
Sec.
5.5.
Calculation
of
Beam
Reactions
*5-5.
All
mination
Calculation
subsequent
of the reactions.
of Beam
work with
When
Reactions
all of the
160
200
N.m
beams
in this
forces
chapter
are
wil
applied
begin
in one
with
de
RA 1-
three
equations
of static
equilibrium
are available
for
be taken rection,
1. For
straight
direction, the y axis in the upward normal to the plane of the paper. The
beams
in the horizontal
position,
already
the
analysis.
been
the x axis
vertical
discus,.
> I RB
(a)
Fig.
5-tt
of these equations to several beam problems is il ustrated in the examples and is intended to serve as a i The deformation'of beams, being small, is neglected when the of statics are applied. For stable beams, the small amount that does take place changes the points of application of the forces
perceptibly.
EXAMPLE 5-'1
If more
unknown reaction components becomes statically indeterminate. .Xlote that the concentrated moment the summation of moments. The been correctly assumed in Fig.
vertical reaction
if the calculations
exist
at the
support,
the
prob-
at A
acts
are
downward.
made
Find
11(a).
Solution
the
Neglect
reactions
the
at the
weight
supports
of the beam.
for
a simple
beam
loaded
as shown
in Fi
Solution
The
leading
of the beam
is already
given
supports is examined next, and the unknown components of these reactior clearly indicated on the diagram. The beam, with the unknown reaction ponents and all the applied forces, is redrawn in Fig. 5-11(b) to emphasize important step in constructing a free-body diagram. In order to the applied forces and reactions, fol owing the suggestion made in Section
slashes are drawn across the reaction force vectors.
computing
a time.
reactions, 5-12.
prefer
to make
the
every
same
determined
in diagrammatic
form.
The
nature
of
total reaction is obtained by summing these reactions. This propermits a running check of the computations as they are performed. For t force, the sum of its reactions is equal to the force itself. For example, for 160-N force, it is easy to see that the upward forces of 40 N and 120 N total N. On the other hand, the concentrated moment at C, being a couple, is
by a couple.
of
It causes
500 N at
an upward
the left reaction.
force
of 500
N at the
fight
reaction
and
At A,
The The reaction points
two
unknown
at B can of application
reaction
act
components
the equations
may
direction careful y
exist,
since noted.
since
the After
the
end
end
is on
is
a
gram
solution.
of the
beam
is made,
of statics
are
applied
to
Fx MA
= 0 = 0
200
+ 100
x 0.2
+ 160
x 0.3
--RB
RB = +
RL x 0.4
670
00 x
R}
100 x
i 'R
0.4 m
M
= 0
R^y
x 0.4
+ 200
- 100
x 0.2
- 160
RAy =
x 0.1
--410
t MA=0
500 N = 200 X 1/(0.4)
50 40 g0
N N N
i60
x (0.1)/(0.4)
Check:
Note
thus, only
F:,
that
two additional
= 0'
+
one of the three
reaction-components
-410independent
can be
100
determined
- 160 + 670
equations
from
R 410N
Fig. 5-t2
R=670N
50 N = 100 X (0.2)/(0.4)
F. = 0 uses
of
232
Moment
P-sX3X
_ 1
of Beam Reactions
q. = 10 kN/m
_,-crlqT
RAx
R''f -X3=2 m
5m
(a)
4k
Fig.
5-t3
(b)
/3k5k
(b)
Rax
RAy
EXAMPLE
5-2
Find shown
Solution
the
reactions for the partial y loaded in Fig. 5-13(a). Neglect the weight
a uniformly
varying
Iution
Fig.
5-t4
the supporting conditions indicates that there are components; hence, the beam is statically determinate. and the applied load are shown in Fig. 5-13Co). Note particularly that figuration of the member is not important for computing the reactions. shaped outline, bearing no i-esemblance to the actual beam, is indicated
At
A,
there
are
two
unknown
re-
components,
plane the
RA
and
R,..
At B, the
reaction
RB
acts
normal
to the
the
10rting
by
phasize
same
manner
this point.
as the
However,
original
beam.
this new
body
is supported
load
at points
A and
forces.
to
equal.
components
shown.
tuilibrium.
These
cal.
It is expedient to replace in this particular problem it is best to replace the inclined force with the steps reduce the problem to one where all forces This is of great convenience in applying the equations
concentrated
For
calculating
force
the reactions,
P. It acts
through
the distributed
the
centroid
of the
is replaced
distributed
by an
pertinent quantities are marked on the working body diagram is prepared, the solution fol ows
equilibrium.
MA=0G+
iM=0G
,F = 0--
+
+
4x3-R RAy
RAx
m. x12=O X 12 - 4 x 9 = 0
-- 3 1 = 0
R,=
RAy
lkt
= 3 k 1
= I g. I
R ,. = 4 k--*
+ 15 x 2 - RB x 5 = 0 - RAy x 5 + 15 x 3 = 0
-9+
R/ = 0 RB = 6 R/y = 9
15-6
R,
= X,/42
+ 32 = 5 k
R
= Vff7+
12 = /k
+3-4+1=0
EXAMPLE
5-3
Determine applied
the
force.
reactions
at A and
B for
the
beam
shown
in Fig.
5-14(a)
h#ges or p#medjoints are introduced is capable of transmit ing only horizontal and be transmit ed at a hingedjoht. Therefore, the a particularly convenient location for "separation" oses of computing the reactions. This process part of the beam so separated is treated independently.
axis around which moments may be taken
into beams and frames. vertical forces. No moment point where a hinge occurs of the structure into parts is il ustrated in Fig. 5-15. Each hinge provides
to determine reactions. The
234
Axial Force,
Shear,
and Bending
Moment
235
(
1 - -a
.
2
B
particularly that the imaginary section goes through and separates it too. Each of these beam segments must be in equilibrium: These conditions of equilibrium stence of a system of internal forces at the cut section
In general,
Structures the
at hinges reactions
to
by
(b)
introduction of a hinge or hinges
is not
(c)
into a continuous beam in many cases
and
at a section
are
of such
a member,
a vertical
force,
a horizontal
in
the
beam
system
results
statically
in a beam
determinate.
that
The
stable.
introduction
Note that
of a hinge
the reaction
into
a deterr
at the hit
horizontal
force
such
as P,
shown
in Fig.
5-16(b)
or
(c),
may
be
nec-
;sary
at a section
one
beam
acts
in an opposite
dh'ection
on
the
other
beam.
5-{.
The
the
Application
main
forces
of the
of this
exist at
called a thrust; if away, it is called axial tension. In referring to either these forces, the term axial force is used. The effect of an axial force a section of a member has already been discussed in Chapters 1 and was shown that it is imperative to apply this force through the centroid
uniformly
load)
equation
and
Fx = 0. If the horizontal
sense
of a beam
of this
to satisfy
force
fol ows
the
conditions
force
from
P acts
a particular
of equilibrium.
toward
the section,
solution
The
of
/P2(tta'ad )
M
objective
that
chapter
of
is to establish
a beam or
means
a frame.
for
To
dete
obtain
a section
(a)
forces,
the
method
of
sections,
the
basic
approach
of solid
wil
be applied. This procedure The analysis of any beam begins with thd preparation plied and the reactive forces. the equations of equilibrium
If the labeled system and is statically shown on
the
is referred to here as a direct or frame for determining the internal of a free-body diagram showing both The reactions can aiwa3 provided the system is staticall3
reactions manner, are
for and section either case,
the
(b)
P2
complete
no distinction The method
indeterminate, the free-body. In this force system is identified. In the has to be made between the of sections can then be applied
subsequent
applied at any
steps
reactive of a
(c)
P
previously used concept that if a whole body is in of it is likewise in equilibrium. consider a beam, such as shown in Fig. 5-16(a),
and distributed forces acting on it. The
W2
lR,v
B
the method of sections to a
also
presumed
to be known,
since
they
may
be computed
as in the
/RB
statically
determinate'beam.
236
Moment
of a member to avoid bending. Similarly,
Resultant of all forces
237
wil always
area.
the line
centroid
of action
of the beam's
of the axial
cross-sectional
force
be directed
throu
of is
section along a beam may axial force in the previous manner. tomarily taken positive. The axial
5-16(b) 5-8. and Shear (c) is equal in Beams to the horizontal
Any
," to theleftofsection
+V
element
(including
reactions)
in Fi
Beam
(c)
In general, to maintain a segment of a beam, such as that shown in 5-16(b), in equilibrium, there must be an internal vertical force at cut to satisfy the equation Fy = 0. This internal force , angles to the axis of the beam, is called the shear, or shear force. shear is numerically equal to the algebraic sum of all the vertical ponents of the external forces acting on the isolated segment,
Arbitrary
section
+ V
opposite
This shown
is opposite
in direction.
to the
shear
direction
may in Fig.
in direction
Given
to the
the qualitative
downward
vertical
load
data shownin
to the
the
including
shown in the
of section maintain
the beam
At a section,
exerts
"two
a downward
segment
of the
observation must be made. The same and (c) at the section X-X is opposite in For that part of the downward load W to the
section
right-hand and is
left
of the
Fig. 5-16(b)
se
Fig.
5-t7
Definition
of
sec
positive
shear.
i specifying
section
X-X
section. Whether the ri the shear at a section is ' Shears at any other section
side
the
of Fig.
in
of a section,
Sections
direction
5-16(a)
of a shear
Fig.
1-3 and
is a negative
5-17(c).
1-4.)
V, it is essential
This
shear.
Note
is also
to associate
true
that
in addition
stresses.
with
it with
+v
discussion
shown
selected Historically,
sign
convention it appears
3 reverse f axes
generally
axes
force
on the beam,
must
provides Conversely,
as shown
be dif erentiated,
Bending
shear
Moment
and axial
in Beams
forces at a section of a beam satisfy only two
(a)
in Fig.
[ de
5-16{
from
in
uations
directions"
of shear
upon
which
of the
loaded
shear
concept rod,
beam
and
at section
of statics again
of
is considered.
X-X
This
fol ows
be
satisfied
within
by
cross-sectional
developing
area
a couple
of the
or an
cut to
internal
counteract
remoment
diagrams
similar another
necessary to dif erentiate between the two possible directions of The definition of positive shear is il ustrated in Fig. 5-17. A internal force V acting at a section on an isolated left segment of beam, as in Fig. 5-17(a), or an upward force V acting at the same on the right segment of the beam, as in Fig. 5-17(b), corresponds
itive lated shear. from Positive a beam
reversal along
if the
in the a beam.
distributed
direction Therefore,
load
W were
acting
upward.
Fret
governing
moment act
section
equation
of the internal resisting moment equals the external momoments tend to bend a beam in the plane of the loads and referred as bending moments. an internal bending moment maintaining a beam segment either the left- or the right-hand part of a beam free-body
N.
2nd
M
= 0. It fol ows
forces. to the
The external
internal
resisting
from
the
moment
same
to
equation
satisfy
that
the
(b)
by
shears two
and
in Fig. again
5-17(c) in Fig.
Crandall, tSolids,
and York:
T.
J. Lardner, McGraw-Hil ,
An
2nd Solids,
ed.
(New (Englewood
York:
Clif s,
Wiley,
NJ:
1971). E. Prentice-Hall,
P. Popov,
1968).
Introduction J. L. Introduction
1978).
to the
Merriam,
MeStat-
Fig. 548 Positive sense of shear and bending moment defined in (a) is used in this
text with coordinates shown
to Mechanics
in (b).
238
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and Bending
Moment
Moment
in Beams
23 {)
can be used, as shown in Figs. 5-16(b) and (c). The magnitude of bending moment is found by the summation of the moments caused all forces multiplied by their respective arms. The internal forces V P, as well as the applied couples, must be included in the sum. In
to exclude the moments caused by V and P, it is advantageous to
Yll 3m 9 kN
)' 10 kN/m
x
--i3
15kkN/m
A 9 kN
the point
moment
of intersection
moments cross section.
are on the
summed. In Figs.
of these
two
internal
and
lies
forces
as the point
top fibers
arot
of
may
and
be physically Fig.
lower
interpreted
ones.
as a pull
on the
beam
a push
convention
5-16(a) were acting in the opposite in Figs. 5-16(b) and (c) would reverse. the adoption of a sign convention for
is associated with a definite
physical
- 2 m--
(a)
-
<
(c)
the beam. For example, in Figs. shown cause tension in the upper lower. This tends to increase the
and to contract the lower surface.
5-16(b) and (c), the internal part of the beam and com length of the top surface
A continuous occurrence
along the beam makes the beam deform water." Such bending moments are assigned a positive moment is defined as one that
top
such
part
circumstances,
and
tension
in the
the
beam
water."
forces
deflects
For
example,
down
as shown
a simple
in exaggerated
beam
by physical intuition. Demitions for positive and ne moments are shown in Figs. 5-19(b) and (c). Note that, ast V, in addition to the sense of M, it is also essential to
for a particular side of a section.
part
of a beam's
form
a shape
cross
that
supporting
a group
in Fig.
5-19(a),
of
(b)
Fig.
5.20
EXAMPLE
5-4
;ider a-a
SOlution
earlier and
Example
b-b; see Fig.
5-2
and 5-20(a).
determine
the
internal
system
of forces
at sec-
+M
+M
free-body
Fibers in Fibers in +M
for
left
the
member,
a-a
including
in Fig.
reactions,
5-20(b)
is shown
shows the
in Fig.
maximum
5-20(a).
ordinate
A freefor
to the
of section
tension
+M
+M
compression
isolated
part
of the
1
applied
load.
2
Using
this
information,
v, = -9 + x 2 x x 10 = -2.33kN
{b)
M, = -9 x 2 +
-M
x 2 x x 10 x x 2 = -13.6kN.m
sense
forces
{a)
Fig. 5-20(d).
549 Definition of bending moment signs.
directly
It is evident
b-b
free-body
is simpler
5-20(c),
for calculations,
and
to the
right,
Fig.
240
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and Bending
Vb =
Moment
+6kN
Sec. 5.t0.
Axial.
P=Sk
Force,
Shear,
and Bending.Moment
Diagrams
and
rigidly must
Mb = -6 x 1 = -6kN.m
The same
joined together be perpendicular
-[
I
procedure
as well to the
consisting
In all such
of several
cases,
the
memb
secti6fi
{a) (g)
3k
2X8-4X3= 4 k-ft
2k,J'
J
3k
I I I
I
I
I
5-10.
By the shears, beam. a plot
Axial-Force,
Diagrams
methods discussed and bending Moreover, with of their values
Shear,
before,
and
the
Bending-Moment
magnitude be obtained sense of axial fo at many sections adopted for these separate diagrams.. On such and
.[2k
i
4 k-ft
i,
113k
4 k-ft
t' '2k
(h)
o
-3 +2 k k I I I Axial force
of
3k 2k
(d) (i)
a base line representing the length of a beam. When these ordinate are plot ed and interconnected by lines, graphical representations of functions are obtained. These diagrams, corresponding to the kind quantities they depict, are called,. respectively, the axial-force the shear diagram, or the bending-moment diagram. With the aid of diagrams, the magnitudes and locations of the various quantities becor immediately apparent. It is convenient to make these plots directly the free-body diagram of the beam, using the same horizontal scale the length of the beam. Draftsmanlike precision in making such is usually unnecessary, although the significant ordinates are
marked with their numerical value.
grams,
ordinates
may
be laid
off equal
to the
computed
qantities
2 k T.2, Jr-t
I
2
2 kj-O k-ft
(j)
+4 k-ft
Shear
2k
3k
Ii
+10
k-ft
+4
k-ft
J
5-
Bending
moment
4 kl
(k)
axial-force diagrams are not as commonly the bending-moment diagrams. This is so because investigated in practice are loaded by forces that axis of the beam. For such loadings of a beam, at any section. Shear and moment diagrams are exceedingly designer sees at a glance the kind of performance beam at every section. The procedure of sectioning and finding the system of forces at the section approach. It wil be used in the fol owing il ustrative of these examples, algebraic expressions for these wil be given. A systematic method for rapidly constructing grams wil be discussed in the next part of this
EXAMPLE 5-5
The
used the
Deflected
shape
Fig.
Solution
5-21
From them, is desired from a beam or a is the most examples. In functions along a and moment
shear chapter.
A free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. 5-21(b). Reactions fol ow from inspection after the applied force is resolved into the two components. Then several sections through the beam are investigated, as shown in Figs. 5-21(c)(g). In every case, the same question is posed: What are the necessary internal forces to keep the segment of the beam in equilibrium? The corresponding quantifies are recorded on the respective free-body diagrams of the beam segment. The ordinates for these quantifies are indicated by heavy dots in Figs. 5-21(h)(j), with due attention paid to their signs.
Note furnish that the the same free bodies information, shown
and
in Figs. normally
5-21(d) both
and would
Note
as they that
Construct in Fig.
bending-moment force P = 5 k.
diagrams
for
the
beam
a section just to the left of the applied force has one sign of shear, Fig. 5-21(e), whereas just to the right, Fig. 5-21(f), it has another. This indicates the importance of determining shears on either side of a concentrated force. For the condition shown, the beam does not resist a shear that is equal to the whole force. The
bending moment in both cases is the same.
:242
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
Sec.
540.
Axial.
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending-Moment
Diagrams
243
In this particular case, after a few individual points have been J the three diagrams in Figs. 5-21(h)-(j), the behavior of the respective across the whole length of the beam may be reasoned out. Thus, although segment of the beam shown in Fig. 5-21(c) is 2 ft long, it may vary in len anywhere from zero to first to the left of the applied force, and no change in shear and the axial force occurs. Hence, the ordinates in Figs. 5-21(h) and remain constant for this segment of the beam. On the other hand, the moment depends directly on the distance from the support; hence, it varies early, as shown in Fig. 5-21(j). Similar reasoning applies to the segment in Fig. 5-21(d), enabling one to complete the three diagrams on the ri side. The use of the free-body of Fig. 5-21(g) for completing the diagram to fight of center yields. the same result. The sign of a bending moment, per Figs. 5-19(b) and (c), defines the sense which a beam bends. Since, in this problem, throughout the beam length, moments are positive, the beam curves to "retain water." In order to this physical behavior some analysts find it advantageous to draw a short line directly on the moment diagram, as shown in Fig. 5-21(j), to ifidicate manner in which a beam or a beam segment curves.
Sometimes, in addition to or instead of the shear or moment dia
(a)
*
(d)
>1
Axial
force
Shear
(f)
p PLf
P I \PL - Px
-PL
Moment
expressions of the
for
beam,
V= V=
necessary. apply:
For
the
origin
of x at the
left
Deflected
shape
Fig.
5-22
M=
+2x
k-ft
+2xcan respectively,
4(xbe easily
5)
+20-
for0-<x-<
10 5
EXAMPLE
5-7
2xk-ft
for5-<x-<
10
forces
Construct
shown
shear
in Fig.
and
5-23(a).
bending-moment
diagrams
for
the
beam
loaded
with
the
replacing an x.
the
Solution
Determine loaded
Solution
with
axial-force, an inclined
Fig.
diagrams 5-22(a).
for
the
{-,+---a
>l
First, the inclined force is replaced by the two components shown in Fig. and the reactions are determined. The three unknowns at the support fol ow the familiar equations of statics. This completes the free-body diagram shown Fig. 5-22(b). Completeness in indicating all of these forces is of the utmost
portance.
(a)
,
p,[
(d)
Shear
A segment of the beam is shown in Fig. 5~22(c); from that the axial force and the shear force remain the distance x. On the other hand, the bending moment is summation of moments around C gives PL - Px acting This represents a negative moment. The moment at the negative bending moment as it tends to pull on the upper
seen
three diagrams are plot ed in Figs. $-22(d)-(f).
this segment, it may same regardless a variable quantity. in the direction support is fibers of the beam.
(b)
(e)
Fig.
5-23
Moment
244
Moment
regardless bending of the
Diagrams
obtained
and
to isolate the left-hand segment, similar expressions may the right-hand segment of the beam, with due attention The plot of the V and M functions is shown in Figs. 5-
An
arbitrary
section
applicable
anywhere
force Only zone. diagrams
between
the
two
applied
forces
mu
shown in Fig. segment in this be resisted by pure bending. Shear and Figs. 5-23(d)
force at any
5-23(c). No shear part of the beam. the beam in this bending-moment and (e).
section
to maintain equilibrium bending moment of + Pa of bending or flexure is condition as there are shown is no
MPLE
5-9
No
of the
axial-force
beam.
loading is necessary,
the beam
moment
in Example
M as a function
5-4,
shown
of x along
in Fig.
the
5-25(a),
horizontal
express
member.
the shear
V and
the
Solution
EXAMPLE
5-8
Unlike
diagrams
5-24.
for
a simple
beam
with
Therefore, the solution is determined V and M are continuous. A free-body load is shown in Fig. 5-25(b), and required expressions for 0 < x < 3 are
the preceding
example,
in two parts for each of which the funcdiagram for the beam segment under for the remainder, in Fig. 5-25(c). The
occurs at x = 3
The best way of solving this problem is to write algebraic expressions quantities sought. For this purpose, an arbitrary section taken at a distance the left support is used to isolate the segment shown in Fig. 5-24(b). applied load is continuously distributed along the beam, this section
and
for
Since is
V(x) = -9 +
x 10
= -9 + x kN
The
applies shear
section.
action on
The
the
internal
left less
bending
the moment
moment
caused
M resists
by
= -9x
+ x kN.m
the
load
to the
left
left
of th
For
3 < x < 5,
the
moment
caused
by
the
the
forces
to the
of the
section.
w o N/m
The
summation
of moments
is performed
around
an axis
at the
V(x) M(x)
= =
-9 -9x
15 = + 15(x
+6kN - 2) = 6x
To obtain
body
the last
expression,
it would
have
been
This
diagram
problem
5-16.
similar
can also
to Fig.
be solved
5-20(d).
using
the singularity
functions
discussed
in
} woL
Section
'
oF>---..
-%L
Y--3 m
I kN
10kN/m
6kN'
I
k.1 ..M(x)
V(x)
90 N
r,,
v=
(b)
Wo.
Moment
-
5m
<
(b)
2 --J-
(c)
- WoX
(d)
Fig.
5.25
Fig.
5-24
246
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
Sec.
5.10.
Axial-Force,
Shear,
X 1
and
Bending.Moment
Diagrams
2,47
'
P(x)
D
&
Fig,
5-26
V,.
EXAMPLE 5-t0
I V(x)
V.''
2Pa
('M(x,)
Pla x3)
Write
Solution
analytic
expressions
for V and
shown
in Fig.
5-26.
Unlike
degree
procedure
origin,
having
the preceding
careful y
is the
one
redundant
same
cases,
this is a statically
reaction.
There
is no horizontal
numerical
indeterminate
proble
cannot
reaction
m to the
and
be obtai
y2Pa
(b)
V(xa)pl'xa
at A.
(a)
cept
for
identifying
until
the reactions
are determined.
V(x)
as before,
the
although
unknown
reactions
On this
wox
basis,
at a distance
results
as VA,
VB,
MA,
Fig.
5-:27
x away
from
V.
and
M(x)
= MA - Mn
+ +
10 and
VAx Vx
These forces are constant throughout the length of the vertical bar and become the reactions at B for the beam segment BC. It is important to note that the axial force in member AB acts as shear in BC. After the reactions at B for BC are known, the usual procedure gives the fol owing internal forces:
P(x2)
= 0, V(x2)
= -P
and
M(X2)
= +2Pa
the force as before,
- PlX2
P at C, the progiving
for
Sometimes,
unknown
reactions
54
it wil be necessary
in Chapters
in the process
of solvin
For cedure
except
P(x3)
bending
directly
= -P/V,
moment
V(x3) = -P/V
x3 = X/a
at D is zero,
of the
and
for this
be.
M(x3)
structural
= + Pa - Px3/V
it can be verified
system
EXAMPLE
By substituting
Shear
into
Consider a structural system of three interconnected straight bars, as shown Fig. 5-27(a). At arbitrary sections, determine the internal forces P, V, and M the members caused by the application of a vertical force P at D.
Solution
and bending-moment
outline
diagrams
frame.
as it should
that
the
can be plot ed
on the
EXAMPLE
542
analyzed by isolating For each case, a dif erent the members are shown At an arbitrary +P,
by calculating
Consider
a curved
beam
whose
centroidal
axis
is bent
into
a semicircle
of 0.2
beam
are
The
seen
segment
to
solution
be
AB.
begins
section = 0
the
reaction
through and
is then
shown
forces
on
as shown in Fig. 5-28(a). shown, find the axial force, ct = 45 . The centroidal axis
is being pulled by the 1000-N the bending moment at section forces all lie in the same plane.
P(x)
V(x)
There
is no essential
dif erence
in the
method
of attack
in this
problem
compared
with
that
in a straight-beam
problem.
The
body
as a whole
is examined
for
con-
248
Moment
derived. These
as well
of Equilibrium
construction
of reactions.
be used
the
for
calculation
the long,
P=I
Consider
a beam
element
Ax
isolated
by
two
adjoining
perpendicular to its axis, Fig. 5-29(b). Such an element is shown a free-body in Fig. 5-29(c). All the forces shown acting on this element have positive sense. The positive sense of the distributed external force
c = 45
(a)
is taken to coincide ar and the moment that on the right designated V +
Eig.
5-28
From
the condition
for equilibrium T +
with the direction may each change side of the element, A V and M + AM.
V+
AV
of vertical
(V+
forces,
AV)
one
= 0
obtains
ditions
of equilibrium.
From
the
conditions
of the
problem
here,
such
is
A is taken perpendicular to the axis of the beam. Before determining wanted at the cut, the applied force P is resolved into components perpendicular to the cut. These directions are taken respectively axes. This resolution replaces P by the components shown in Fig.
707
the case.
Next,
a segment
of the beam
is isolated;
see Fig.
5-28(b).
Fx = 0, the axial
in several of action
N in the
Therefore,
direction
force
the
ways. applied
shown.
axial
For force
force
example, P and
at the
bending
centroid
the
moment
N. From
at the
Fy = 0, the shear
cut can
the
Section
qAx-
Ax
L,
For So, equilibrium, upon noting
one has
= q
arm around A also must of the distributed
since, simplification in the
(5-1)
C, a point
and the resisting bending moment is 707(0.2) shown. An alternative solution may be obtained
lying on the centroid, the axial force
P is avoided
point
of moments A the
be zero. force is
limit is not as Ax an ap-
and
intersectl
Ax need negligibly
is more
It is suggested that the reader complete a. Several interesting observations may The moments at the ends wil vanish for shear vanishes and the axial force becomes
the maximum bending moment is associated
this problem in terms of a general be made from such a general solution. a = 0 and a = 180 . For a = 90 , equal to the applied force P. Likewise
with a = 90 .
(a) Beam sign
+'"
+M "+v
convention
+q(x)
5=]]
Dif erential
Element
Equations
of Equilibrium
for
a Beam
shear
(c)
be used.
Instead of the direct approach of cutting a beam and and moment at a section by statics, an efficient alternative
For this purpose, certain fundamental dif erential
determining procedure
Flg.
5-29
Beam
and
beam
elements
between
adjoining
sections.
250
Moment
+ AM)
AM
Ax
=V+
.
VAx
q Ax
2
-dx
by Integration
of the Load
q = +q2
(M
- M
- (q Ax)(Ax/2)
basic
Equations
dif erential
5-1 and
equations:
as Ax --> 0 yield
dV
= -wodx
and
I dv I )
By substituting Eq. 5-4 into Eq. 5-3, another
=q
Slope = d__V=-wo dx
(a)
xx = +ql
(b)
dV
dV
dx - +q2
(a) a uniformly load intensity, uniformly intensity.
Fig.
5-30
Shear
increasing
Slope
of shear
diagram:
dV
useful relation is
dx - q ""---...Slope
Slope
diagrams
for
a load
dx
This
3 and grams.
ically
dif erential
5-4
determinate
are These
equation
beams
from
can
wil
be used
the
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION boundary conditions,www.avs4you.com whereas Eqs. by the summation process. For this purpose,
"jump,"
dx 2
cess
remains
in the value
valid
the beam.
of the shear
nevertheless,
occurs.
since
a concentrated
The
continuous
force
summation
may
be
of as being
basis
a distributed
above
force
extending
diagram
for
an infinitesimal
can be established
dis-
for
determining
next.
reactions
and
of
tance
On the
along
of the
reasoning,
a shear
of shear
moment
5-12.
By transposing
Shear
Diagrams
and integrating
by Integration
Eq. 5-3 gives the
of the
shear
Load
V:
Then the vertical components of forces and reactions summed from the left end of the beam to preserve the sign convention for shear adopted in Fig. 5-17. The shear is simply equal to the sum of all vertical forces to the left of
shear diagram is constructed from the load diagram by the
first.
the reactions
must
always
summation process, two important observations can be made regarding its shape. First, the sense of the applied load determines the sign of the slope of the shear diagram. If the applied load acts upward, the slope of the shear diagram is positive, and vice versa. Second, this slope is equal to the corresponding applied load intensity. For example, consider a segBy assigning definite of integration limits to this constant integral, it is seen is equal to the that shear the shear at
When
the
section beam
by
hand
constant
the
left
an integral (i.e., a sum) of the vertical end of the beam to the section any two
vertical
Between
along
on the
sections.
plus
ment of a beam with a uniformly distributed downward shears at both ends, as shown in Fig. 5-30(a). Since intensity Wo is negative and uniformly distributed,
of the
def'mite
two
force
seciions
included
of a beam,
between
If a concentrated
no force
occurs
between
force
comes
into
sections,
the
summation,
no change
a discontinuity,
in shear
takes'
or
stant, the slope of the shear diagram exhibits Alternatively, the linearly varying load intensity segment with known shears at the ends, shown in Fig. 5-30(b), gives rise to a dif erently shaped shear diagram. Near the left end of this segment, the locally applied upward load q is smaller than the corresponding one
load Wo and known here the applied load i.e., q = -Wo = conthe same characteristics. acting upward on a beam
q2 near
the fight
end.
Therefore,
the positive
slope
of the shear
diagram
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
Sec.
543.
Moment
Diagrams
by
Integration
of the
Shear
253
on
concave
the
Do not
left
upward.
is smaller
fail to note
than
that
it is on
a mere
the
systematic
right,
and
consecutive
the
shear
summa
dia
the vertical components of the forces is all that is necessary to the shear diagram. When the consecutive summation process is diagram must end up with the previously calculated shear the right end of a beam. No shear acts through the beam just last vertical force or reaction. The fact that the diagram closes in
manner check offers should
rapidly.
procedure problems.
an important check on the never be ignored. It permits with al. most complete assurance
dMIdx
= -V
From the physical point plotely consistent. Whenever from one side of the beam
by looking this statement at the same on some
beam simple
of view, the shear sign conventionbeams are analyzed, a shear is opposite in sign to a diagram
from the
is not
should
-M B
MB
dM = - V1dx
(a)
cases,
other such
dM.
Slope of moment diagram:
= V dx
force
trated
unimportant.
in the
force
middle.
at the end
For
and a simply
design
purposes,
5-13.
Transposing
Moment
Diagrams
and integrating Eq.
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION dM_ V /+Slope Fig. 541 Shear and moment diagrams for (a) a uniformly by Integration of the Shear www.avs4you.com 5-4 gives the bending moment
the sign of the shear is
dx
supported
beam
with
'"'-----Slope
increasing
load
intensity.
distributed
to their
load intensity,
end and
sign,
By proceeding
moment
moment
construction
the
where tions
C2 is a constant at x = 0. This
of shear
of the
V dx is
for
minate
by the hatched of these areas responds to an evaluation are on rollers, pin-ended, are zero. If the end is built-in
beams, the end
graphically summation
moment
areas of the shear diagrams in Fig. 5-31. between definite sections through a beam of the definite integral. If the ends of a or free, the starting and the terminal (fixed against rotation), in statically
is known from the reaction
earlier to go from loading to shear diagrams. The change in in a given segment of a beam is equal to the area of the coronding shear diagram. Qualitatively, the shape of a moment diagram be easily established from the slopes at some selected points along beam. These slopes have the same sign and magnitude as the corshears on the shear diagram, since according to Eq. 5-4, dM/ = V. Alternatively, the change of moment dM = V dx can be studied the beam. Examples are shown in Fig. 5-31. According to these
variable shears cause nonlinear variation of the moment.
from
areas
continuously
of the
shear
along
diagram
the beam
with
from
due
the left-hand
regard
constant
sulting
the
end initial
is on the of integration
left,
moment
with
the
Since
in a straight portion
dM/dx
shear
produces
maximum
or minimum
= V, according an invaluable
a uniform
change
to the
occurs
fundamental
in the
bending
moment,
along
re-
theorem
shear
is zero.
5 Bending
moments
that
carry
compression
signs according
in the top
to the convention
of the beam
adopted
are
end
In a bending-moment
of the beam,
diagram
check
obtained
on the
by summation,
work
is available
at the right-hand
:254
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
Sec.
5.13.
Moment
Diagrams
by
Integration
of the
Shear
255
along
P' --2-L
The
sum
cha)Ige
area.
: of +PL/4. the
the beam
of the positive
This
until
in the moment
diagram
second
areas
moment
the quarter
portion
of the
can be made
the
shear
remains
point,
shear
in this zone
decreases
constant
where
diagram
in the by
the moment
increases
half
as there
-P
middle
reaches
at a constant
of the dr.
a magbeam.
is no corresponding
Since
(a)
in this zone
of the
force,
moment
has a constant,
diagram
are equal,
negative
at the right
slope.
dx in eve3'
end,
the
the positive
moment
Hence,
zero.
-p
the work
MPLE
This
is obtained.
5-t4
is as it should
This
be, since
moment
the right
diagram
end is on a roller.
is symmetrical.
Thus,
a check
I
{
I
PL
shown
V and
beam with a uniformly increasing load intensity 5-33(a). The total applied load is W. (a) Construct with the aid of the integration process. (b) Derive
Eq. 5-5.
from
(c)
Solution
Elastic
curve
Fig.
5-32
(d)
terminal conditions for or pinned, the computed end moment computed for the reaction. These
be satisfied.
moment must be satisfied. sum must equal zero. If the by summation equals the one are the boundary conditions
the
the
given
in Fig.
on the
5-33(b)
left
end
begins
than
and
on the
ends
as shown.
the
shear
Since
distribution, Therefore,
diagram
the rate
is
is balanced
upward.
by the
The
applied
W
point
load,
1
of zero
2W
i.e.,
shear
occurs
where
the reaction
L
on the left
- = x-7x
the bending moment is maximum;
W L
hence,
therefore,
x - V
EXAMPLE
5-t3
Construct in Fig.
Solution
shear
and
5-32(a)
by
the
moment integration
diagrams
for
the
symmetrically
loaded
35
+ 2v'
process.
The reactions are each equal to P. To obtain the shear diagram, Fig. 5-32(b), summation of forces is started from the left end. The left reaction acts up, so ordinate on the shear diagram at this force equal to P is plot ed up. Since are no other forces until the quarter point, no change in the magnitude of t shear ordinate is made until that point. Then a downward force P brings
ordinate back to the base line, and this zero ordinate remains until the next
(b)
-W/3
ward force P is reached upward reaction closes diagram is antisymmetrical. The moment diagram, shear diagram. As the
where the shear changes the diagram and provides Fig. beam 5-32(c), is simply is obtained supported,
to -P. At the right end, a check on the work. This by the summing moment up the area at the left
kx = (2W/L)x
2W/3
(c)
2WL
9v'
Fig.
5-33
256
Shear,
the rules
and Bending
given in Fig.
Moment
5-31, the
the
Diagrams
k
by Integration
of the Shear
257
the
shape
30k
50 40 k
Although
Applying
5-33(c).
the shear
necessary
and bending
to supplement
moment
it twice,
diagrams
results analytically
could
has
be sketched
1 k/ft
tively,
critical
it was
values.
-15'--
Xl-'-
(b)
Eq.
5-5
and
integrating d2M
one
dx 2 - q=
C and
require
M(L)
+kx=
M
that
+'-x
=
the
6
2W
t27.5k
(a)
37.5
o
-150
dM
kx 2
kx 3
Cx
C2
x
-30 k Axial force
37. k/5ft IF
k/f
Moment
However,
L be zero,
the
i.e.,
boundary
M(0) =
conditions
0 and
moments
since
at x = 0 and
= 0. Therefore,
(d)
(b)
+10 k 12'
B
16.36'
M(0)
and, similarly, since M(L) = 0,
C2
+12.5
kZ 3 -+
6
CL
With
these
constants,
dM. dx
and M =
kx 2 2
kx 2
6
those found
or
C
kZ 2
Deflected
(e)
shape
kL 2 6
Wx 2 L 2
W 3
Shear
(c)
Fig.
5-34
kL 2x
6
earlier.
Wx
3L 2
Wx
3
sum
acts
of the
forces.
vertical
segment
reaction
components
is 65 kips
and
equals
the
sum
of the
These
results
agree
with
diagram
approach used in this in the
to situations in Section 5-16.
force
is shown
beam.
in Fig.
Fig.
5-34(b).
This
compresslye
force
The
attractive
features
dif erential the singularity
of the
equations functions
boundary-value
can be extended discussed
the beam
EXAMPLE
5-t5
the shear diagram in the zone . This is in accord with Eq. 5-3, il ustrated Wo, the negative slope of this shear diagram
diagrams process. for loaded beam shown in Fig.
to zero at A. The total downward
an equal
increment
of the
of distance
along
rate.
the
CA is a curved line, which is concave in Fig. 5-30. Since dV/dx = q = is large on the left, and gradually
force from C to A is 15 kips, and
beam,
a smaller
change
in shear
this is the
action
at A is 30 kips
and
acts
to the right.
this).
and, and
before vertical
From
M, = 0, the
the reaction
proceeding components.
further, The
negative ordinate the upward reaction + 12.5 kips. This value right of the support
but this total
does
of the shear diagram, just to the left of 27.5 kips moves the ordinate of the of the shear applies to a section through A. The abrupt change in the shear at A
not represent the shear through the
beam.
at B is found
to be 37.5
kips
(check
Similarly,
:rated
the
value
force
of the
are applied
drops
the value
shear.
to the beam
At D,
of the shear
the
40-kip
between
to -27.5
downward
A and
D; hence,
kips.
component
there
is no change
Similarly,
the value
concen-
of
258
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
Sec.
5.t4.
Concentrated
Moment
on
Moment
Diagrams
259 At
the
shear
tributed decrease
To
is zero,
which
is raised to + 10 kips at B. Since between E and F, the load acts downward, according to Eq. 5-3, and shown in Fig. in shear takes place at a constant rate of 1 kip/foot. Thus,
serves as the final check.
counterclockwise
moment
on
the
right
must
be
Mo
MA.
point
to
construct
the
moment
diagram
shown
CA,
in Fig.
5-34(d)
area that is contributed is concave
by
the
to the
of the externally
applied
summation their
moment
method,
areas
and
it may
be determined
down is in accord with Eq. 5-4, dM/dx = V, Here V, defining the slope of the moment diagram is negative becomes larger to the fight. The moment at A is equal to the diagram in the segment CA. This area is enclosed by a curved
of the
shear
diagram
in Fig.
5-34(c)
must
be continuously
summation
appears in the moment diagram. process, due regard must be given effect is not apparent in the shear diagram. process may be applied up to the point
this point, a vertical in the diagram. The "jump" direction
moment,
a discontinuity,
or a "jump,"
the of
diagram.
This
by integration,
6 since
the shear
along
this
in the diagram depends and is best determined After the discontinuity process of the shear-diagram
of the beam.
upon the sense of the with the aid of a sketch in the moment diagram is areas may be con-
often
from
and definition
of a
determined. to arrange
check
Due
must in tabular
the
segment in this
:EXAMPLE
546
customary
is obtained.
Fig.
ution
5-36(a).
bending-moment
diagram
for
the
horizontal
beam
loaded
as shown
MA
MD
--(15)2(10) + 12.5(15)
-27.5(5)
= =
=
=
--150.0 + 187.5
+ - 100.0
37.5
- 137.5
+
-
MB
+ 10(5)
ME
50.0
50.0
k-ft
(moment (shear
(shear
(shear
around A) area A to D)
area
area
! taking
drawn
be P/6.
moments
At A, the
beam.
about
reaction
After
either
acts
end
down;
of the
at C, it acts
the summation
beam,
the
vertical
up.
From
reactions
Fx = 0, it is
shear diagram for the whole
the moment
are found
D to B)
B to E)
that
of
k-ft k-ft
next;
at A, a horizontal reaction equal to P acts to the see Fig. 5-36(b). It has a constant negative
this, by using
the
+(10)10
MF
50.0 0.0
k-ft
(shear (check)
area
E to F) 2Pa/3.
further
The
shown in Fig. 5-36(c) is constructed. is zero, since the support is pinned. is given by the area of the shear diagram
The
moment
diagram
in zone
of
AB
The
has
the
a constant
force
negative
to
end
slope.
For
and
analysis,
moment on
an element
the left-hand
is isolated
side
from
this
beam,
as shown
is known be
in Fig.
-2Pa/3,
5-36(d).
element
5-]4.
Effect Diagrams
of Concentrated
Moment
by
on
Moment
concentrated
moment
caused
by the
applied
P about
the
neutral
axis
In the derivation for moment diagrams areas, no external concentrated moment ment was included, yet such a moment the summation process derived applies of an external moment. At a section moment, a dif erent bending moment of a beam in equilibrium. For example, moment MA is acting on the element of clockwise moment on the left is Mo,
summation of acting on the infinitesimal may actually be applied. only up to the just beyond an externally is required to maintain the in Fig. 5-35 an external the beam at A. Then, if the for equilibrium of the element,
by various
.p
P
(c)
(a)
=?
FIG.'5-35
on
An external
element
concentrated
an
moment
of
a beam.
acting
6 In this
line
case,
through
the
shear
A.
For
curve
areas
is a second-degree
enclosed
parabola
curves,
whose
_ 2Pa
see
Table
(b)
(d)
Fig.
5-36
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
Sec.
5-t5.
Moment
Diagram
and
the
Elastic
Curve
of the beam
element diagram,
summation
is Pa; hence,
be +Pal3. just to the
of the shear
for equilibrium,
AtB, right
diagram
the moment
"jump" ordinate
is continued.
on the rigfit
is made Beyond
area
Note
side
in the point
B
must and to
and
an upward of B, the
area
of +Pa is +Pa/3.
The
beam
at this
of +48
moment
end.
N.m.
of 0.6
Hence,
The
x. 120
the
other
=
plot
point
of the
on
moment
the
around
diagram
beam
the
must
axis.
start
with
where
neutral
a concentrated
between
o. ccurs
is C. Here
the horizontal
72 N.m
component
of the applied
force
Just
induces
to the
equal
beam,
-Pa/3.
thus the
This
that
value
boundary
closes
conditions
the
downward the
moment
are satisfied.
diagram
to the right is negative are
at the
that
right
the
end
lines
i0f
moment because
EXAMPLE
are everywhere
inclined
along
beam
a discontinuity
C, this
moment
areas
in the
must
are applied.
The
applies
necessai'y
be resisted
by an additional
calculations
= = = =
positive
are carried
out in tabular
area
process no external
moment.
form.
of the mo-
This
Construct dimensions
Solution
shear are
ar/d shown
moment in mm.
diagrams Neglect
in Fig.
ust
to
left
x
x
120
700
(shear
A to C)
(external
(shear (check) area
moment
C to B)
at C)
ust
are ass
to right
of C
-0.4
=
= =
- 280
In
this
case,
unlike
all
cases
considered
so far,
definite
dimensions
for the depth of the in its cross-sectional the top of the beam.
axis.
beam. The beam, for simplicity, is assumed area; consequently, the centroidal axis Note careful y that this beam is not supported
beam with Reactions the applied are computed force
to be lies 80 mm at the
resolved in the usual int
Note
a beam
that act
in solving this problem, the forces were on the beam. The investigation for shear determines what the beam is actually experiencing.
considered wherever they and moments at a section At times, this dif ers
the
procedure
of a member
of determining
is not important.
reactions,
that member, if a moment the basic
acts
where
the
actual
framing
or con-
Moreover,
since'the
shear
and
diagram
diagram
is concerned
shown
is easily
constructed
is shown
in Fig.
In constructing be exercised.
As
earlier,
determined by considering a segment of a beam, computed by taking moments of external forces axis of the beam. Thus, by passing a section just the left-hand segment, it can be seen that a positive
5-37(c).
; used.
members,
the
shear
5-37(d),
particular
moments
may
care always
cem
and they are most around a point on the to the right of A and moment of 48 N.m
Moment
defined
Diagram
and
the
Elastic
Curve
7/'/ / / / / / / /
/ / / / / / / / /
20
in Section 5-9, .a positive moment causes a beam to deform upwards or to "retain water," and vice versa. Hence, the shape deflected axis of a beam can be definitely established from the sign moment diagram. The trace of this axis of a loaded elastic beam a deflected position is known as the elastic curve. It is customary to
the elastic curve on a sketch, where the actual small deflections
calculations
deflections
discussed
[0-13
and
of
10-14. diagrams
a beam.
Some were
of the constructed
preceding
wil
examples be used
for to il ustrate
which
the
bendingphysical
48N.m o
0.6 kN 1
Fig. 5-37
0.8
kN
g. 5-32(c) shows that the bending length of the beam is positive. Accordingly, the Fig. 5-32(d) is concave up at every point. Correct or concavity of the elastic curve is important.
of the
(d)
beam
rest
on
supports.
(b)
a more
complex
moment
diagram,
Fig.
5~34(d),
zones
of positive
262
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
Sec.
5-t6.
Singularity
Functions
263
+
and negative moment occur. Corresponding ment, a definite curvature of the elastic place; see Fig. 5-34(e). On the other positive moment occurs, the concavity
Where
that There
of the
two
joining
the
curves
free is no
curves
join,
as at H and
end FG curvature
since
of the in FG,
the beam
J, there
to the zones of negative curve that is concave down hand, for the zone HJ, of the elastic curve is
are lines that
to the elastic curve is zero in that
of the
shear-diagram
area
from
A to H equals
this
moment,
i.e.,
- 150
12.5x
beam since
is physically
continuous.
are
tangent
= 0. Hence,
Also
-- 37.5/27.5
by beginning with a known positive moment of + 37.5 kip-ft at D, inflection point is known to occur when a portion of the negative area between D and J reduces this value to zero. Hence, distance
= 1.36 ft, or distance AJ = 15 + 1.36 = 16.36 ft, Fig. 5-34(e),
distance
AH
= 150/12.5
= 12 ft as before.
as any
, comer
infinitesimal of elastic
beam
in a continuous can act only
element
frame either
must
with rigid as shown
be in equilibrium,
joints. in Fig. Therefore, 5-38(a)
so must
also
(a)
beam.
element at a comer
If the suggestion made in Example segments by means of short curved lowed, as in Fig. 5-34(d), the elastic
curves
5-5, indicating the curvature lines on the moment diagram curve is simply an assembly
of l
parts
curves
are
shown
in these
figures.
fact
point of transition on the elastic curve into reverse the point of inflection or contraflexure. At this point, its sign, and the beam is not called upon to resist
often makes these points a deskable place for
drawn
to a proper
scale.
a field
g-16.
Singularity
Functions
(b)
connect
of large termining
EXAMPLE
members, points
5-t8
was pointed out earlier, analytical expressions for the shear V(x) and moment M(x) of a given beam may be needed in an analysis. If the q(x) is a continuous function between the supports, solution of dif erential equation d2m/dx 2 = q(x) is a convenient approach for V(x) and M(x) (see Example 5-14). Here this wil be extended
situations in which the loading function is discontinuous. For this
Fig.
5.38
Elastic
curves
at
comers
frames.
of planar
rigid
Find
see
Solution
the
Fig.
location
5-34(a)
of the
inflection
points
By definition, an inflection point corresponds to a point bending moment is zero. Hence, an inflection point can be an algebraic expression for the moment in a beam for the point. is anticipated, and solving this relation equated to
from end the beam C of the beam, is M = -(15)(2)(x Fig. 5-34(e), the bending - 5) + (27.5)(x -
15).
moment By
for simplifying
ft
i ons
Consider
of this of beams.
of operational calculus wil be used. The functions are polynomials with integral powers ofx. The treatis beyond the scope of this text. For the functions the method is perfectly general. Further applicawil be given in Chapter 10 for calculating deflecas in Fig. 5-39. Since the applied loads are
a beam
loaded
3int
M
(concentrated)
moment
= RlX
forces,
expression
four
apply.
distinct
These
regions
are
exist
when
to which
dif erent
d b
c
L
and
this
expression
equal
M
to zero,
= 12.5x
a solution
337.5
for x is obtained.
= 0 x = 27
M M M
7 This
P(x
be
omit ed.
d) d) d)
when
x <
x
x
+ Mo + Mo
when
<
-<
+ P2(x
c)
when
Therefore,
the
inflection
support A.
point
occurring
in segment
AD
of the beam
is 27
Similarly, ment DB
12 ft from
, P2
M
where
Often
=
a more
-(15)(2)(x
ft; hence,
convenient
- 5) + 27.5(x
the
method
AJ
finding
15)
the
- 40(x
ft.
inflection
- 30)
points
= 0
x = 31.36
distance
for
= 16.36
utilizing the known relations between the shear and moment diagrams. the moment at A is - 150 kip-ft, the point of zero moment occurs when
Thus the
Fig.
5-39
A loaded
beam.
Sec.
5.t6.
Singularity
Functions
265
function:
can be writ en
as one, providing
a)
one demes
becomes a reminder
this
expression
is dimensionally
by
definition
is zero
correct,
although
subscript
(x - a) - at x
else. Thus, it of this integration,
sin. guIarfunction.
over
In Eq.
ffoora<x< rO<x<a
becomes is unity.
5-10,
the
asterisk
the
of the
expression
bracket
yields
point
wheren->0(n
= 0,1,2
..
).
be
adopted:
force
itself.
Therefore,
a special
symbolic
rule
of integration
(a)
reaches a. For x beyond a, the expression For n = 0 and-for x > a, the function
The expression
enclosed
by the pointed
brackets
across
separate
bined
functions
for M(x) given for the beam of Fig. 5-39 can bel
that is appliable the whold
I P<x- a)"dx=P(x- a) 1
coefficient P in the previous functions is known as the strength t. For P equal to unity, the unit point load fimction is also called the Dirac delta or the unit impulse fimction. analogous reasoning, see Fig. 5-40(b), the loading function
moment at x = a is recentrated
(5-11)
M = R(x
m a
- O? - P(x - d) + Mb(X
of a are 0, d, b, and this function further,
-- b) + P2(x
to
-- C)!
(x
of -
-
Ma (total)
Here
trated moment, treating it similarly. Rules for integrating all tions must b also established. In this discussion, the heuristic rigorous) approach wil be fol owed. A concentrated (point) force may be considered as an
treating
functions. One is for the concentrated case of a distributed load. The other
c, respectively. it is convenient
q for
strong
distributed
e as a constant,
load
acting
(5-12)
is true
The
been
twice except
(b)
e--O .Ja-2
(5-13)
+P(x
Here
for
such as lb/in, and corresponds to the distributed load treatment. Therefore, as (x - a) -> 0, by an analogy
a concentrated force at x = a,
it can be noted
that
q(x) in the of (x -
per
(5-14)
Eq.
q = P(x - a))
8 This approach was first his Electromagnetic Theory ational calculus. In 1919, W. brackets for beam problems.
transforms.
(c)
P and
Fig.
5-40
(b) considered
load,
notation
moment
Concentrated
(c)
and
for
P and
symbolic
as distributed
M
Ma:
(a) and
force
development
introduced by A. Clebsch in 1862. O. initiated and greatly extended the methods of H. Macaulay specifically suggested the use of s The reader interested in further and/or
is correct dimensionally one obtains the called the doublet at x = a and zero result is obtained. The relation of from Eqs. 5-11, functions in pointed
since q has the unit point moment function, or dipole. This function elsewhere. However, Equations 5-10, 5-12, these equations to the and 5-14. brackets for n -> 0 is
units
is
after and given
given
consult
texts on mathematics
treating
at a.
(x - a)n dx = (x n- +a)n+ 1
for n > 0
(5-15)
264
266
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
+y
Sec.
5-16.
Singularity
Functions
267
q = -w o lb/in
+q
+w
o
(a)
qo
L/2
-'
L/24
+ C2
(a)
(b)
Fig. M
(b)
5-42
dx 2 - q = -wo(x
--=
dM dx
- O) + wo( x - LI2)
O) + wo(x - LI2) 1 + C1
V=
-wo(x-
ql=:qod[
oFig. 5.4'1 Typical integrations.
1 ' (x
- a) 1
m(x)
M(O)
= -
= C2
Wo(X
= 0
- 0) 2 + Wo(X
2 + wo(L/2)
Ci =
- L/2)
2 + Cx
= 0
}-'"
(c)
M(L)
x
woZ
2 + CiL
+as poL
-(x
V(x) M(x)
the
solution
these
relations
are
more
easily
read
by
rewriting
in
(d)
conventional
This equal
EXAMPLE
integration to zero,
5-t9
is shown conventional
in Fig.
5-41. integrals.
If the
distance
a is
+- woLx - - Wo. wox V = +-woL X 2 } when M + woL 2 - woL woLx = -woL} V = +aswoLcan be checked of maximum moment to complete. by conventional can be found.
reactions
Using
ing
Solution
symbolic
in Fig. 5-42(a).
functional
notation,
determine
V(x)
and
M(x)
caused
by the
EXAMPLE
5-20
To
and
solve
begins
this
problem,
together 0 and
must 5-42(b).
at x = 0. Therefore,
exist. To
problem,
Eq.
5-5 can
function,
For
M(L)
this
represent
another
function
This terminate
a term
be used.
simply
= 0. These
supported
correctly
+wo(x
the are used
the
however, distributed
q = -wo
The
applied
beam,
applied
- L/2) must
or wo(x
load
- 0) , which two
q(x)
acts
V(x)
functions
and
and
M(x)
treat
for
a beam
loaded
as shown
problem.
in Fig.
5-43.
Use
singularity
it as a boundary-value
to determine
the known
load.
be added.
reactions:
The
in making
form. From of integration
direct
use
the
boundary
conditions
are M(0)
the
of Eqs.
5-10
and
M(0)
5-12,
= 0 and
the
function
M(L)
= 0, with
q(x)
can
be writ en
L = 3a,
the
in
268
-q ,
Problems
269
(a)
Fig.
5-43
a C
b
aeM/dx dM/dx
M(O)
and
2 = q = -P(x = V = -P(x
- 2a) 2 - 2a) + C
-=-%
M = -P(x
= C2 = 0
- a) + Pa(x
+ Pa + 3Ca
(c)
M(3a)
Hence,
-2Pa
5-44
Il ustration
for
formulating
signularity
functions
for
reactions.
C,=
and
V(_x)
M(x)
In
= +-aP(x= +P(x
for
0} -
- O) - P(x
y(x),
writ en
the
final
in conventional
expression
form.
Such
the
terms.
last
- 2a};
- 2a}
through
5-4.
term
are
used
no
only
value
as tracers
if the
during
in the figures.
by
the
the
Correctly
for
draw}z'
reaction the
planar
fke-body
components framing
dia-
grams are essential parts of solutions. (Hint for Prob. 5-1: The effect on a structure of two cable forces acting over a frictionless pulley is the same as that of the same two forces applied at the center of the axle. Prove before using.)
integration process. It is suggested that the reader check the reactions out V(x) and M(x) for the three ranges of the are continuous, and compare these with a plot constructed by the summation procedure. A suggestion of the manner of representing 44(a), acting on a part of a beam is indicated functions are needed to define the given load In the previous discussion, it has been tacitly
at the ends of the beams. If such is not the
Cable
by conventional statics. beam within which these of the shear and moment a uniformly in Fig. completely. assumed
the unknown
3 k/f[
/ 12 k
load,
Fig
Fig, Fig. P54 P5-3
that
as
the
constants
_
case,
C2 must
be introduced
into
Eq.
5-5
as point
loads,
i.e.,
2 N/mm
C(x
This are
- a) 1
and
C2(x
- b) -
'x3 {
150 N'm
rl=1 rl
6k/f[
{-<--10' -- -<-- 10'
Fig.
C
P5-4
4k'1
is the condition shown necessary in a solution Singularity functions can lems for axial y loaded bars, the solutions are limited to the length of a member, the impractical.
in Fig. 5-44(c). No additional constants obtained in this manner. be used to advantage in statically indeterminate as well as for torsion members and prismatic members. If the cross procedure for using singularity functions
270
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
125
kN
Sections
5-5 through the figures,
forces caused
5.6
through
5-9
shown in the axial
M
as specified.
tides For
549. For the planar structures find the reactions and determine
V, and the bending loads at sections
should simplicity,
be shown assume
Magnitude
When together,
etc.
of a given
dimension
sections such as a-a and one section is just to and the other is just to the
and
sense
of calculated
be
/Pin
2
/Rod
2"
'---1800 mm 1200mm>
900 mm
--
mm
Fig. P5-16 P543
1500
mm
Fig.
P5-5
4 kN/m
20 kN
I
4'---
25
kN
] 5 m-
3m
Fig.
4m4 m--
P5-6
4k
Hinge
Fig.
P5-t7
T 9 k
8 N/mm
15kg/2
P
Fig.
P5.14
lk
2k
5
12k
2000
mm
g. P5-15
8 kN/m--
Fig. P5-t8
C
' mm
6 kN/m
1500
mm-*'
P5-7
-
2000mm
Fig. P5-8
t 500
t
m
/.F
H s
2000mm I
Hin
Fig.
Fig.
P5d9
I lm
Ilm
3m
272
Section 5-10
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
Problems
27:
y
5-26
through
5-28.
For
the
beams
expressions origins
loaded
for
as
5-24. shown
moment
diagrams
in the figures, along the spans. the applied loads apply for regions
of x at A.
z
Fig. P530
Fig.
(a) (b)
P5-35
Fig.
P5-20
general by the
the bent
expressions application
bar. Plot
for V, of a force
the results.
M,
caused plane of
to the
F,
the
of the bar w lb per unit what system of internal at the fixed end?
Fig.
P5-2t
Establish
Fig. P5-27
general
V(0), 5-12, and Fig.
expressions
moment 5-28.
the
axial
force
bar
t p [P
3@L/3
Fig. P5-22
A
shear a Example
coun-
Section 5-36.
mine
541 Using
V(x) and
the positive x axis. Establish general expressions for the axial force shear V(0), and moment M(0) for the ring with hinges of Prob. 5-11. Angle 0 is measured counfrom the positive x axis.
bar bent into a semicircle is built
the
M(x)
dif erential
for the
equation,
beam loaded
Eq.
as
5-5,
shown
deterin
Verify
w o N/m
/,
Fig. P5-28
and is subjected to a radial pressure of length (see figure). Write the general for P(0), V(0), and M(0), and plot the reon a polar diagram. Show positive directions asP, V, and M on a free-body diagram.
one per
end unit
5-37
through
5-39.
Using
Eq.
5-5
for
the
statically
5-29
Fig. P5-23
through
5-3t.
Write
explicit
the statically in the figures. the reactions of symmetry
p lb/in
determinate beams shown in the figures, find V(x) and M(x) and the reactions at the supports. Plot the shear and moment diagrams. (Hint: The constants of integration are found from the boundary conditions for V and M. This approach cannot be extended to statically
M(x) along the spans for beams loaded as shown origins ofx at A. Consider unknowns. Take advantage
29.
indeterminate higher-order
ter 10.)
which equation,
require
discussed
the
use of in Chap-
on
the
in
------ L . x
Fig. P5-24
w o Ib/ft
Bar radius = R
Fig.
P5-34
5-25. shown
moment
diagrams
for
the
beam
Fig 5-29
A bar
in the
shape
of a right
angle,
as shown
in
figure,
is fixed
at one
of its
ends.
(a)
Write
the
Fig.
P5-37
274
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
M1
4k
Problems
275
Fig.
. m_ - 2m 1
Fig. P5-53
Fig.
P5-38
k sin
2rx/L
-----a
Fig. P5-43-
> -- bJ
Fig. P5-49
2 k/ft
> -
Fig.
/8 k
8'
P5-54
5 k/ft
> 2'
Fig.
P5-39
Sections
5-12
and
543
-Problems
oped
signed
5-40
for the
in these
for
5-20
solution
through
two
and
sections.
using
5-3t
the
and
can
methods
using
also
be
devel-
as-
NON-ACTIVATED k/ VERSION I/ 6 , k/ 6 kf f'" www.avs4you.com ---3' --'- 3' 8k 112k 18k
ig. P5-4
Fig. P5-50
Fig.
P5-55
through
beams
5-12
shown
5-66.
Plot
5-13.
in the
shear
figures
moment
the
diagrams
methods
to draw
of Sections
It is also
suggested
4@4'=
Fig. P5-45
16'
300 Ib/ft
criteria
for
50 k 2 k/ft
Distribreact . ion
Fig. P5-51
2.5 N/mm 2.5
200Ib/ft
N/mm
P5-46
!;m._m,<40ram r,2-0m!'
Fig. P5-41
Fig.
P5-47
Fig.
P5-52
Fig.
P5-57
276
2qo
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
200 Ib/ft
300 lb
Problems
The load distribution for may be idealized a small single-engine as shown in the
277
fig-
In
this
diagram,
vector
A represents
the
weight
the
'engine;
B,
the
uniformly
distributed
cabin
5-7t through 5-73. For the structural systems shown in the figures, plot the axial force P, shear V, and moment M diagrams. Note that the axial force and shear contribute to the equilibrium of forces at a joint in bent
members (see Fig. 5-27).
Fig.
P5-58
Fig.
P5-63
C, the weight of the aft fuselage; and D, the from the tail control surfaces. The upward ;E are developed by the two longerons from the Using this data, constrLtct plausible, qualitative and moment diagrams for the fuselage.
.1.
qo qo
400 Ib/ft
Fig.
P5-7t
10
kN/m
diagram in the
for figure.
a beam How
supported is the
at
beam
Cables
Fig. P5-72
loaded?
Fig,
P5-65
Fig.
P5-60
160kN
3 wall
qo
Hinge
Fig.
P5-69
P5-66
The
diaams
redundant
moment
over
support
B for
the
5-67, Qgue.
and
momeQt
figure
be
Fig. P5-73
k N/m
20
kN/m
Water
level
1.5 k/ft
I,
Fig. P5-70
5-74. For member DF the axial force, shear, by the applied force.
in Prob. diagrams
1-44, caused
plot
3m3m
Fig. P5-62
! 8m----8 m
Fig. P5-67
and For
the axial
278
Axial
Force,
Shear,
and
Bending
Moment
Problems
279
ment M diagrams due to the applied loads. grams are to be contimed only to the main members. Note that the beams in the last lems have finite depth.
Cable
3o"
Fig. Fig. P5-79 P5-83
"
--
Fig.
P5-85
9 lb/in
--
Fig.
P5-75
900
M o = 4 Pa
'
Cables
600
Fig.
P5-84
Fig.
P5-86
1200
900
Fig.
P5-76
80kN
A
' 35 kN
Fig.
P5-87
2--m 'Hinge
Fig. P5-77
50 k
Fig.
P5-8t
Section
5-16
5-87. For the beams loaded as using singularity functions and Eq. and M(x). Check reactions by (b) Plot shear and moment
qo N/m
Fig.
P5-78
Fig.
P5-82
Sec.
6-2.
The
Basic
Kinematic
Assumption
_ chapter
e of this
result
after
chapter.
the
study
A better
of column
appreciation
buckling
of the instability
in Chapter
11.
phenomenon
The
Basic
Kinematic
Assumption
stresses
theory moment,
and
a plausible
6-1o Introduction
in the torsion
strains
deformation
problem
be related
problem
to a determinate
assumption
is again
reduce
through
employed.
to stresses
one;
second,
the
the internally
appropriate
This
requires,
that
the deformations
statically
first,
that
in-
stress-strain
In the previous chapter, it was shown that a system of internal consisting of an axial force, a shear force, and a bending moment develop in planar frames and beams. The stresses caused b were already discussed in Chapter 1. The stresses due to bending considered in this chapter. For this treatment, it is convenient to the chapter into two parts. In Part A, only members having cross sections and subjected to bending in the plane of symmetry considered. Both elastic and inelastic stress distributions caused by ing are discussed. Stress distribution in curved bars is also included. Part B, the problem is generalized to include unsymmetric bending members with symmetric cross sections as well as bending of of arbitrary cross section. Consideration is also given to problems bending occurs in the presence of axial forces. For completeness, cussion on area moments of inertia for arbitrary cross
in Part C.
; and, finally, that the equilibrium requirements of external and forces be met. The key kinematic assumption for the deformation a beam as used in the simplified theory is discussed in this section. A of this assumption forms the basis for the theories of plates
section with avertical axis of symmetry; a typical see Fig. element
prismatic
line
simplicity, members wil generally be shown as beams in a zontal position. When a segment of a beam is in equilibrium under action of bending moments alone, such a condition is referred to as bending, orfiexure. A cantilever loaded with a concentrated the end, or a segment of a beam between the concentrated forces shown in Fig. 5-23, are examples of pure bending. Studies in subset chapters wil show that usually the bending stresses in slender beams dominant. Therefore, the formulas derived in this chapter for
For
to the as abcd. end moments Mz acting around in the plane of symmetry, and beam axis slightly tilt. Nevertheless, and b' c' remain straight. fundamental hypothesis 2 of the sections through a beam taken
beam
This
txis
through
of a beam.
the centroid
Next,
consider
of the
cross
section
wil
beam axis. In side view, such When such a beam is subjected the planes initial y the lines such
observation
of the
be referred
6-1(a).
beam
beam
A horizontal
having
between
to as the
the
z axis,
Fig.
6-1(b),
This
flexure normal
theory. It may be stated thus: plane to its axis remain plane after the
model with a ruled grating drawn
forms
this
beam
an element to equal
bends
is subjected
to bending.
are
directly
applicable
in numerous
design
situations.
virtue under do of their an applied not come load within
It is important to note that some or lack of lateral support may become may buckle laterally and collapse.
2 This hypothesis with an inaccuracy was first introduced by 1645-1705), a Swiss mathematician. At a later date a great Swiss Euler (1707-1783), who largely worked in Russia and tmportant use of this concept. This assumption is often referred noulli-Euler hypothesis. In the correct final form, it dates back
French engineering educator M. Navier (1785-1836).
is only
can
be demonstrated
phenomenon
vertical rods passing through the rubber block can be vicinity of the applied moments, the deformation is more in accord with the St. Venant's principle (Section 2-10), this
that rapidly dissipates.
thin
by using
a rubber
28O
282
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-3.
The
Elastic
Flexure
Formula
283
b , d
p-y
The
fiber
dfi can
the
length
gh located
on a radius
fiber
lengths
p - y can
gh
and
be found
ef identified
similarly.
here
(6-2)
dfi
= (pand
y) d0-
pd0
of the
=
beam
-yd0
axis
--
(a)
Beamaxis
t dividing
Bent axis
d t
the
deflection
by ds and
using
rotations
Eq.
6-1,
the last
term
becomes
are
very
K. Moreover,
small,
the
(b)
the simplified
e,,
deformation,
one
beam
Omax
Plane
of
dds
has
and
ds by dx. 4 Hence, by dividing Eq. 6-2 by ds and by du/dx, which according to Eq. 2-6 is the normal
theory,
it is possible
to replace
M z
I Y Imax
= C
a= EEl_
(6-3)
.nit lengt
(c)
(d)
Fig.
6-1
Assumed
behavior
of elastic
beam
As
demonstrated
in texts
on
the
true for elastic, rectangular members in pure bending; exist, a small error is introduced. 3 Practically, however, assumption is generally applicable with a high degree of the material behaves elastically or plastically, providing the depth of beam. is small in relation to its span. In this chapter, the stress anal' of all beams is based on this assumption.
In pure bending of a circle of radius by an infinitesimal
as ds = 0 dO. Hence,
This
train
for the flexure theory. However, in a bent beam varies along the beam
equation
establishes
the
expression
although depth
for
the
basic
kinematic
hy-
in bending.
With
of in
theory
of elasticity,
this
The
Elastic
Flexure
into
Formula
using
can
be
Hooke's
recast
law,
a relation
th.e expression
for
the
longitudinal
strain
given
stress
by Eq.
or.,.'
of a prismatic beam, the p, (rho) as shown in Fig. angle d0, the fiber length
into
(6-4)
axis
is
this
Two
equation,
nontrivial
the
equations
variable
y can
of equilibrium
assume
both
are available
positive
and
to solve
negative
the beam
completes equations,
where bending
3 See
the
reciprocal of prismatic
discussion
K (kappa).
In
the
x direction
problem. One of these determines the origin for y: the second the solution for the flexure formula. Using the first one of these requiring that in pure bending, the sum of all forces at a section
must vanish, one has
4 A further
discussion
of the approximations
involved
may
be found
in Section
the
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-3.
The
Elastic
Flexure
Formula
Omax
285
, F. = 0
(a)
/AO-dA = 0
subscript be carded
equation
with
the
that the summation of the infinites the entire cross-sectional area A of aid of Eq. 6-4 can be rewrit en as
a
X
=-Et<y
I Ymax
z
I = c
/A -E Ky dA = -E K fA Y dA = 0
where
(b)
M
definition,
the
constants
this
integral
E and
.fy dA
are
= yA,
taken
where
outside
y is the
the
second
distance
integral. equals
the
fro m
(a)
(b)
(c)
origin to the centreid of an area A. Since here this and area A is not zero, distance y must be set .equal the z axis must pass through the centreid of a section'.
Neutral axis
6-3 and 6-4, this means strain e, and the normal
z axis zero.
so chosen, In bending
integral to According
Fig.
6.4
Segment
of a beam
in pure
flexure.
neutral determined
axis
both theory,
to this
In
Mz = E fA y2 dA
(6-8)
Based
on this
The
result,
linear
variation
6-1(d).
absolute
are
il ustrated
maximum representations
are generally
in Fig.
stress of the
6-2.
used.
representations
problem
is three-dimensional,
although
in strain
is schematically
mechanics, the last integral, depending only on the geometrical propof a cross-sectional area, is called the rectangular moment of inertia or second moment of the area A and wil be designated in this text by I. must be found with respect to the cross section's neutral (centroidal) Since I must always be determined with respect to a particular axis, is often meaningful to identify it with a subscript corresponding to such axis. For the case considered, this subscript is z, i.e.,
of;
that
The
for
locus
simplicity,
of
a neutral
two-dimensi
axis
length
(d)
Fig.
moment.
6-2
Alternative
representations
of bending
of a beam
the
defines
the
neutral
of the elastic flexure formula, the must be brought in: the sum of the resisting moments must vanish, i.e., segment in Fig. 6-4(a), this yields
area
surface,
as noted
in Fig.
6-3.
Iz=/Ay2dA 1
yields the fol owing result: the curvature of an elastic beam subjected
(6-9)
(6-10)
this
notation,
Eq.
6-8
Neutral surface
Mo = OG +
A negative
pressive
Mz - fAErYstress
of the
moment
dA
because
moment
y=0
rhis
sign
stresses
in front
cry, develop
to this
integral
a counterclockwise
in the
is necessary
same
the
around
By
Errst
is the a specified
is
basic
obtained:
substituting
relation moment.
giving
Eq.
6-10
into
Eq.
6-4,
the
elastic
flexure
formula
5 for
axis.
sign,
The
contribute
tensile
stresses
below
the neutral
axis,
manner.
where
This
y's have
a ne
directly
Neutral axis
from
the
Eq.
6-4.
From
a slightly
dif erent
point
of view,
the at a section. are c by
Eq.
Fig.
6-3
clockwise external moment Mz is balanced moment developed by the internal stresses 6-7 into this form, and recognizing that E and
5 It took nearly two centuries to develop this seemingly simple expression. The attempts to solve the flexure problem were made by Galileo in the sevencentury. In the form in which it is used today, the problem was solved in early part of the nineteenth century. Generally, Navier is credited for this
. some maintain that credit should go to Coulomb, who
derived the torsion formula.
286
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-3.
The
Elastic
Flexure
Formula
287
that
results
of
from
the
pure
stress
bending
tensor, one
of a beam.
has
Therefore,
in the
matrix
Crx = -zy
The symmetric 6-5(b), derivation of this cross expression formula were for the was carried with out with the coordinate
(6:1
shown
in Fig.
the
6-5(a).
section
If the
derivation
(a)
done longitudinal
for
a member
having
shown read
in
wil
be pointed
O'=x MZl
The My sign reversal in relation to Eq. 6-11 is necessary causes tensile stresses for positive z's. Application of these equations to biaxial bending of the bending theory for beams with unsymmetric because a
ratio,
the compressed
stresses this
out
acting discussion,
in Chapter
along
zone
8, this
stress
sets
of a beam
expands
may
be transformed
due
laterally;
6 the tensile
axes. to Pois-
or
Beam axis
sidered
(b)
Fig.
positive
6 -5 Definitions
moments.
of
the value
as well as an cross sections is in Sections 6-11 and 6-14. In this part of the chapter, to beams having symmetric cross sections bent in the For such applications, it is customary to recast the to give the maximum normal stress Crmx directly and to desi
with the rigorous solution. Poisson's effect, as may be shown by methods of elasticity, deforms the neutral axis into a curve of large and the neutral surface becomes curved in two opposite directions; Fig. 6-6. In the previous treatment, the neutral surface was assumed be curved in one direction only. These interesting details are not sigin most practical problems. wedure Summary and Extensions
Neutral surface
of l y Im,, by c. It is also
6-11 as well as with subscripts develop a couple statically sense can be determined
becomes
common
practice
to dispense
with
same three basic concepts of engineering mechanics of solids that used in developing the theories for axial y loaded bars and circular s in torsion are used in the preceding derivation of flexure formulas. may be summarized as fol ows:
basis,
(6-1!
resisting bending moment at a section. 2. Geometry ofdeformition (kinematics) sections through a beam remain plane to the conclusion that normal strains early from the neutral axis.
1. Equilibrium
conditions
(statics)
are used
for determining
is used by assuming after deformation. along a beam section
the internal
that This plane leads vary lin-
Fig.
beam.
6.6
Segment
of a bent
the
above practice, in dealing with the simplified notation of leaving out I wil be employed often in this text.
and its variations discussed before are
3. Properties Hooke's
Poisson
law effect
of
in
of
great importance in applications to structural plying these formulas, the internal bending newton-meters IN.m] or inch-pounds [in-lb], [in], and I in m 4 or in 4. The use of consistent
and moment
In
In extending this approach to bending of beams (Section 6-8), as well as to inelastic bending the first two of the enumerated concepts remain the third, dealing with the mechanical properties As an example of a change necessary for
the
[lb/in
units
2] = psi,
of or: [N.m][m]/[m
be noted
as to be expected.
that
4]
= N/m2
by
= Pa,
Eqs. 6-11
or
or
[in-lb][in]/[in
6-12 is the
4]
the beam
6 An
up of two
having
materials,
the cross
with
1 and 2, bonded
an ordinary
section
shown
together
in Fig.
at their
6-7(a).
of two and more maof beams (Section 6ful y applicable. Only of materials must be such cases consider
interface.
This
beam
The
is made
elastic
It should
crx as given
experiment
rubber
eraser
is recommended!
288
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-4.
Computation
of
the
Moment
of
Inertia
289
Stress
o=E
Mz
o = E2 E
Yb -- /A Ei dA
the integration This equation
axis.
(6-16)
Bending
(a)
strain
(b)
Bending
(c)
stresses
(d)
appropriate centroid
E?s, and
for
each locates
neutral
Fig.
6-7
Beam
moduli
the
of two elastic
for the two
materials
materials
in bending
are E1 and
where
E2,
E2 > E.
where the-subscripts
material. For the purposes of discussion assume that E2 When such a composite beam is bent, as for a beam of one the strains vary linearly, as shown in Fig. 6~7(b). However, the dinal stresses depend on the elastic moduli and are as shown in
7(c). At the interface between the two materials, whereas the strain
both materials is the same, the stresses magnitudes of E and E2. The remaining of locating the neutral axis or surface. having cross sections with symmetry
For material
to
beams must
of
be
several identified.
dif erent
Let Ei
materials, be such
ith material
read
in a composite
Crx
cross
section.
are dif erent, and depend on issue in such problems cons: This can be easily done for
vertical elastic axes. moduli
for
elastic modulus for
the same process is used for inelastic bending analysis of changing the stress-strain relations. The first two of the enubasic concepts remain applicable. developed theory for elastic beams of one material is in complete with the mathematically exact solution 7 based on the theory pure bending of an elastic rectangular bar. However, even this limited case, the boundary conditions at the ends require the stresses Crx to be distributed over the ends as given by Eq. 6-11. )r this case plane sections through a beam remain precisely plane after However, in usual applications, per Saint-Venant's principle, it is generally assumed that the stresses, at a distance about equal to the
Essential y
by
depth
of a member
given
away
from
the applied
moment,
at points using stress is routinely
are essential y
of force concentration applied
uniform
application
fac-
Then
Eq.
6-4 can
be g
of cross
section,
whether
a material
is elastic
or plastic.
to any
kind
= Eix
-Ei
K y
measured
as shown.
Where
from
from
Fig.
the
6-7(a),
bottom
y = Yb -- Yb.
of the section,
In this
and
yb locates
relation
Yb is
the
neutral
In conclusion it should be noted that, in all cases in pure bending, the stresses acting on the area above the neutral axis develop a force of one whereas those below the neutral axis develop a force acting in the direction. An example is shown in Fig. 6~7(d) where the tension T is equal to the compression C, and the T - C couple.is equal to the moment Mz. This method of reducing stresses to forces and a couple can
Fx at a section as before,
be used
to advantage
Computation
in some
problems..
Eq.
In applying
the cross-sectional
of
flexure
area
the
the
the
Moment
rectangular
neutral axis
of
Inertia
moment
must be
the
formula,
about
of inertia
determined.
I of
Its
The the
that
from
Eq. 6-6 only by not placing Ei outside y = yu - yu into Eq. 6-15, and reco
area
of a member,
is defined
by the
and it must
integral
be emphasized
computed of the
of y2 dA
over
that
the
entire
cross-sectional
formula,
-}c /A Ei Yb dA + }cYb fA Ei dA = 0
Theory
is a review
section.
290
Pure Bending
and Bending
and
with Axial
Forces
of the Moment
of Inertia
(6-18)
in Sections 6-15 axis is perpendicular around such an reason, this axis for determining thoroughly discussed they are reviewed The first step
6-16 that for symmetric cross sections, the to the axis of symmetry. The moment of axis is either a maximum or a minimum, and for is one of the principal axes for an area. The centroids and moments of inertia of areas are in texts on statics. 9 However, for in what fol ows. in evaluating I for an area is to find its centroid
Iz = Izc+ Adz 2
is the parallel-axis 'inertia of an area the same area around theorem. around any a parallel
It can be stated as fol ows: the moment axis is equal to the moment of inertia axis passing through the area's centroid,
of
integration
of y2 dA is then
performed
with
respect
to the horizontal
the
the two
product
axes.
of the
Eq.
area has
same
6-18
been
area
must
subdivided
and
be
the
applied
and
square
to
the
of the
each
results
distance
part
summed
between
into which
to obtain
passing through the area's centroid. the actual integration over areas is shapes, such as rectangles, triangles, for some simple shapes may be found standard civil or mechanical engineering the Appendix). Most cross-sectional combination of these simple shapes. several simple shapes, the parallel-axis transfer formula) is necessary; its Consider that the area A shown of a cross section of a beam in flexure.
is at a distance dz from the centroidal
In applications of the flexure fo necessary for only a few etc. Values of moments of in texts on statics as well as. in handbook (also see Table areas used may be divided To find I for an area theorem (sometimes called development fol ows. in Fig. 6-8 is a part of a complex The centroidal axis zc for this
z axis for the whole
In
calculations,
ss-sectional
Iz for
the
whole
section,
i.e.,
It (whole
process is completed,
section)
= (Izc
the z subscript
+ Ad 2)
may be dropped
(6-18a)
in treating
of symmetric cross sections. The fol owing examples il ustrate integration for two simple areas.
area.
its
Then,
zc axis is
by
definition,
the
moment
Itc = AY2
On
the
theorem
fabricated Appendix.
steel
the method of computing I directly Then an application of the parallelarea is given. Values for I for commercial y and pipes are given in Tables 3 to 8 of the
(6-1
EXAMPLE
6-t
the
moment
of inertia
around
the
horizontal
axis
passing
through
the
centroid
for the
z axis
the
rectangular
area
shown
in Fig.
6-9.
other
is
hand,
the
moment
of inertia
It of the
same
area
Iz = A (y + dz)2dA
By
outside
The Here
of the
two
axes +hi2
--h/2
of symmetry. bh 3
12
y
squaring
the
the
integrals,
quantities
in the
parentheses
and
placing
the
.J-hi2
y2b dy = b
C bh3h
expressions are used frequently,
ib3h)
as rectangular beams are common.
Fig. 6-9
the
integral
to Eq. through
Vol.
9 For
1, Statics,
example,
2nd
see J. L. Meriam
and
Wiley,
L. G. Kraige,
1986).
Engineering
292
Pure Bending
EXAMPLE 6-2
and Bending
of inertia
293
Fig.
y
Find
6-10.
the
moment
about
a diameter
Izc = 1-- =
Ad 2 = 2400(30
I for a circle,
the definition
12
- 72 x 104 mm 4
2 = 0.69 I = 72.69 X 104 mm 4 x 104 mm 4
Solution
- 28.3)
To find
Then
Eq. 4-2,
first
note
that
D 2 = Z 2 + y2, as may
the symmetry around
be seen
both
from
axes,
the fi
and
using
of J, noting
the
hollow
interior:
bh 3
20
X
12
303
Fig.
6-t0
J= f,p2.dA = f,(Y2+z2)
= + Iy=
dA= f,y2dA+
2 4
f,z2dA
composite
12
4.50
x
x
104
104
mm
mm
4
4
Ad 2 = 600(35
section:
- 28.3)
2 =
Iz=
2.69
7.19
104
mm
= --J_
In mechanical
20 wil interior be found must be
Iz = (72.69
Note particularly composite
area of an area
7.19)104
= 65.50
104
mm
term
4
element of is the moment term is due to the each
applications,
useful. subtracted For
circular
a tubular from the
EXAMPLE
Determine
6-3
the moment of inertia I around
shafts
often
act
as beams;
hence,
Eq.
' inertia
transfer
to the such
centroid problems
area.
Methodical
work
is the
prime
the
horizontal
axis
for
the
area
in mm
Solution
in Fig.
6-11
for
use
in the
flexure
formula.
largest
stress
at a section
of a beam
is given
by Eq.
6-13,
O'max
As
the
moment
of inertia
is for
use
in the
flexure
formula,
it must
be
around the axis through the centroid of the area. Hence, the centroid of the must be found first. This is most easily done by treating the entire outer and deducting the hollow interior from it. For convenience, the work is out in tabular form. Then the parallel-axis theorem is used to obtain I.
y [ram]
and in most practical be determined. Therefore, g O'max as simple as both I and c are constants is a constant. Moreover, dimensions of a
area. This
problems, it is this maximum stress that has it is desirable to make the process of depossible. This can be accomplished by noting for a given section of a beam. Hence, since this ratio is only a function of the crossbeam, it can be uniquely determined for any
ratio is called the elastic section modulus of a
wil
be designated
by
S. With
this
notation,
Eq.
6-13
becomes
Area
Entire Hollow
60
A [mm
40
2]
= = 2400 -600
(from
bottom)
30 35
Ay
72
area interior
-20
x x
60 30
-21
000 000
A
1800mm
28.3
2
mm from
Ay
bottom
= 51000
stated otherwise
O'max--
maximum bending stress =
bending
elastic section
(6-21)
moment
modulus
28.3
Ay
Fig. 6-11
51 000 800
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-5.
300
Applications
of
the
Flexure
Formula
295
r=20
kN
0.75 kN/m
mm
20kN 0.75kN/m
rn
the
that
units
the
of stress,
distance c as
as before,
used here
become
is measured
psi
(or
from
N/m2).
the
It bears
neutral axis to
Pa
most remote fiber of the beam. This makes consequently M/S gives the maximum stress. resisting elastic bending have as large an S as of material. This is accomplished by locating possible far from the neutral axis. The use of the elastic section modulus in what to the use of the area termA in Eq. 1-13 the maximum flexural stress on a section whereas the stress computed from Eq. 1-13
section of a member.
I/c = S a minimum, The efficient sections possible for a as much of the Eq. 6-21 corresponds (or = P/A). However, is obtained from Eq. holds true across the
--L
.I
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
Fig.
6-t2
Eq.
6-19:
It . .
Eq. 6-13:
bh 3
12
300
X
12
4003
16 x 108 mm
Equation
facilitate are tabulated its
6-21
is widely
used
moduli
in practice
for many
because
manufactured a few steel
of its
simplicity.
cross
sections are givenl Tables 3 to 8 in the Appendix. Equation 6-21 is particularly for the design of beams. Once the maximum bending moment for is determined and an allowable stress is decided upon, Eq. 6-21 may solved for the required section modulus. This information is sufficientq select a beam. However, a detailed consideration of beam design delayed until Chapter 9. This is necessary inasmuch as a shear which in turn causes stresses, usually also acts at a beam section.
interaction of the various kinds of stresses must be considered first
Values
for
Crmx
From the are ,riven, sense seen the
Mc
38.5
16 X 108
106
200
= +4.81
MPa
the top fibers of in tension. In the the negative sign
gain
The fol owing two examples il ustrate at specified sections, where, in addition also required for equilibrium. As shown of small or moderate shears does not stresses in slender beams. Both moment the same section simultaneously.
EXAMPLE 6-4
complete
insight
into
the
shown in Fig. 6-12(c), and the bottom ones to the tensile stress and
applies
to the
the
compressive
stress.
Both
of these
stresses
decrease
at a linear
rate
toward
calculations for bending to bending moments, shears in the next chapter, the significantly affect the and shear frequently
neutral axis, where the bending on infinitesimal elements at A and learn to make such a representation Chapters 8 and 9.
stress is zero. The normal stresses B are shown in Fig. 6-12(d). It is imof an element as it wil be frequently
Soldion
stress section
is desired, modulus
for I
c
involving section bh 2
6
modulus form
is
A 300 by 400 mm wooden cantilever beam weighing concentrated force of 20 kN at the end, as shown maximum bending stresses at a section 2 m from
Solution
s ..
(6-22)
[n this
problem,
S = 300
x 4002/6
M
= 8 x 106 mm 3, and
38.5
by Eq.
6-21,
A free-body diagram for a 2-m segment of the beam is shown in Fig. keep this segment in equilibrium requires a shear of 20 - (0.75 x 2) = 18.5 and a bending moment of(20 x 2) - (0.75 x 2 x 1) = 38.5 Both of these quantities are shown with their proper sense in.Fig. 6-12(c).
distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fibers c = 200 mm. Thi
S
results.
8 X 106
10 6
4.81 MPa
to both
the
tension
and
the
compression
fibers.
296
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
8k
Axial
Forces
8k
Sec.
6-6.
Stress
Concentrations
297
:P16"
Ay
E
+
17.0
1.70
in
from
line
ab
I=
8 X
(Io
-
Mc
I
4xl 3
x x
12
2 x
+ 4 x 1.2 2
3 x 0.82 = 14.43in 4
.8k
16
+
2.3 1.7
k-in
mx O'max
These
obtained
= 20.4 =
the
ksi ksi
axis
properties
channel. Both
(compression) (tension)
and
area
(a)
Mc
I
16
14.43
15.1
neutral
stresses
would
vary
be
linearly
the
same
toward
same if the
vanish
of
these
there.
the bracket
The
were
rethe
have
cross-sectional
led,
axis
as shown
are the
in Fig.
as
6-13(e).
those of
The
the
of this
section
sections
about
I? .v_ i?':1
(d) (e)
axis
of symmetry.
Section
A-A
(b)
Fig.
EXAMPLE
previous
so
as
example
to
have
shows
a dif erent
that
members
maximum
resisting
stress
in tension
flexure
may
than
be
in
6-t3
maximum machine
tensile bracket
and shown
compressive in Fig.
stresses
acting
6-13(a)
caused
by
This is significant for materials having dif erent strengths tension and compression. For example, cast iron is strong in compresand weak in tension. Thus, the proportions of a cast-iron member be so set as to have a low maximum tensile stress. The potential of. the material may thus be better utilized.
Stress Concentrations
force
and bending moment of proper magnitude and sense to of the member in equilibrium are shown in Fig. 6-13(c). Next the: of the beam must be located. This is done by locating the centroid shown in Fig. 6-13(b); see also Fig. 6-13(d). Then the moment neutral axis is computed. In both these calculations, the legs of the are assumed rectangular, neglecting fil ets. Then, keeping in mind of the resisting bending moment and applying Eq. 6-13, one obtains
values.
shear
beams
flexure theory developed of constant cross section, area of the beam varies 3attern discussed earlier holes, or an abrupt change high local stresses arise. earlier for axial and
in the preceding sections applies i.e., prismatic beams. If the gradually, no significant deviation takes place. However, if notches, in the cross-sectional area of This situation is analogous to torsion members. Again, it is very
only to cross-secfrom the grooves, the beam the ones dif icult
to obtain
Ihe
analytical
expressions
regarding experiments. extensively the
for
the
actual
stress.
In the past,
came
most
from finite
of
acelesince
y [in]
Area
Number
1 2 3
A [in 2]
4.0 3.0 3.0
(from
0.5 2.5 2.5
ab)
Ay
2.0 7.5 7.5
actual stress distribution Numerical methods used for the same purpose.
employing
Fortunately,
of the
as in the
member
affect
other maximum
cases
the The
local
discussed, stress,
stress
pattern.
only
the
Moreover,
geometric
pro-
generally
in3
to
is in the
to an advantage. maximum
stress-concentration
maximum as given
factors
by
A = 10.0
in 2
Ay
= 17.0
stress
stress Eq.
298
Pure Bending
and Bending
Strain Energy
in Pure Bending
2.2
. r/d
= 0.05
(ama x) nominal
Fig. 644 concentratioh
bending.
= 'T
Me
1.8
0.1
,'
' ....
1.0 2.0
0.2
0.75
3.0 4.0 5.0
1.4
Meaning
factor
of stressin
K=
1.0
h
for
factor
in general,
in bending.
This
area
has
reentrant
angles.
For
example,
high
localized
stresses
may
at the point
where
the range
and
the web
of an I beam
meet.
To
(O'max)actual
In this equation Figures 6-15 member, indicates
notches
representative
desirable
to reduce
may the
be obtained desirability
local
Mc/I is for the small width of a bar. and 6-16 are plots of stress-concentration from these of generous
K, depending
ductile
in machine
concentrations.
For
these, commercial y rolled or extruded shapes have a generous at all such points. In addition to stress concentrations caused by changes in the cross,nal area of a beam, another effect is significant. Forces often are over a limited area of a beam. Moreover, the reactions act only on a beam at the points of support. In the previous treatment, all uch forces were idealized as concentrated forces. In practice, the average
materials,
These
beam
pressure between the member delivering such a force and the are computed at the point of contact of such forces with the beam. bearing pressure, or stress, acts normal to the neutral surface of a and is at right angles to the bending stresses discussed in this chapstudy of all of the stresses effect of such forces on a local scale, and shows that the bearing they pres-
where
the
forces
are
Stress
o These Concentration
stress
concentrations become
particularly
mportant. significant
sure
The
as normally
to the reader
computed
flexural stresses must remember the material behaves
these factors.
is a crude
approximation.
The
as shown
stresses
at right
if the
"Factors 57, (1935):
while
to reduce
behavior
2.0
:26=7.
Elastic
the
Strain
elastic stress
Energy
strain energy
in Pure
Bending
subelastic
My
I
1.8
1.6
K
1.4
0.27
0.5
17,
1.2
was energy for beams in stress varies linearly and, according to Eq. The volume of a dx is its length, and web
flanges.
pure
formulated. bending can from the neutral 6-11, in simplified typical infinitesimal dA is its cross-sectional part of a beam. until study
For this case, the as shown in Fig. 6this stress cr = element is dx dA, area. By substituting
parts 12. of a beam
Fig. 6-t7 deriving
bending.
dA
(a)
(b)
factors
flat
Fig.
6-t5
bars
in pure
with
Stress-concentration
vhrious
1.0
bending
Eftlets.
for
1.0
2.0 h/r
..
3.0
1.0
n The
4.0 5.0
n This
called
is a thin can
vertical be postponed
horizontal
section
for
300
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-8.
Beams
of Composite
Cross
Section
30'
these beam,
bending
into
integrating strain
energy
over
V of in
instructive
= 2CrmaxI/h,
U=
to write
dx'Thus,
M2L 2EI
since O'ma x ----- Mc/I, M
2E
this result
I = bh3/12,
in another
form:
J
2E
Rearranging constant
and
and
the
that
M the
at a section integration =
2EI
of a
is
--
2EI
dx
ea
y2 dA
stress, absorbing
varies
effective.
the This
along
of the material in this beam is only oneas it would be in a uniformly stressed bar, from variable stresses in a beam. If the
beam, the volume of the material
also
a prismatic
the
beams
last 6-24
is possible since, by deflation, I = f y2 volume integral for the elastic energy of to a single integral taken over the
from a dif erent point of a beam dx long, as is moments M, the two parallel. After the same two planes, which between these two
moment M is attained
a beam.
Alternatively, -Eq. 624 can be derived by considering an elementary segment of Fig. 6-18. Before the application of bending perpendicular to the axis of the beam are of the bendingmoments, extensions of the planes, intersect at O, and the angle included
is dO.
alternative
Beams den
uses beams
of
Composite
of dif erent reinforced
Cross by
Section
materials metal occur straps, in practice. plastics
steel
Fig.
6-18
energy
Beam
derivation
segment
of
for
ually,
Moreover,
strain
in bending.
external work We done on a segment of a beam since for small deflections, dx O dO, where of the elastic curve, per Eq. 6-10 1/p = M/EL of conservation of energy, the internal strain
beam is
the average
since
'moment
the
ful
acting
value
is concrete
with
rein-
are
of the
the
The elastic bending theory discussed before can be readily to include such beams of composite cross section. an elastic beam of several materials bonded together with a axis of symmetry as shown in Fig. 6-20(a). The elastic moduli Ei dif erent materials are given. As for a homogeneous material, the extensional strains ex are assumed to vary linearly as shown
is an optional section.
bars.
This
x
Find bending
Soldion
Section
the
elastic moment
cantilever
beam
due
Unit distance
Cross
section
Bending (b)
strain
Bending (c)
stresses
Fig.
'6-'19
The El,
bending is constant.
moment By
of this of Eq.
beam, 6-24,
as well
as the
flexural
(a)
Fig.
6-20
Elastic
beam
of composite
cross
section
in bending.
302
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-8.
Beams
of Composite
7.5
Cross
= 150/20
Section
303'
using
Eq. 6-16.
The stresses
shown
materials,
in Fig. 6-20(c)
the
fol ow
on the
from
Eq.
-t
250
mm
Neutral
axis
Mz = K fA Eiy2 dA = K(EI)*
where the curvature K, being constant for the section, is taken
10mm
(a)
20X150=3000mm
Fig.
(b) 6-2t
mm
150
(c)
_1
the
the
integral,
middle
and
expression.
(E/)*
defines
Hence
symbolically
mz
the
value
of the
PLE
6-8
(E/)*
mm
'30
The strap
kN.m
wood?
and
by substituting
this
relation
into
Eqs.
6-3 and
6-14,
e,=-(E/),y
where the last diately specialized In calculations
Mz
and
useful
sectional erence
to introduce
constant
the concept
This Using
of an equivalent
requires this
E M
ilution
as Ee. 6-21(b)
Then with
cross x 20
for this
section = 3000
trans-
to Eq.
cross
6-11,
and
can
be
centtold
and
moment
of inertia
beam.
section
150
are,
respectively,
125
sections,
arbitrary notation
or transformed
selection the integral
sometimes
of
=
-
x 250
10
x 3000
x 255
= 183mm
x 103
12
in
150
x 2503
12
15, for
curvature
, can
be recast
as fol ows:
250x
582+
3000
= 478
x 10 6 mm
stress
Ely dA = Eref
where ni dA = (Ei/Ee) can be considered to dA. have
Yr dA = Erie
Therefore a beam the mechanical a cross section In transformed
y(ni dA) = 0
(O'w)mx
of composite properties
of
Mc
I
steel
0.03
478 X 10 6
0.03 x 109
109
183
11.5 MPa
77
cross the
maximum
stress
in
the
is
material,
vary
provided
linearly
from
After analysis
transforming is applicable.
areas
dA are multiplied
material, by
axis
in all materials.
whereas
by hi, the
stresses
the
(O')mx
klternative Solution
= no-,
= 20
478
10 6
96.7
MPa
the
The
stresses
actual
in
ielect
E as Er.
6-21(c).
Then
nw
= Ew/E
= 1/20,
and
the
transformed
section
is as in
This
procedure
is il ustrated
on the
two
examples
that
fol ow.
304
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
7.5 x
with
250
Axial
x 135
Forces
+ 150 x 10 x 5
Sec.
6-8.
Beams
of Composite
Cross
Section
305
= 77
mm
x
the
bottom)
this sumes
the tension
hape
zone
of a beam
the
Iz-
7.5
+ 7.5
10 x x 77 722
x 250
= 23.9
x 582
x
+
106mm
150
x
12
103
above
tension, There
neutral
the
only
so it is shown
axis;
holds
the reinforcing
below
it, no concrete
transformed between
steel
transformed of concrete
in place?
is shown.
concrete
area.
Hence,
(crs)mx = (Crw)mx
Note that if the
0.03
23.9 X 106 20 x
piece
of the
150 x
x 109
purposes,
to its centreid.
distances to the
is located
teel fibers.
by a single
been used, but
dimension
this
from
distance
the
neutral
and the
is a negligible
various
far,
the
idea
of the
neutral
axis
has
its location
is unknown.
ors
0.03
109
x 183
11.5 MPa
wooden section
However,
the the
transformed
section
equivalent
transformed section. It is further known that the fn:st (or statical) area on one side of a centroidal axis is equal to the first moment on the other side. Thus, let kd be the distance from the top of the
it is known
that
this
axis
coincides
with
the axis
through
the
centreid
alent
stif er
stresses
section
than
in the
unit
is steel,
the material
actual
wooden
stresses
a higher
in steel
stress
are
are obtained
section
obtained
directly.
directly.
Conversely,
The
stress
since,
in
'if the
to
centroidal
the
stresses
axis,
distance from
as shown
top
in Fig.
6-22(c),
where
k is an unknown
ratio,
5 and
transformed
is increased,
the
same
strain,
is required.
of the beam to the center of the steel. locates the neutral axis, about which as in the preceding example.
An algebraic I is computed
10(kd)
EXAMPLE
Determine
(kd12)
arm
=
transformed steel
30
area
(20
arm
kd)
6-9
the maximum stress in the concrete and the steel for a
concrete area
concrete
beam
with
the
section
shown
in Fig.
bending
(These
Solution
bars
ratio
momeni
are 1 in in diameter
steel
of 50,000
ft-lb.
of
The
and
concrete
have
reinforcement
the
of E for
to that
a cross-sectional
to be
consists
i.e.,
area
of two
15.
of 1 in 2'
#9
steel
30(kd) 120 = 0
15,
n =
kd
8.36
in
and
20
kd
11.64
in
Plane
line
beam.
ab.
sections
Strains
A transformed
vary
concrete
not
are
linearly
assumed
section
from
to
remain
in terms
the neutral
of
plane
axis,
the
in
as shown
is used
an
elastic
to
in Fig.
solve
6-22(b)
this
by
no
concrete
Mc
12 367 + 10(8.
I
Mc
I
10(8.36)
x
x
50,000
15
However,
cracks wil
is so weak
occur in the tension
in tension
zone of
that
there
beam.
is no
For
assurance
this reason,
that
6020
12
-- -+ (86)
8.36
x 12 x 11.64
0 + 30(11.64) 2 = 6020 in 4
= 17,400 psi
= 833 psi
50,000
6020
is given
to concrete
for
resisting
tension.
On
Solution
Unit
distance
hA, = 30 in 2
(c)
I, a procedure evident from Fig. 6developed by the stresses acting in a side of the beam must be located kd/ below the top of the beam. Moreover, if b is the width of the beam, this resultant C = (cr)m,b(kd) (average stress times area). The resultant tensile force steel and is equal to Acr, where A is the cross-sectional the steel. Then, ifjd is the distance between T and C, and since T = C, applied moment M is resisted by a couple equal to Tjd or Cjd.
The
(b)
(d)
Fig.
6-22
In this text,
This
Actually,
conforms
it is used
with
to resist
the
h is generally
used
usual
shear
to represent
notation
and
used
provide
the height
in books
fireproofing
or depth
on reinforced
for
the
of the beam.
concrete.
steel.
306
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-9.
Curved
Bars
307
jd
= d -
kd/3
= 20
(8.36/3)
17.21
in
b Centroid
M = Cjd = b(kd)(c)mx(jd)
(O)m,,
M b(kd)(jd) = Tjd = Assjd
M
+y
--
2M
-50,000
2 x
50,00.0
12
10
x 8.36
x 12
x =
17.21 17,400
The second concrete
= 833
psi
.\
\
o-s = -A(jd)
Both convenient
lowable
the
said
2 x
same Since
to
17.21
answer. steel
have balanced
psi
method have
when
Straight
\
beam
(c)
\
is
(b)
methods
in practical
stresses,
naturally
the
give applications.
beam is
and allowable
reinforcement
designed
so that
the
respective
stresses
are
at their
level
simuttaneou
Note
ments
that
were
the
applied
beam
in the
shown
opposite
would
become
direction.
virtually
worthless
if the
bending
(a)
Fig.
6-23
Curved
bar
in pure
bending.
Curved
The flexure is confined this axis
Bars
is developed of symmetry the length as shown in this section. of the cross section, of the bar. Only the
area
b)/rqb,
its initial
is
and
the
length
normal
is rqb. The
stress
tr on
strain
an element
e of any
arbitrary
dA
of the
fiber
cross-sectional
is (R
- r)
case
is treated,
fibers fibers
theory for curved bars to bars having an axis lying in one plane along
7 with
and
the
usual
proviso
same Consider
outer inner
in tension a curved
are are
compression. member
such
of
at a distance at a distance
modulus
is
(6-29a)
(6-29b)
For
future
use,
note
also
that
in Figs.
center
6-23(a)
and
(b).
the distance
from
curvatur60. O to the
trr -R -
r
The
E dqb qb
location
axis
is L The
solution
8 of this
problem
is again
based
on the
assumption: Sections perpendicular to the axis of the beam remain after a bending moment M is applied. This is diagrammatically by the line ef in relation to an element of the beam abcd. The is defined by the central angle qb. Although the basic deformation assumption is the same as for strai beams, and, from Hooke's law, the normal stress tr = Ee, a dif iculty encountered. The initial length of a beam fiber such as gh depends the distance r from the center of curvature. Thus, although the. total formation of beam fibers (described by the small angle dqb) fol ows law, strains do not. The elongation of a generic fiber gh is (R - r) where R is the distance from O to the neutral surface (not yet 6 Study of this section 7 For plastic analysis
Bending 27/4 (December
Equation
6-29a
section
gives
of a curved
the
be equal
normal
beam.
stress
i.e.,
acting
on
of the
an element
of area
of
from
the
the condition
section
must
to zero,
of the forces
acting
neutral
perpendicular
axis
fol ows
F.=0
since bar,
obtained.
= 0
and section of a a solution
they
tic-Plastic Mech.
solution ticity
is This
approximate
of Curved 1960):
is optional. of curved
oo
---7--
oo
---
aA
=0
(6-30)
solution
bars,
see,
for example,
and
Variable
H. D. Conway,
Thickness.
by who
was
developed
by E. Wintaler
mathematical
in 1858.
theory
The
of
308
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-9.
Curved
Bars
309
where axis.
troidal
elastic
area
axis
the
of the so found
situation
beam, does
found
and
not
R locates coincide
to be true
the
with
for
the
cr-
My
Ae(R
y)
(6-32)
that the location of the neutral axis is known, the equation for stress distribution is obtained by equating the external moment to internal resisting moment built up by the stresses given by Eq. The summation of moments is made around the z axis, which is to the plane of the figure at O in Fig. 6-23(a).
Now
These
fol ows
center
equations a hyperbolic
of
from
the
the
indicate pattern.
that
formula
of
bars
distribution of this
is shown
results
result
6-23(c).
bar one
particularly
that
curvature
in the curved
bar,
beam.
the neutral
This
axis
is pulled
the
toward
higher
Stresses
Mz=O
Again, remembering
course,
developed only
For
a consideration
below to elastic
see
The
where
an
developed to beams
axial
force
applies, in pure
is
also
at a section,
Section
6-12.
that
E, R,
qb, and
dqb are
constant
at a section,
Eq.
obtained:
6-29b,
and
performing
the
algebraic
steps
indicated,
the
fol owing
2083
:urved
tVIPLE
6-'10
are N.m
to
stresses in three
? = 75
M=E dqbf, (R -r r)2 dA - R---rr f, (R -r r)2 dA Solution + r2 R err -r f, g 2 - Rr r Rr NON-ACTIVATED VERSION
mm.
the
i = 250
bar beam,
mm,
6-24(a),
to end curved
and
moments of to a radius
(c) beam
dA
_ err (R2fAdA_RfAdA_RfAdA
R-r r
since R is a constant, the the expression in parentheses integral is A, and the last
radius of the centroidal
M
first
+ fArdA) www.avs4you.com
S =
This
fol ows
directly
by
applying
Eqs.
6-21
and
6-22.
bh2/6 M
= 50 2083
x 502/6 103
=
+100
20.83
MPa
103
mm
crmx
This result
of curvature.
S
in Fig.
20.83
6-24(c).
x 103
axis.
O't"
is shown
? = oo since
a straight
bar
has
an infinite
.(?A
RA)
m
beam at a
and (c) the neutral axis must be located first. This integrating Eq. 6-30. For the rectangular section, as b dr, Fig. 6-24(b). The integration is carried out
the
mm
from
from
where
the center
the
normal
of curvature
stress
is
acting
on
a curved
ro,
X 50
inner
and
outer
radii,
respectively.
100
MPa
93.6
MPa
80.9
MPa
I M(R- r)1
orrA(?R)
If positive
axis, and resembles
/I-T
-v
{----v
128 MPa 7' = 75 mm
60ram
y is measured
toward
may for
the center
of curvature
from
that more
the
(a)
0
(b)
(c)
Fig.
6-24
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
A
with
Axial
Forces
bh h
Sec.
6-10.
Inelastic
Bending
of Beams
I In r Ir?
In (ro/ri)
2.3026
log
(ro/rt)
and log is a
mm.
cross-sectional area may become very complex. Finally, calculations must be very accurate since dif erences between R and numerically quantities are used in the stress formula. last two dif iculties prompted the development of other methods solution. One such method consists of expanding certain terms of the into a series? another of building up a solution on the basis of
where h is the depth of the section, In is the natural logarithm, arithm with a base of 10 (common logarithm). (b) For this case, h = 50 mm, ? = 250 mm, rt = 225 mm, and solution is obtained by evaluating Eqs. 6-33 and 6-31. Subscript normal stress of the inside fibers; o of the outside fibers.
g
e
special
reverse."
transformed
moments
Curved
section.
beams
of
Yet
exist
various
another
the
cross
approach
sections,
consists
quantities
curvatures,
of working
are divided
and
re = 275
are analyzed
stress that would are then tabulated?
for
stress;
for Hence,
then
same conversely,
these
beam
i refers
to
a flexural : ratios
m
=
50
beam
= 250 249.164 249.164 mm = 0.836 mm
is wanted,
it is given
as
=
In (275/225)
? R
K McI
from a table or a graph and
is now
(6-34)
O'i
M(R riA(?
107 MPa
- ri) - R)
- re) - R)
MPa
2083
225)
ere the
axis
coefficient
as in the usual
K is obtained
flexure formula.
Mc/I
given
is
M(R roA(b
- 93.6
2083
275)
for
An expression
future
The the
negative corresponding
sign
in the
Results
50
same of the
--50
way. computation
-
of a curved
for
the
beam
distance
of circular
from
the
cross-sectional
center
of curvature
area
to the
neu-
quantities ? = 250
mm.
p+
V.2
- c2
(6-35)
Here
ri:
where
? is the
radius
distance
of
from
the
center
of curvature
area.
to the
centroid,
and
c is the
the
circular
cross-sectional
In (100/50)
gR = 75
In 2
73.13
72.13mm
6-10.
2.87mm
Inelastic
Bending
of Beams
it is becoming beyond the in the post is limited increasingly important to deterelastic limit. In this section the inelastic rage of material behavior is to pure bending of beams around
e =
o-i = ' =
2083 2083
103
x (72.13
- 50) 100)
mine
The
Several important conclusions, generally true, may be reached this example. First, the usual flexure formula is reasonably good beams of considerable curvature. Only 7 percent error in the stress occurs in part (b) for ?/h = 5, an error tolerable for most cations. For greater ratios of ?/h, this error diminishes. As the of the beam increases, the stress on the concave side rapidly ' over the one given by the usual flexure formula. When ?/h = 1.5, percent error occurs. Second, the evaluation of the integral for R
axis
elastic
perpendicular
bending
to the axis
introducing
the
theory
ship
To
The
same
of symmetry
the
elastic
of the beam
cross
section.
il ustrate such
1955),
consider By assuming
3rd for ed., Stress
Nostrand,
York:
19 S. Timoshenko,
McGraw-Hil ,
Strength
and
1975).
20 R. J. Roark,
and
W. C. Young,
373.
of Materials, Formulas
Pure Bending
and Bending
Bending
of Beams
5
0 2 ---
Y4
Y5
01
Finding the location of the neutral axis such that T = C may require trial-and-error process, although direct procedures have been devised some cross sections. TM After the neutral axis is correctly located, the : bending moment Mz at the same section is known to be C(a + or T(a + b), see Fig. 6-25(d). Alternatively, in the form of a general equation,
Mz = - cry dA
5 4 1 E2 3
(6-37)
cross
are the a priori
_ Unit
length(a) Beam section
The
problem
I'strain
1
-O 4
horizontal
is greatly
For
simplified
if the beam
properties it is known
section
same that
is symmetric
(b)
Bending
(c)
Stress-strain
ciated
define
the centroid of the section, and Eq. behavior of such a beam in bending
A sequence of progressively sections is shown in Fig.
stresses in the outer
maximum
6-26(b).
increasing
fibers
These
beam,
strains maximum
be diqualiasFig.
M z
(/5
o3
resulting in progressively increasing bending stresses. As can be seen from Figs. 6-26(a) and (c), the maximum attainable 0-3. The instantaneous stress distribution in the beam associated 0-3, for this brit le material, is given by the curved line AB in Fig. in routine experiments the nominal stress in the extreme
by applying determined
of Flow
flexure bending
formula, moment.
Eq.
The
2 A. Nadai,
Theory
andFracture
of Solids,
vol.
! (New
York:
(d)
Bending
stresses
Fig.
6-25
Inelastic
bending
of beam.
sections
remain
plane
after
deformation,
the
longitudinal
normal
Fracture
vary linearly as in Fig. 6-25(b). For the several selected strains .. es in this diagram, the correponding stresses 0., 0-2 . . . 0-5 defined on the given stress-strain diagram in Fig. 6-25(c). A plot of stresses along a section establishes a possible stress distribution in beam along the curved line AB as il ustrated in Fig. 6-25(d). (Except vertical scale, this line precisely corresponds to the curved line in stress-strain diagram.) These stresses, acting on the corresponding of the cross section, develop a compressive force C above the axis, and a tensile force T below it. When T = C, a correct location the neutral axis is found. This condition is equivalent to the
that at a section
Propordonal
limit
(b)
E1 2 3 01 0 2 0 3
fA 0- dA = 0
where 0- is the normal bending stress acting on a section.
(a)
material.
Pure Bending
Plastic zone
and Bending
with Axial
Forces
Elastic core
Bending
of Beams
M2
-crvp,
divided
whereas
the lower
half
is all under
and
a compression
a uniform
tension
fol ows
crvp.
from
That
sym-
the
Numerically,
I
(a)
C = T = o.yp(bh/2)
i.e.,
stress
is
x area
the neutral axis. Hence,
(b)
of straining.
Neutralaxis
(c)
Each
one
of these
or ultimate
Fig.
6-27
Elastic-plastic
'beam
at large
levels
found
is associated
actually
is called
attained.
with
the rupture
the
line
modulus
CD
in Fig.
of the material
6-26(c)
and
is larger
in bending.
than
This
Mp Muir = C
is the breadth of the beam, and
( + )
h is its
= o.yp- 4
height.
bh2
Eqs. 6-36 and 6-37.
the
The
The elastic perfectly plastic idealization [Fig. 2-13(b)], for reasons simplicity, is very frequently used for beams of ductile materials in termining their behavior in bending, and as an important example elastic bending, consider a rectangular beam of elastic-plastic see Fig. 6-27. In such an idealization of material behavior, a sharp aration of the member into distinct elastic and plastic zones is For example, if'the strain in the extreme fibers is double that at the ginning of yielding, only the middle half of the beam remains elastic; Fig. 6-27(a). In this case, the outer quarters of the beam yield. The nltude of moment M corresponding to this condition can be readily puted (see Example 6-13). At higher strains, the elastic zone, 6r diminishes. Stress distribution corresponding to this situation is
in Figs.
EXAMPLE
same
solution
may
be obtained
by
directly
applying
NOting
neutral symmetry
the sign
axis
through around
of stresses,
the
one
can conclude
that
Eq.
6-36
is satisfied
by taking
noting
Mp - Mult
crv,
= - 2
oh/2 (-
o.yp)yb
of rectangular
dy = o.ypbh2/4
section when the
(6-38)
outer
ust reach
as given
by the elastic
flexure
formula,
is
Myp
= o-ypI/c
the
= o-yp(bh2/6)
factor.
therefore,
factor just
Mp/Myp
given
= 1.50
for the
6-27(b)
6-tt
and
(c).
The
is called
ratio
Mp/Mvp
shows
For plastic
that
Myp
shape
depends
may
only
beam as occur
b& exceeded
The
on the
shape
cross-sectional
by 50 percent
ultimate
properties
of a member
rectangular
be
is reached. in buildings,
before
the ultimate
can
plastic
capacities
approx-
Consider
beam
imately
moments. method
as fol ows:
The procedures based on such conof analysis or design. For such work,
The
can
the material
take
idealized
place
moment.
stress-strain
properties
diagram
yielding
is shown
are
in tension
much
in Fig.
and
compression.
6-28(a).
than the
It is assumed
The
strain
as
Oyp
E
greater
maximum
quantity). strains,
Since
the plastic
unacceptably moment
stress
because
arms.
6-28(b) applies after a the resisting moment, bde may be neglected lit le resistance to the
Hence, the idealization
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
stress
Fig.
6-28
Pure Bending
and Bending
Bending
of Beams
For
the
The
many
beam
shapes.
of plastic
moduli
section
for steel
moduli
sec
is given
6-39
for
The situations
in Table
9 of the
Appendix.
or plastic properties
For
analysis of the
a given
M s and
Cryp the
in machine
solution
of i
important.
EXAMPLE
6-t2
(b)
(c)
Fig.
6-30
Elastic-plastic
cantilever
beam.
Find
plastic
Solution
the
residual
bending
stresses
moment.
in a rectangular
beam
upon
removal
of the
643
)etermine
stress 6-29(a). distribution The magnitude associated
of this
the
moment
resisting
capacity
of an elastic-plastic
rectangular
beam.
The Fig.
with moment
an
plastic determined
moment
in the
is shown
Solution To make the problem more definite, consider a cantilever loaded as shown in Fig. 6-30(a). If the beam is made of ideal elastic-plastic material and the applied force P is large enough to cause yielding, plastic zones wil be formed (shown shaded the figure). At an arbitrary section a-a, the corresponding stress distribution be as shown in Fig. 6-30(c). The elastic zone extends over the depth of 2yo.
that within the elastic zone the stresses vary linearly and that everywhere
fiber
example
unloading is double that which could take place since Myp = crypbh2/6 and the moment being
stress calculated Superimposing.the to the release ofM,
compressive are colored its depth,
of the
in the
and is M s = crypbh2/4.
beam can rebound
elastically.
Upon
release
on the basis of elastic action is cryp, as shown initial stresses at M s with the elastic one finds the residual stresses; see Fid.
residual stresses remain If such a beam were of the residual stresses in the machined would
of this
material
plastic
initial y released
elastic
moment
range
M s,
during
or
the plastic
=
zone
-
the longitudinal
stress
is crvv,
-
the resisting
(Cryp)(b
moment
dy)y
M is
(6-40)
9th
22 American
ed.
(Chicago:
Institute
AISC,
of Steel
1989).
Construction,
AISC
Steel
Construction
Manual
= YP'4
moment.
bh 2
YP--
by2o
= Me - YP' 3
by2o
with Eq. 6-38. In this general equal to the ultimate plastic to the limiting elastic case,
cannot progress with-
the last simplification is done in accordance if yo = 0, the moment capacity becomes However, if yo = h/2, the moment reverts
Oy p
the elastic-plastic
an elastic
a limit. out
remains,
deformations
flow.
moment by solving
of contained
O'yp (b)
deformations
Fig. 6.29 Residual stress distribution in a rectangular bar.
After
the applied
distribution
axis
pattern than the one shown in Fig. 6-29(c), where the idealization of dividing the tension and compression zones in the beam at the neutral in reality is impossible to attain. That pattern of stress distribution represents g case of the stress distribution pattern given in Fig. 6-31. Many inelastic
force
P is released,
along
the length
of the beam
A typical is a more
residual realistic
stress stress
(a)
(b)
Fig.
distribution
6-31
Residual
in
the
stress
beam.
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6.1t.
Bending
About
Both
Principal
Axes
The
materials
residual
tend
curved
stress
to have
line
pattern
a stress-strain
for
such
materials
relationship
CD
would
such
resemble
as shown
the
stress
in Fig.
between
AB
and
straight
line
of Fig.
6-26(c).
EXAMPLE
6-t4
l.
strength for the steel reinforcement f = 2500 psi. reinforced yields concrete at 40,000 beam psi and in that
Bending
About
Both
Principal
Axes
24
consider M act in in Fig. resolved this beam 6-3 are for this axes for
of singly
When
the
At the
reinforcing
steel
or plastic
begins
to yield,
large
deformations
commence.
is taken block
=
to be the ultimate
ultimate
capacity
moment,
of steel;
can
experimental
hence, to assume
T,u
evidence
= Ascryp.
indicates
that
example of skew or unsymmetrical pure bending, beam shown in Fig. 6-33. The applied moments abcd. By using the vector representation for M shown this vector forms an angle c with the z axis and can be , the two components, My and Mz. Since the cross section of symmetry about both axes, the formulas derived in Section applicable. Because of symmetry, the product of inertia is zero, and the orthogonal axes shown are the principal
cross section. areas. This (For also details holds see true Sections for the 6-15 centroidal and 6-16.) axes
a simple rectangular
compressive
C,t,
compressive
shown
one
stresses
has
stress
in Fig.
block
6-32. 23 It is customary
to be 0.85f;.
in concrete
be approximated On
80,000 x
this
basis,
=
the average
keeping
by the
rectangular
in mind
stress
that
in
By
elastic by My
6-12,
a superposition problem.
Hence,
of the using
Yult
k'd
= 40,000
=
0.85
x 2 = 80,000 x 2,500
Mt
= Tt(d
- k'd/2)
= 80,000(20
5th ed. Structures
23 For further
details,
see P.M.
Ferguson,
s. 6-11
. =
---
(6-41)
- 3.77/2)/12
York:
= 121,000
ft-lb
all terms
have
the
previously
defined
(New
J. E. Breen,
York: Wiley,
and J. O. J'sa,
1988),
(New
Wiley,
or R. Park 1975).
24 Some
as a special
readers
may
case.
prefer
to study
Section
Probable
stress
distribution
c
Muir
M
Assumed
stress
distribution
Gyp
(a)
(b)
Fig.
6-32
(a) (b)
Fig.
6-33
Unsymmetrical
bending
of a beam
with
doubly
symmetric
cross
section.
320
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
Y,
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-tt.
Bending
About
Both
Principal
Axes
32'
the constants are placed in front of the second integral, which is to zero because by definition a product of inertia for a principal vanishes. virtue of the above, the restriction placed on the elastic flexure . at the beginning of the chapter limiting it to applications for symcross sections can be removed. However, in the application of Eq.
be used. 6-14.
A procedure
PLE
Mzy
645
. _
(b)
Myz
(c)
100
by
distributed
150
mm
wooden
load
of 4 kN
beam
(total)
shown
on
in Fig.
a simple
6-36(a)
span
is used
of 3 m.
to support
The
applied
(a)
Fig.
6-34
Superposition
of elastic
bending
stresses.
in a plane making an angle of 30 with the vertical, as shown in Fig. 6and again in Fig. 6-36(c). Calculate the maximum bending stress at midspan, for the same section, locate the neutral axis. Neglect the weight of the beam.
a = 30
il ustration stress,
6-41
of superposition is given in Fig. 6-34. Note i.e., a neutral axis, forms at an angle [3 with such an axis can be determined by setting the to zero, i.e.,
+--
Mzy Iz My
Myz Iy'
= 0
or
tan
[3-
Since,
to
in general,
= M sin e and
Mz
= M cos
e, this
equation
J<
3m
'
tan [3 = tan e
This
Centroid
(a)
(b)
equation
shows
that
unless
I = Iy,
or e is either
the acts
0 or 90 ,
neutral do not axis
in general, moment
Direction of load
sections of any shape provided the principal axes are employed. this statement, consider a beam with the arbitrary cross section in Fig. 6-35. Let such an elastic beam be bent about the principal and assume that the stress distribution is given as crx = -My/I,
y axis, this sion gives
bending axis.
The
results
just
given
can be generalized
to apply
to beams
having
TO
cros!
z Eq.
-0.47
MPa
-6.47
MPa
150 150
11. If this
stress
is the
correct
distribution
solution
causes
of the
no bending
problem.
Forming
moment
such
My
around
an
+6.47
MPa
+0.47
MPa
(b)
My=
- -z yz dA =
yz dA = 0
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Fig.
6-36
322
Pure Bending
Solution
and Bending
bending
Hence,
M ..
About
Both Principal
Axes
323
The
according
maximum
on span
to Example
L.
5-8,
it is equal
WL 8
to woL2/8
or WL/8,
where
W is the
NA Y'
load
4x3 8
1.5
kN.m
Next,
this
moment
is resolved
into
components
acting
around
the
res[
and
I and
Iy are
calculated.
125.7
i
s incorrect to solve this formulas developed ever, using the principal
Mz
My
= M cos tx = 1.5
= M sin tx = 1.5
x X/-/2
x 0.5
= 1.3 kN.m
= 0.75 kN.m
Iz = 100
x 1503/12
= 28.1
x 10 6 mm 4
Iy = 150
x 1003/12
= 12.5
x 10 6 mm 4
By considering
the maximum ering the other can be substituted tensile corner
the sense
stress points. directly
of the moment
occurs at A. Alternatively, into Eq. 6,41.
components,
Similar
it can be concluded
applies when the coordinate
100 ,. t
Example = 23.95
an angle
74.3
Fig. 6-37
era =
= +3.47
M(:-ci)
+ 3.47 -3.47 -3.47
the stress axis
Iz
+ 3.00
+ Iy
= +6.47
Myc2
=' = =
1.3
+ 0.47 -6.47 -0.47
MPa
= = =
0.75
12.5
106 x 50 x 10 6
6-15,
where
0 = 14.34
it is found
problem using the y and z coordinates shown with the so far in the text. The solution can be obtained, howaxes for the cross section. These are determined in to locate
that
the axes
such
= Iy, = 2.53
axes.
must
x 106 mm 4. For
For
be rotated
these
principal
counterclockwise these
axes,
axes,
Imx
+M +M
opposite [3, using Eq. 6-43:
x 10 6 N.mm x 10 6 N.mm
highest
and
neutral
To
section lie at points farthest from the [3 is given by Eq. 6-43. Hence, using
z' coordinates,
28.1
10 6
or
distribution,
[3 = 52.4
triangles,
which
Iz,
23.95
X 10 6
from
the
any
giving pass
two
it can
points.
be
found
For
from
example,
the
stress
from
the
similar
a/(150
varies
this
0.47/6.47, as it must
locates centroid.
shown lead
with
angle
the
is measured
z axis.
Note
large
it forms
of the
an angle
neutral be seen
with
to the
which axis,
than
it can
that
*EXAMPLE
Determine moment in Fig.
646
the maximum of 10 kN-m acting 6-37. tensile around and the compressive horizontal axis stresses for the caused angle by a shown in
stressed these
6-41,
point points
the
required
in compression is at B, whereas that in tension is in the y'z' coordinate system of the principal axes sin0 + 125.7cos cos 0 - 125.7 0 = 122.9mm sin 0 = -26.95
y = zesin0z zb = z cos
mm
324
Pure
Bending
O'B =
and
Bending
+
with
--
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-t2.
Elastic
Bending
with
Axial
Loads
325
xt
X
x
9.689
23.95
= - 76.1 MPa
106
122.9
10 6
2.475
x 106
2.53 x
x (-26.95)
10 6
II
d
Similarly,
Yb zb
= zF sin = z cos
sin cos
0 - 74.3 0 + 74.3
cos sin
0 = 0 =
-65.97 +41.93
(c)
9.689
= + 67.7 MPa
x 106
23.95 x
X (--65.97)
10 6
2.475
X !06
2.53 X
X 41.93
10 6
(b)
Fig.
6-39
axes of the cross-sectional area. Then the these components around the respective axesi computed for use in the flexure formula. In Example 6-15, such ponents of the applied load are shown in Fig. 6-36(g). To avoid stresses, the applied transverse forces must act through the shear cent a concept discussed in the next chapter. For bilaterally symmetrical tions, e.g., a rectangle, a circle, an I beam, etc., the shear center with the geometric center (centroid) of the cross section. For other sections, such as a channel, the shear center lies elsewhere, as at S in Fig. 6-38, and it is at this point that the transverse force must to prevent occurrence of torsional stresses. Single angles acting as must be treated similarly (see Fig. 7-24). For analysis of uns'
bending, to the the principal applied axes forces of the must cross be resolved section. at the shear center
unsymmetrical bending of a beam is caused by applied another procedure equivalent to that just given is often The applied forces are first resolved into components
to the principal caused by
(6-45)
6-12.
Elastic
Bending
with
Axial
Loads
through
causes
Fig. 6-38
no
shear
Lateral
torsion.
center
force
A solution for pure bending around both principal axes of a member be extended to include the effect of axial loads by employing sition. Such an approach is applicable only in the range of elastic of members. Further, if an applied axial force causes member must be stocky, lest a buckling problem of the type in Chapter 11 arises. With these reservations, Eq. 6-41 can be
to read
P is taken positive for axial tensile forces, and bending takes place the two principal y and z axes. the particular case of an eccentrically applied axial force, consider case shown in Fig. 6-39(a). By applying two equal but opposite forces at centroid C, as shown in Fig. 6-39(b), an equivalent problem is obIn this formulation, the applied axial force P acting at C gives rise term P/A in Eq. 6-45; whereas a couple Pd developed by the opforces P a distance d apart causes unsymmetrical bending. The Pd applied by this couple can be resolved into two components the principal axes, as shown in Fig. 6-39(c). These components are Pzo and M = Pyo. Since the sense of these moments coincides the positive directions of the y and z axes, these moments in Eq. 6are positive. the principal axes are used, Eq. 6-45 can be applied to memof any cross section. In some instances, however, it may be more to use an arbitrary set of orthogonal axes and to determine bending stresses using Eq. 6-64 given in Section 6-14. To complete a the normal stress caused by axial force must be superposed. It is instructive to note that in calculus, the equation of a plane is given
Ax + By + Cz + D=O
B, C, andD
are
constants.
By
settingA
= 1, x = cry,, B = M/I,
-My/Iy,
and
D = -P/A,
it can
be recognized
that
Eq.
6-45
defines
326
Pure Bending
a plane.
to read
and
Similary,
Bending
since
with
Axial
Eq.
Forces
6-45
+
Sec.
can
cz +
6-12.
Elastic
Bending
with
Axial
Loads
e = rifE,
e, = x =
be recast
d)
in terms
of:
3.6
kN
25 kN
-(by
25
kN
where
a =
1, and
b,
c, and
d are
constants.
Since
this
equation
-x375.
(a)
1125
.-I
3,6kN
strain
assumption of the simplified However, because of the presence sections" not only rotate, but also
it can be concluded that the Ion
of transla
Based
on the
above
discussion,
is true
in members by distances
for elastic
stresses.
i
2.7 kN 0.9 kN
reference the neutral ever, when For large or strain that the applied
45 remains
plane in a line. This line of zero stress or strain is analo axis occurring in pure bending. Unlike the former case, P 0, this line does not pass through the centroid of a sec axial forces and small bending moments, the line of zero may lie outside a cross section. The significance of this normal stresses or strains vary from it linearly.
instances, forces rather the bending than by moment
(b)
-21.6 MPa
(c)
-14.9 MPa
M
+
axial
takes
force
applicable.
such
only
as il ustrated
bending
Several
il ustrative
place
examples
around
fol ow,
one
in Fig.
6-39.
In such
axes.
cases,
Ec
+6.67
MPa
+21.6
MPa
+28.3
MPa
of the
beginning
principal
with
situations
(d)
(e)
(f)
Fig.
6-40
10 3 x
375
at the
=
extreme
1.013
Mc
I
x
fibers
-
10 6 N.mm.
caused
-
From
by this
the
moment
flexure
are
formula,
the
maximum
EXAMPLE
6-19
cr-
6M.
bh 2
6 x
50
1.013
x 752
106
+21.6
MPa
elastic
the
through
bar
is loaded compressive
as
act
normal
to the
section
neutral
this problem is solved by is shown subjected only to the axial the same bar is shown subjected only to the transverse the normal stress throughout the length of the bar is
P
A
normal to the section of the beam as in Fig. 6-40(e). Then, to obtain bending stresses must be added stress. Thus, as may be seen from Fig. 6-40(f), stress is 14.9 MPa compression, and at B, of the stress vectors as commonly drawn are in this problem, the given axial force
axis element,
and decrease linearly toward the compound stress for any algebraically to the direct at point A, the resultant it is 28.3 MPa tension. Side shown in the figure. is larger than the transverse
force,
Note
bending
slender
that in
causes
compression
the final
higher
result,
stresses.
members
the line
However,
in the
of
the
same
zero
reader
which
is cautioned
is located
not
at the
to
light.
stress,
25
50
x
x
103
75
The
6.67
normal
MPa
stresses
(tension)
due to the
This
result
is indicated
in Fig.
6-40(d).
force
moment
depend
occurs
on the
magnitude
applied
of the
force.
bending
As the
moment,
left reaction
and
the
is 2.7
maximum
kN, Mmax
at the
of the section for flexure, moves caused by the concentrated force, beam, were not considered. Generally, as local bearing stresses. stress distribution shown in Fig. 6-40(f) s applied at the ends, compressive
act stresses
Also normal
that the local to the top surface are treated indepenif instead of the axial
note
change
forces
of the
same
magnitude
were
328
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
stress
in a beam
642.
Elastic
Bending
with
Axial
Loads
329
acting
from
on the
28.3 MPa,
member.
which
The
would
maximum
be deskable
tensile This
would
made
be reduced
of a material
to 14.9
i Shear
The
force
relative
is necessary
insignificance
to maintain
of the
equilibrium
stress
caused
of the
by the
segment
axial
shown
force
is strik-
in Fig.
tension and carrying struction. Tendons beam with anchorages artificial y applied also has been used
idea
steel
rods
is utilized or cable
at the ends are used fomes inhibit the development in racing-car frames.
to precompress of tensile
Problems
C clamps,
similar
**EXAMPLE
648
to which
649
frames
the
to
the
foregoing
f punch
above
commonly methods
presses,
of analysis
etc. il ustrate
occur
in machine must
the variety
design.
be applied.
of
A 50 by 50 mm elastic bar bent by two opposing forces P of 8.33 occurring at section A-B.
Solution
into kN
is normal
,.
LE
cross
section eccentricity
lB
Pe
ution
(b)
in order to maiPntaand in aappl ied force um, be an axi moment Pe at P thein equi base librihavi ng thteheresenses must shown. The al strcomess
by the axial force is = -P/A = -P/bh, whereas the largest the tensile section
having
,_
t'""'t t tt
separately.
The
stress
P
A
caused
by th
X
x
axial
--
--
8.33
50
103
50
-- 3.33
and
is shown
in the first
diagram
of Fig.
the bending moment may be obtained by using bent to a 75-mm radius, the solution is already stress distribution corresponding to this case is Fig. 6-41(c). By superposing the results of these stress' distribution is obtained. This is shown in The maximum compressive stress occurs atA and for point A is shown in Fig. 6-41(d). Shear stresses
8.33 kN --
;tress caused by bending is O'max = Mc/I = M/S = 6Pelbh 2, where NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com = bh + bh 2 = 0 or e = forces is
MPa
(compression)
section. that
To
satisfy
6-41(c).
The
normal
stresses
caused
Eq. 6-31. However, for this known from Example shown in the second dia two solutions, the the third diagram of Fig. is 131 MPa. An is{ are absent at
128 MPa
of h/6 Stress
centroidal
across
tel
base
in Figs.
corresponding,
6-42(c)
and
respectively,
(d),
and
their
to the
algebraic
axial
force
sum
and
in Fig.
bending
6-42(e).
moment
are
causing
Fig.
6-42
zero
Location
stress
of force
at B.
3.33
MPa
131
175
'=75
250
+
80.9 2083 N-m MPa
77.6
(c)
kN
the above problem, if force P were applied section, a smaller bending moment would be and there would be some compression stress be repeated for the force acting to the right a practical rule, much used by the early may be formulated thus:/f the resultant within the middle third of the rectangular
in the material at that section. It is understood
closer to the centroid of developed at section Aat B. The same argument of the centroidal axis. designers of masonry of all vertical forces cross section, there is no
that the resultant
in a vertical
cross-sectional
plane
containing
area.
one
on a member.
of the
The
axes
resultant
of symmetry
of the
The
foregoing
system
discussion
of forces acting
may
be generalized
in order
to apply
of these
to any
forces
Fig.
6-4t
330
Resultant
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec. 6.t2.
Ith
This
Elastic
from
Bending
such
with Axial
a transformed
Loads
equa-
Fig.
no
6-43
tension
Resultant
at B.
causing
may be made to intersect the plane of the cross section, as is Fig. 6-43. At the point of intersection of this resultant with the it may be resolved into horizontal and vertical components. If the component of the resultant fulfs the conditions of the former no tension wil be developed at point B, as the horizontal causes only shear stresses. Hence, a more general "middle-third" may be stated thus: there wil be no tension at a section of a mem a rectangular cross section if the resultant of the forces above this s intersects one of the axes of symmetry of the section within the
third.
comer
equation
of the
block
reads
can
be found
directly
Mz + My St Sy
(6-48)
are P = -64 x 10 3 N, My = -64 x 103 x (75 + 75) the fol owing properties: A = 1.125 x 106 mm 3, and Sy
Sz = bh2/6, and Sy = hb2/6. forces acting on section ABCD, Fig. 6-44(c), -64 x 103 x 150 = -9.6 x 106 N.mm, and M x 106 N-nlm. The cross-sectional area has 150 x 300 = 45 x 10 3 mm 2, Sz = 300 x 1502/6
X 3002/6 = 2.25 X 10 6 mm 3.
EXAMPLE
6-20
the
Find
the
stress
distribution
the
at section
same section,
ABCD
locate
for
the
the
block
line
hown
of zero
in mm
stress. Ne
n.
normal stresses at the comers are found stresses caused by moments by inspection. it can be seen that due to My, the stresses ;ive. Other cases are treated similarly. Using 64 45 x x
-
using
Eq. 6-48, assigning signs For example, from Fig. 6at comers A and D are comthis approach, 9.6 2.25
MPa
103 103
8.53 -
9.6 1.125
4.27
106 x 106
= -14.2
106 x 106
22,
P
75
In this
defining
problem,
the
elastic
it is somewhat
section
modulus
simpler
to recast
S = I/c
Eq.
as bh2/6.
6-45
with
The
the
normal
aid
of
-1.42
= = =
+ +
+ + -
= = =
500
in Fig. 6-44(d). The ends of these in the plane A'B'C'D'. The vertical defines the total stress at any of plane A'B'C'D' with plane ABCD
By
drawing
weight
to
thus,
ABCD
parallel E
125 mm.
are
(b)
of the
is
block
the
is neglected,
the
stress
distribution
on any
other
section
(a)
/D
+2.8
MPa
+11.4 MPa
6-21
125
zone
at
over weightless
the section
which block
A-B.
the
vertical shown
in
downward Fig.
Po
may
be causing
applied any
to the tensile
-14.MPa 2
(c)
-5.7
MPa
'A,/
zero
force
P = e system
-Po
(d)
is placed at an arbitrary point shown. Then the same reasoning this position of the force, the greatest
Fig.
6-44
atA.
With
P =
-Po,
M
= +PoY,
and
My
-Poz,
setting
the
stress
at
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-t3.
Inelastic
Bending
with
Axial
Loads
P
333
xI Po
z b/6
Fig. 6-45 .
(a) (b)
)lution
sume resisting
h/6
that
stress stress
a portion AB of the foundation force P. This corresponds along line B-B is zero by definition. at B may be writ en.
only applied
trB=
of the
xb + P
area,
the
P
As
() becomes
k x
distribution wil
0
modulus.
of the applied
and bx2/6
pressure
is its section
to the centroidal
By solving
"triangular,"
for
as
A
it is found
x = 3k and
shown
y
in Fig.
increases;
6-46(b)
when
(why?).
k is zero,
k decreases,
the block
the
in the
contact
intensity
unstable.
of pressure
of foundations
surface of a concrete
on line
for chimpad
Problems
as no
such
tensile
as this
stresses
arise,
can
for
example,
develop
design
(a)
at the
soil.
Eq. 6-45
contact
arise
where
shape.
for
are
heavy acting
A equal
the stress
to zero
fulf'fils
the
expressed
limiting
as
condition
of the
problem.
Using
at A to be'
era
0 -
- Po A
or
Po ---
Simplifying,
which when 45(b).
;o13. InelVERSION astic Bending with Axial NON-ACTIVATED Poy PoZ _ 0 + b-h/6 + bh2/6 www.avs4you.com h/6 + = 1
Izz
+
(PoY)(
- b/2)
( - Poz)(
- h/2)
Iyy
Loads
kinematic assumption
behaves
(b)
In Section
6-10,
it is pointed
out
that
the
basic
material
that
plane
a beam
sections
is bent
through
remains
a beam
valid
even
taken
if the
normal
to its axis
axis
remain
move
inelastically.
plane
after
it parsmall
stress
is an equation of a straight line. It shows that when y = O, z -- hi6. Hence, this line may be represented A vertical force may be applied to the block anywhere
aA wil be zero. Similar lines may be established
for the
Similary,
plane
sections
the
when normal
perpendicular
an inelastic strains
member corresponding
to a beam
along
For
can
be
P may tensile
found
be applied anywhere within the ruled area stress at any of the four coruers or anywhere
area is called to thelines kern of symmetry the of a section. of the
these are shown in Fig. 6-45(b). If force P is applied on any or on any line parallel to such a line toward the centtold wil be no tensile stress at the corresponding coruer. Hence,
By limiting rectangular
cumbersome
ected
47 can
superposed.
to a planar
be formulated.
case.
As a result
Such
of-such
general
superposition,
in this text?
a planar
moment
analysis
of inelastic
a plane
defined
Here' attention
beams
by EqJ
is Confined
is rather
6-
in Fig. else.
6-45(b) This
the
in this
example
verify
the
"middle-third"
rule
cross discussed
possible section,
The
to an axial
superposition
of strains
P and
a bending
for
member
M is shown
simultaneously
schematically
location the
the strains are greatly exaggerated. Superposition M moves a plane section axial y and rotates it as shown. If axial force P causes strain larger than any strain of opposite sign that is caused by M, the combined strains wil not change their sign
By these basic kinematic conditions of equilibrium, It is important to note,
and E. P. Popov, "Unsymmetrical Elastic Limit," Proceedings, (Michigan: Edwards Bros.,
between surfaces
tensile
that
do not forces.
EXAMPLE
6-22
Consider capable
the part
rigid
in the off.
block tensile
foundation
any
resting' stresses,
when
solve that
with
P is so placed
334
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6.t3.
y
Inelastic
Bending
with
Axial
Loads
335
M 2
P2
Unit' 1
(a) Axial strain due to P
Jnilet ngth
M (c) Combined, strains due to P and
(a)
(b)
(c)
(b)
Bending
strains
due
to
Fig.
6-47
Superposition
of strains.
of stresses
small.
is applicable
only
in elastic
problems
where
deformations
P3
M 3
for
An
example a member
6-23-
EXAMPLE
Consider simultaneously
the axial
a rectangular subjected
forces and
elastic-plastic to an axial
moments associated
beam tensile
Oyp
%
(f)
(e)
horizontal the
axis
Fig. 6-48
distribution, The
Combined
and
(e)
axial
and
(f)
and
ful y
bending
plastic
stresses:
stress
distribution. and
(a) elastic
(c) occurs M
stress
after
distribution,
yielding conditions
(b) and
has
(c) elastic-plastic
stress
with
the
distributions
shown
Figs.
Solution
6-48(a),
(b),
and
(e).
stress
distribution
shown
in Figs.
6-48(b)
taken
in Fig. 6-48(a) corresponds is at the point of impending to the limiting yielding.
ne can
place
determine
in the lower
directly
quarter
the
magnitudes
of the beam.
P and would
of P and
With
this
stress
from
distribution
the
given,
does stress
6-36 elastic
of
The case,
stress where
shown
stress
equilibrium. apply,
distribution.
If on the a cumbersome
the
other
given
hand, process
in Figs. must
the
Eqs.
case,
the
stress-superposition
approach
can
P1
be used.
MlC
Hence,
For
6-37
developed
stress
stresses normal
for inelastic
bending
equal
6-48(b)
of beams,
axial
and
(c),
one
except
simply
that
applies that
in Eq.
crypy/(3h/8)
6-36,
the
I
Eq. 6-21, the
of the
stresses
force
P.
Noting
in the
that
substituting the
in the plastic
=
the
can
zone
=
be expressed
algebraically
as cr = cryp/3
and
from
Dividing simplification,
P
Eq.
6-49
M
by cryp and
fA
3
cr dA
b dy
q'
;--hi4
the force
J -- h/2 crypb
dy crypyb
CrYP -- 4
dy
bh
1.0 \
X _AtiriPE;ding
cry dm=
the axial force
Jdh14
found exactly
1 -equals
yb dy --J-h2
acting
Pyp
This establishes a relationship between
Myp
P and
= 1'- crypbh2
Note
1.0
Pyp
just yield
interaction
Plots
M v = crvobh2/4;
of the section.
that
Moment
just
M2 is greater
than
Myp
= crypbh2/6
on the
plastic
Muir
Fig.
for P and
6-49
Interaction
rectangular
M for a
curves
member.
336
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6.t4.
Beams
with
Unsymmetric
Cross
Section
337
The
axial
force
and
moment
corresponding
to
the
ful y
plastic
case
and
(0 are is developed
simple
As
on the
moment. 6-48(d),
Fig.
the to a me
these stresses make no contribution to the the bottom areas ab = [(h/2) - y]b, Fig. arm of h - a = h/2 + y. Therefore,
P3
and
= 2ylbCryp
or
y = P3/2bcryp
z
M3
= abcryp(h 3myp
2
- a) = Crypb(h2/4 P3
4bcryp
- y)
= Mp
- Crypby
fi
Then
dividing
by M s = 3Myp/2
= crvpbh2/4
and
simplifying,
one
obtains
(a) (b)
Bending cross
of section.
+
This achieve is a general the ful y equation plastic for
condition
= I
curve
member
in the positive
normal
the
the
equation
for
the
elastic
case,
*'266-14.
Bending
[Arbitrary]
of
Cross
interaction in a rectangular
quadrant
of the y and
Then analogous to be
z axes
is located
to
Eq.
6-3,
by the perpendicular
the
longitudinal
(6-52)
Positive curvature
Section
r =ycos[3
- zsin[3
(6-53)
A general equation for pure bending of elastic members of section whose reference axes are not the principal axes can using the same approach as for the symmetrical cross sections earlier. Again, it is assumed that any plane section through normal to its axis, remains plane after the beam is subjected Then two basic requirements for equilibrium are enforced: axial force on any cross section of a beam must be zero, external bending moment at a section must be developed stresses acting on the cross section. Hooke's law is
normal strain.
arbitrary be
a beam, to (1) the and (2) by the
cro .
the
cross
by analogy
section
is
to Eq.
6-4,
Crx
the
= Eex
longitudinal
= - EKr
elastic
stress
crx acting
(6-54)
on
x
(a)
and
using
Eq.
6-53,
this cr. =
relation -Ey
becomes
x
cos
[3 + E
sin
[3
(6-55)
In order to arbitrary cross of the y and subjected to Mz, respectively, According tion through
derive the required equation, consider a beam. having section such as that shown in Fig. 6-50. The z orthogonal axes is chosen arbitrarily. Let this beam a pure bending moment M having the components My around the y and z axes; see Fig. 6-50(a). to the fundamental hypothesis, during bending, a plane a beam would rotate and intersect the yz plane at an
where K cos [3 is the projected curvature Ky in the xy plane, as may be seen from the limiting case of setting [3 equal to zero. Similarly, K sin [3 the projected curvature z inthe xz plane. By adopting this notation,
Eq. 6-55 can be recast to read
Positive
curvature
Crx = --EKyy
+ EKzZ
(6-56)
z'
(b)
[3 with
26 This
the
z axis,
section
as shown
is of an advanced
in the
figure.
character
A generic
and can be
infinitesimal
omit ed.
area
arises
sign convention
between
positive
in xy-and
moments
xz-
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Sec.
6-t4.
Beams
with
Unsymmetric
Cross
Section
339
to two
a bent
beam
dif erent
with
cases.
an increase'
In the
the same stresses
in the
xy plane,
distance
positive
from
curvature
the
origin,
is true curvatures the
and
in
substituting
stress
hal coordinate
the
can
bending moments have plane. Hence, the normal be of opposite sign. By having an analytic
beam
is
in Eq. cross
expression with
for
arbitrarily
the
elastic directed
sum
be
of all forces
as
in the x direction
expression
must
or:,
Eq.
equal
6-56,
zero,
i.e.,
condition
Fx
or:,= -
/yI-
y + /y/z-Iy2
(6-64)
writ en
f crxdA = -EKy f y
This equation is identically are taken with their origin at was anticipated and the arbitrary passing through the centraid By imposing the conditions moment component equations applied moment around either stresses. One of these equations axis; the other, around the y
+ EKz f z dA =O
is the generalized flexure formula If the principal axes for a cross are used, where Iyz is zero, this equation simplifies to Eq. 6-41. setting Eq. 6-64 equal to zero, the angle {3 for locating the neutral in the arbitrary coordinate system is obtained, giving
satisfied provided that the coordinate the centraid of the cross section. This orthogonal axes in Fig. 6-50 are C of the cross section. of moment equilibrium at a section. can be writ en requiring that axis is balanced by the internal pertains to the moments around axis. Hence, as previously defined,
tan {3
the
EXAMPLE
MIy + Mylyz
reverts to Eq. 6-43.
Mylz
+ Mzlyz
(6-65)
principal
6-24
axes,
this
equation
the
known lowing
known
applied
moment
component
component
and
mz=f-*yaA=Eyfy2dA-EzfyzdA My=f+*zda=-Eyfyz+Ezfz2
constants are The meaning to Eq. 6-66,
around
the
the
y axis,
z axis
one
and
has
My
the
is
Points
that
the
B and
Mz
general
equation
for
of Example
elastic
bending
6-16
stress,
shown
and
verify
in mm
the
in Fig.
stresses
6-52.
The
found
Show
at
these
stresses
=
respectively,
the
minimum
the
maximum.
applied
Solution
taken outside the integrals in the expressions of these integrals is discussed in Section these integrals define the moments and
equations
Example 6-25, it is and Iyz = 5.14 x 10 Eq. 6-64, and defining, and (-743, 24.3),
found that Iz = 22.64 x 10 a n]1114, Iy = 3.84 x 10 a mm 4, mm 4. Substituting these values and Mz = +10 kN-m into respectively, the coordinates of points B and F as (125.7, one h/s
10 x 106
X
of inertia
casting
and
of the
for
a cross
last
two
sectional
area
EI% -
as
as I, Iy,
EIyKz
and
Iy,
permit ing
the
orb =
=
3.84
X
10 6
X
10
106
5.14
X
106
= M
(6-61
3.84
X
22.64
125.7 +
10 2 -0.8493
5.142
4.3 =
10 2
--76.1
4.3 MPa
125.7
--0.6345
-0.6345
To locate show the that neutral these
x
stresses using
(-74.3)
are the 6-65,
0.8943
minimum giving
x
and
24.3
the
=
maximum,
+67.8
MPa
respectively,
74.3
Solving
these
two
equations
simultaneously
gives
axis 10 x
Eq. X 5.14
Ey
and
106
10 6
134
or
{3 = 53.3
section,
it is evident
by inspection
Fig. 6-52
340
Pure Bending
that the farthest
and Bending
distances
with Axial
measured
Forces
perpendicular to NA are associated
Sec. 6.t6.
occur
given
Principal
Axes of Inertia
respectively, Eq. the
points
Some
example
B and
minor
are
F. Therefore,
discrepancies
due to roundoff
the largest
among
errors.
stresses
the results
at these
in Example
points.
6-16 and ini
axes,
an.ces
A is the
from
fol owing
By
starting
for
the
and
dz and
dy are,
C to the
z and
y.
same
with
procedure
definition
as before
for
the
for
product
I and
of inertia,
Iy, the
transfer-of-axis
6-66,
and
the
product
of inertia,
after
simplifications,
becomes
Iyc
is the
earlier,
'276=115.
Moments of
Area
inertia,
Moments
or second
and
moments
Products
of area
of Inertia
around the z axis
As
and and
noted
Zc axes.
for
6-68
all parts
of a complex
area
should
be summed
to obtain
Iy,
already encountered in connection with symmetric cross sections. this concept is generalized for two orthogonal axes for any shape. With the yz coordinates chosen as shown in Fig. 6-53, b3 the moments and product of inertia of an area are given as
Iyz for
the whole
cross
section.
6-16.
(6:
were
Principal
chosen
Axes
discussion,
of Inertia
the yz centroidal axes for an area of a general
+y
z
Iz =
Note
area.
f
these
use
ya dA
axes
of such
Iy =
are
centroidal
f'
z a dA
to
axes
that
The
chosen
problems. It is also important to note that the product of inertia v; either for doubly or singly symmetric areas; see Fig. 6-54 This be seen by referring to Fig. 6-54(b), where, due to symmetry, for y(+z) dA, there is a y(-z) dA, and their sum vanishes. In Section 6-4, it was shown that in calculating moments of inertia symmetric cross sections having complex areas, it is subdivide such areas into simple parts for which the moments are available in formulas. Then by applying the parallel-axis each part and adding, Eq. 6-18a, the moment of inertia for the section is obtained. By making reference to the general case shown Fig. 6-55, it can be concluded that the previously developed formula,
6-18, for the transfer of a moment of inertia for an area from the
yz dA
pass
through
centroid
C of
is essential
in the
solution
ofb
arbitrarily. Therefore, it is important to investigate the moments and product of inertia change if these orthogonal axes rotated. This is shown in Fig. 6-53, where the axes are rotated through an angle 0, forming a new set ofy'z' coordinates. Generally, the moments and product of inertia corresponding to these axes are dif erent from the
set of coordinates
the previous
(b)
of Iy,
I, and
to
Iy.
another,
In order
one
to transform
notes
that
these
O + zsin0 O -ysin0
quantities
from
one
Fig. singly
sections.
6-54
(a) symmetric
Doubly
cross
and
(b)
y' z'
Then, in Eqs. based 6-66, on the
= CP = NR
definitions
+ PS -RS
for
= y cos = z cos
moments
and
product
of inertia
given
zc to
z axis
similar
remains
formula
available
applicable.
Therefore,
applies
for the
for
Moreover,
the
moments
transferring
fol owing
of
except
a moment
for
a change
of inertia
for
in
the
from
transfer
the
to
Z
the
are
y axis.
two
inertia:
formulas
dA
axes
= I
Hence, on
1 +
cos
20
+ 13,
1 -
cos
+ Iyz sin 20
and
using
trigonometric
identities,
Fig.
coordinate
6-53
Rotation
axe.
of
=
27 This is an optional part of the chapter.
cos
20
+ Iy sin
20
(6-69)
Fig.
axes.
6-55
Parallel
transfer
of
Pure Bending
Similarly,
and Bending
Iy, 2
with Axial
--
Forces
2
Problems
cos 20 - Iyz sin 20
MPLE 645
the
cross
section
shown
in mm
in Fig.
6-56,
find
the
principal
and
These equations
IY'' =
relate
arfd
ution
the
principal
moments
.of inertia.
the moments and the product of inertia of area (second moments) in the new y'z' coordinates to the initial ones the yz coordinates through the angle 0. Note that Iy, + I, I + I, the sum of the moments of inertia around two mutually axes remains the'same, i.e., invariant, regardless of the angle 0. As earlier, the product of inertia Iyz vanishes for doubly and singly s
sections.
can
be verified
by
the
procedure
discussed
earlier
that
the
centroid
of the
area
74.3
the
mm
of inertia symmetry
from
the
about of the
bottom
the two
and
y and rectangles
24.3
z axes
mm
can into
from
be which
the
calculated
left
the angle
side.
The
by
moments
and
the angle
into
two rectangles
and using
the transfer-of-axes
Eqs.
6-18,
6-67,
dividing
200
and 6-68.
there
Due
are
z
C
is divided,
no product
of inertia terms for these parts around their own centroidal around their centroidal axes, I = bh3/12, Eq. 6-19.
axes.
For
z'
entiating equal
A maximum
either to zero,
Eq. i.e.,
or a minimum
6-69
or 6-70
value
with
respect
by
Iz = 20 x 1803/12 + 20 X 180 X (125.7 -- 90) 2 + 100 x 203/12 + 100 X 20 X (--74.3 + 10) 2 = 22.64
4
Fig. 6-56
Iy = 180 x 203/12
+ 180 x 20 x (24.3
- 10) 2
2 = 3.84 = 5.14
d/z t
d- -
Hence,
tan 20 -
This equation gives two roots within is for a double angle 20, 'the roots locates an axis around which the other locates the conjugate axis for two centroidal axes are known as noted from Eq. 6-71, the same angles
360 that for 01 are 90 moment of the minimum the principal define the
+ 20 x 1003/12 + 20 x 100 x (-50 + 24.3) Iyz = 0 + 20 x 180 x (125.7 - 90)(24.3 - 10) + 0 + 100 x 20(-74.3 + 10)(-50 + 24.3)
Imx
= I = 23.95
6-72,
10 6 mm
4 and
Imin
= 12 = 2.53
x 10 6 mm
are 180 apart. Since apart. One of these inertia is a maximum; moment of inertia. axes of inertia. As can axes for which the
Eq.
tan 20
From moment inspection of inertia.
conclusion.
(22.64 - 3.84) x 10 6
of Fig. 6-56, A substitution
In this case,
2 x
5.14
10 6
0.547
with the
hence, 0
z' axis
14.34
at 0 = 14.34 ,
of inertia
axes is zero.
is zero.
defining (see Fig. sines 8-5), expressions
This
means
that
the product
in terms these prbzcipal
of inertia
for
the
this
Imx
By
6-72
simplifying,
of the double angle roots into Eq. 6-69, or Eq. 6-70, moments of inertia are
i.e.,
Imx
= It';
conversely,
Im
= Iy,.
Immix = 11 or I2 n
where, maximum by
/z +2 Iy +
and/2
+
axes for are defined which by Eq.
Sections
6-t
ities
6-3
6-4.
the around
through
Determine
horizontal axes
6-5
bending
for 165 the
50
72.
69,
By
one
directly
can
substituting
of the
I = Imx, moments
whether
moment
one
of
of the
the
inertia.
through
with the
elastic
moment
cross-sectional
capacThe
ksi. For 24
5O
150
roots
of this
equation
into
Eq,
areas
allowable
dimensions
stress is either
shown
in the
lV[Pa or
figures.
100
selected
root
gives
a maximum
minimum
value
properties Tables
channels, in the
see
Fig. P6-t
Fig. P6-2
344
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
Problems
Determine
around the stress
345
moment around applied (a) find
the total
6"X4"X
angles
C 12
X 20.7
6-9
ment maximum
and
6-t0.
capacities elastic
elastic
horizontal in tension
positive
axes for Prob.
bendJ
for 6-9
43
]
w 8 x 50
Centroid
of area
x
"
plate
44"
4
for
in
are
the
and
corres 150
of 2270 ft-lb is a horizontal axis, the stresses at the extreme fibers, (b) calculate compresslye force developed by the normal above the neutral axis because of the bending beam, and (c) find the total force due to the bending stresses at a section and compare it
result found in (b).
stresses
of the tensile with the
Fig.
P6-3
Fig.
P6-4
Fig. P6-12
*645. by the
shaded
force
acting
beam
developed
on
shown
the
in
6-5.
used
for S 12 x 40.8, W 10 x 112, and C 12 x 20.7. the appHed moment is 40 k-, and the owable stress is 24 ksi, (a) what W section should be
Very
the section
modu
ven
in the Append
if the of 3500
beam N-m
bending
axis.
y is the distance
the
centroid
from
of the
the neutral
axis
as shown
of the cross
in the
for bendg
the
veic
ound
is?
the
hofizont
is,
and
643.
Fig. P6-9 a solid shown moment axis. shaded Fig. P6-t0
B as shown in the fire. at is the magffitude unffory distributed load f a strain gage attached the top of the upper flange measures 0.0002 in the load is applied? E = 29 x 10 ksi.
6-7.
A W 16 x 100 steel
beam
is supposed
at A and
of the to when
itive
around the horizontal force acting on the developed by the bending force acting on the cross-hatched
tion.
rectangular cross in the figure is of 16 000 N.m (a) Find the area of the cross stresses. (b) Find the area of the cross
of this tensile force T equals C acting on the section, verify is equal to the applied moment.
moment
of 100 kN-m
is applied.
Since
the mag-
of the a pos-
Fig.
cross
P6-15
section of an isosceles
triangle, negative
izontal
tion
axis.
ifb
as shown bending
(a) Show
the and
= 150
in the moment
by integration
and
figure, of 4000
that
Io = bh3/36.
the
to a hor-
location compresslye
mm.
Fig.
P6-7
6-8. A small steel T beam is used sition to span 400 mm. If, due to the three forces shown in the figure, the at A registers a compresslye strain
large are the applied
P
k100 mm-
>25
.l
Fig. P6-13
30
forces?
P
E = 200
Fig.
P6-16
Fig.
P6-11
6-t4. together
Two
6-t7.
For
a linearly
elastic
material,
at the
same
max-
<too
ood
642. bending
which
Consider moment
the moment
beam principal
cross-sectio
subjected
axis
normal force
imum stress for a square member positions shown in the figure, the bending moments. Bending
horizontal axis.
in the two dif erent determine the ratio takes place around
of
the
z A
4
Beam section
is I.
Show
that
for
such
a beam,
the
acting
where
on any
part
of the
cross-sectional
area
F = MQ/I
Q=
y dA = yA
Fig.
P6-t4
Fig.
P6-17
346
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
100
Problems
80 N/mm
347
*'6-18. Show that the elastic stress in a rectangular beam bent around its diagonal can be reduced by removing the small triangular areas, as shown in the figure. This is referred to as the Emerson paradox.* (Hint: Let the sides of the removed triangular areas be ka, where k is a constant. In calculating I for the section, treat it as consisting of two rectangles, the large one having sides (1 - k)a, and the small one having the width kava.)
6-20. A solid steel beam having the dimensions partial y shown in the figure the laboratory in pure bending. Bending
took 0.0003
measureme
showed gitudinally;
longitudinally.
time
around
a horizontal
that
neutral
axis.
Strain
m/m
force
0.0006
normal
25 m-2[m, -m m22i
Fig. =
mm
80
acted
the
All
on the
strain
shaded
measurements
area
are
indicated
in mm.
in the
made.
figure
P6-24
GPa.
dimensions
ciently
trations
accurate.
at the
Do
supports.
not
consider
the
stress
concenthe dethe
Fig.
P6-22
termine
are
Considering conditions
the
same.
distances
such
at midspan
and
at the
depth
transition
points
in
a downward
direction
as
well
as
in
an
Fig.
P6-t8
ure, acts as a horizontal beam in a machine. When vertical forces are applied to this member the distance AB increases by 0.0010 in and the distance CD decreases by 0.0090 in. What is the sense of the applied
moment, and what normal stresses occur in the ex-
649.
A channel-shaped
member,
as shown
in the fig-
6-2t. As the screw of a large steel C clamp, shown in the figure, is tightened upon an object, strain in the horizontal direction due to bending is being measured by a strain gage at point B. Ifa
of 900
screw
x 10 -6 in/in
corresponding
strain?
E = 30 x 106 psi.
direction. Base answers only of the maximum bending stresses A 150 x 300 mm rectangular
on
considby F. is sub-
what
is the
of
force
on
the
value
the
to a positive bending the "strong" axis. The nonisotropic and is such that in tension is 1 times as great the figure. If the stresses do tional limit, find the maximum
stresses in the beam.
ected
moment of 240 000 N-m material of the beam is the modulus of elasticity as in compression; see not exceed the proportensile and compressive
Section
6.7
strain loaded energy beam due to bendof rectangular
treme
fibers?
E = 15 x 10 6 psi.
cross
section
is (cr2m=/2E)(-tL),
where
Crm=
is the
area,
cross-sectional
6-27.
tilever
centrated
Show
load
that
P
Ube,di,g
cross
at the end.
= (cr2m/2E)(Vol/9)
section supporting
of rectangular
l
Fig. ? In 1864, in Saint-Venant's P6-t9 additions to Navier's
5.16"
TSection 6-8
book,
failure
he,
as well
section
he calls
of these
as Emerson,
fibers
the
removed
does
recognized
not
fibers
useless.
indicate
that
that
the
However,
the
Section
a-a
elastic
Fig.
P6-23
6-28.
the 50 and the
A composite
beam
of two
dif erent
materials
has
trun-
Fig.
P6-21
cated complete
corners
members
may
subjected
section.
possesses
be
However,
greater
advantageous.
to fatigue,
the
removal
I. Todhunter
of sharp
the for
6-22. terial
safety
as
of a
Section
6-24. A small
6-6
beam, shown in the figure, is to carry
cross section shown in Fig. 6-7(a). x 80 mm bar, the elastic modulus for the lower 50 x 20 mm bar, E2 maximum bending stresses in
and 1960),
and
limit
of
acc a factor
initiation
of yielding,
find
the
nitude
of the
largest
force
F that
may
be
applied
a cyclically applied load of 80 N/mm. The 12-mm thick, and spans 160 mm. Determine imum stress at midspan and at depth transition Assume that the factors given in Fig. 6-15
positive Do not
Use Eq. procedure
the
(Hint: direct
Pure Bending
6-29.
is made
and Bending
bonded
with Axial
6-34.
Forces
thick concrete slab
is
Problems
1
bending moment causes this strain? Assume ideal elastic-plastic material behavior with E = 200 GPa and tryp = 240 MPa. (b) What residual strain would remain in the gage upon release of the applied load? (c) Draw
the residual stress pattern.
Consider
from
three
a composite
in Fig. modulus
dif erent
beam
E
and
materials
whose
cross
section
A 150-mm
to-
6-20(a).
=
Bar
1 is 40 x 20 mm 15 GPa; bar 2 is 60
3 is 20 x 20 mm
reinforced
termine
10 GPai
bar
with E3 = 30 GPa. Determine stresses in each of the three applied moment of 10 kN.m
Do not use the method
the
maximum
bending by an z axis.
see
the
with
allowable
steel bars,
n =
bending
as shown
moment
in t he figure,
allowable 2 and
per
6-46.
Fig. P6-39
Fig. P6-40
from three steel plates in the figure. The flanges the web. (a) What bending
develop when the largest
up
the
mine the maximum bending stresses in each of the two materials for the composite beams shown in the figures when subjected to positive bending moments of 80 kN-m each. Est = 210 GPa and Eu = 70 GPa. (Hint for-Prob. 6-31: For an ellipse with semiaxes a and b,
6-30
hint
ond
in the
-31.
preceding
Using
transformed
problem.
sections,
deter-
10-mm
80 mm
bars
on centers
25 mm
P6-34
W8 X 18
300
in the flanges just reach properties 0f the two steels on the diagram. (b) Draw
20
Fig.
I = 'rrab3/4
around
the major
centroidal
axis.)
causes
the
stress
is the
value
of the
bending
moment?
1
Fig. P6-4t Fig. P6-42
I -- I
400
75
mm
'4o
Fig. P6-46
(flanges)
MPa
240 MPa
Steel
inside
core
E = 200 GPa
6-47. a beam
A small
sandwich
beam
spanning
400
mm
is
Fig.
P6-30
Fig.
P6-3t
6-32
ment beams tional
stresses
and
6-33.
Determine
the allowable
bending
the composite the cross-secMaterials
ksi.
moFig. P6-35
200
Find
the
MPa.
the
cross
ultimate
section
moment
shown for
capacity
Prob. 6-1.
for
around horizontal neutral axes for of wood and steel plates having dimensions shown in the figures.
Assume
made up by bonding two aluminum alloy strips to an alloy steel bar, as shown in the figure. The idealized stress-strain diagrams are shown in the figure. What is the magnitude of the applied bending moment if it
causes -7.5 x 10 -3 longitudinal strain in the gage
yields
I beam
in tension
and
to pure
in compression
bending de-
glued
to the top
Gage
of the
aluminum
a [MPa]
alloy
strip?
Section
6.9
23(a), area
6-36. Rework Example 6-10 by changing h to 6-37. Derive Eq. 6-35. 6-38. What is the largest bending moment that be applied to a curved bar, such as shown in Fig.
with of 2-in ? = 3 in, diameter if it has a circular and the allowable cross-set stress
is 12
velops
-45.
A steel
flange
in the location
a longitudinal
strain
subjected
shown
Gage
20
St AI-
40
Beam section
350
0 5 X 10 -3 g
Section
beams Bending
Fig. P6-33
6.'10
6-39
through
Fig.
P6-32
having occurs
the
6-43.
cross around
Find
the
ratios
in the axes.
MuJMyp
Fig.
2O
P6-47
fi
Fig. P6-45
6-48.
idealized
elastic-plastic
behavior
as in Example
izontal
On applying
axis
to
the
a bending
T beam
moment
having
the
around
dimensions
the hor-
350
Gage A
Problems
18
X 10 -3
Beam section
Fig.
P6-51
shown
stresses
in the
and
figure.
locate the
Determine
neutral axis.
the
largest
Fig.
P6-48
6-52.
A 10-ft
cantilever
made
up from
the
b{
the_ applied bending moment if the stress-strain for the material can be idealized as shown
gram.
shown at gage
strain
of
plication
through ct be
ing
stresses
of
2 ft from
the
variously
the
support
section
inclined
caused
at the
force
free
by the
P
end
Fig. P6-54
Fig.
P6-57
of the
Section
6-58. AW
6-t2
10 x 49 beam 8 ft long is subjected to a
terial with the stress-strain characteristics shown in the figure. (a) Find the largest moment for which the entire cross section remains elastic. (b) Determine the ultimate moment capacity, and draw the resulting stress distribution. (c) What is the residual stress distribution
6-49.
A 100
x 180 mm
rectangular
beam
is of a ma-
200
mm
of
from
elastic
zero
the
stress
loaded
behavior
on
end
line
of the
material.
AB.
cantilever.
(b)
Assume
Locate a
of the
after Show
(d)
pull P of 100 k, as shown in the figure. At the ends, where the pin connections are made, the beam is reinforced with doubler plates. Determine the maximum flange stress in the middle of the member caused by the applied forces P. Qualitatively, briefly discuss the
load transfer at the ends. Most likely, where are the
highest
stressed
regions
in this
member?
Fig.
P6-52
10kN
a (MPa
10(
having in the
N-m
to a bend
axis.
Fig.
P6-58
180
termine
the
maximum
bending
stresses.
6-59. termine
For
the
link
shown e such
that
in the the
figure, tensile
deand
compressive
15 kN 00
stresses
in the T section
are equal.
100
mm
20
section
10
Beam
Fig.
P6-55
p P
Fig.
P6-49
6-56.
Section 6-11
vertical
Rework subjected
axis.
6-50.
is
span
20 .
is 6000
Rework
mm,
Example
the
beam
6-15
is 150
by
assuming
x 200
mm,
that
and
the
Fig.
P6-53
6-57.
Determine
ct
6-51. A 150 x 200 mm 'beam spanning 6000 mm is loaded in the middle of the span with an inclined force of 5 kN along the diagonal of the cross section, as
A biaxial y. symmetric cruciform aluminum exhas the cross-sectional dimensions, in in the figure. It is used in a tilted position as to carry an applied force P = 100 N at
(a) Determine the maximum flexural tensile stress
caused by a 2-N.m bending moment the z axis. As found in Prob. 6-83, the ments of inertia are I = Iz, = 753.9757
= Iy, = 96.0243
Locating
the
the neutral
Fig. P6-59
Link
7-m lO mm
section
where
largest
stresses
352
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
1 F
6-60. A frame for a punch press has the proportions shown in the figure. What force P can be applied to this frame controlled by the stresses in the sections such as a-a, if the allowable stresses are 4,000 psi in tension and 12,000 psi in compression?
structure
tion a-a
shown
is that
in the
of a solid
figure.
circular
The
cross
bar of
section
2-in d
at S
maximum a-a
for
stress shown
2OO
B
2
F ,I 13
Gage
500 A
D
mm
Top
view
Cable Cable
Fig.
'9k
Section a-a
P6-65
Fig.
P6-60
12'
6-61. shown
normal
A force in the
'to
section
stresses on the extreme 200 mm apart are determined crt = 0; orb = -30 MPa; crc = = -6 IV[Pa. Determine the magnitude and horizontal components of force 6-66. A rectangular vertical member
longitudinal
fibers at two secexperimental y to -24 MPa; and crD of the vertical F. fixed at the base
is loaded
as shown
in the
figure.
Find
the
location
for
P
Fig.
P6-67
piece
bar.
of 6 by
6 in steel
bar.
Neglect
the
weight
169.8 k
of the
Fig. P6-63
'
C/
6-64. vertical
gages
In order force
are attached
gage on member strain would occur = 6 kN. Does the given in mm.
face AB such that no longitudinal due to the application of force answer depend on the magnitude
dimensions
of +20
behaves
GPa.
as a linearly
of an eccen column,
in the
are
as shown
fi
6-68. of the
alloy
forming
a
Fig. P6-6t
Determine -100
sectional
longitudinal is -800
is 24 in 2.
strain at A 10 -6 in/in.
= 30
x 106 psi
and
column
G = 12 x 106 psi.
The
10 -3,
and
Est axial
to
gage
the
measures
lower
in the figure. (a) If on axial force P, the upper a compressive strain of 2 one, a tensile strain of 2 x
shown
force
force
note that
would bending?
with
EMg
the
neutral
P? As= 45
a-a
load
stress
for
actthe
3"
Gage-
Fig. P6.66
Mg
20
Fig.
P6-64
minum
mm in cross section the figure.
6-67.
An inclined
alloy
(The
bar
tensile
such
of the
force
bar,
its line
F is applied
of action
is not
to an alugoes
in the
Gage
St
20
'6-65. subjected
A bar to
having a force
centroid
as shown
in mm
What
is the magnitude
detail
of the
of force
attachment
F if it causes
shown.)
a Iongi-
Fig.
P6-68
353
354
6-69. ure,
radius
the maximum
Pure
Bending
and
Bending
with
Axial
Forces
,
A-A over which a downward
Problems
block the
view of
355
A steel is subjected
of the
hook, to
centroidal
stress
proportions force
axis
of
along
the
line
is 6 in.
force causing
the block.
could any
The
be applied tension
cross-sectional
6-72.
3" Fig.
dius
P6-69
block figure.
force
the stress
as shown vertical
of this section so
in
Section
P6-77
What
force
wil
be
the
reading
of the
gages
when
applied
P is released?
pressure
lb/ft
3 and
at A is just
concrete
zero?
150
Assume
lb/ft
3.
that
water
weighs
6-70.
steel
bar
of
50-ram
diameter
is
bent
into
Fig. 6-73.
circular
nearly
ameter, imum
complete
circular
ring
of 300-ram
outside
max10-kN of the maxcompres_sive the
diDetermine
cross section.
Section
6.t3
of perfectly elastic-plastic shown in the figure.
bottom of the
forces imum
stress
as shown in the stress in this ring at the open end. stress found in acting normal to
figure. (a) Calculate caused by applying Co) Find the ratio (a) to the largest the same section.
two
the
kern
6-74.
For
a small
approximately
the A-B
when
approximate using
the
elementary
water
cated.
linear
For
meter
the
of
shown
at the
flange
the generalized flexure formula, find the largest stresses in a beam with a Z cross section, having the dimensions shown in the figure for Prob. 6-57, due to a pure bending moment M: of 2 N.m. Also
cate area the neutral moments axis. of inertia See
for
2550
kg/m
3, as shown
dam
in the figure,
at
the level
f'm(
is known
to be zero
at the juncture
of the
web
and
the
normal
stress methods
the
behind
purpose
of calculation,
consider
flange, what axial force P and bending moment M act on the beam? (b) What would the strain reading be after the applied forces causing P and M in (a) are removed? Let tryp = 200 IV[Pa.
10 mm
6-83
for
6-80.
moment Section
Rework
My
the
preceding
problem
for
an applied
= 6 kN.m. 6-t5
the
dam
in the
direction
to the
300
plane
of the
are
paper
in
as an
meters.
isolated
beam.
dimensions
6-8t. (a) Find the product of inertia for the triangular area shown in the figure with respect to the given axes. (b) For the same area, determine the product of inertia with respect to the vertical and horizontal axes through
50 mm
the
centroid.
Fig.
P6-70
10
mm
6-7t.
A short
block
has
cross-sectional
dimensions
in
-50 mm
Fig. P6-76
y
dimensions of force
plan
view
as shown
in the figure.
Determine
the range
2.16 m---
Fig. P6-74
6-77. given
the upper
Estimate
gage recorded
one,
alloy in mm.
casting During
6-75.
What
the cross-sectional
should
the
total
view
height
be
Fig.
P6-7t
in
tedfl.
a compressive
a tensile
x
Fig. P6-8t
idealized
strain
strain
of 6 x 10 -3.
of 3 x 10 -3,
6-82,
ments of inertia
(a) Find
in the
for
the
the
principal
(b)
cross-sectional
axes
given
and
area
principal
of the
angie
mo-
shown
figure.
The
dimensions
of the
Pure Bending
and Bending
with Axial
condition,
one can readily
Forces
Imi, + Ira=
solve for
= Ix'
Imx.)
+ Iy,
= Ix + Iy,
ter
For
the Z cross section shown in the figure area moments of inertia Iy, I, and L the directions of the principal axes and
of inertia.
Fig.
P6-82
section, correspond
except to the
for
and of
x 6 x 1 in angle the information moments found in (a). Example 11-2, the z axis is
listed in Table 7 of the Appendix. given in that table, calculate the of inertia and compare with the re(Hint: Note that per Section 11-6 Imin = Ar2min. The r listed in Table rmin. Further, from the invariance
Fig.
P6-83
!-1.
This
Introduction
chapter a study is divided into two parts. Part A, the major part, is devoted shear stresses in beams caused by transverse shear. The problem of attaching separate longitudinal parts of a beam by of bolts, gluing, or welding is also considered. In Part B, superof direct shear stresses of the type discussed in Part A with those by torque, as in springs, is treated. This problem is analogous to encountered in the previous chapter in the study of beams simulsubjected to bending and axial forces. discussion in this chapter is largely limited to elastic analyses, the widely used approach in the solution of the type of problems conof
?.2.
Preliminary
Remarks
In deriving the torsion and the flexure formulas, the same sequence of reasoning was employed. First, a strain distribution was assumed across the section; next, properties of the material were brought in to relate these strains to stresses; and, finally, the equations of equilibrium were used to establish the desired relations. However, the development of the expression linking the shear force and the cross-sectional area of a beam to the stress fol ows a dif erent path. The previous procedure cannot be
357
Shear
Stresses
in Beams
and
Related
Problems
Sec.
7-2. Prellminary
Remarks
employed, as no simple assumption for the strain distribution due to shear force can be made. Instead, an indirect approach is used. The distribution caused by flexure, as determined in the preceding cha is assumed, which, together with the equilibrium requirements, the problem of the shear stresses. First, it wil be necessary to recall that the shear force is inse linked with a change in the bending moment at adjoining sections a beam. Thus, if a shear and a bending moment are present at one through a beam, a dif erent bending moment wil exist at an ad
(a)
c D[P A B [P
p I I
dM=
dx
= P
dx
k
(c)
Moment
C D
diagram
section,
although
the
shear
may
remain
constant.
This
wil
lead
to
(d)
? ?
of the shear stresses on the imaginary members that are parallel to its axis. stresses exist on the mutually perpendicular
direction is coincident with the
(b)
at a the
a se
Shear
diagram
--
-P
Fig.
7-t
Shear
and
bending
moment
diagrams
for
the
loading
shown.
wil be determined. Initial y, only beams having symmetrical tions with applied forces acting in the plane of symmetry ered. The related problem of determining interconnection for fastening together several longitudinal elements of posite beams wil also be discussed. In order to gain some insight into the problem, recall
it in two alternative forms,
wil
req built-up Eq. 5-4.
cross be consi
or
on the right
In Fig.
is assumed
7-2(a), caused
to be larger
in addition by bending
than
to the moments
beam may
itself,
blocks be seen.
The
This
simulating moment
system
dM = V dx
Equation 7-1 means that if shear
change in the bending moment M on an adjoining section. The between the bending moments on the adjoining sections is equal to If no shear is acting, no change in the bending moment occurs. natively, the rate of change in moment along a beam is equal to Therefore, although shear is treated in this chapter as an action on a beam, it is inseparably linked with the change in the moment along the beam's length. As an example of the above, consider the shear and moment from Example 5-7, shown in Fig. 7-1. Here at any two sections A and B taken through the beam anywhere between applied forces P, bending moment is the same. No shear acts at these sections. On other hand, between any two sections such as C and D near the a change in the bending moment does take place. Shear forces act sections. These shears are shown acting on an element of the beam Fig. 7-1(d). Note that in this zone of the beam, the change in the moment in a distance dx is Pdx as shear V is equal to P. In subse discussion, the possibility of equal, as well as of dif erent, bending merits on two adjoining sections through a beam is of great Before a detailed analysis is given, a study of a model (Fig. 7-2) may prove helpful. The model represents a
of forces is in equilibrium providing vertical shears V (not seen in this view) also act on the beam segment. By separating the model along the neutral surface, one obtains two separate parts of the beam segment, as shown in Fig. 7-2(b). Again, either one of these parts alone must be in equilibrium. If the upper and the lower segments of Fig. 7-2(b) are connected by a dowel or a bolt in an actual beam, the axial forces on either the upper or the lower part caused by the bending moment stresses must be maintained in equilibrium by a force in the dowel. The force that must be resisted can be evaluated by summing the forces in the axial direction caused by bending stresses. In peffqrming such a calculation, either the upper or the lower part of the beam segment can be used. The horizontal force transmit ed by the dowel is the force needed to balance the net force caused by the bending stresses acting on the two adjoining sections. Alternatively, by subtracting the same bending stress on both ends of the segment, the same results can be obtained. This is shown schematically in Fig. 7-2(c), where assuming a zero bending moment on the left, only the normal stresses due to the increment in moment within the segment need be shown acting on the right. If, initial y, the I beam considered is one piece requiring no bolts or dowels, an imaginary longitudinal plane can be used to separate the beam segment into two parts; see Fig. 7-2(d). As before, the net force that must be developed across the cut area to maintain equilibrium can be determined. Dividing this force by the area of the imaginary horizontal cut gives average shear stresses acting in this plane. In the analysis, it is again expedient to work with the change in bending moment rather than with
the total moments on the end sections.
After
the
shear
stresses
on
one
of the
planes
are
found
(i.e.,
the
hor-
360
Shear
Stresses
in
Beams
and
Related
Problems
Sec.
7-3.
Shear
Flow
calculating a part
termining
Before
the shear stresses in the cut. The of the flange in Fig. 7-2(f). This lying in a vertical plane in the figure.
imaginary permits
vertical calculation
plane of
cuts shear
finally
the
shear
proceeding
of
stresses
note.
in connecting
with
the
development
bolts
a wooden
and
in beams,
plank
of equations
placed
an intuitive
for
denot
wil
another,
example
as shown
sliding
is worthy
in Fig.
7-3.
Consider
If these
planks
act
as a beam
and
on
are
top
of
(a)
be derived
ponent.parts
this
for determining
of a beam
wil be
the required
them
of with In the
interconnection
shear
between
place.
to
planks together.
Fig.
7-3
not
Sliding
fastened
between
the combeams.
specialized
to make
to yield
act as a unit.
in solid
section,
-3.
Shear
nsider
Flow
an elastic
(c)
beam essary.
planks
has
whose
cross
section
beam
beam
made
cross
is shown
from
in Fig.
several
7-4(a).
continuous
For
simplicity,
longitudinal
necthat
the
Neutral
axis
B h
Centroid
(d)
(a)
A
(e)
is needed. Horizontal
determining
model
divided
segment determining
with
the
by the shear
the
bending force
stresses on a dowel
cut
simulated only
FA
A
h
B
the
shear
flange
stress.
for
(e)
izontal one in Fig. 7-2(d)), shear stresses on mutually perpendicular of an infinitesimal element also become known since they must be merically equal, Eq. 1-2. This approach establishes the shear stresses the plane of the beam section taken normal to its axis. The process discussed is quite general; two additional il ustrations separating the segment of the beam are in Figs. 7-2(e) and (f). In Fig. 2(e), the imaginary horizontal plane separates the beam just below
Neutral
(c)
(b)
flange.
Either
the
upper
or the
lower
part
of this
beam
can
be used
Fig.
7-4
Elements
for
deriving
shear
flow
in a beam.
362
Centroid of
Shear
A fghi
Stresses
in Beams
and
Related
Problems
On
dif erent
Sec.
the other hand, if MA is not equal shears are present at the adjoining to Ma, sections, which
7-3.
Shear
Flow
.ehntofroid
ole area
the planks are fastened at intervals by vertical bolts. An element of' beam isolated by two parallel sections, both of which are to the axis of the beam, is shown in Fig. 7~4(b). If the element shown in Fig. 7-4(b) is subjected to a bending +MA at end A and to +MB at end B, bending stresses that act to the sections are developed. These bending stresses vary linearly their respective neutral axes, and at any point at a distance y neutral axis are -MBy/I on the B end and --MAy/I on the A end. From the beam element, Fig. 7-4(b), isolate the top plank, as Fig. 7-4(c). The fibers of this plank nearest the neutral axis are by the distance y. Then, since stress times area is equal to force forces acting perpendicular to ends A and B of this plank may be mined. At end B, the force acting on an infinitesimal area dA at y from the neutral axis is (-My/I) dA. The total force acting on the
FA
from the
(or pull)
normal
stresses
develops
act
on one
on
the
end
section
MA
> MA, then ] F ] > lEA I, and I FA I + R = I F [, Fig. 7-4(d). The I I - I Fa I ---- R tends to shear the bolt in the plane of the plank
.2 If the shear to be investigated, force acting across the two upper the bolt planks at level should km, Fig. be considered 7-4(a),
unit.
equilibrium by developing
be If
as
fghj, this
and the
sum, the
that,
of these normal
and I are
elementary to the
constants,
area
forces fghj
one
If MA Ma and the element of the beam is only dx long, tents on the adjoining sections change by an infinitesimal if the bending moment at A is MA, the bending moment Ma + riM. Likewise, in the same distance dx, the longitudinal
the
By
taken
one
obtains
Fa=
where
ea
fghj
My I dA=
fghj
y dA
The
around
integral
the
deeming
neutral axis.
Q is the
By
first
definition,
-I MsL ..
fghj
ydA=
MBQ I
push
(or
dF:
= AighjY
Q=
or the
statical
moment
of area
the
y is the
distance
from
axis
Q are
sectional
to the
in Fig.
area.
centroid
7-5.
of Afgh?
Equation
Il ustrations
7-2 provides
of the
a convenient
manner
means
th e longitudinal
Next the total
force
end acting
acting
A of the normal
normal
element to the
to any
selected
One
part
can
of the
expression for dF, the eliminated. Only the the sections remains Instead of working with a force it is more significant to obtain quantity is obtained by dividing
are adjoining
the dif erence between
the final
actual bending moments dif erence in the bending in the equation. dF,. which is developed a similar force per unit dF by dx. Physically,
FB and FA for an
element
this
by
in
of the
quantity
wil
beam
consider force
unit ounds,
length.
to
The
as the
quantity
shear flow.
dF/dx
Since
wil
force
be designated
is measured
q and
newtons
be
or
FA =
for
MA I far ea
&bde
y dA =
MAQ I
if
F,
shear recalling
flow
flow that
in
q has dM/dx
beams:
per
inch.
for
shear
determining
7-5
Procedure
Q [.
where the meaning of beams, an area such moments at A and B the bolt shown in the ing the planks together
tudinal forces.
Q is the same as that in Eq. 7-2 since for as fghj is equal to the area abde. Hence, were equal, it would fol ow that FA = figure would perform a nominal function and would not be needed to resist any also be used to find I Q I.
I dF dMlf VAigh.VQ1 Y
q - dx
from
dxI
ydA-
(7-5)
The
and its y may
are
Area
fgpn
the
but forces
in
Shear
Stresses
in
Beams
and
Related
Problems
Sec.
7-3.
Shear
Flow
365
In this equation, ! is the moment of interia area around the neutral axis, just as it does which it came. The total shear force at the resented by V, and the integral of y dA for
over the cross-sectional area of the beam to
is
-I
62.5
NA
I-;I-;1'-la
q is investigated.
In
for dM/dx,
7-5 the
the in in and
retrospect, note careful y that Eq. %5 was derived on the elastic flexure formula, but no term for a bending moment the final expressions. This resulted from the fact that only the the bending moments at the adjoining sections had to be the lat er quantity is linked with shear V. Shear V was
162.5
andthis
masks
the origin
of the established
necessary wil be
relations.
Ec
ution
instead made
uired.
(b)
Fig.
7-6
is very elements
the This
interconnection il ustrated
by
for
an
Alternative
Arrangement
planks Fig.
of Planks
of the nailing same schedule cross would section be
EXAMPLE
7-t
Two long wooden planks 6(a). If this beam transmits spacing of the nails between that the allowable shear
Solution
form a T section of a constant vertical the two planks to force per nail is 700
In
attacking
such
problems,
longitudinally two planks; do this, the
the
analyst
from the remainder? Here this Eq. 7-5 must be applied to determine neutral axis of the whole section
a beam, as shown in mm in shear of 3000 N, find the nec{ make the beam act as a unit. Asi N.
To
begin, procedure
the
the
shear
beam
flow same.
between
and
one
although
of the
outer
the contact
25 by 50 mm
surface
planks
a-a
and
is vertical,
the same
is found,
is the
The
push
or pull
on an element
is built
up in the
x 103 mm 3
N/mm
and
inertia
around
the
moment
neutral
axis
must
be found.
of the yc from upper the
150
Then
plank top
= 87.5
as Vis
around to the
mm
known
the neutral
and
nails
they
as before may be
to join the 25 by 50 mm piece to the 50 by = 340 mm apart. This nailing applies to both piece must area and either be used to that causes
neutral axis is
50x200x25+50x200x
the shear flow between the 50 by 250 mm vertical 50 by 50 mm pieces, the whole 75 by 50 mm area Q. It is the dif erence of pushes (or pulls) on this whole
force that must be transferred at the surface
Yc=
I-
50 x 200 + 50 x 200
200 = 113.54 x 503
12
b-b:
+ 50
x 200
x 62.52
50
x 2003
12
+ 50
x 200
Q = AsghjY VQ
should in both be spaced sections
put on.
106mm
Q = AighjY
.---- 50 x 200
x (87.5
=
-- 25) = 625
16.5 N/mm
x 103 mm 3
eam
to nail
q - - -
= 234
X 103 mm 3
113.4 X 106
= 6.19 N/mm
intervals be driven along the length in first, then the of the 25 by
q -
Thus, a force of 16.5 N/mm must the length of the beam. However, resisting a force of 700 N; hence, 700/16.5 = 42 mm of the beam utive sections of the beam, the
tervals.
be transferred from one plank from the data given, each one nail is adequate for transmit ing length. As shear remains constant nails should be spaced throughout
is ca
LE 7-2
at the at
)le beam
cross
on
a 6-m section
pieces,
366
Lag screw
Shear
Stresses
in Beams
and
Related
Problems
it is proper
distance screws
A
Sec.
to specify one same practical pieces,
or
7-4.
The Shear-Stress
lag
and A greater
Formula
on be 120-mm desirable at section
for Beams
centers
of the in making
the
use
of 10-mm
for
same the
from The
:tion
9
spacing spacing
to another should
b-b
in some as at
NA
500
9kNl
6m
9 kN
a-a.
(b)
4.5 kN
is discussed
applications, beams are made up by bolting or riveting as shown-in Fig. 7-8(a), or welding them, as shown in Fig. of selected bolts or rivets, as well as sizing of welds, is determined analogous to those described before. The strength of individual
in Section 1-13 and that of welds is treated in Section
(a)
.14.
Note
that
' act
the
in double
bolts
shear.
may
be staggered
The welds may
along
be either
the
length
continuous
of a beam,
or intermit ent.
and
that
'-4.
The
Shear-Stress
formula
Formula
for beams analogous
for.Beams
may be obtained by to the earlier procedure, modifying the an element
(b)
Fig.
7-7
2.
in Fig. 7-7(a). Specify the spacing of the 10-mm to fasten this beam together. Assume that by laboratory tests, is good for 2 kN when to the grain of the wood. For the entire section,
Solution
Thus, beam may be isolated to the axis of the section through element is obtained,
between two adjoining beam. Then by passing this element parallel which corresponds the axis.
perpenIon-
Fig. 7-8 Composite sections: (a) plate (b) I beam reinforced plates.
beam girder,
with
beam, a of one
shown distance
shown
where neutral
view
of such
area
cut
an element
in Fig.
To
find
the
spacing
of. the
lag
screws,
given the beam beam,
the
shear
is shown the shear
flow
at section
in Fig. diagram 7-7(b),
is
a-a
and to
on the along
Fig;
7-7(c).
Next,
to apply
the
shear
flow
formula,
fea
fghj
Y dA
= Q must
A B
the hatched area to one side of the of this area is most conveniently 50 by 100 mm pieces by the distances
of the beam and adding to this product
Fa=
FA + dF
quantity
as the
largest
piece.
V of 9 kN
The
act
largest
there:
shear
flow
occurs
at the
[-Centroid of fgh/
+ A2Y2 x 200 +
50
x 200
x 225
= 4.25
106
_] L--
Cross
(c)
q =
VQ I
16.2 N/mm
must be 2 x 103/16.2 =
apart. This spacing of the lag screws applies only at a section where shear equal to 9 kN. Similar calculations for a section where V = 4.5 kN gives 8.1 N/mm; and the spacing of the lag screws becomes 2 x 103/8.1 = 246
At the supports,
section
(a)
Fig.
7-9
Derivation
of shear
stresses
in a beam.
368
Shear
Stresses
in Beams
and Related
Problems
Formula
or Beams
If shear forces exist at the sections through the beam, a dif erent ing moment acts at section A than at B. Hence, more push or developed on one side of the partial area fghj than on the other, before, this longitudinal force in a distance dx is
the shear stresses at the longitudinal cut. As before, V is the total ' force at a section, and I is the moment of inertia of the whole cross,n.al area about the neutral axis. Both V and I are constant at a section h a beam. Here Q is the statical moment around the neutral axis
I
In a solid beam, the force
yghj
ea y dA
resisting dF
- AsghiY
may be developed
Q
only
'the
of the cross section to one side of the imaginary lon~ y is the distance from the neutral axis of the beam to centroid of the partial area Afghj. Finally, t is the width of the imlongitudinal cut, which is usually equal to the thickness or width
cut,
partial
area and
plane fore,
of the assuming
shear
axis
of the distributed
beam. 3
member. assumes
shear
stress values
longitudinal of Q and
section of width t, the shear stress in the longitudinal plane may tained by dividing dF by the area t dx. This yields the horizontal stress ,. For an infinitesimal element, however, numerically equal stresses 4 act on the mutually perpendicular planes; see Fig. 7-9Co). the same relation gives simultaneously the longitudinal shear stress the shear stress in the plane of the vertical section at the Ion
cut. 5
Care
must be exercised in making the longitudinal cuts preparatory for in Eq. 7-6. The proper sectioning of some cross-sectional areas of is shown in Figs. 7-10(a), (b), (d), and (e). The use of inclined planes shotfid be avoided unless the section is made across a small
When is vertical are usually
simultaneous
cross-sectional forces,
horizontal y.
values of horizontal
In such
and
cases,
vertical
the solution
shear
dF
dx t
This and
equation by Eq.
may
%5,
since
I VAfghjyVQ _ q1
* It I- - t
the
where
shape
dM
Aehiy
stresses
the
shear
perpendicular, section
Eq.
same
1-2. the
force
through
at the
act these
satisfying
according
to Eq.
7-1,
dM/dx
relation
of statics,
Fy
= 0. The
validity
of this
to determine These shear see
statement
the stresses 7-10(c).
for
shear
act
case wil be proved in Example For thin members only, Eq. 7-6 may ;ses with a cut such as f-g of Fig.
a vertical
Matching
plane act
shear
and
stresses
are
directed
act
horizontal y;
perpendicularly directions
to the
Fig.
plane obtained
of the
These
these shear
Equation
and
7-6
procedure
away
see
is the
from
Section
important
suited
changes
formula
to situations
agrees
for
in the
shear
the
positive
at the
of
stresses
section
the cross
in
sides
for
section.
3 This
are
is best
sense
5-8.
significant
7-6.
are
horizontal cuts, such as -g stresses do not contribute directly their significance wil be discussed
stresses
in entirely
dif erent
than
those
and
(d). As of vertical
by
limitations
4 Note
adopted is present
that
the
of positive,
through
with
the moments
the
sense
V in
5 The
presence
in Section at a section
of y in this
relation
M and M + dM. The magnitude of M is irrelevant for determining the stresses. Hence, alternately, no moment need be considered at one section the adjoining section, a bending moment dM is assumed to act. Then on a area of the section, such as the shaded area in Fig. 7-9(c), this bendin dM wil cause an average normal stress (dM)y/I, as given by In the lat er relation, y locates the fiber that is at an average distance from neutral axis in the partial area of a section. Multiplying (dM)y/I by the
a beam,
may
be explained
dif erently.
adjoining
If the
NA
(c)
h
area
prompted bridges
6 This
of the
by between
formula
section
observing Moscow
was
leads
derived
to the
horizontal and
by
St.
same
D.
cracks Petersburg.
I. Jouravsky
expression
for
in wood
in 1855.
ties
dF
as before. several
(a)
(b)
Centroid
of
cross-hatched
area
on
Its
development
of the
(d)
(e)
Fig.
740
Sectioning
for
partial
areas
of cross
sections
for
computing
shear
stresses.
370
Shear
Stresses
in
Beams
and
Related
Problems
Sec.
7-4.
The
Shear-Stress
Formula
v
for
Beams
Procedure
Summary
The fore
ever,
same three basic concepts of engineering are used in developing the formula for
their use is less direct.
shear
mechanics stresses
of solids in beams.
1. Equilibrium conditions are used (a) for determining the shear at a section, (b) by using the relationship between the change in bending moment along a span, (c) by determining the force at a longitudinal
element for obtaining the average shear
shear and
stress.
and
the
NA
section
is assumed
linearly
of a
such
2.
Geometry
of deformation,
that Since,
as in pure
bending,
plane
clusion axis.
sections
normal due
remain
strains to shear,
plane
after
deformation,
accurate magnitudes
vary sections
leading
do not
from
to
remain
, be conveniently ess is found stresses
(a) (b)
_J
(c)
(d)
is less moderate
is satisfactory.
than
Fig.
7-tl
3. Material
solutions.
extension
properties
to other
are
considered
trated
sumed
These
forces
geometry
conditions
and/or
the
of deformation
changes
treat
the
problem
in the
is insensitive
cross-sectional
accurate.
placed beyond
Therefore
relations
to obey
is possible
Hooke's
law,
expressed as b dy. By applying at level y of the beam. At the same act in the plane of the cross section,
cut,
Eq.
horizontal equal
shear vertical
fyha by dy
(7-7)
effects
of beams.
best
of
fghj
solutions
principle. from
are
such
In
complex warpage of their cross sections near the sides. An application of Eq. 7-6 for determining shear stresses in a rectan beam is given next. Based on the results obtained in this general discussion fol ows of the effect of shear on warpage of plane sections in beams. Then two additional examples on
of Eq.
EXAMPLE
members; longitudinal
see
Section sections,
solutions inaccurate
izontal
shear
equation
and
the vertical
beam. At
to
shows
that
shear
in a beam
stresses
vary
of rectangular
parabolically.
to zero. represented
the neutral
cross In
The
section,
maximum
plane *tax
the
both
value
stresses
the
hor-
of
stress
Fig.
the by
axis,
diminish.
cease exist
At of the
7-11(d).
the
as y
upper
=
and
+ h/2.
lower
These
boundaries
values of the
of the
shear
beam,
stresses
the
shear
at the
%6
are
7-3
provided.
il(c).
shown
An
levels
isometric
view
beam
of the
may
beam
be represented
with
horizontal
by
the
and
parabola
vertical
shown
shear
in Fig.
stresses
7-
Derive gular
Solution
an cross
expression section
the
shear-stress a vertical
distribution shear
in a beam V.
of
solid
To satisfy
in Fig.
the condition
shear shear cross-sectional
of statics,
Fy = 0, at a section
respective areas dA must be equal may be shown by integrating, dA beam, using the general expression
of the beam,
the sum
before.
area of the beam is shown in Fig. 7-11(a). at a distance y from the neutral axis isolates section. Here t = b and the infinitesimal area
372
Shear
Stresses
in
Beams
and
Related
Problems
7-5.
Warpage
of Plane
Sections
Due
to Shear
373
As
the
derivation
of Eq.
7-6
was
indirect,
this
integrated
over
the
section
equal
the
vertical
shear
is reassuring.
direction of the stresses.
Moreover,
shear
beam
?rom
Eq.
1-5:
an agreement in signs is found, this result indicates that the stresses at the section through a beam is the same as that This fact may be used to determine the sense of the shear As noted before, the maximum shear stress in a rectangular the neutral axis, and for this case, the general expression for by setting y = 0. Vh 2
rmax --
c9O'x + &rxy = 0
Ox Oy
:But
Eq. 1-5 integrating,
trx =
becomes
MyI
hence, ?
Ocrx
Ox
aM
Ox
y
I
Vy
I
Vh 2 8bh3/12
A is the entire
3 V 2 bh
cross-sectional
3 V 2 A
area. The
81
and
where
V is the
total
shear,
Vy 2
21
C Vh -2
81
result
may
be obtained
more
directly
if it is noted
that
to make
Q must
attain
its largest
value,
as in this
case
V, I, and
t are bonstants.
,y(+h/2)
= 0
one
has
C 1 +
Tmax -- I- -
'rxy = 'ryx =
(74
agrees with the result found earlier, since here
_ y2
y = Yl.
Since beams of rectangular cross-sectional area are used frequently in Eq. 7-8b is very useful. It is widely used in the design of wooden beams the shear strength of wood on planes parallel to the grain is small. Thus, equal shear stresses exist on mutually perpendicular planes, wooden beam: a tendency to split longitudinally along the neutral axis. Note that the
to Shear
for a rectangular preceding
of elasticity Eq.
beam
shear
stress
is 1 times
as great
as the average
shear
stress
V/A.
Neverthei
1-8).
warp,
and
7-7
in the analysis of bolts and rivets, it is customary to determine their shear by dividing the shear force V by the cross-sectional area A (see Section practice is considered justified since the allowable and ultimate strengths tial y determined in this manner from tests. For beams, on the other
7-6 is generally
**Alternative
applied.
Solution
From the point of view of elasticity, internal stresses and strains in statically indeterminate. However, in the engineering theory discussed here: introduction of a kinematic hypothesis that plane sections remain plane ing changes this situation. Here, in Eq. 6-11, it is asserted that in a beam, -My/I. Therefore, one part of Eq. 1-5--that giving the dif erential e equilibrium for a two-dimensional problem with a body force X =
solve for the unknown shear stress. From the conditions of no shear stress
to strain, = + h/2. This beam, as shown qualitatively assumption of the simplified based on rigorous analysis,
Therefore, According
the
shear strains must stresses given by this equation, the maximum occurs at y = 0; conversely, behavior warps the initial y
be associated with shear Eq. 7-7 give rise to shear shear stress, hence, no shear strain takes plane sections through in Fig. 7-12, and contradicts the fundabending theory for pure flexure. Howwarpage of the sections is known to be
Lmportant
studies
only
for very
be substantiated cantilevers
short
members
by the shown
and
two-dimensional in Figs.
is negligibly
7-13
small
for slender
top
is
and
found.
the
bottom
boundaries,
,yx
= 0 at y =
+h/2,
the
constant
of
V.
used as shown
374
Shear
Stresses
in
Beams
and
Related
Problems
Sec.
7-4.
Warpage
of Plane
Sections
Due
to Shear
375
sections
Plane
MPLE
the
7-4
simplified elastic-plastic theory, zone determine the of a rectangular shear-stress beam. distribution due to shear
r in the
ution
the
Maximum distortion neutral
loaded moment
the above
as shown M =
equations,
to Eq.
equality:
[
at axis
yo varies
6-40,
with
the internal
x and
resisting
moment
M = M v - crypbyo/3.
Upon
the
Fig.
a beam.
7-t2
Shear
distortions
in
by dots
instances,
in the
the
beams
figures.
are
To avoid
fixed
along
local
lines
disturbances
AB
at the
nodal
of the
points
type
ind
relation wil
dM = _p = dx
consider
the
ference
2byoo'3yp
dyo dx
Fig.
a short finite
7-t3
Deformed
cantilever element from
mesh
a
for
solution.
earlier in Fig. 2-31, in each case, applied forces P are bolically per Eq. 7-7 to the nodal points along lines CD. The displacements of the nodal points of the elements for both shown in the figures are greatly exaggerated. For the numerical used, they are increased by a factor of 3000 compared with the dimensions of the members. Considerable warpage of the initial y sections can be clearly observed for the short cantilever in Fig. 7-13 contrast, for the longer member in Fig. 7-14, the warpage of the is imperceptible. This study together with an examination of results as well as experimental measurements on beams suggests assumption of "plane sections" is reasonable. It should also be that if shear force V along a beam is constant and the boundaries no restraint, the warping of all cross sections is the same. strain distribution caused by bending remains the same as in pure Based on these considerations, a far-reaching conclusion can be that the presence of shear at a section does not invalidate for bending stresses derived earlier. It is cautioned, however, that local disturbances of stresses the points of load applications and the use of the elementary elastic for short beams is questionable.
c
be needed later. First, however, proceeding as in the elastic the equilibrium of a beam element, as shown in Fig. 7-15(b). Larger forces act on the right side of this element than on the left. By sepbeam at the neutral axis and equating the force at the cut to the diflongitudinal force, one obtains
in the
dyo
b/2
dyo/dx horizontal from the shear relation stress found %: (7-9)
tryp 2
dyo dx
area of the elastic-plastic
3P 4byo
elastic
3 P 2 Ao
section. 7-15(c). Since
Ao opposite
for
the
tudinal
forces
occurs
stresses
and
occur no shear
stresses
part of the cross case is shown in Fig. case, shown in Fig. 7-15(d). in the plastic zones, no unbalance
are
developed.
Oyp
A
x
Fig.
long
solution
'744
cantilever.
deformation
showing
Finite
Elastic-plastic boundary
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig.
745
Shear
stress
distribution
in a rectangular
elastic-plastic
beam.
376
Shear
Stresses
in Beams
and
Related
Problems
Sec.
7-4.
Warpage
of Plane
Sections
Due
to Shear
377
This
criterion
stresses.
elementary
8
solution
yielding caused
has
by
been
the
refined
simultaneous
by using
a more
action of
careful y
normal and
of
For
Level
1-1
use in Eq.
7-5,
Arab?
the ratio
V/I
?
= 50,000/254
Q = Afghi7
0
= 197 lb/in 4.
q = VQ/I
0 3400 6.0
6.0 0.5 570 6800
x (,psi)
'0
0 0.5 x 6 = 3.00
'6 5.75
EXAMPLE
7-5
2-2
17.25
An
weight
Solution
I beam
is loaded
as shown
in Fig.
7-16(a).
If it has
the
cross
section
in Fig.
7-16(c),
of the
determine
beam.
the
shear
stresses
at the
levels
indicated.
Neglect
3-3
4-4
"Aghj
From
the
free-body
diagram
of the
beam
segment
in Fig.
7-16(b),
it is seen
the vertical
shear
at all sections
is 50 kips.
shear using the
Bending
at the various levels of the beam 7-5. Since x = q/t, Eq. 7-6, the flows by the respective widths of
moments
d not
enter
0 y is distance
is the partial
positive
on
with
x 6
in mm
section
axis
17' 1.32 1 5}18.56 3650 0.5 7300 17' 7.52 6 5}24.81 4890 0.5 9780
to the centraid
section This
For this
above
a given
of the partial
level
in in2o
area.
The downward
dncides
sense
of
sense.
shear
the I =
Appl.
sign
V and
convention
has same
is often
2-2, in to results half the 7-16(e) the two the
unnecessary.
widths are used
It is always
to determine
true
that
the
fAx
shear
dA
stress--one
is equal
6 x
123/12
5.5
113/12
254
in 4
to
8 D. C. Drucker,
Mech.
23 (1956):509-514.
"The
Effect
of Shear
100k
V=50k
on the Plastic
Bending
of Beams.
Note
that
at level
just
above
the
line
2-2,
(a)
k
q = 4890 lb/in
r = 570 psi
(d) (c) Section A-A (e)
distribution
second. This transition point wil be discussed in the obtained, which by virtue of symmetry are also appliof the section, are plot ed in Figs. 7-16(d) and (e). By a one used in the preceding example, it may be shown that are parts of a second-degree parabola. shear stress indicated by Fig. 7-16(e) may be interpreted
and
one
just
below.
A width
of 6 in corresponds
to the
as is shown
and the vertical
in Fig.
shear
7-16(0.
stresses
The
maximum
throughout
shear
the web
stress
occurs
of the beam
at the
are
neutral
nearly
axis,
of the
rma x = 9780
psi
same magnitude. The small. For this reason, imated by dividing the the web height assumed
Hence,
vertical shear stresses occurring in the flanges are very the maximum shear stress in an I beam is often approxtotal shear V by the cross-sectional area of the web with equal to the beam overall height, area abcdin Fig. 7-16(0.
v
(b)
('rmax)apprx
In the example considered, this gives
50,000
-- Aweb
(7-10)
(g)
('rmax)apprx
This
For
Shear-stress
0.5 X 12
from
closer
8330 psi
found by the
to the true
stress
most
dif ers
cross
by about
sections,
15 percent
a much
the one
accurate
maximum
formula.
shear
approximation
Fig.
7-t6
stress may be obtained by dividing the shear only. For the above example, this procedure an error of only about 8 percent. It should
is
378
Shear Stresses
of V by the
not 3-3 faces
elements
in Beams
whole
of the
and Related
area
at the neutral
Problems
of the
axis
Limitations
of the Shear-Stress
Formula
cross-sectional
beam
to obtain
in Fig.
the
7-16(g).
shear
At
An
permissible. and
element
2-2, of the
at
bending elements.
level 1-1.
stresses, No
stresses, bending
oni
(a)
The
ceding
section axis. always
sides
examples.
of cross
sections
If they
maximum Eq.
were
are
7-6,
assumed
parallel,
to be parallel
both Q and
occur
in all th e:
t vary
shear a
at the stres..
VO /
y
not
example for angular cross section such a maximum shear stress is midway the apex and the base. For such cross sections, the stresses a longitudinal section, and are particularly inaccurate near sides; see Fig. 7-18. Similar results may develop at longitudinal
taken at an angle with the axes.
shear stress may not the maximum average it can be shown that
vary the
1
(b)
The gitudinal
same
as described in composite
*7-6.
The
Some'
shear-stress
Limitations
formula for
of
beams
the
Hence,
material
all
of the
limitations
to be elastic
imposed
with
is assumed
before beams
for
determining or glued
Formula
Fig. 748
on
the
flexure
shear boundary
stresses
Modification
conditions.
to satisfy
of
the
on the
flexure
formula
apply,
in
the
same
elastic
modulus
or three-dimensional
solution.
finite-element
analysis
must
be used
to obtain
developed limitations
be discussed
Fortunately,
stresses
The
Consider a section through of the results of this analysis stresses computed earlier for
a.
J2
the
are
level
is zero
1-1
for
apply
this
the above
defect
of the shear-stress
formula
for beams
The
is
given
for the
derived
by Eq.
stresses
The
vertical
shear
stress
element.
570
psi
stresses exist on the top plane of the beam. This is as it should be, the top surface of the beam is a free surface. In mathematical T this means that the conditions at the boundary are satisfied. For of rectangular cross section, the situation at the boundaries is
A
shear
belong
in this
7-6.
for
to this
chapter
No
appreciable
for
group.
a beam
Moreover,
with
thin-walled
error
a rectangular
as stated
members,
is involved
cross
earlier,
and
by using
section
the majority
the
the
solution
is cor-
In mechanical
These conditions
beams
the
condition at levels
2-2
the
shear
stresses
The
shear
stresses
were
beams for
having
applications,
are circular
a solid
not
"thin-walled." members,
circular
circular
Fig.
cross
shafts
section
frequently
form
act a beams.
of the boundto the conclusion
an important
i70
psi
conditions at the
Fig.
7-t7
levels
Boundary
are 2-2.
not
satisfied
psi for the elements such as b or c shown in the figure. matching horizontal shear stresses on the inner surfaces oft However, the lat er surfaces must be free of the shear stress{ are free boundaries of the beam. This leads to a be resolved by the methods of engineering mechanics more advanced techniques of the mathematical theory of
shear stresses are present, ,. As no matching shear stress shear stress component can to Eq. 7-6, vertical shear such as ac in Fig. 7-18(b). for elements a and c,
they must act parallel to the boundcan exist on the free surface of a beam, act normal to the boundary. However, stresses of equal intensity act at every This is incompatible with the boundary and the solution indicated by Eq. 7-6 is
380
Shear
Stresses
in
Beams
and
Related
Problems
Sec.
7-7.
Shear
Stresses
in Beam
Flanges
c
inconsistent.
neutral
of their
9 Fortunately,
axis
true
the
boundary
2o
maximum
conditions
shear
and
stresses
are within
occuzJng
about 5
satisfy
value.
the
C
c
h
f
rt dx J
F+dF
*7-7.
Shear
Stresses
in Beam
Flanges
h/2
In an I beam, the existence of shear stresses acting in a vertical tudinal cut as c-c in Fig. 7-19(a) was indicated in Fig. 7-2(f) and 7-4. These shear stresses act perpendicular to the plane of the paper. magnitude may be found by applying Eq. 7-6, and their sense considering the bending moments at the adjoining sections throu beam. For example, if for the beam shown in Fig. 7-19Co), positive b moments increase toward the reader, larger normal forces act on then section. For the elements shown, ,t dx or q dx must aid the smaller acting on the partial area of the cross section. This fixes the sense shear stresses in the longitudinal cuts. However, numerically equal stresses act on the mutually perpendicular planes of an infinitesimal ment, and the shear stresses on such planes either meet or part with directional arrowheads at a corner. Hence, the sense of the shear st in the plane of the section becomes known also. The magnitude of the shear siresses varies for the dif erent cuts. For example, if cut c-c in Fig. 7-19(a) is at the edge of the the hatched area of the beam's cross section is zero. However, thickness of the flange is constant, and cut c-c is made closer to the web, this area increases from zero at a linear rate.
(a)
(b)
as y remains
constant
foi
any
such
zero toward the web. Therefore, since through the beam, shear flow qc = the thickness of the flange remains It varies similarly. The same variation of the axis of symmetry of the cross from Fig. 7-19Co), these quantities in opposite directions on the two sides. or shear flows is represented in Fig.
assumed that the web has zero thickness.
V and I are constant at any VQ/I fol ows the same the same, the shear stress ,c = of q and , applies on both section. However, as may be the plane of the cross section The variation of these 7-19(c), where for simplicity,
Fig. 749
In common
Shear
with all
forces
stresses,
in the flanges
the shear
of an I beam
stresses
act perpendicularly
shown in Fig. 7-19(c),
to the axis
of symmetry.
they act, are equivalent to a force. F for one-half of the flange, Fig. stress multiplied by one-half of the
of the
However, a better approximation of the true stresses may be obtained simply. First, an assumption is made that the shear stress as found by gives a true component of the shear stress acting in the vertical direction. since at every level, the shear stresses at the boundary must act tangent boundary, the lines of action of these shear stresses intersect at some A in Fig. 7-18(b). Thus, a second assumption is made that all shear stresses
9 The
exact
elastic
solution
of this
problem
is beyond
the
scope
of this
I beam
F= (?:)(b_)
transmits a vertical shear,
or F]= (q:x)()
these horizontal forces act
(7-11)
in the
Dover,
z0 A.
found
1944),
E.
H.
in the
348.
Love,
above
Mathematical
a single'point, as F becomes
is consistent.
(b. The
section, cause To
lower flanges. However, because these equal forces occur in pairs no apparent external effect. determine the shear flow at the juncture
Theory
of Elasticity,
4th
ed.
(New
computing flange
in Fig.
7-19(a), the whole area of the flange times the value of Q. However, since in finding area times the same y has already been used,
382
Shear two
Stresses horizontal
and
Related coming
Sec.
legs
7-8.
Shear
Center
channel,
383
of the
shear
flow
n at cut a-a.
Hence,
figuratively
speaking,
the horizontal
the
stresses
resistance
developed
the
mainly
in the
and shear
web,
it is so shown
in Fig.
coincides
7-19(d).
with
The
the
sen
quantities vary linearly from the free edge, just as they do for one of the flange in an I beam. The variation of q and, is parabolic along web. The variation of these quantities is shown in Fig. 7-20(b), where are plot ed along the center line of the channel's section. shear stress ,a/2 multiplied by the areas of the flange gives force Fz = ('d2)bt, and .the sum of the vertical shear stresses over the a of the web is the shear V = J--h/ r+h/22 'fl- dy.2 These shear forces acting
of the shear V. Note that the vertical shear flow "splits" upon the lower flange. This is represented in Fig. 7-19(d) by the two that are the result of the horizontal shear flows in the flanges. The shear forces that act at a section of an I beam are shown in 7-19(d), and, for equilibrium, the applied vertical forces must act the centroid of the cross-sectional area to be coincident with V. If forces are so apphed, no torsion of the member wil occur. This is for all sections having cross-sectional areas with an axis of avoid torsion of such members, the applied forces must act in the of symmetry of the cross section and the axis of the beam. A beam an unsymmetrical section wil be discussed next.
the
V and a couple Fh are developed at the section through the Physically, there is a tendency for the channel to twist around longitudinal axis. To prevent twisting and thus maintain the appli' of the initial y assumed bending-stress distribution, the externally be applied in such a manner as to balance the internal le Fh. For example, consider the segment of a cantilever beam of weight, shown in Fig. 7-20(d), to which a vertical force P is
a force
plane
of the
cross
section
are
shown
in Fig.
7-20(c)
and
indicate
Shear
Center
Consider a beam having the cross section of a channel; see Fig. 7-201 The walls of this channel are assumed to be sufficiently thin that computations may be based on center line dimensions. Bending channel takes place around the horizontal axis and although this section does not have a vertical axis of symmetry, it wil be assumed
the bending further that stresses are this channel given resists by the usual a vertical flexure shear, formula. the bending
this applied force in equilibrium, an equal and opposite shear V must be developed in the web. Likewise, to cause no twisting of channel, couple Pe must equal couple Fh. At the same section the channel, bending moment PL is resisted by the usual flexural (these are not shown in the figure). expression for distance e, locating the plane in which force P must applied so as to cause no twist in the channel, may now be obtained: remembering that Fh = Pe and P = V,
parallel
to the web
at a distance
e from
the web's
center
line.
T9
F]h
P
(1/2),bth
P
bth VQ
2P It
bth Vbt(h/2)
2P It
b2h2t
41
(7-12)
wil
By
through vertical
cannot
may dif er
F1
cut
be made
the
beam as c-c
with
that
q and
shear stressesi
Note
as well
section
that distance
as of its
and
force.
e is 'independent
location
measured
of the magnitude
the
from
of applied
e is a property
of the web to
force
of
the
along
outward
beam.
the
Distance
center
the
8
n The
r orq
same
of the
statement
flange
from
regard
web.
to the
is
A similar
investigation
for this
that
rf or qt
cross
center cross
]2 When
(b) (c)
(d)
section
may be made to locate the plane in which the must be applied so as to cause no twist in the channel. the channel considered, by virtue of symmetry, it may be plane coincides with the neutral plane of the former case. of these two mutually perpendicular planes with the plane
locates
lies
a point
that
is called
the shear
center.
J3 The
is designated section
the thickness
S in Fig. line
7-20(c). parallel
center of the
to find F]
q
. Since
1921.
V by using
the
respective
are
of a channel
the
thin, and
shear
flows,
is variable,
i.e.,
F]
it is more
carried
= (qa/2)b
and
is negligible. concept
J-hi2 2 V = c+h/
only
Fig.
7-20
Deriving
location
of shear
center
for
a channel.
384
Shear
Stresses
in Beams
and
Related
Problems
Sec.
7-8.
Shear
Center
385
Any transverse of the beam. a member of around the shear center is sometimes cross-sectional located on
area. section.
the shear center ca of this problem any cross-sectional area is twisted, the twist center, which remains fixed. For this reaso called the center of twist. areas having one axis of symmetry, the shear the axis of symmetry. For those that have
coincides for the with I beam the that centreid of the was considered
PLE
7-7
the approximate
n
>lution
shown
in Fig.
7-22(a).
location
Note
of the shear
that the
flanges
center
are unequal.
section
of the I
is cross
of thick
The
exact
material
is thin, as has been assumed in the preceding simple procedures may always be devised to locate of the cross section. The usual procedure consists of
forces, as F and V before, at a section, and then
materials
location
of the
shear
to obtain
center
and is known
for
unsymmetrical
only
in a few
the
findin
cross
bending and Web to the resistance Let the shear V2. section, from be determined
such
it; where
section
it is located
force
has a horizontal
shear
For
to
shear
location
of the
external
force
necessary
to keep
these
forces
in
a beam is distributed parabolically, Fig. 7-22(b), and since the area of a is two-thirds of the base times the maximum altitude, V2 = b2(q2)max. since the total shear V = P, by Eq. 7-5, (q2)max = VQ[I = PQ[I, where is the statical moment of the upper half of the right-hand flange, and I is the
of inertia of the whole section. Hence,
actually
an ordinary
stresses only of applied force resisted by the equilibrium, V M, = 0, Pe = solve the problem.
remains
to be answered.
axis
of symmetry
rectangular
Applied
of the
and
the contribution
beam
force
center
P causes
is located
signif-
of the
(a)
beam.
The
be done
Likewise, = Vh).
shear
by noting
be V, and
stress
(or shear
that
no twist of V2 remains
the right
by the
flow)
Shear
flow
in
right
flange
(h)
EXAMPLE
7-6
location in Fig.
of the 7-21.
shear
Fig.
7-22
2hb2_
2hb2
b2t2
b2
h t2b 3
hi2
(7-14)
Instead of using Eq. 7-12 directly, some further simplifications may be made. moment of inertia of a thin-walled channel around its neutral axis may with sufficient accuracy by neglecting the moment of inertia of the flanges their own axes (only!). This expression for I may then be substituted into Eq.
12 and; after simplifications, a formula for e of channels is obtained.
as is to be expected.
web
as originally
I /web
b2h2t
+ (Ad2)nanges
b2h2t
= th3/12
+ th3/12)
+ 2bt(h/2)
b
2 = th3/12
+ bth2/2
(7-1
41
Equation its maximum
10"
4(bth2/2
2 + h/3b
the width h is very of flanges b is very large, e approaches
value between
of
zero.
Otherwise,
an
intermediate
two
For
the
numerical
data
e
given
=
in Fig.
7-21,
= 1.82 1.87 in from in the outside
analysis leads to the conclusion that the shear center for a angle is located at the intersection of the center lines of its legs, as shown in Figs. 7-23(a) and (b). This fol ows since the shear flow every section, as c-c, is directed along the center line of a leg. These shear flows yield two identical forces, F, in the legs. The vertical components of these forces equal the vertical shear applied through S. An
situation is also found for any angle or T section, as shown in
A similar
2 +
-
10/(3
0.05
x 5)
=
Figs.
particularly
4 For
7-24(a)
further
important
details,
in aircraft
York:
location
of the shear
applications.
center
and
14
for various
Design of Flight
members
Vehicle
Hence,
the
the channel.
shear
center
S is 1.87
Fig.
7.2t
of
Structures
(Cincinnati:
(New
Tri-State,
see E. F. Bruhn,
McGraw-Hil ,
1965).
See also
Analysis
1956).
P. Kuhn,
Stresses
in Aircraft
386
Shear
Stresses
in Beams
and Related
Problems
an be combined
.sses as well as the
Direct
the
shear
and Torsional
maximum
stress for beams
Shear
torsional
Stresses
shear
occur at
387
Generally,
direct
c
ihe boundaries
Stresses
of these
stresses of such
to
of cross
sections
combined a vectorial
and
are collinear.
shear
sum
Therefore,
an algebraic
In treating
addition
is necessary.
beam
the
problems,
as noted
act
discussed
earlier,
it must
be recognized
generally,
normal
that
dis-
{)
{)
(a)
{b)
;ses
the
Shear angle
center for is at S.
an
Fig.
sections
7-24
Shear
shown
center
is at S.
for
for
also normal
on the stresses
are
Proce-
ssed
in order to prevent torsion of a. beam, the shear center. When such a force forms an: with the vertical, it is best to resolve it into components alo.g the axes of the cross section, as shown in Fig. 6-38. If force P is outside shear center S, as shown in Fig. 7-25, two equal but forces P can be introduced at S without changing the problem. addition to the stresses caused by P applied at S, the torsional caused by the torque equal to Pd must be considered, as Chapter 4.
force must act through the
As
remarked
earlier,
VIPLE
7-8
stress steel
A-B
of the
10-
25 The
Fig.
inverse
4-34.
problem
of resolving
a shear
stress
was
considered
in connection
It is to be noted
chapter,
Transformation
that
generally,
this
in addition
usually
of state
a channel.
Fig.
7-25
Torsion-bending
of
in this
ered.
is
bending
of
stresses
kind
8. In the
considered.
remainder
of this
chapter,
only
250
to the shear
act on
stress
stresses
discu
also
of
the
elements
con
is discussed
T=
20
N'm
20
N-m
superposition
of the
shear
V=250N M = 25 N-m
T=20
N-m
{a)
(b)
7-9.
Combined
Direct
and
Torsional
Shear
Stresses
The analysis for combined direct and torsional shear stresses consists two parts that are then superposed. In one of these parts, the direct stresses are determined using the procedures of Part A of this in the second, the shear stresses caused by torques susceptible methods of analysis treated in Chapter 4 are used. The two analyses for combined shear stresses must be determined the same elementary area regardless of cause. Multiplying these
(c) (d)
Fig. 7-26
B
iA
(e)
(f)
by the respective
area
gives
forces.
since
these
forces
can
torial y, on reversing the process, i.e., initial area, one obtains the combined the shear stresses acting on the same
on dividing the vector sum b shear stress. Such being the plane of an inf'mitesimal
Shear
Stresses
in
Beams
and
Related
Problems
7-10. -20
Stresses
X 103
982
in Closely
X 5
Helical
Springs
389
Solution
Tc
J
stresses due to the applied forces are required, be considered. The free-body of a segment The system of forces at the cut necessary consists of a torque, T = 20 N.m, a shear,
M = 25 N.m.
is
(*m,,)aieot
VQ
It
4V
3A
4 x 250
3 x 78.5
102
4 =
Due
A,
B,
stresses, D, and
longitudinal
of.the is shown
on the neutral
Eq.
The
7-6,
direct
= VQ/[t.
shear
stresses
For
elements
caused
A and
by
shear
B, Fig.
force
7-26(d),
V may
Q = 0; hence,
be obtained
by
The shear stress reaches its maximum the cross-hatched area shown in Fig. centraid to the neutral axis. The lat er of the cross-sectional area; see Table
value at level ED. For this, Q is 7-26(d) multipqed by.the distance quantiW is y = 4c/3r, where c is the 2 in the Appendix. Hence,
rc 2 4c 2C 3
*a7-10.
Stresses
in Closely
one certain
be
Coiled
shown
limitations, similar limited
Helical
Springs
Q=
Moreover, since t = 2c, and
2 3,r
the
I = ,lrb4/4,
VQ _ V 2C 3 4
It 2c 3
A is the entire in Example stress is shown agrees with find the maximum
7-3
_ 4V
31rC
_ 4V
3A
spring's
springs, such as the of machines. With for stresses by a method The discussion wil or wires of circular cross wil be assumed to axis of the spring. This With this limitation,
7-27(a), are often used as these springs may be anato the one used in the preceding to springs manufactured from
in Fig.
section?
Moreover,
any
one
coil
of such
to toof
rod becomes
nearly
lie in a plane that is nearly requires that the adjoining a section taken perpendicular
vertical.
8 Hence,
to maintain
equilibrium
a segment
quired
only
a shear
through
T = that
Springs
rod.
(A
similar
section.)
areas
In
Fig.
on
springs,
is optional.
an
Penton,
1944).
This
A-B,
the
stresses
the
of
a bending
in Figs.
stress direction. torsional The
7-26(c)
is at E, There shear combined
and
since
(d) are
superposed.
Inspection
shows
that
the
maximum
diagrams, the shear stresses at E act in the shear stresses at A and B, while at C there shear stresses act in opposite directions at the five points, A, B, C, D, and E,
of the interior points, require magnitudes. Since the torsional than those at the boundary,
J .. I =
no
the
for
points occurs are at E.
=2c
T=
V=F
F7
d 4
32
J
104
982
1111114
the
491
mm
4
F
A = 'rrd2 = 78.5 mm 2
Axiofs
spring
(a)
(b)
coiled
390
T = FT
Shear
Stresses
in Beams
and
Related
Problems
Sec.
7-tt.
Deflection
1.6
of Closely
Coiled
Helical
Springs
39'
F (up)
? is the
cross-sectional
distance it should
from
area.
the
axis that
of the in previous
spring
to the work,
of the
Here
be noted
F (down)
FT
Fig.
7-28
that if a shear is present at a section, a change in the bending must take place along the member. Here a shear acts at every the rod, yet no bending moment nor a change in it appears to occur. is so only because the rod is curved. Such an element of the rod from the top is shown in Fig. 7-28. At both ends of the element, the ton are equal to by, and, using vectorial representation, act in the shown. The component of these vectors toward the axis of the spring resolved at the point of intersection of the vectors, 2by drb/2 = by opposes the couple developed by the vertical shears V = F, which
? d4) apart. The maximum
.4
.3
1.2
k
2 4 6
Springaxis---
8 10 12 14
1.1
1.0
factors
Fig.
7-29
for
Stress-concentration
helical
round-wire
Spring
index,
m =
27
compression
springs.
or tension
shear
stress
at an arbitrary
section
through
the
rod
be
and
obtained
the direct
as in the
shearing
preceding
stresses.
example,
This maximum
by
superposing
shear stress
the
occurs
torsi
at'
o
hence,
iled
inside of the coil at point E, Fig. 7-27(b). springs, it has become customa,7 to assume by the direct shear force is uniformly distributed area of the rod. Hence, the nominal direct the cross section is, = F/A. Superposition torsional shear stress at E gives the maximum Thus, since T = by, d = 2c, and J = 'rrd4/32,
,m =
It is seen
small also in relation becomes
+-f
this
to the
= J
equation
coil On the
However, in the that the shear stress over the shear stress for any of this nominal direct combined shear
K may be interpreted as a stress-concentration factor for closely helical springs made from circular rods. A plot of K vs. the spring shown TM in Fig. 7-29. For heavy springs, the spring index is small; the stress-concentration factor K becomes important. For all
factor K accounts for the correct amount of direct shear stress.
; high
allowed
For
in springs good-quality
because
spring
high-strength steel,
work-
ing
shear
stresses
range
anywhere of
from
200
to 700 Helical
coiled
confined
MPa
Deflection
Closely
Coiled
be
completeness,
the
deflection
of closely
wil
helical
to closely
springs
coiled
wil
hel-
be
Ilscussed
in this
section.
Attention
from
small.
that
radius other
as the
?, the hand,
diameter
effect if the
of the
of the reverse direct
rod
is true,
d
shear the
should not be used, as it is based on the torsion formula for straight As d becomes numerically comparable to ?, the length of the inside of the coil dif ers greatly from the length of the outside fibers, and
mathematical theory of elasticity, and while these results for any one spring, they may be made to depend on a single m = 27/d, which is called the spring index. Thus, Eq. 7-16
writ en as
of strain problem
formula exactly
a large spring index, i.e., the diameter of the wire wil in comparison with the radius of the coil. This permits of an element of a spring between two closely adjoining through the wire as a straight circular bar in torsion. The effect direct shear on the deflection of the spring wil be ignored. This is permissible as the lat er effect is small. Consider a helical spring such as shown in Fig. 7-30. A typical element of this spring is subjected throughout its length to a torque T = bY. torque causes a relative rotation between the two adjoining planes, and B, and with sufficient accuracy, the amount of this rotation may by using Eq. 4-14, d4) = T dx/JG, for straight circular bars. this equation, the applied torque T = bY, dx is the length of the
G is the shear
wire's
with small
modulus
cross-sectional
of elasticity,
area.
and
J is the
polar
moment
may
be
inertia
of
the
If the
20 An true
plane
analytical value
-
A of the
expression is frequently
wire
that used.
is imagined
gives This
fixed,
the value expression
the
rotation
of the
plane
of rn is
for
D
'rmax
9 O. Goehner, "Die des Vereins deutscher Berechnung Ingenieure
= K 16by ,rd--
Schraubenfedern," 1932): 269.
(7-1
(4rn
for
curvature
1)/(4rn of some
derived by A.M. Wahl in the 1940s and is known as the Wahl correction
Fig.
a helical
7-30
Deriving
spring.
deflection
392
Shear
Stresses
In
Beams
and
Related
Problems
Problems
BC
d4. However,
this distance
since
may
element
be considered
of this multiplied AB is
*EXAMPLE
the
outside
10 live
A - 6473
7-9
or
n
(although it is an arc) to line BC. Moreover, only the vertical of this deflection is significant, as in a spring consisting of many for any element on one side of the spring, there is a coxes alent element on the other. The diametrically opposite elements spring balance out the horizontal component of the deflection and only the vertical deflection of force F. Therefore, by finding the
increment ED of the deflection and summing such increments of the whole spring is obtained.
From similar triangles
ED
maximum stress in the 15-mm diameter steel a 3-kg mass freely'fal ing through 0.5 m. The diameter inserted into the system is made
coils. Let E = 200 GPa and G = 80 GPa.
rod shown in Fig. 7-31 steel helical spring of 35 of 5-mm round wire and
for
of s
static
CDE
HB
and
deflection is computed
mass
29.4 of the
.125m
Fig. 7-3t
Eq.
2-9,
and
15 mm. is found.
the
deflection
Then, This
area A
of the
from force
= r x 152/4
spring
=
given
177 mm
by
2.
Eq.
force stress
7-18b.
acting in the
For
use
in Eq.
CD = B-
or
ED =-HB
may be denoted of the spring by dA,
CD
18b,
? = the rod
cross-sectional
However, CD = BC d4, HB = ?, and ED represents an infinitesimal vertical deflection of an element AB. Thus, dA = ? dqb and
A =
dA =
However, T = F, and for a closely coiled spring, the length L of wire may be taken with sufficient accuracy as 2,rN, where N is the ber of live or active coils of the spring. Hence, the deflection A spring is
--- A ro d q- A spr =
PL
q- Gd
64 x 80
64F?3N
29.4
153 x
10
103
54
1.27
mm
Pdyn A
855 177
4.8 MPa
A - 2F3N JG
or if the value of J for the wire
A
(7-1
a free fal of the mass of 0.5 m without the 210 MPa. For the system with the spring, to Asp r.
spring, most
is
is substituted,
---
'robiems
7-3
4
64F3N
Gd
The
Equations 7-18a and 7-18b give the deflection of a closely coiled spring along its axis when such a spring is subjected to either a or compressive force F. In these formulas, the effect of the direct stress on the deflection is neglected, .i.e., they give only the effect
torsional deformations.
shown
made
with
(20-penny) common nails, spaced 6 in apart and staggered, when force P = 500 lb is applied to the middle of the span? Calculate the shear flow two ways: using the cross section of the plank and then using the cross section of the larger member.
The constant
from
behavior k. From
a wire with
conveniently constant
is
for
def'med a helical
by spring
its
Fig. P74
394
7-2. The a uniformly imated for figure. If penny) box in the cross along the
lb in shear. 900
...
Shear
Stresses
in
Beams
and
Related
Problems
Problems
395
5O
shear
for the box beam supporting distributed load is conservatively approxdesign by the stepped diagram shown in the the beam is nailed together with 16d (16nails from four ful -sized pieces, as shown section, what nail spacing should be used span? Assume that each nail is good for 75
diagram
shown, gion
the The
bolt bolts
the in
a total the
vertical spacing
the
what girder
the
kN.
allowable
A wooden has the
transmits
shear
force
per
high-strength
made shown
bolt
up from 2-in the figure.
is
und
the
neutral
axis,
rivet
I is .14,560
is good shear, and
in 4. Assume
for 6.63 k in single 11.3 k in beating
a-in
7-5. boards,
beam
of 760
lb,
what
A simply
of a C
supported
12 x 20.7
beam
and
has
a W
a cross
18 x
section
50 fastened
con6
If this
force
be
lb
1 600
I
the
longitudinal
spacing
of
the
nails
(a)
2"
lb
I
necting necting
board board
A with D with
boards boards
(b)
apart
is
bolts as shown
a downward
00 mrn_.
Fig. sectional view. If the P7-t0 22-mm-diameter rivets are
112
moment
k in the
in the bolts?
of
middle
Neglect
inertia
of the
the
the I of
span,
weight
whole
what
of
member
is the
the
shear
beam.
around
I I
L ..
neutral
axis
is 1120
in 4.
Shear
diagram
spaced
125
mm
apart
longitudinally,
what
shear
stress
wil
Fig. P7-2
be developed
in the rivets
by the
applied
loading?
The
6.78"
axis
moment
is approximately
of inertia
7.4 and
a solid
4300
of the girder
7-5
x 106 mm 4.
around
;the neutral
7-3. A- 10-in square box beam 2-in thick wood pieces. Two sidered, as shown in the figure. shown in (a) can be turned Select the design requiting nailing for transmit ing shear. transmit ed by this member spacing for the best design? with 16d (16-penny) box nails
each in shear.
is to be possible Moreover, 90 in the the minimum (b) If is 620 lb, The nailing that are
made designs
application.
Fig.
P7-5
11.50"
7-6. Two'W 8 x 67 beams are arranged as the figure. Determine the bending and shear of this member if the allowable bending stress and the shear capacity of each bolt is 20 k. The are arranged in pairs and are spaced 6 in on
Sections
beams is *max
7-tt.
Show
having = V/A.
that
a formula,
circular
analogous
cross
section
to Eq.
of area
7-8a,
for
are
shown
attached
in the rivets
allowable
to
figare
al-
If the
tical
shear
of 240 kN.
Plot
the results
as in Fig.
7-16(e).
stress Fig.
(a)
(b)
for
shear for
the
this
rivets
section?
is 50
MPa,
what
is the
P7-6
Fig.
P7-3
7-4. varies,
so that figure.
the For
diagram section
7-7. plates,
plate,
A plate girder is made up from two 14 x four 6 x 4 x in angles, and a 39 x as shown in the figure. If at the section
3
A T-flange girder
1 2-3
--150--[
',50
4--
150
plat
fig. P?.9
7-'14. A box beam
50
mm
Fig.
has the
P7-t3
cross section shown in the
10ad in the
Fig. P7-7
middle
of a 7-m
is used
are given
simple
to
support
in the figure
span.
The
a 900-kN
in a cross-
dimen-
Calculate shear stresses when the beam bending the beam at the rate of 500 as in Fig. 7-16(e).
at
Fig.
P7-4
396
25
Shear
Stresses
in Beams
and
Related
Problems
Problems
397
40
is limited to 100 psi, what is the V that this section may carry? has a rhombic cross section,
tension,
is the
as
30 ksi
maximum
in compression,
allowable
and
shear
8 ksi
and
in shear,
the maxi-
in the
figure.
Assume
that
this
beam
with
transmits
the shear the apex. sl
a
and
25- 200 mm
--- 25
Fig. P7-t4
has a cross section. in
the
7-16(e).
results
on a plot
similar
to the
one
shown
in
wooden
I beam
is made
up
with
a narrow
of space
limitations,
as shown
in
the figure. The lower flange spaced longitudinally boards in the lower flange
Typ.
nailing
745.
thin-walled
extrusion
the
form
of an
isosceles
triangle,
as shown
in the
fig-
ure. Using Eq. 7-6, determine the shear midheight and centroidal levels of the co?responding to the vertical shear V = culate the approximate section properties ber using the centerline dimensions shown
tail. (Hint: For a thin inclined rectangular
stresses at the cross section 100 kN. Calfor the memon the dearea, I =
e the stress in the glued joints and the force carried ' each nail in the nailed joint if the beam is subjected to a vertical shear of 400 lb. The moment of inertia for whole section around the neutral axis is 2640 in 4.
Fig.
P7-22
N,
for
determine
this member.
the
maximum
allowable
vertical
I'
Fig.
748. A beam is loaded such
14"---
2"
16"
P747
that the moment
plywood is 2 MPa,
interfaces
anced design
bLh2/12,
vertical
where
height.
b is its
Justify
width,
before
L its
using.)
length,
and
h its
joist having the cross-sectional dishown in the figure is to be made lumber flanges and structural-grade web. If the allowable shear stress on plywood what strength glue must be specified for the between the flanges and the web for a balin shear?
varies longitudinal
as shown
shear
120
(a) (b) Approximation detail
(a) Moment
k-ft
the
'
two
-,*-
160
240
7-21.
A steel
cantilever
beam
is fabricated
from
joint
carry
Fig.
746. A beam has a cross-sectional
structural Determine
if the allowable
100 MPa;
weight of the
mm
together
and
beam.
P
along
stress
force the
in. bending
weld,
as shown P that
2 MN/m.
is 150 MPa;
Neglect
in
Fig. P7-23
P745
diagram
(b)
Section
area
in the
form
an isosceles triangle for which the base b is equal to one-half its height h. (a) Using calculus and the conventional stress-analysis formula, determine the location of the maximum shear stress caused by a vertical shear V. Draw the manner in which the shear
Fig.
P7-t8
cross-sectional
500--
7-24. A beam is made sized Douglas Fir pieces mm Douglas Fir plywood
Determine the maximum
up of four 50 x 100 mm ful that are glued to a 25 x 450 web, as shown in the figure.
allowable shear and the max-
shown
in the
figure.
If the
allowable
imum
allowable
bending
moment
that
this
section
can
stress
varies
across
the
section.
(b)
If b =
3 in,
h =
-*'25 mm 450
Fig,
P7-2
7-22,
Fig. P746
Fig. P7-t9 2-in diameter holes
A box
MPa and
beam
the
is fabricated
allowable
by
shear strength
nailing
per
plywood
nail
wooden shear
in is
is
Fig.
P7-24
398
Shear
Stresses
in
Beams
and
Related
Problems
Problems
399
allowable
allowable
kN/m
carry
if the
2. All
shear
allowable
sheafing
dimensions
stress
the
stress
in plywood
in the
bending
stress
figure
in the
and the
is 600 kN/m
glued
are
is 10 MPa;
joints
stresses
in ram.
2 and the
is 300
due
the
and
shear weight
*7-28.
sense
of all resultant
stresses of the
Two
forces
on
bars are
due
segment.
bonded
to the
bendin
acting beam.
steel
this
;-30.
. the
An aluminum
cross-sectional
alloy
dimensions
extrusion
shear
to
an
alu
7-25.
Calculate
bending
shear
to the
tilever acting
the canstresses
alloy cross
so that
core, section
the
making shown
bending
beam
If this beam at the is rate
Due
to a vertical
in the section
vertical passing
V =
10 kN,
determine
"-200200--
a ,
.-.,t
400
kN.m/m, member?
what For
maximum steel,
Est
develops for
alloy,
tern only along 7-2(d).
Plan view
E^
= 70 GPa.
(Hint:
The
stress
distribution
in Fig. 6-7(c) per as shown in section,
20'
Fig. P7-32
200
can be established, as shown the change in bending moment the beam need be considered, Alternatively, a transformed
6-8, can be used.) '
10
--T
Fig. P7-30
in Section
plate, shear
as shown stresses
in mm at section
in the a-a.
Fig.
P7-25
7-26. A W 14 x 90 tributed load of 4 ldft, shown in the figure. shear stresses acting magnitude and sense
infinitesimal elements.
a uniformly including its own weight, Determine the bending and on elements A and B. Show of the computed quantities
4 k/ft
beam
supports
T
'-3'1. The cross-sectional
on
dimensions
of a beam in mm
of a in the
figure.
[mm
10
Calculate
The
member
the
Fig.
P7-28
of
Use
centerline
a-a,
material
of
is 3 mm
inertia
the
thick
I for
throughout.
horizontal
as shown
in Prob.
7shear
'7-29.
materials elastic
The
has
cross
the
section
dimensions for the
a beam
shown
of
members
two
=
(b) Determine
10kN.
the
magnitudes
of the
shear
stresses
b-b,
and
c-c
due
to the
vertical
modulus
vertical
web
7"i
30
imum
shear
x 103 ksi
shear
stress
and by this
stress
between
that
for member
the
the
web?
webs
five
(b)
and
pieces
for
transmit ed
Fig.
7-27. Isolate the 50 x 150
material
is 4 k, (a) what
What
the ran
If the
vertical
is
P7-26
x 200 mm shaded element
is the
Fig.
P7-33
(See mm
On a
the
hint
in preceding
problem.)
100
from
cross
the
section
rectangular
and loaded
beam
having
as shown
a 200
in the
x
figure.
300
by
and plate,
slot ing 4-in standard then securely welding as shown in the figure.
free-body
diagram,
1800 mm
indicate
the
location,
magnitude,
2 TM
300
mm
Fig.
NA
P7-3t
A metal
box
beam
has
a-a
the
and
cross
section
in mm
in the
occur
figure.
at sections
If V/I
is 0.006
Use
N/mm
b-b?
4, what
The centtold
shear
dimen-
200
the
cross
section advantage
is given.
centerline
for
Fig. P7-29
Fig.
P7-27
Take
calculating
area
of symmetry.)
properties
(see
Prob.
7-15).
Fig. P7-34
400
I of the
1018 in 4. If at a certain
'Shear
composite section
plate
section,
Stresses
the
beam
in Beams
transmits
and
is
a
mine
Related
the
Problems
through
stresses
the
at sections
Problems
(a)
b-b,
r.4t. Show that for the Z cross section shown in
around
this
neutral
axis
V = 7 k applied
shear
shear
is 35.7
(b) centerline
center.
a-a,
a unit
AM,
span
calculate
distance
the
be
stresses
Vy
x
along
1 =
the
10 lb-in.
centerline
Using
this
of the
vertical pipe
neutral
shear
of 40 k, determine
and
axis.
in the
web
c. I around the neutral axis of the material is in throughout. stress distribution along the
in n. The Sketch
(a) of the
the
figure,
the
shear
center
section's
lies
centroid.
on
the
verDem-
istratin
of
that
the
force
resultant
due
to the
internal
7-37
Sections 7-7 and 7.8
through
for shown
the
7-40.
the
Determine
beams in the having figures.
the
the
location
members
beam having a cross section with the dimenmm shown in the figure is in a region where a constant, positive vertical shear of 100 kN. the shear flow q acting at each of the four indicated in the figure. (b) Assuming a posi-
be considered
based on
flow is zero in each flange constitutes Apply vertical shear force Vy shown Since the position of the shear center
thin-walled,
and
calculations
All
should
are Fig.
of the
7-2(d),
magnitude
Likewise,
of sheat
Vy,
it can
centerline
dimensions.
rather Therefore,
it is the rate of change than its magnitude that let the change in moment
Z section using the generalized 6-64. Such calculations should distribution shown in part (b) grating these stresses along the in Fig. 7-20(b), the shear flow in is found, part (c) of the figure. based on these shears vanish
flexure formula, Eq. verify the normal stress of the figure. By intesection centerline, as the plane of the section The force resultants in both flanges.) Note
It = 2.133
in 4, Iy = 0.533
2o-q
a
-- <--2 50 mm 1.07 1.07 0.357
tive
bending
moment
moment
at the
sketches
of 27 kN.m
adjoining
of each
section
at one
10 mm
of the
section
away,
beam
and
isometric
segment
isolated by the sections 10 mm apart tions shown in the figure, and on the . all forces acting on the segments. shear stresses in the flanges.
--
3.21
r-
Fig.
P7-37
b120-n
cross section transmits with a vertical the shear di-
'<----40
21.40
psi
(b)
2psi
P7-41
centerline is useful
0.357
Shear
flow
(c)
(lb/in)
Fig.
Show
that
for
the
Z cross
section
on
in the
horizontal
pro-
in
the
solution.
Note
that
the
re-
the
line
80 rnm
shear
center
lies
the
sultant
7-43 and
shear
7-44.
for the
force
beams
in the
Determine
with
web
the
is zero.)
location
cross
between
2
that
through an applied
the
the
two
section's horizontal
flange
constitutes
the
of
the
sections
shear
a solution
Vz,
and
stresses
di-
center
idealized
)roblem.
(Hint:
through
roblem,
Apply
the
calculate
a horizontal
section's centroid,
normal
force
cross
the
say
as
Fig.
P7-35
I
Fig. P7-38
to
10 lb,
7-36. mensions
A beam shown
having in the
the figure
10 turn
Fig. P7-39
shear
stresses
in the
shear
plane
stresses
of the
along
section.
section
shown in the figures. Neglect the areas of connecting the longitudinal stringers, each which has an effective area A concentrated for resisting longitudinal forces. There are areas in Fig. P7-43 and eight in Fig. P7-44. of idealization is often used in aircraft design.)
the
60
60
40
Fig.
P7-36
Fig.
P7-40
Fig.
P7-43
(are)
Fig.
P7-44
402
Section 7-9
Shear
Stresses
in Beams
and
Related
Problems
actions
isolated
at points
infinitesimal
A and
elements.
B, elements
for the 7-45.
and
show
Elements
the
A
7-45 through 7-47. Cantilevers of the kind shown the figure for Prob. 7-45 are subjected to horizontal forces P, causing bending, direct shear, and torsion.
Determine the stresses at the surfaces due to these
in
viewed
centerline torsional
from
forces
the
dimensions stresses
top,
not
P=10N
and
in Prob.
B from
box The in
the
for
left.
details
ing
P are
shown.
20
Fig.
P7-45
Sections
steel
7-t0
wire
and
has
FiP7-46 g.
74t
spring force what is made
diameter
P =20
Introduction
kmmq
20
7-48.
A helical the
and
valve
an outside
of -in-diameter
of 2 in.
Neglect
direct
the first two parts of this chapter, a formal treatment for changing components of the state of stress or strain given in one set of coordinate to any other set of rotated axes is discussed. This transformation
the of
a
and
G =
op-
and
of
the
shear
(Hint:
See
eration,
varies
from
20 lb minimum
compressive
to 70 lb maximum.
applied
to this lift
in the
spring
spring
amples
4-13
and
4-14.)
are
and
eight
what
active
is the
coils,
maximum
is the
shear
valve
stress
(or travel),
when
7-49.
coils
in operation?
If a helical
of 6-mm steel
G = 11.6
tension
wire and
x 10 6 psi.
consisting
outside
spring
of another steel wire
of 12 live
diameter
of 30 mm
is attached of 18 live
spring outside
between any two dif erent sets of coordinate axes is process and does not necessarily require the use of formulas earlier. The connection between the established stress-analysis formulas and stress transformation is considered in the next chapter. of stress is discussed in Part A of this chapter; strain in Part B. In both instances, the discussion is largely conto problems in two dimensions. The possibility of .transforming involving both normal and shear stresses to any other of rotated coordinate axes permits an examination of the effect of such stresses on a material. In this manner, criteria for the onset of yield occurrence of fracture can be hypothesized. This important topic
in Part C.
a
or is
of 480
what is the spring constant for this twosystem? What is the largest force that may be to these springs without exceeding a shear
MPa?
rod
G = 82 GN/m
has
2.
7-50.
1-in-diameter
heavy
helical
and
steel
an
outside
spring
diameter
is made
from
of 9 in.
a
Plastic
The
Basic
Problem
thick
manufactured, If a force
outer
annulus
plastic,
several
either
of the
spring, estimate the reduction of the pitch on removal of the load. Assume linearly
chapters, shear
acting
stresses caused by separate actions stresses were considered. The superon the same element, when axial forces was discussed in Chapter 6. Similarly,
403
4O4
Transformation
of
Stress
Oy
o x D
c
ox
ox
A
z
o x
(a)
(c)
Fig.
8-2
Representations
of stresses
acting
on an element.
given
Fig. 84 State of stress at a point on dif erent planes.
the superposition
considered demonstrated
alent state
of shear stresses
(Fig.
caused
shear 3-11).
by torque
and direct
into analysis,
3-7,
shear
an
a
are
it
state of stress. The methods used in these derivations do not properties of a material. Therefore, provided the initial stresses given, the derived relations are applicable whether the material beelastically or plastically or even if it is not a solid. However, the
on which the normal or the shear stresses reach their maximum
rrx fol ows by superposition. stress rr with the shear stress this requires a consideration
inclined plane, such as shown in Fig. 8-1(b). Since be chosen arbitrarily, the state of stress at a point infinite number of ways, which are all equivalent. Stress has a magnitude and a sense, and is also
over which it acts. Such mathematical These entities the
in Fig. 8-1(a). In the il u. stress rrx due to axial pull a direct shear stress
have general
a particularly state of stress the laws of stress stress problem applications, this is
significant effect on materials. shown in Fig. 8-2(a) wil not be considered transformation at a point. Instead, the twoindicated in Fig. 8-2(b) wil be studied. In a particularly important case as it is usually
at an outer as ABCD boundary in the figure, of a member. is generally
on
of significant surface stresses, acting parallel to it are usually as shown in Fig. 8-2(c),
surand
of
xamples. are
associated
and
with
superpos
are
higher
Therefore
same
order
area
the
than
are
vectors.
vectors.
However,
can be
stress
the
components
as
components
stress
of the
be
or
stress
LE
8-t
state
of stress
for
an element
by vector
addition.
stresses
As noted
earlier,
referred
this
the
direct
to
was
used
in Chapter
6
of the
is
the
at the
an infinitesimal
provided
the
as
orientation
the
they
discussion
displays
surface
non-vectorial
use
in or on a body.
of stress
character
Only
t must
wedge with an angle of ot = 22 , as in Fig. act on plane AB of the wedge to keep the element
the
a whole.
In
fol ows,
vectors
by multiplying
are
force
components
This
vectors,
components
on an inclined
by
and
stresses
then
adding
by their
the
plane
them
respective
inclined
the process
area
vectorial y.
areas
to obtain
is reversed
On
to obtain
the
obtaining
forces,
the
t l MPa 5 /
c=22 . _
o=
r
A 2 MPa
3MPa
stresses
by dividing
F 1
on
s)
planes.
for
the
a stress
Scalars
procedure developed
transformation
strains
wil approach
stresses
by a numerical to obtain
on any
are tensors
inclined
1-4.
example. algebraic
first rank
- /[ 2MPa
/
II MPa
stresses
and
are
tensors
are
second-rank
tensors.
See
Section
of the
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig.
8-:3
405
406
Transformation
of
Stress
Sec.
8-3.
Transformation
of
Stresses
in
Two-Dimensional
Problems
407
Solution
3.
the stresses Their area stresses on acting on sense is a of the face.
Transformation
Problems
of
Stresses
in Two-Dimensional
as in the last example, on an inclined plane are called stress-transformation on the initial y given equations can be for derived the in
Wedge ABC is part of the element in Fig. 8-3(a); therefore, AC and BC are known. The unknown normal and shear AB are designated in the figure by crc and *c, respectively. arbitrarily. To determine crc and 'rc, for convenience only, let the
fol bwing
by line AB to 1 x cos
rigorously,
be unity such as m 2. Then the area corresponding to line AC is ot = 0.924 m 2 and that to BC is equal to 1 x sin ot = 0.383 m 2.
the area corresponding to line AB should be taken as dA,
element
'plane
same procedure stresses acting form. Such expressions These equations are based and
the shear
equa-
of known
to it.
orieniation
and
the plane
using
being
investigated
the
stresses
inclination
acting
defined
on
of
a normal
The
dependence
of the
stresses
on
quantity
cancels
out
in the
subsequent
algebraic
expressions.)
Forces
by their
F,
and F4, Fig. 8-3(c), can be obtained by areas. The unknown equilibrant forces tangential to plane AB. Then applying forces acting on the wedge gives forces
multiplying the stresses N and S act, respectively, the equations of static N and S.
eq
F F3
= =
3 x 2 x
0.924 0.383
= =
Fv
= 0
=
=
+
=
F2 F4 F2
= 2 x = 1 x sin ot-
0.924 0.383 F3
= =
cos
1.85 MN 0.383 ot + F4
equations are developed Fig. 8-4(a) in a state of two-dimensional axes. If normal stresses trx and try positive, and are negative if compresslye. ed as acting upward in the positive ositive)face DE of the element. This introduced in Chapter 1 (see Fig.
mechanics conventional 7. Here the to the x'y' measured the (elasticity,
stress
is clearly
apparent.
an element of stress initial y are tensile stresses, Positive shear direction of the y-axis sign convention for 1-3) and is generally
unit thickness referred to the they are taken stress is deon the right shear stresses used in con5
2.78(0.924)
0.383(0.383)
1.29 MN
1.85(0.383)
0.766(0.924)
Fs
= 0
= F =
=
sin
o + F2 +
2.78(0.383) - 0.383(0.924)
2.12 MN
axes. from
plasticity, rheology). However it dif ers beam shear sign convention used in Chapters transformation is sought from the xy coordinate The angle 0, which locates the x' axis, is positive the x axis toward the y axis in a counterclockwise
an
to be 1 m 2. Their
correctly. acting
act
Forces
N and By plane
direction
positive
dividing AB
S act
on
signs
the
plane forces
indicate
defined by
that
their
by
A_B,
assumed
which
directions
they
and
was
initial y
were
on in the
in Fig.
Thus, 8-3(b).
Stresses
equations
trx,,
normal to the section forms an angle 0 with the x-axis. If wedge isolated by this section is dA, the areas associated AC and AB are dA cos 0 and dA sin 0, respectively. By the stresses by their respective areas, a diagram with the on the wedge is constructed, Fig. 8-4(c). Then, by applying of static equilibrium to the forces acting on the wedge,
and
*x,y,
are Obtained:
Oy
c dA
foregoing procedure accomplished something remarkable. the description of the state of stress from one set Either system of stresses pertaining to an infinitesimal the state of stress at the same point of a body. procedure of isolating a wedge and using the equations of forces to determine stresses on inclined planes is
It
of
x A
+0
o x dA cos 0
dA
of the
ec
Ordinary
reader garding chapter.
sign
is urged the more
conventions
to return advanced
of statics
to this approach procedures
Suffice
developed
to solve
whenever in the
any
problem.
arise
(a)
questions remainder
ry dA sin 0
(c)
rxydAsin0
Fig.
8-4
Derivation
of stress
transformation
on an inclined
plane.
408
Transformation
of Stress
cry, dA = cr dA + y cos 0 cos 0 + try dA dA cos 0 sin 0 + y
cos
Stresses
From
+ %)
in Two. Dimensional
Eq. 3-14c, this
Problems
stress
(8-5)
409
is
given
0, a normal as
stress
Crx can
also
develop.
sin
20
0 cos
0
: forces
=cr
1 +
20
+try
1 -
cos
+Xy
"
Crz = v(Cr
virtue
2
= O,
resulting from this stress do not enter used in deriving .stress-transformation of Eq. 8-4, the Cr + Cry term in Eq. of 0. Therefore, the derived equations
applicable
for
problems
of plane
stress
the relevant equilibrium expressions. Moreover, 8-5 remains constant for stress transformation as well as plane strain.
re-
Principal
often centers
Stresses
on the
in Two-Dimensional
determination of the largest
Problems
possible stress,
I
Equations
for transformation
*x'y'
=
8-2 are
of stress
cr - trysin20+ycos201
2
the
from
given found
zero,
by Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2, and first. To find the plane Eq. 8-1 is dif erential with
i.e.,
the planes on which such stresses occur for a maximum or a minimum normal respect to 0 and the derivative set equal
8-1 and
general
one
respectively, system
on any of stresses.
Note
particularly that crx, Cry, and ,y are initial y known stresses. Replacing 0 in Eq. 8-1 by 0 + 90 gives the normal stress in the of the y' axis. This stress can be designated as Cry,; see Fig. 1-3(b). on noting that cos (20 + 180 ) = - cos 20, and sin (20 + 180 ) = has
expressions
of
for
the
normal
dCr---2' = dO
are
the
set
coordinate
axes
one
defines
2
8-3,
--
cos
20 - ,y sin 20
the subscript of the angle the plane of the maximum has two roots, since the value opposite quadrant is the are 180 apart, and, as
0 is used to designate the angle that or mini_mum normal stress. Equation of the tangent of an angle in the diasame, as may be seen from Fig. 8-5. Eq. 8-6 is for a double angle, the roots
meaning
that
the
sum
of
the
normal
stresses
on
any
two
OA = OB =
pendicular
angle 0. Mathematically nection with
planes
remains
analogous moments cases that
the
same,
2 i.e.,
were
invariant,
found of inertia.
regardless
in Section The where 6-16
problems,
e = y
Fig. 8-5 Angle functions for principal stresses.
2 A similar
cry + crz-
relation
for
three-dimensional
problems
Transformation
of Stress
shear
Shear
Stresses
in Two-Dimensional
Eq.
Problems
the two
of 0 are 90 apart. One of these roots locates a plane on which the rna imum normal stress acts; the other locates the corresponding plane the minimum normal stress. To distinguish between these two roots prime and double prime notation is used. Before evaluating these stresses, careful y observe that if the of planes on which no shear stresses act is wanted, Eq. 8-2 must be equal to zero. This yields the same relation as that in Eq. 8-6. an important conclusion is reached: on planes on which maximum,
minimum normal stresses occur, there are no shear stresses. These
the
.which
again
may
acting called
on the
minimum ses.
The two planes defined by this equation are muMoreover, the value of tan 202 given by Eq. 8-8 is of the value of tan 20 in Eq. 8-6. Hence, the roots of Eq. 8-8 are 90 away from the corresponding roots
that the angles form angles into Eq. 8-2 that locate the planes of maximum of 45 with the planes of the principal of the sine and cosine functions cor-
be distinguished
by attaching
to 02 a prime
or a
onding
The magnitudes
of the principal
8-1.
stresses
can be obtained
are
by
to the
by cry)
of the
stresses.
angle in Fig.
These,
and
the values of the sine and cosine angle given by Eq. 8-6 into Eq. the expression for the maximum minimum normal stress (denoted
functions corresponding Then the results normal stress (denoted by cr2) becomes
,rma x = -+m,
q- ,r2xy
(8-9)
(crx')max
mi_ =
crl or2
--
the the
positive negative
sign sign
in front to obtain
+ *
Thus,
only
stresses
the
maximum
shear
mutually
also
since
perpendicular
stress
dif ers
from
planes
the
minimum
shear
stress
to
stre.,
be
determined by using Eq. 8-6. A particular into Eq. 8-1 wil check the result found from time wil locate the plane on which this principal Shear Stresses in Two-Dimensional
root Eq.
vation, convention
shear
the
The
stress. definite
in sign of the two shear stresses arises from the the planes on which these stresses act. From the these signs have no meaning, and for this reason, regardless of sign wil often be called the maximum
shear stress can always be determined by
in Section
are
the
same.
1-4. In this
This
concept
deri-
of the
Maximum
Problems
shear and
stress vice
discussed
substitution
versa.
of the
If crx, Cry, and ,y are known for an element, the shear stress defined by an angle 0 is given by Eq. 8-2, and a study similar made before for the normal stresses may be made for the Thus, similarly, to locate the planes on which the maximum imum shear stresses act, Eq. 8-2 must be dif erentiated with and the derivative set equal to zero. When this is carried results are simplified,
be
that it acts in the direction assumed in Fig. 8-4(b), determination of the maximum shear stress is of materials that are weak in shear strength. This wil in the Part C of this chapter.
particular
root
of 02 into
Eq.
8-2.
A positive
Unlike the principal stresses principal planes, the maximum ally not free of normal stresses.
8-1 shows that the normal
stresses are
stresses
for which no shear stresses occur on the shear stresses act on planes that are usuSubstitution of 02 from Eq. 8-8 into Eq.
that act on the planes of the maximum
(8-1o)
4t2
Transformation
of
Stress
1 MPa
/
22030
2 MPa
'
Therefore, stress
simultaneously
with
the
maximum
8-9
are
the
principal
stress,
,y is zero
and
E(
, 1Pa
2.MPa Y'
X t
(a)
'rmax
F
--
(a)
(b)
x t
x
(c)
= I r, I
02=
(b)
it is useful to recall a relationship between pure shear andi stresses discussed earlier in connection with Fig. 3-11. of this analysis are displayed in Fig. 8-6. Equation in the absence of normal stresses, the principal stresses are equal to the shear stress. The sense of the normal stresses Eq. 8-6. The shear stresses act toward the diagonal DF in thl of the principal tensile stresses; see Fig. 8-6(a).
2 MPa
VlPa
3143
'
0.24MPa
(e)
2.24
MPa
2 MPa
214;'
2.24
MPa
(g)
4.24
MPa
2 MPa
(i)
EXAMPLE
8-2
Iraqi
For the state of-stress in Example 8-1, reproduced in Fig. 8-7(a), (a) previous problem for 0 = - 2OlO., using the general equations for the mation of stress; (b) fmd the principal stresses and show their sense on a oriented element; and (c) find the maximum shear stresses with the normal stresses and show the results on a properly oriented element.
(c)
2.24
MPa
(f)
(h)
Fig.
8-7
Equivalent
stress.
for
pure
Solution
applying and x,
=
3+1
2
and one
0 =
- 222, with
'crx
+ 3
3 + 1 +
MPa
+ 22 = 2 + 2.24
(tension) cr2 = -0.24 MPa
'
'
(compression)
crY' =
2
+ 1
+
x
3-1
-
cs(-45)
2 x 0.707
+ 2 sin(-45
= +1.29MPa
0.707
'r
= 2
3-1
,r,y,
The positive dicates that
These results
=
= +1
--
2
x 0.707
sin(+
45 ) +
2 x 0.707
2 cos(=
45 )
+2.12MPa
sign of crx, indicates tension; whereas the the shear stress acts in the +y' direction, are shown in Fig. 8-7(b) as .well as in Fig. stresses stresses act are are obtained found by means by using Eq. of Eq. 8-6.
this
the two principal planes, and {r2 act. On which one of these Eq. 8-1 is solved by using, for
calculation is the stress that
3+1 3-1
acts
AB and CD, Figs. 8-7(d) and (e), on which planes the principal stresses act is unknown. example, 0[ = 31o43 '. The stress found by
on plane AB. Then, since 20[ = 6326 ',
(b) the
--
Transformation
This result, maximum the besides principal satisfy
of Stress
giving stress Eq. 8-4. a check acts on on plane the AB. previous The calculations, complete state shows of stress
Circle
of Stress
for Two-Dimensional
Problems
be dis-
given
results
point
in terms
of the principal
stresses
is shown
in Fig.
8-7(f).
Note
(c) The maximum shear stress is found by using Eq. 8-9. The planes on these stresses act are defined by Eq. 8-8. The sense of the shear Stresses termined by substituting one of the roots of Eq. 8-8 into Eq. 8-2. Normal
problems can often be obtained. This wil section. of Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2 shows that they represent form. That they do represent a circle is made them as
a circle clearer
associated
with
the
maximum
shear
stress
are
determined
by
using
Eq.
Tx'y'
(8-12)
(8-13)
Tma x - 'V/[(3
tan 202 202 = 153o26
-- 1)/2] 2 + 22 = X/
(3 2
= 2.24
' + 180 =
MPa
333o26 '
1)/2
' or
0.500 153026
by
squaring
both
Hence,
These
Eq. 8-2,
3-1 --
0 = 76043
planes are shown in Figs.
'
8-7(g)
and
and (h).
0[
Then,
166043
by using
'
20 =
( cry,
a given problem, and ,,y, are the
form as
2
cry, %, variables. and
+ 'r},y, =
( cr - try
= b2
+
(8-14)
,y are the three known constants, Hence, Eq. 8-14 may be writ en
and in more
(8-15)
sin15326
means From
that Eq.
the 8-7,
shear
along
plane
or'
3+1
2
2 cos
15326
' =
-2.24MPa
a = (cr. + cry)/2,
and
b 2 = [(fix
- cry)/2]
2 MPa
Point
equation is the familiar expression q_ y2 = b 2, for a circle of radius b with circle satisfying this equation is plot ed,
The
complete results are shown in Fig. 8-7(i). Note again that Eq. 8-4 The description of the state of stress can now be exhibited in three forms: as the originally given data, and in terms of the stresses found in and (c) of this problem. All these descriptions of the state of stress at the point are equivalent. In matrix representation, this yields
shear
of an inclined plane. The ordinate of a point on the circle stress ,,y,; the abscissa is the normal stress cry,. The circle is called a circle of stress or Mohr' s circle of stress. 3 using the previous interpretation, a Mohr's circle for the stresses in Fig. 8-8(a) is plot ed in Fig. 8-8(c) with cr and, as the coordinate
The center C is at (a,0), and the circle radius R = b. Hence,
(x,y)
on this
circle
correspond
to crx, and
,,y,
for
a particular
a = OC - cr +2 cry
b =R =
(8-16)
try
of
Stress
for
Two-Dimensional
basic Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2 for the stress reexamined in order to interpret them doing this, two objectives wil be pursued. First, by graphically preting these equations, a greater insight into the general pr transformation wil be achieved. This is the main purpose of this Second, with the aid of graphical construction, a quicker
4(
Mohr
crx-
+
correspond For this
who
(8-17)
be
coordinates for point A on the circle 8-8(a) on the right face of the element.
It is so named stress-analysis in honor problems. of Otto
face
in
its
of Germany,
4'6
Transformation
of
Stress
Sec.
8-7.
Mohr's
Circles
for
Stress
Transformation
Ifcr
of Mohr's
state on
circle
coincides
shear mutually
exists.
with
the
origin
perpendicular
, +'r m,
planes
A(o,. r.,)
i.e.,
= oh + cr2 = o'x, + cry, = constant
(a)
1-7.
Construction
Transformation transformation of
of
Mohr's
Circles
state
for
of
Stress
stress from one set of
two-dimensional
B(%,
-r,,)
0 x + Oy
2
(b)
Fig.
8-8
Mohr's
circle
of
stress.
i.e., the xy and the x'y' axes coincide, and crx, = cry,, and ; positive directions for these stresses coincide with the of the axes. Since AD/CD = ,y/[(cr - cry)/2], the angle ACD is equal to 20. The coordinates for the correspond to the stresses in Fig. 8-8(a) on the upper face This fol ows from Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2 with 0 = 90 or
to another can always be made by direct application of statics in Example 8-1, or, using the derived equations in Sections 8-3, 8-4, 1 8-5. The lat er equations can readily be programmed for a computer. the graphical display of stress transformations using a Mohr's offers a comprehensive view of a solution and is useful in some Two alternative techniques for achieving such solutions are in what fol ows. The physical planes on which the transformed :sses act are clearly displayed in the Errst method; in the second, the stress transformation is simpler, although determining the
of the transformed is a matter stress of preference. is a lit le less convenient. The choice
'method
basic
Eq.
8-3 with
0 = 0 .
According
the
equations
reasoning
apphes
to any
other
orientation
of an element
as shown in Fig. 8-8(b). A pair of conjugate be found on the circle to give the corresponding infinity of possible states of stress dependent by the stress circle. Therefore, the fol owing garding the state of stress at a point can
circle.
J and K can stresses, Fig. 8-8(c). on the angle 0 are important be made based on the
cr2. No
points
cr axis at a distance (cr + cry)/2 from the origin. Point A on the has the coordinates (cr,,y) corresponding to the stresses acting on right-hand face of the element in the positive direction of the cooraxes, Fig. 8-9(a). Point A wil be referred to as the origin of planes.
information is sufficient to draw a circle of stress, Fig. 8-9(b).
to Eq.
derived
any
on an arbitrary inclined
of constructing the circle of stress for given as shown in Fig. 8-9(a), and then determining
plane a-a.
8-16
in gection
plane
the center
8-3.
requires
A procedure justification
for on
of
C ofa
Mohr's
circle
of stress
is located
The
this
next
line
1. The largest possible normal stress is cr; the smallest is stresses exist together with either one of these principal 2. The largest shear stress m,, is numerically equal to the circle, also to (cr - cr2)/2. A' normal stress equal 2 acts on each of the planes of maximum shear stress. 3. If cr = cr2, Mohr's circle degenerates into a point, stresses at all develop in the xy plane.
at J with
the
must
circle
stresses
plane
This
According
construction
requires
some
justification.
reviewed
For
in detail.
this
purpose,
the indicated
geoACF JCF
of
to the previous derivation shown in Fig. 8-8(c), angle 8-9(b) is equal to 20. Further, since line CH is drawn perpendicular A J, angle ACJ is bisected, and a = 20 - 0. Hence, angle
it remains to be shown acting on inclined plane that a-a.
48
Transformation
of Stress
8-9(a). However, since
Sec.
Eq.
to.be introduced.
8.7.
Mohr's
Circles
for Stress
to that of
Transformation
in the basic shear stress
0.y
0.x
Origin of planes
8-2,
(a)
Radius
CA
o*x q- 0.y
this purpose, consider the in/tial data for the element shown in Fig. where all stresses are shown with positive sense. By isolating the :ar stresses acting on the vertical faces, Fig. 8-9(c), it can be seen that ese stresses alone cause a countercloclavise couple. By considering emanating from the origin of planes A, for the first case, Fig. 8-9(c), circle is intersected at E, whereas for the second case, Fig. 8-9(d), it intersected at G. This can be generalized into a rule: if the point of ;ction of a line emanating from the origin of planes A intersects the ircle above the cr axis, the shear stresses on the opposite sides of an cause a clockwise couple. Conversely, if the point of intersection below the cr axis, the shear stresses on the opposite sides cause a terclockwise couple. According to this rule, the shear stresses at J Fig. 8-9(b) act with a clockwise sense. This general procedure is il ustrated for two particularly important For the data given in Fig. 8-10(a), the principal stresses are found in Fig. 8-10(b), and the maximum shear stresses are found in Fig. 8-10(c).
0.y
Coordinates
OC =
For
(c)
(d)
of Mohr's
notes from
circle
Fig.
for determining
8-9(b)
at J based
stresses
that
if R is the
(crx
and
- cry)/2
shear
and
stresses
R sin 20
use
,y.
on
Then,
the
for
on an arbitrary
radius
plane.
O' x + O'y
2
of a circle,
of the
R cos
20
forming
expressions
for
the
construction
circle
in
Fi
9(b)
and
making
crj --
of trigonometric
identities
for
double
angles,
one
(a)
crx +2 cry + R cos (20 - 202) cr +2 cry + R (cos 20 cos 202 + sin 20 sin 200
0' 2
*s
= R sin(20
20)
= R sin
20 cos
20
R cos
20
sin
20
(8
B
ax +o r
2 'Fmi n
'rxy
[ 'rmin
{ = '/'max
Tmax
(b)
(c)
Fig.
840
Determining
principal
normal
and
maximal
shear
stresses.
42O
Transformation
of
Stress
Sec.
8-7.
Mohr's
Circles
for
Stress
Transformation
42'!
For
the first case, it is known that the extreme values on the abs, cq and or2, give the principal stresses. Connecting these points origin of planes A locates the planes on which these stresses act. 0 can be determined by trigonometry. Either one of the two solu sufficient to obtain the complete solution shown on the element right. The magnitudes of the maximum absolute shear stresses are be given by the radius of the Mohr's circle. As shown in Fig. these stresses are located above and below C. Connecting these with the origin of planes A determines the planes on which these act. The corresponding elements are shown in the upper two the elements, where the associated mean normal stresses are also cated. Either one of these solutions with the aid of equilibrium is sufficient for the complete solution shown on the bottom the figure.
2
Oy,
+o
o x
(c)
X t
Train
Method
The state of stress in the xy coordinate system is shown in Fig. The origin for these coordinates is arbitrarily chosen at the center infinitesimal element. The objective is to transform the given stress those in the rotated set ofx'y' axes as shown in Figs. 8-11(a) and using Mohr's circle. As before, the center C of the Mohr's circle is located at (crx +
Again a point if , if ,
the
right on the
hand circle.
element
Fig.
84t
Alternative
of
Stresses
construction of stress.
Tmax
Mohr's
on
circle
at cry,
at
and
arbitrary normal
shown
are
(d)
respectively.
This in effect amounts to directing the positive axis downward, shown in Fig. 8-1 l(c). The coordinates of cr and ** locate the point Ac on the circle. This point corresponds to point A in the construction; see Fig. 8-8. However, because of the opposite of the positive axes, whereas points A and Ac are related, they the same. Point B, conjugate to point A, can be located on the as shown in Fig. 8-11(c). The double angle 20, fol ows from Next the diameter AB is rotated through an angle 20 in the same sero that the x' axis is rotated through the angle 0 with respect to the x Then the new point A determines the stresses cry, and ,x,y, on hand face of the element in Fig. 8-11(b). Note that for the case the shear stress ,r,y, is negative, since at r, it is above the cr axis. considerations apply to the conjugate.point B defining the stresses the plane normal to the y' axis. The expressions for cry, and ,,y, can be formulated from the tion of the Mohr's circle shown in Fig. 8-11(c) using Eqs. 8-16 After simplfications, these relations, except for the sign of to the basic stress transformation relations, Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2.
of the Mohr'
8-19.
circle
is justified.
For
proof
modify
Eqs.
8-18
for determining the principal After drawing a Mohr's circle The required rotation 0 of is obtained by calculating the the principal shear stresses on a circle at their extreme 02 of these axes is obtained the diagram. 1 is used in the two examples
8-3
normal stress is shown in Fig. the principal stresses cq and or2 are the axes in the direction of these double angle 20 from the diagram. are given by the coordinates of the values on the, axis. The required by calculating the double angle 202
that fol ow.
the
state
and (b)
of stress
into the
shown
maximum
in Fig.
for both
8-12(a),
shear stresses
transform
and
it (a)
the
into
associated
the
elements.
principal
normal
Show
1.
the
results
cases
on
properly
oriented
Use
Transformation
4 MPa
of
Stress
4 ksi
Sec.
8-7.
Mohr's
Circles
for
Stress
Transformation
Max -o
423
01
MPai
/
/
F(1,
5)
-- 2 ksi
si X,
ksi
x,
4 ksi
(a)
1 MPa
1%
I > Iax
(c)
I
(d)
(b)
E
'rm x = 5 MPa
C
LE 8-4
Fig.
843
Qualitative
estimates
of directions
for
principal
stresses.
MPa
45
4 MPa
Mohr's
(-2, -4)
circle,
the plane
transform
at an angle
the
stresses
the
shown
vertical
in Fig.
axis.
8-14(a)
Use
into
Method
stresses
1.
on
(1, -5)
of 22 with
,lufion
this case,
6 MPa
Fig.
8-t2
Solution
(b)
of planes
the
center
A is at (3,3),
of the
circle
is at (1
+ 3)/2
in Fig.
R =
8-14(b)
+ 2 MPa
on which
+ 32 = 3.16 MPa.
an inclined
on
the
cr axis.
line
By
.'22.5
To
construct
1. Center
Mohr's
of circle
circle
on the
of stress,
cr axis: (-2
the
fol owing
+ 4)/2 =
quantities
+ 1 MPa.
are
required.
3.16
3 is 71.57 , since tan 13 = AD/CD = 3. A normal to AJ forms an angle with the cr axis. Therefore, ot = 71.57 - 22.5 = 49.07 , and angle is ot22.5 = 26.57., This locates J on the circle. Hence, crj = 2 R cos(-26.57 ) = 2 + 3.16(0.894) = 4.83 MPa, and xj = R sin(-26.57 )
(-0.447) = -1.41 MPa.
1 MPa
(-2, MPa,
cr = 6
-4)
drawing
Line AB
one
circle
obtains
locates
MPa,
or2 = -4
plane for
angle
or2 = -4 MPa, acts at right angle to the above plane. These results are on a properly oriented element. Line AG on the circle at 45 with the principal planes determines the for maximum shear, Xm = 5 MPa, and the associated mean normal stress 1 MPa. The lat er stress corresponds to cr at the circle center. Complete
are
and
0 is 2634
', since
tan 01 = AD/DB
= 4/8 = 0.5.
The
other
principal
I
(a)
3 MPa
; 3
MPa
shown
on
be used
a properly
oriented
element.
as a check.
It is worthy
can
to note
8-13.
in calculations
that
th e directions
with,
of the principal
that
result
A suitable
stresses
tensile
inspection
can be
of ec
must
1.41
MPa
shown
shown
ilarly,
in Fig.
in Fig.
To begin
along which
it is known
a diagonal is the
stresses
4.83
MPa
8-13(b).
Situations
with
compressive
stresses
can
be
(b) (c)
t\J(4.-1. 83,41)
Fig. 8-t4
Fig.
8-13(d).
4[24[
Transformation
of Stress
element in Fig. counterclockwise. for stress
circle can
Sec,
8-14(c).
8-8. Principal
direction cosines
Stresses
of these
for a General
l, m, and n, where
State
cos
of Stress
a =
425
These results are shown on a properly oriented ?j is negative, the shear stresses are shown acting Again it should be remarked that the equations
of inertia
is identified
by
its
identical
6-12).
Therefore,
for determining
Mohr's
the principal
axes and
be con
Fig.
= m, and
and
8-14(b).
d2 + m 2 =
From
cos
/=
the same
1,
n. The
figure,
meaning
it can
be noted
quantities
that
since
is il ustrated
l 2 q- n 2
finding
these
equations.
**$8-8.
Principal
Stresses
for a General
State
of
three
7
I2 + m2+ n2= 1)
if the inf'mitesimal area ABC is defined as dAc =- dA,
(8-20)
Traditionally, in an introductory text on solid mechanics, largely confined to stresses in two dimensions. Since, however, the ical elements studied are always three-dimensional, for corn is desirable to consider the consequences of three-dimensionality transformations. The concepts developed in this section have an on the discussion that fol ows in this chapter, as well as on some considered in the next chapter. Consider a general state of stress and define an infinitesimal hedron 6 as shown in Fig. 8-15(a). Instead of considering an inclined
then
areas subscripts,
of the
coordinate = dA
axes, m, and
identified dAAoB
= by es-
are sought on an arbitrary oblique plane ABC in the three xyz coordinate system. A set of known stresses on the other three of the mutually perpendicular planes of the tetrahedron is given. stresses are the same as shown earlier in Fig. 1-3(a). A unit normal n to the oblique plane defines its orientation. This
4 See
1986).
in the xy coordinate
system,
as before
for a wedge,
the unknown
luilibrium equations for the tetrahedron the stresses given in Fig. 8-15(a) by For simplicity, it wil be assumed that a principal stress, is acting on face ABC. normal force (rndA) are obtained axes using the direction cosines, Fig.
can now be writ en the respective areas only a normal stress The components;. of by resolving it along 8-15(b). On this basis,
the the
( r adA ) l - rx dA l - , y dA m - z dA n = 0 (r, dA)m - ry dam - ,zdAn - ,dAl = 0 (rndA)n - rdAn - ,dAl - ,ydAm = 0
terms,
(8-21)
J. L.
section
Meriam,
is more
L.
advanced
G.
Kraige,
and can
ed.
(New
York:
5 This
be
a A tetrahedron
introduced
in the
study
of stress
the
gre.at
French
mathematician
A. L.
rl
Cauchy
in the
1820s.
= 0 = 0 = 0
(8-22)
: system only
virtue
of Eq.
8-20,
all three
direction
of the
equations coefficients
cosines
has
cannot
a nontrivial of l, m, and
be zero.
solution n vanishes.
However,
if
rxy
'rxy
l
ry
-'ryz
r n
Crz
'ryz
-Crn
(8-23)
'rxz
!These
the
consider
the
areas
two
'ry z
lb}
corrresponding
other
of dA on the respective
height
wedge Let the
the
shown
CB
in Fig.
coordinate
8-A with
hand,
wedge
area
for
be AB.
side
area
Then
associated the
is Ac,
wedge
and
the
volume
and side
wedge
planes.
To
is AAcAB/
height
is
A
B
0
x
Fig.
8d5
Tetrahedron
for
deriving an oblique
a principal plane.
stress
on
{a)
0 = ABI, the volume is AcABI/2. AAC = Acl. By carrying out this given above can be justified.
volumes dimensions,
and
simplithe re-
Fig.
8-A
Transformation
of
Stress
For
1-3
plane
'Fma x
Expansion
of this
determinant
gives
0 3
Here
f the
initial
coordinate
system
is changed,
thereby
three mutually perpendicular planes of the tetrahedron, the crn inclined plane must remain the same. Therefore the constants I I in Eq. 8-24 must also remain the same, and hence they are Moreover, since the matrix of Eq. 8-23 is symmetric, and all of
Assume
(c)
o* 3
ments
8-24
minental The
has
are
three
three
Eq.
real,
real
8-23 roots
according
root.
are
8 These
the the
to the
Descartes
roots
are
stresses stresses
the
rule
eigenvalues
of signs.,
in general
from
o 2
17 2
of the
and giving
principal principal
24 using
synthetic
division
or Newton's
method
of tangents.
9 It
o 3
O 1
tomary to order the principal stress such that these roots cart_ be substituted into any two with Eq. 8-20 form a set of three simultaneous these equations gives the direction cosines stress. The three principal directions for the thogonal. The planes normal to the principal planes of stress. If two or three of the principal are an infinite number of principal directions. upon in the next section.
principal
axes
Fig.
stress.
846
Triaxial
state
of
are
as a cylindrical
triad
are
are equal,
axes
or axisymmetric
the
this
the
principal
directions.
for
state
-9.'
In the there cr2 lems stresses stresses special If stress
McGraw-Hil ,
1965).
Mohr's
Circle
for a General
State
of Stress
ordered
an appropriate
;ponding
principal
case,
preceding section, it was shown that for a general state of are three orthogonal principal stresses, cry, cr2, and cr3, cr3. These stresses act along the principal axes. Plane stress fal within the scope of the general theory when one of the is zero. So do the plane strain problems when one of the is given by Eq. 8-5. However, degenerate cases arise rec treatment. only two of the principal stresses are equal, the remaining has a unique direction. Any other two orthogonal directions
1956), 47.
stress
stresses
cobsider
case
of stress
gives
state
transformation,
stresses shown draw
are
the il ustration
are in Fig. a Mohr's
the
is said
of stress.
This
principal
to be spherical.
o If all three
case
may
be referred Any
principal
triad
given
axes.
of
in Fig.
principal
as shown
axes
1, 2, and
further
8-16,
where
on an element
3 and
that,
8-16(a).
these diagrams,
By viewing
can
this
element
along
8-16(b), circle
the three
are
principal
axes,
Fig.
8-16(c)
are
8 I. S. Sokolnikoff,
M. G.
Mathematical
Course
and M.
Theory
in Numerical
L. Baron,
of Elasticity,
Analysis
Numerical
2nd
(New
Method
ed.
in
(New
En
the minimum ones, it is of interest Fig. 8-16(c), the stresses on all arbitrary is designated by K in Fig. 8-16(a). The stresses in three dimensions, show
O. Hoffman
(New
13.
and
concerned, by definition
with
a cluster
the
outer (Section
of three
circle 8-4),
circles.
mag-
as to where on a plot, such oblique planes lie. Such a results of this study, conthat the coordinate points
of Plasticity for En-
9 A. Ralston,
Salvadori,
A First
NJ:
York:
(Englewood
Clif s,
Prentice-Hall,
1952).
York:
and G. Sachs,
McGraw-Hil ,
Introduction
1953).
to the Theory
427
-L PMPa
428
Transformation of Stress
between them, shown hatched in Fig. 8-16(c). A series of circles is within this area having their centers on the cr axis by holding any the direction cosines constant. Therefore, it is conven/ent to refer three circles drawn as the principal stress circles. The largest of
the major Inasmuch principal as all stress stresses circle. in their
planes
lie either
circles
or in an
,F
(a) (-4
6 MPa 4 mPa
role in causing either yield or breakdown of a material, it is often' tive to plot all three principal circles of stress, as shown in Fig. 8-16 Two examples of this kind fol ow. In making such plots, the de cases, when two or all principal stresses are equal, must be kept
For such cases,
8-5
various
transformations
may
26034
'
(6, O)
(g)
6 MPa --c
a Mohr's
circle
becomes
a point.
(b)
EXAMPLE
principal
Assume
Solution
For
the data
that
circles
of Example
this
of stress
is a plane
by viewing
stress
8-3,
repeated
problem.
an element
in Fig.
8-17(a),
from
three
constrUct
principal
three
MPa
6 MPa
4 MPa
4MPa
The principal
termined in Example 8-3. The results are repeated in Fig. 8-17(b). Since thiSi plane stress problem, the stress in the direction normal to the paper is complete state of stress showing all principal stresses is in Fig. 8-17(c).
two-dimensional
stresses
in two
Figs.
8-17(d)-(f).
diagrams
The cluster
of:the
of three
element
4 MPa
MPa
(d)
(e)
(f)
Mohr's
viewed
principal
from
dif erent
circles
is shown
directions
6 MPa
Fig.
8-t7
in
MPa
8-17(g).
If the given stresses were for aplane strain problem, the middle principal instead of being zero, per Eq. 8-5, would be or2 = v(6 - 4) = + 2v, where
ratio.
(a)
hear
Poisson's
EXAMPLE
8-6
and determine
stress
shown
the state
in Fig. 8-18(a),
of stress
draw
for maximum
the three
shear.
Mohr's
principal
planes
MPa
Two
problem.
imum
of the principal
shear
stresses
are given;
in the
sociated
with
point
8-18(d).
occurs
stress circles
planes
the third
shown
are shown
circle,
is zero,
D on the major
shear
principal
may
in Fig.
in Fig. 8-18(b):-The
8-18(c).
as this is a plane
in physical
This stress
(c)
5 MPa 5 MPa
and
is given
to recognize
This
type
in Fig.
of problem
that
large
occurs
stresses
in pressure-vessel
arise.
analyses,
where
it is
(d)
Fig. 8-t8
429
430
Transformation
of Strain
Sec.
8-tt.
Transformation
of Strain
in Two
Dimensions
431
Deformed element
8=10. Strains in Two Dimensions
\
F
inal element
Y
(a)
In the fol owing four sections, study is directed toward strain tram marion in two dimensions. This includes consideration of plane stress , plain strain problems. It wil be shown that the transformation of and shear strains from one set of rotated axes to another is completel analogous to the transformation of normal and shear stresses t earlier. Therefore/after establishing the strain transformation it is possible to introduce Mohr's circle of strain. A procedure for surface strain measurements made by means of strain gages into stresses completes this part of the chapter. In studying the strains at a point, only the relative displacement of adjoining points is of importance. Translation and rotation of an elem as a whole are of no consequence since these displacements are body displacements. For example, if the extensional strain of a ds of the original element in Fig. 8-19(a) is being studied, the element its deformed condition can be brought back for comparison purposes, shown in Fig. 8-!9(c). It is immaterial whether the horizontal (dashed) the vertical (dotted) sides of the deformed and the undeformed
are matched to determine dA. For the small strains and rotations
I
I
%dy'
- % Original j
element
sidered, the relevant agonal, is essential y employed. In treating have relevance. The problem.
elongation dA in the direction regardless of the method of in this manner, only kinematic properties of material do not
(b)
of the
Fig.
8-20
Exaggerated
deformations
of elements
for
deriving
strains
along
new
axes.
q enter
(b)
8-11.
dA
Transformation
of
Strain
the is necessary.
for the
in Two
transformation The
stresses in
Dimensions
sign
Section
By considering point O Lxed, one can point A caused by the imposed strains coordinate systems. The displacement in in the y direction, A'A" =' ey dy. For the the horizontal displacement shown in Fig.
compute the displacements on a dif erent basis in the x direction is AA' shear strain, assuming 8-20(a), A"A"' = ?y
of
for
of strain, convention
8-3. The
strict used
(c)
determined deformations.
Fig.
8t9
Strains
from
are
relative
strains e, and ey corresponding to elongations in the x and respectively, are taken positive. The shear strain is considered if the 90 angle between the x- and the y-axes becomes smaller. venience in deriving the strain transformation equations, the torted by positive shear strain wil be taken as that shown in Next, suppose that the strains e,, ey, and %:y associated axes are known and extensional strain along some new x' axis The new x'y' system of axes is related to the xy axes as in In these new coordinates, a length OA, which is dx' long, may of as being a diagonal of a rectangular dif erential element
the initial coordinates.
in which these displacements occur is arbitrary. In Fig. 8-20(b), displacement AA' is shown first, then A 'A", and finally A"A'". By projecting these displacements onto the x' axis, one finds the displacement of point A along the x' axis. Then, recognizing that by definition, e., dx' in the x'y' coordinate system is also the elongation of OA, one has the following equality:
e,, dx' = AA' cos O + A'A" sin O + A"A'" cos O
the by
expressions
has
for
the
displacements
and
432
Transformation
Since, however,
of Strain
dxldx' = cos 0 and dyldx' = sin 0,
Sec. 8.t2.
analogous reasoning,
Derivation
for Strain
Transformation
in Two-Dimensions
433
0 + yxy cos 2 0
included between the
of an angle
in an arbitrary direction defined by the x' axis. 2 In equation, e,, ey, and yxy must be known. By use oftri already encountered in deriving Eq. 8-1, the last equation
also as
,y,
= -2(e
0 + y(COS
2 0 - sin 2 0)
(8-30)
of strain. axes are is
This
cos 20 +
To complete the study of strain transformation
sin 20
at a point,
transformation
must
also
be established.
For
this
purpose,
consider
element OACB with sides OA and OB directed along the x' and the axes, as shown in Fig. 8-20(b). By definition, the shear strain for element is the change in angle AOB. From the figure, the change angle is o + [3. For small deformations, the small angle o can be determined by ing the displacements AA', A'A", and A"A"' onto a normal to OA dividing this quantity by dx'. In applying this approach, the the angle is assumed equal to the angle itself. This is acceptable as
strains are small.
tan o
Derivation
for
Strain
Transformation
Two.
Dimensions
An
approach
Thus,
=
Consider
suitable
for
deriving strain transformation in three section. ds long, as shown in Fig. 8-21. After to the position A'B' and becomes ds*
-AA'
sin
A'A" dx'
cos
A"A"'
sin
0 +
The
dv.
initial is (ds*)
length is ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 and the strained length 2 = (dx*) 2 + (dy*) 2, with dx* = dx + du and
u +du
of the dy* =
= -x'Sin
= -(2 Using
as
dx
dy
x,
8-28
dy
Sin
can be:
direction
cosines
l, m, and n (see
v +
dv
is shown
strain
in books
transformation
on
the
in
theory
three
of elasticity
dimensions
becomes
or continuum
mechanics,
+ ?yzmn
transformation
+ ?zln
in two
o
Eq.
8-28
can
be
applied
only
for
strain
1A
d u
dx
B
x Fig, 8-2'1
434
Transformation
The infinitesimal
of Strain
increments of strain, du i.e.,
and
Sec.
and dv for the absolute
8-t3.
Mohr's
Circle
Strain
435
placements
dif erentiation
u and
to
v; can
obtain
be found
total dif erentials,
formally
by applying
the
chain
-13.
two
Mohr's
basic equations
Circle
for
for
the
of
Two-Dimensional
transformations
dimen-
derived
in the
the transformation
preceding
the 8-30
section
stresses
mathematically
derived in Section
resemble
8-3. To
the
equaachieve
du = __ OU dx + ox
By using dif erence
bodies.
Ou
dy
dv = _OV dx + Ox
Ov
Oy
; for
these between
relations, (ds*)
defined for
as
the Eq.
earlier 8-34.
ones,
between Eq.
equations by
e,, 2
2
2
cos 2t3 +
sin 213
(8-29)
tities fications,
For squares
the
themselves.
Thus,
after
ox
and, by recalling
one
Eqs.
has
displacements,
these strain-transformation equations with the shear strains di2 are mathematically identical to the stress transformation Eqs. and 8-2, Mohr's circle of strain can be constructed. In this construcevery point on the circle gives two values: one for the normal strain, other for the shear strain divided by 2. (For further reasons, see SecStrains corresponding to elongation are positive; for contraction, are negative. For positive shear strains the angle between the x- and the y-axes becomes smaller; see Fig. 8-20(a). In plot ing the circle, the itive axes are taken in accordance with the sign convention for Method Mohr's circle of stress, upward and to the right. The vertical axis measured in terms of-/ 2.
(8-34)
by
(ds*)
For small deformations,
+-/.y
As
an il ustration
are
given.
Then
of Mohr's
on the
e --//2
circle
of strain,
axes
in Fig.
consider
8-22
the
that
center
e,, y,
of the
and
(ds*) 2 - ds 2 = (ds* +
where tion
that
(8,3
strain and,
e0 = since
(ds* ds*
ds*
By equating
cos
Eqs.
8-31
and
and
sin
8-32,
dividing
one
through
obtains
by ds 2, and recol 0
0 = dx/ds
0 = dy/ds,
equation for normal strain is essential y identical to Eq. 8-28. taking two initial y mutually perpendicular sides of an element then forming the scalar product for the same two sides in the state, Eq. 8-30 for the shear strain can be reproduced. Extension of this procedure to a three dimensional case is direct,
is left for the reader to complete.
2
Fig. 8-22 Mohr's circle of strain using sign convention of Method 1, Section 8-7.
436
Transformation
of
Strain
Deformed
from the given An examination reached before
is e; the
coincide
')' X106
2
circle C is at [(ex + ey)/2,0] and, A on the circle is at (ex,-y./2). conclusions analogous to those
1. The maximum normal strain
data,
minimum
principal
directions
strains,
of the
and
normal
no shear
strains
strains
is
are
from
associated
with the
with
directions
them.
the
C(-lOO,
o)
18o25 ,
principal expression
stresses. for
the
As can principal
be deduced strains
the
circle,
gx'
'
E1
or2
--
--
--
= -600
m/m
A(-500,
-300)
400
#m/m
(c)
where the positive sign in front of the square root is to be us{ e, the maximum principal strain in the algebraic sense. sign is to be used for e2, the minimum principal strain. The on which the principal strains act can be defined analytically: Eq. 8-34 by setting it equal to zero. Thus,
(b)
Method
Fig.
8-23
1, Section
(Sign
convention
8-7.)
of
three
i.e.,
For
simul~ in the
+ v(e + ey)]
(8-37)
Since
8-6 and
this
can
equation
be treated
has
two
in the
roots,
same
since
for
plane
stress
cr = 0,
The circle.
directions
largest Normal
are
shear
strains
associated
strain
ymax of (e
with
is equal + e2)/2
the
to two in two
maximum
times mutually
shear
the
strain.
radius
of t
di (e + ey)
fundamental
(8-38)
Mathematically, in every respect, strain transformation stress transformation. Therefore, in a general three-dimensional problem, there are three principal directions in which strains develop. For plane strain, when ez = x = zy two principal strains e and e2, another principal strain identifying the lat er principal strain by a point on the possible to draw a cluster of three principal strain circles for the stress circles (Figs. 8-17 and 8-18). This procedure in the next example. Mohr's strain circles degenerate to or three principal strains are equal.
is invariant, e remains constant for Hence, at a point, either the Mohr's equivalent of algebraic transformations problem, is applicable.
8-7
any
planar circle
or
EXAMPLE
0:
is observed along
angle
3 of 600
p. rad,
as shown
in Fig.
8-23(a).
Using
Mohr's
circle,
determine
For
determining
strain
in the
z direction
for
plane
stress,
one
must
this
purpose.
enlargements
then
a small in angle
takes
437
438
Transformation
of
Strain
Sec.
8-t4.
Strain
Rosettes
439 of
the in-plane
they
Solution
occur.
On the same
principal
strains
diagram,
the remaining
data
and show
two
principal
the directions
strain
in
the
The given data are e, = -500 Im/m, e>. = + 300 Im/m, and o. = -600 Hence, on the e - //2 system of axes, the center C is at (e + )/2 = Im/m from O, Fig. 8-23(b). The origin of planes A is at (-500,300). radius AC is 500 Im/m. Hence, e = +400 Im/m acts in the direction
measuring
)er.
An
information is sufficient at a point. noted in Section 2-2, measuring strain employs of fine wire or foil glued the change in electrical
to determine
the
complete
state
appropriate
calibration
a particularly versatile and accurate electric strain gages. These gages, to a member, are very sensitive for resistance due to deformation in a
TM relates
gage
resistance
to strain.
the line
Since
are
dicular
to line
origin
shown
Ae3
(not
Ae
shown).
figure
and
e3 =
strain
problem, another principal Therefore, the two small to complete the problem.
From
-600
geometry,
im/m
acts
0 = tan - 300/900
in the
direction
axes.
strain, dashed-line
= 18o25
e2 = 0, is
'.
rosettes
of this
type
are
available
in general together,
in a wide
range
usually in Fig.
of sizes,
consist 8-25.
with
of three Metal-foil
(a)
active
varying from 0.8 to 12 mm. 0, 02, and 03, together with are known from measurements,
the
three
Patterned
E;O 3
after
to employ
Eq.
8-28
the
can
fol owing
be writ en.
notation:
In writing
these
equations,
and
it is
'8-14.
Strain
Rosettes
strain are particularly simple to make, been developed for this purpose. In such along several closely clustered gage (such as x and the initial distance
gage points with the distance in the stressed member, the the gage length is obtained. Dividing the elongation by the gage gives the strain in the 0 direction, which wil be designated eo,. By forming the same operation with the other gage lines, o2 and eo3
obtained. If the distances between the gage points are small,
E;0, = E;x COS 2 01 "1- E;y sin 2 01 --I- 'xy sin 0 cos 0 E;02 = E;x COS 2 02 "1- E;y sin 2 02 --I- 'xy sin 02 COS 02 e03 = ex COS 2 03 + ey sin 2 03 + ' sin 0 cos 03
can be solved for e, ey,
gages
gage
(8-39)
(b)
with
and
angles corres
c-c. reference:
set
of equations
and
y.y,
in a rosette
and
the
are
problem
usually
as
Fig.
metal-foil
8-25
Three-element
electrical-
0
reverts
To
to the minimize
considered. work,
the
arranged
in an orderly
03 = or the
for that
manner.
rosette
For
example,
By
in Fig.
lines substitution
8-24(b),
is known into
0 = 0% 02
Eq.
the 8-39,
45 , and ular
90 . This 45 strain
this
arrangement rosette.
of direct
it is found
Inc.,
of gage
the
gx = E;O
gy = 90
245 = x + y + 'Yxy
(8-40)
as shown
are
in
rosettes.
c oil o2
b
Y b
ey,
and
-/y become
known.
Variations
shown or the
of this
arrangement
This Again,
are
is by
445 , ,
X
60
in Fig.
Another
8-25. arrangement of gage lines is the equiangular, or the delta, into Eq. 8-39 and simplifying,
(8-41a)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig.
rosette.
8-24
(a) General
strain
rosette;
(b) rectangular
or 45 strain
rosette;
(c) equiangular
or delta
See
Society
Experimental
for
Experimental
Mechanics
Mechanics
(Englewood
(SEM),
Clif s,
A.
NJ:
S. Kobayashi
1987).
(ed.),
44O
Transformation
of
Strain
Sec.
8-t5.
Introductory
Remarks
and
Sometimes rosettes
principal tm/m
and
200
strains e2 =
x
Eqs.
in Example 8-43,
8-7,
and
are
el =
Other types of rosettes are occasionally used in experiments. from all rosettes can be analyzed by applying Eq. 8-39, solving ey, and yy, and then either applying the or constructing Mohr's circle for finding the principal strains.
x 10 -6 = +48.4 MPa
Fig. 8-23. The compressive stress
1 - 0.32 (-600
. acts
direction
10
gage these
directions
provides
invariance
used to check
work.
stress
acts in the
in the
of e2.
The application of the experimental rosette problems of stress analysis is almost indispensable. In most problems where strain rosettes are determine the principal stresses at the point this problem, the surface where the strains are of significant normal surface stresses, i.e. 0.z plane stress problem. Hence, the relevant Eqs. principal stresses, 0. and 0-2, become
;-15.
rom the
Introductory
Remarks
e = E
Solving obtains these equations the required
E
0-.1 _
v'
0-2
and
simultaneously
relations:
preceding study of the text, it should be apparent that in nutechnical problems, the state of stress and strain at critical points / be very complex. Idealized mathematical procedures for determining
states, as well their precise
- 1 - v 2(e! + re2)
The elastic constants E and v must be
experiments. problems
EXAMPLE
can
8-8
aid
of such successful y.
experimental
work,
very
a steel machine part, measurements with an that Coo = -500 Im/m, e45. = + 200 Im/m, that E = 200 GPa and v = 0.3, find the
and
point
investigated.
From
Eq.
8-40,
'Yxy
(-500
+ 300)
= 600
transformations to dif erent coordinates, are response of real materials to such stresses formulations. A number of questions remain of an active area of materials research. As yet no can provide accurate predictions of material beof static, dynamic, impact, and cyclic loading, effects. Only the classical idealizations of yield materials are discussed here. Of necessity, they of structural and machine design. These strength to apply to particular classes of materials. The for the onset of inelastic behavior (yield) for ductile materials under combined stresses are discussed first. This is by presentation of a fracture criterion for brit le materials. It be emphasized that, in classifying materials in this manner, strictly one refers to the brit le or ductile state of the material, as this stic is greatly affected by temperature as well as by the state self. For example, some low-carbon steels below their transition )eratures of about 10C ( + 50F) become brit le, losing their excellent properties, and behave like dif erent materials; see Fig. 8-26. More discussion of such issues are beyond the scope of this text. Most of the information on yielding and fracture of materials under the of biaxial stresses comes from experiments on thin-walled cylinA typical arrangement for such an experiment is shown in Fig. 8The ends of a thin-walled cylinder of the material being investigated
as the strains defies accurate and are part theory havior under the multitud.e well as temperature fracture criteria for used in the majority are structured
oor
Ductile
Brit le
Fig. 8.26 Typical transition curve for stress or energy fracture vs. temperature
carbon steel.
to for
Yield
and
Fracture
Criteria
{7 2
Sec.
8-t6.
Maximum
Shear-Stress
Theory
443
Connection
high-pressure
pump
to
are closed by substantial caps. This forms the hollow interior of a drical pressure vessel. By pressurizing the available space until the ing or bursting occurs, the elements of the wall are subjected to stresses of a constant ratio 00/002 = 2. By applying an additional force P to the caps, the 02 stress is increased to any predetermined 002 + 00". By applying a compresslye force, the 002 stress can be or eliminated. Actual compressive stress in the longitudinal direl undesirable, as the tube may buckle. By maintaining a fixed ratio the principal stresses until the failure point is reached, the desired on a material are obtained. Analogous experiments with tubes taneously subjected to torque, axial force, and pressure are also An interpretation of these data, together with all other related mental evidence, including the simple tension tests, permits of theories of failure for various materials subjected to combined stre
'/'max = -
0 2
Slip
plane
(/1
(/1
45
'o 2
Slip
(a)
planes
(b)
(c)
g-](.
for
Maximum
maximum
from the
Shear-Stress
shear-stress
observation
Theory
or simply
in a ductile
Fig.
8-27
Arrangement
controlled
stresses.
ratios
of principal
The
results
theory,5
that
the maximum
material slip
shear
occurs
t
(/2
0 2
Slip
plane
yielding
along
critically
oriented
planes.
shear stress plays the key role, and it is assumed material depends only on the maximum shear stress an element. Therefore, whenever a certain critical
yielding
usually is compression. Ty = O,
in an
set
element
equal Hence,
commences.
to the according shear
This
suggests
that
(/1
01
For
a given
material,
this
0 2
Slip
planes
Tmax Tcr= I q-
00YP
2
{d)
(e)
(f)
Fig.
8-28
stress.
Planes
of Tma x for
which means that if 00yp is the yield-point stress found, for example; simple tension test, the corresponding maximum shear stress is large. This conclusion also fol ows easily from Mohr's circle of In applying this criterion to a biaxial plane stress problem, two cases arise. In one case, the signs of the principal stresses 00 and the same. Taking them, for example, to be tensile, Fig. 8-28(a), and 003 = 0, the resulting Mohr's principal stress circles are as shown
1773. under
name.
in a simple uniaxial stress, Figs. 8-28(a) and (c). Therefore, if l 00 [ I 002 I, according to Eq. 8-44, 100 I must not exceed 00yp. Similarly, if 1 0021 > 100'1, 10021 must not be greater than 00yp. Therefore, the criteria
Corresponding to this case are
occur
Here
the
maximum
shear
stress
is of the
same
magnitude
as would
biaxial
5 This
theory
appears
Tresca
to have
to
been
the
results Academy.
originally
of his Now
proposed
work this
by C. A.
(,00011<:00yp,a)nd 10021<:00y
of
(8-45)
The
second
case
is considered
in Figs.
8-28(d)-(f),
where
the
signs
of
6 In single
In studies of this phenomenon, the effective component of the causing slip must be careful y determined. Here it is assumed random orientation of numerous crystals, the material has isotropic and so by determining ?m, one finds the critical shear stress.
crystals,
slip
occurs
along
preferential
planes
and
in
and
002 are opposite, and 003 = 0. The largest Mohr's circle passes h 00 and 002, and the maximum shear stress ?m = (I 00 I + 1002 I)/2. alternative possible slip planes are identified in Fig. 8-28(d) and (f).
maximum tension, shear stress cannot i.e., *m --< 00yp/2. exceed Hence, the shear yield criterion
in
444
0 2
Yield
and
Fracture
Criteria
Sec.
8-t7.
Maximum
Distortion-Energy
Theory
445
Oyp
In order
A(1, 1)
to derive the expression giving the yield condition the procedure of resolving the general state of stress This is based on the concept of superposition. For
to consider the stress tensor of the three principal
ssible
or, for impending yield,
0-1 0'2
component
consist
tensor
of two
are
defined
additive
as the
component
mean
tensors.
"hydrostatic"
The
elements
stress:
Oyp
=+1
0'yp
B(-1, -1) -1
0'yp
(8-47)
in as Eq. -I 1, lines. this
stress criteria violated.
Fig.
based
stress.
8.29
on
Yield
maximum
criterion
shear
A plot of this .equation gives the two sloping lines shown Dividing Eqs. 8-45 by 0'yp puts them into the same form These modified equations, 0'1/0'yp l, and 0'2/0'yp spectively, in Fig. 8-29 as two vertical and two horizontal by treating 0'1/0'yp and 0'2/0'yp as coordinates of a point 'in stress space, some important conclusions can be reached. If a point defmed by 0'1/0'yp and 0'2/0'yp fal s on the hexagon Fig. 8-29, a material begins and continues to yield. No such can lie outside the hexagon because one of the three yield tions given before for perfectly plastic material would be stress points fal ing within the hexagon indicate that a material
elastically.
elements this
of the in matrix
are
(0'] one
has
),
(0'2
),
and
(0'3
).
0
0
0'2
0
000)
0'3
0
0
0
0'2 -
0
0 0)
0
0'3 -
(8-48)
Note
that,
according
to the maximum
stresses are added, i.e., stresses in the material response is predicted. the Mohr's Circles of stress along the
note that since the maximum
ten
For
resolution of the general state of stress is shown schematically 8-30. The special case of resolving the uniaxial state of the has been carried a step further. The sum of the stresses nd (g) corresponds to the last tensor of Eq. 8-48.
the three-dimensional state of stress, the Mohr's circle
02 -
in stress in in Figs.
the first
o
for
stres
shear
stresses
are
on planes irrespective of material the material is isotropic. The derived yield criterion for to as the Tresca yield condition plasticity.
law
o3
03 -
(a)
(b)
General state of stress
(c)
'8-17.
Another
Maximum
is based
is
Distortion-Energy
on energy
accepted criterion
Theory
of yielding
terials
widely
concepts.7
In this
approach,
for
ductile
with distortions. simple
the
the
isotropic
total
B'
under
Ilshod.
combined
stress,
two parts: one associated and the other causing shear energy at yield point in
the yield
criterion
for combined
tension
stress
is
to
by E. Beltrami of Italy in 1885. M. T. Huber of Poland in 1904 von Mises (1913) and H. Hencky
]7 The
first
attempt
In its present form, the and was further developed (1925), both of Germany
energy
as the criterion
theory
and
of
and
the
(d)
was
(e)
Uniaxial state of stress
(f)
(g)
of principal
stresses
into spherical
(dilatational)
and deviatoric
(distortional)
446
Yield
and
Fracture
Criteria
Sec.
8-t7.
Maximum
Distortion-Energy
Theory
447
tensor component the 0. axis. Therefore, in every possible ical stress tensor. tation of an elastic
of Eq. 8-48 degenerates into a point located at the stresses associated with this tensor are the direction. For this reason, this tensor is called the. Alternatively, from Eq. 3-21, which states that body is proportional to 5, this tensor is also calle,
strain
astic
in simple stresses
energy
tension. reaches
for
one
this
The the
is 20.2yp/12G.
the
lat er yield
Equating
law
this
yielding
when material.
one
to Eq.
8-52,
The
of the dis-
after
simplifications, material:
obtains
of an ideally
The last tensor of Eq. 8-48 is called the deviatoric or distortional tensor. A good reason for the choice of these terms may be seen Figs. 8-30(f) and (g). The state of stress consisting of tension and sion on the mutually perpendicular planes is equivalent to pure stress. The lat er system of stresses is known to cause no changes in isotropic materials, but instead, distorts or deviates ment from its initial cubic shape. Having established the basis for resolving or decomposing the
dilatational
stress
tensor.
Oyp
Eq.
0.1 0.2
8-53
+
in dimensionless
0.2
form
= 1
becomes
(8-54)
Fig.
based
-1
(-1,
-1)
8-3t
on
Yield
maximum
criterion
stress
into
dilatational
and
to distortion. i.e., strain Since this it is convenient generalizing has
distortional
For this density, quantity for
components,
One
may
distortion
energy.
strain energy due per unit volume, must be found. coordinate axes, and strains. Thus, perposition, one
purpose, first the strain a three-dimensional state of does not depend on the to express it in terms of principal Eq. 2-21 for three-dimensions usin
1 1 1
is an equation of an ellipse, a plot of which is shown in Fig. 8-31. stress fal ing within the ellipse indicates that the material behaves Points on the ellipse indicate that the material is yielding. This ;ame interpretation as that given earlier for Fig. 8-29. On unloading,
material behaves elastically. This theory does not predict changes drostatic tensile or compressive stresses of the stresses are involved in Eq. each does not alter the yield condition. stress space, the yield surface
go = W,o,a, =
where, cipal by substituting stresses, after for strains, simplifications,
1
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION + 0.22 + 5 0.33 www.avs4you.com having all three direction cosines equal
Eqs. 3-14, expressed in terms of
in the material response when are added. Since only dif er8-53, adding a constant stress For this reason in the threebecomes a cylinder with an
to 1/X/.
Such
a cylinder
that
is
in Fig. 8-32. The ellipse in Fig. 8-31 is simply cylinder with the 0.,-0.2 plane. It can be shown
for tube, Fig. the maximum 8-31. shear stress
Center line
the also
of yield
into
U,oa, =
The strain determined
+
per this unit volume equation
2E
+
by
due first
--
(0.,0.2 + 0.-0.3 +
to the setting
criterion
of
is a hexagon
then
replacing
energy from
Thus,
2v
dilatational 0. =
0-2
stresses = 0.3
cylinder hexagon
and
= p,
o 2
Udilatation
By subtracting Eq. 3-19 that G = E/2(1
bined stress:
P'
-- --(0.1
1 6E
q- 0.2 q- 0.3) 2
and strain noting energy from l
o,
simplifying, distortion
Udistortion
-- --[(0.1
12G
-- 0.1) 2 ]
// 03 /
/ /1/'
X
Circle
03
of Mises
Hexagon of
Tresca
According
expression
to the
of Eq. 8-52
basic
of the
to the
'"--/
elastic
(a)
Fig.
triaxial
8-32
state
Yield
of
surfaces
stress.
for
448
Yield
and
Fracture
Criteria
Sec.
8-20.
Comparison
of Yield
and
Fracture
Criteria
(/2
The fundamental relation given by Eq. 8-53 may also be formulating the second invariant, Eq. 8-26, of the deviatoric stresses by the last matrix in Eq. 8-48. Such an approach is generally the mathematical theory of plasticity. The derivation given before
greater of Eq. function, emphasis 8-53 and making to physical the accompanying it attractive behavior. As
quadrant The
strengths occurs
yield
when
at
,A{1,
1)
Figs. in analytical
can 8-31
principal stresses are equal but of opposite sign. This for example, in torsion of thin-walled tubes. According
shear-stress theory, when +0-! = -T-0-2, these stresses
condition to the
at yield
o
yield
This often
widely referred
shear stress and the distortion energy have been used in the study of viscoelastic phenomena stress. Extension of these ideas to strain hardening materit possible. Such topics, however, are beyond the scope of this
8 maximum
for
tress
reach
to 0-yp// 3
only
_0.yp/2.
g. 8-33.
= 0.5770-yp.
The
maximum
These
values
Points
of yield
corresponding
distortion-energy
in shear
to these
stress
theory
are frequently
stresses
limits
this
Oult
are
B(-1, -1)
(a)
in design
applications.
-1
[9.
Maximum
maximum
asserts
Normal
normal
that failure
Stress
stress
or
Theory
or
of
theory
fracture
simply
a material
the
maximum
occurs when
stress
the
o 2
8-18.
largely
Comparison
Energy
stress
emphasized
Theories
in this
of Maximum-Shear
for
occur
most
text.
Plane
Therefore,
Stress
frequently
used yield
and
it is useful
Distorti
in practice
to make
Plane
problems
the
especial y
widely
and
a
parison
terials tention
between
for this case. to the aximum
two
The
criterion does this in three dimensions the stresses are the main tween the two is not is shown in Fig. 8-33. stress theory and the
o 2
a more comprehensive manner by considerin energy caused by shear deformations. Since parameters in both approaches, the dif erence' large. A comparison between them for plane Here the Tresca hexagon for the maximum van Mises ellipse for the maximum
criteria
for
ductil
normal stress at a point reaches a critical value regardless of stresses. Only the largest principal stress must be determined this criterion. The critical value of stress 0-ut is usually determined a tensile experiment, where the failure of a specimen is defined to be excessively large elongation or fracture. Usually, the lat er is imother ranges of stresses, providing Failure is characterized by the separation, This mechanism of failure dif ers drastically which is accompanied by large deformations
of maximum shear stress.
Experimental
in all
evidence
indicates
that
this
theory
a tensile principal stress or the cleavage, fraefrom the ductile fraedue to slip along the
applies
well
to brit le
o3
(b)
Fig.
0p/2
--Oyp
Tosion
theory have the meanings already described. Either one of the lines a criterion for yield for a perfectly plastic material. Yield of a said to begin whenever either uniaxial or biaxial stresses reach the ing lines. If a stress point for the principal stresses 0. and 0-2 fal s these curves, a material behaves elastically. Since no strain behavior (see Fig. 2-13) is included in these mathematical stress points can lie outside the curves, as yielding continued at level given by the curves. More advanced theories are not
this text. 9
stress theory can be interpreted on graphs as the other is done in Fig. 8-34. Failure occurs if points fal on the the previous theories, this stress criterion gives a bounded
stress space.
based criterion.
8-34
on
Fracture
maximum
envelope
stress
Comprison
good experimental
This
of Yield
of some
and
experimental
Fracture
in Fig.
results
Criteria
distortion-energy However,
criteria
It can be seen from Fig. 8-33 that the discrepancy theories is not very large, the maximum shear-stress eral more conservative. As to be expected, the uniaxial
theory
between
stresses
being
'
agreement results
presented
classical
before
is shown
8-35.
with
2] Note
the
the
yield
theory maximum
the par-
and
Tresca
criteria.
Fig.
8-33
and
Comparison
van
Mises
of
yield
8 In the past, this condition has been also referred to as the stress theoo,. See A. Nadai, Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solids McGraw-Hil , 1950), 104, or A. P. Boresi and O.M. Sidebottom, chanics of Materials, 4th ed. (New York: Wiley, 1985), 18.
(New
theory is generally credited to W. J. M. Rankine, an eminent (1820-1872). An analogous theory based on the maximum strain, stress, being the basic criterion of failure was proposed by the great B. de Saint-Venant (1797-1886). Experimental evidence does
the lat er approach.
not
car-
Prentice-Hall,
in Elasticirv Introduction
1969).
The
on this figure are based on classical experfigure is adapted from a compilation made of Materials (New York: McGraw-Hil ,
45O
Yield
and
Fracture
Criteria
Sec.
-ut
8.20.
Comparison
of Yield
and
02/0
Fracture
c
Criteria
451
Maximum normal
02
stress
distortion
Maximum
energy
Grif ith
t"
o I
; 01[0C
,o
Duguet
-1
/-1.0
\
./ 1.0
Fig. 8-36 Plausible criteria for brit le materials. fracture Fig. 8-37 Dashed shows analytical
three
concretes.
I %
dif erent
Fig. yield
with
8-35 and
test
Comparison fracture
data.
criteria
of
Cast iron
Steel
Copper
Aluminum
normal
unsafe
stress
for ductile
theory
materials.
appears
to be
best
for
brit le
materials
and
All the theories for uniaxial stress agree since the simple tension is the standard of comparison. Therefore, if one of the principal at a point is large in comparison with the other, all theories give the same results. The discrepancy between the criteria is greatest second and fourth quadrants, when both princil;
equal.
,n for the previous observations by introducing the idea of surenergy at microscopic cracks and showing the greater seriousness tensile stresses compared with compressive ones with espect to failtre. According to this theory, an existing crack wil rapidly propagate if available elastic strain energy release rate is greater than the increase i n the surface energy of the crack. The original Grif ith concept has been
expanded Fig.
specimens
by G. R. Irwin. 25 This
and has
of dif erent
24 Careful
implemented
strengths
recent
strongly for
experimental
use
corroborates with
re-
approach,
26
hardening
effects,
8-37.
work
been
now
has
been
fracture
extended
to include
a com-
In the development of the theories discussed sumed that the properties of material in tension alike--the plots shown in several of the preceding of symmetry. On the other hand, it is known that rocks, cast iron, concrete, and soils have drastically
it has
Another
two
have
materials
approach,
flaw:
and
properties
shear
important
ognizes the higher strengths of brit le materials than in tension. Therefore, the region in biaxial stress space is made smaller than it is for biaxial 8-36. In the second and fourth quadrant, a linear of the above regions is assumed. A. A. Grif ith,
1950).
dif erent the sense of the applied stress. This is the greatest classical idealizations to materials having large behavior in tension and compression. An early maximum shear theory to achieve better agreement was made by Duguet in 1885. 22 The improved
in biaxial tension in the compression; change between 23 in a sense,
in tension
attempt
for rationalizing
and
compression
is due
of materials
to Mohr.
27 In this
having
results
8-38(a).
define
using
the
G.
The
their
state
at a fracture.
principal of the
stress envelopes
For
Proceedings, NY:
example,
circles, with
if such
First
a point
in Fig. circles
is A
on
see
Society
A Symposium on Fracture Toughness for Testing and Materials Special PA: American Society for Testing
eronautics and Space Administration,
R. Irwin, Structural
Testing and Its Applications, American Technical Publication No. 381 (Philaand Materials and Washington, DC: "Behavior of Concrete 99 (1973): EM4, 863. of NLFEA to Concrete
Z. P. Bag-ant, Wiley, responsible ed., 1985). for 1965).
City,
Pergamon,
Also
22 A. Nadai,
23 A. A. Grif ith,
Transactions
Theory
of Flow
"The
of the
and Fractu're
Royal SocieO,
of Solids
of Rupture
of London,
(New
and
Series
York:
of Sohds,"
A, 1920,
2 Adapted from H. Kupfer, and K. Gerstle, Stresses," J. Eng. Mech. Div. ASCE, 26 C. Bedard, and M.D. Kotsovos, "Application
C Geomaterials: As noted
Under
Mechanics the
sophical
163-198.
Phenomena
Flow
J. Struct.
Div. Rocks,
earlier,
stress
ASCE, 111 (ST12) (1985). Concrete, Soils (Chinchester: Otto Mohr was also principally
beating his name.
Strucdevel-
circle
452
Yield
and
Fracture
Criteria
O.
Problems
453
Failure
plane
nterpolation along the failure tress circles is justified, and between them. When traight-line envelopes
The use of straight lines for
0 2
envelopes between these two a stress circle for other conditions more extensive data are lacking
partial
can conserva-
end be
can
be used.
asymptotes
(b)
At
A (or
A')
has a rational basis and has particularly advantageous in soil mechanics. For a loose gransuch as sand, the straight-line Mohr envelopes correspond to the condition of dry friction, p. = tan (b, Fig. 8-39. Any circle to the envelope, as at B, gives the state of critical stress. If some i can be developed by the media, the origin O is moved to the such that at zero stress, the ? intercept is equal to the cohesion. As basically cannot transmit tensile stresses, in specialized literature it customary to direct the compression axis to the right. Unlike the maximum distortion-energy theory, the fracture theory based on Mohr envelopes, using the largest principal stress circles, neg-
een
envelopes granular
(a)
plane
0 3
Failure
planes
lects
dependence
on the intermediate
principal
stress.
-- O c
(d)
(c)
At
B (or
B')
envelopes, stress
space.
(b)
failure
planes
at A and
A',
(c)
failure
yield and fracture criteria discussed before are inconto apply. In such cases, interaction curves such as in Fig. 7-6 can be used to advantage. Experimental y determined curves of this type, complicated by a local or buckling phenomenon, are equivalent to strength criteria discussed here. In the design of members in the next chapter, departures wil be made strict adherence to the yield and fracture criteria established here, unquestionably, these theories provide the rational basis for
Sometimes
the
(or ,4'), the stresses and the plane(s) on which they act can be found the established procedure for Mohr's circle of stress (Section 8-7). corresponding planes for points ,4 or ,4' are shown in Fig. 8-38(b), material such as duraluminum does fracture in tension at a flat angk shown. Similarly, by relating the fracture planes to either point B the fracture occurs at a steep angle characteristic of concrete c tested in compression, Fig. 8-38(c). Such agreements with
support the assumed approach.
are
the element
figures separately,
for
members. isolated
Draw element,
its
the stress acting on it. For each direction and sense by arrows, one would use in its calculation. of the members.
The data from Fig. 8-38(a) can be replot ed in the principal stress as in Fig. 8-38(d). Since in the first quadrant, the minimum principal 0'3 = 0, and in the third quadrant, 0-3 = 0 is the maximum principal per Figs. 8-28(a)-(c), in these quadrants, the fracture lines in the
stress strengths to that space
shown
P1
I-]A
[P2
/ B
(a)
of Fig.
is obtained.
are
Fig.
text,
it defines Extrapolation
8-29
gives
a yield
a fracture of Mohr
condition
criterion envelopes
for
for
ductile
brit le beyond
materials,
in the
present
advisable. circles
for
In many tension
this
may should
Fig.
P8-t
(b)
454
Transformation
of
Stress
Problems
455
8-2
shown acting
8-1.
the
the
infinitesimal
and shear planes.
normal inclined
8-6.
The on
and
sense horizontal
of the
stre
30
point
acting
are as shown
in the figure.
and
Determine
planes.
the
"wedge"
method
of analysis
30
discussed
MPa
in Example
Sections 8-6 and 8-7
30
20 MPa 20 MPa
x,/p
Fig. P8-9
8-22
states
through
of stress
8-25.
shown
Draw
in the
Mohr's
figures.
circles
(a) Determine
for
on properly
maximum normal
the
the
principal
oriented (principal)
stresses
isolated shear
and
elements. stresses
show
with
their
(b) Find
sense
the
30
2p
be
essential y
two-dimensional
and
as
shown
in
stresses
ments.
normal
and
For
stresses.
show
both
the
cases,
results
check
eleof the
figure.
stress
If the
permissible?
rock
of rock
is stratified, vertical,
Assume
the
making state
coeffi-
of friction and
of stratification,
on rock
cohesion
is 0.50,
and
along
2.
the
30. Pa
20
in
stresses
MPa
equilibrium.
acting
Determine
on the vertical
the
plane.
normal
is 85 kN/m
10 MPa
10 MPa 10 MPa
20
MPa
Fig.
P8-3
10 ksi
3 psi
6psi
_
;ections
840. Derive
Using Using Using Using
8-3
Eq.
Eqs. Eqs. Eqs. Eqs.
through
8-2.
8-1 and 8-1 and 8-1 and 8-1 and 8-2, 8-2, 8-2, 8-2,
8-5
rework rework rework rework Prob. Prob. Prob. Prob. 8-2. 8-3. 8-4. 8-5.
Fig. P8-22
Fig.
P8-23
5 psi
Fig.
P8-7
%. = stresses?
+ 2 ksi, Show
10 ksi
6 ksi
ksi
4 ksi
oriented
element.
for the last
2 ksi
8-8.
20 ksi
At grain
x axis.
a particular in the
The
point
is as shown
in a wooden
in the figure.
member!
The
8-t6.
Determine
the
the
associated
maximum
normal
(principal)
stresses
state
of stress
of the
the
wood
allowable
makes
shear
an angle
stress
of + 30
parallel
Show
the
results
on a properly
oriented
ele-
Flg.
P8-24
Fig.
P8-25
this your
wood. answer
of
through transformation
show (b) find
associated
8-20.
the
fol owing
(a) find
on properly (principal)
stresses and
data, the
show
8-26
Mohr's
oriented (principal)
.psi
mvariance
10 ksi
ksi
principal
stresses
ments.
mat
For
on properly of the
(b).
oriented normal
elements; stresses
elements; stresses
the
the
associated
for
and
In
stresses.
show
case,
the
results
check
on properly
invariance
oriented
of the
elenor-
1oopsi
Fig. P8-8
-17.
trx = -30
trx = 0, try
ksi,
=
try = +10
+20 ksi,
ksi,
and.r
and
=
'r = -20
+10 ksi.
ksi.
8-26.
MPa.
trx = + 50 MPa,
try = + 30 MPa,
and
'r = + 20
19.
trx = -40
MPa,
try = +10
MPa,
and,
= +20
8-9.
Fig. P8-5
timated
After
that
the erection
the state of
of a heavy
stress in the
structure,
rock
it i s
tr = +80 psi, try = +20 psi, and.r = +40 psi. trx = - 30 ksi, try = + 10 ksi, and 'r = - 20 ksi. tr = -40 MPa, try = -30 MPa, and 'r = +25
456
8-30.
MPa.
Transformation
of
Stress
Problems
-43. For the fol owing stress tensor, determine (a) stress invariants, (b) the principal stresses, and (c) direction of the largest principal stress. The direccosines for this principal stress should be nor-
457
= -15MPa,
0.y = +35MPa,
and,=
+60
Section 8-53.
attached
8-14 The
to
Mohr's
0. = +20 ksi, 0.y = 0, and, = -15 ksi. 0. = 0, 0.y = -20 ksi, and, = -10 ksi. through 8-36. For the fol owing data, using
circles of stress, determine the normal
measured
a stressed
strains
steel
for
member,
a rectangular
are e0o =
rosette,
-220
Im/m, What
845*
are the
+ 120 principal
Im/m, stresses
and
and
shear
angle
stresses
0. Show
acting
the
Prob.
on the planes
results
8-4
defined
elements.
by the given
on
with
isolated
0 =
8-33.
*8-34.
0.. =if,
Rework
= 0,0.
Prob.
= 0.2 = -20ksi,
+30
for0
.
= +30 .
(_46
-44.
tress.
10
- 6 -
8
14'
MPa
determine principal determine principal the circles the circles prinof prinof
do they
act?
E = 30 x 106 psi
and
v = 0.3.
*8-35.
Rework
8-2
for
0 =
+45
the
8-36.
8-37.
-20
for
ksi,
Prob.
for
8-6,
0 = 20 .
using Mohr's
the
principal oriented
stresses element.
and
show
Fig.
P8-40
8-38.
shown
for Prob.
8-7, using
Mohr's
circle of stress, find the principal stresses and the orientation of the planes on which these act. *8-39. Using Mohr's circle, determine the angle between the right-hand face of the element shownin the figure and the plane or planes where the normal stress is zero. Check the result using the "wedge" method. Show 'the stresses with proper sense on the rotated
element(s).
8-4t. body,
the
At
x-y
point oriented
state
axes,
edge
of an
figure
shear
with
stress
respect!
is
;ections
-46. direction, Rederive
8-11
Eq.
occurs
and
8-28
first,
8-t2
by
then
assuming
the deformation
that in the
the
shear
in the
8-54. The measured strains for an equiangular rosette, attached to a stressed aluminum alloy member, are = +400 im/m, e6oo = +400 Im/m, and e2oo = -600 Im/m. What are the principal stresses and in which directions do they act? E = 70 GPa and v = 0.25. 8-55. The data for a strain rosette with four gage lines attached to a stressed aluminum alloy member are = - 120 im/m, 845 = +400 m/m, 890 = + 1120 Im/ m, and e35o = + 600 Im/m. Check the consistency of the data. Then determine the principal stresses and the directions in which they act. Use the values of E and v given in Prob. 8-54. 8-56. At a point in a stressed elastic plate, the fol ow-
kN/m
mine
2. (a) Find
the of
the
stress
principal
on an
stresses,
element
and
oriented
(b)
result i
8-47.
parallel of the
_2ksi
-6 ksi
and
the
finally
the
deformation
8-20,
x direc-
x-y
axes. at A.
Show
the
With
aid
of Fig.
show
that
MPa.
GPa, G
The
=
is known: maximum shear strain m and the sum of the normal stresses on planes passing through the point is elastic properties of the plate are E =
80 GPa, and v = 0.25. Calculate the
13 = -(ex
If the Im/m,
s.
magnitude
of the
principal
stresses
at the
point.
4 3
unit
~ 1120
strains
8-35
847 the and 8-18 experiments on plasticity, a two-difield is often obtained by subjecting simultaneously to an axial force and of such experiments are reported only 0.x and 'r, stresses are studied,
curves based on the Tresca
do
8-43
into
3 ksi
Fig. P8-39
8-49.
..
If the
im/m, strains
unit
strains
are
e = -800
what do they
im/m,
are the occur?
using
ey =
prinUse
the for
Fig.
P8-4t
Eqs.
8-35
and
8-36.
8-40.
clevice
transmits
a force
F to
a bracket,
as
in the figure. Stress analysis the fol owing stress components A: 1000 psi due to bending, 1500 and 600 psi due to shear. (Note
their inspection.) on a drawing circle for the principal only; directions
of
8-9 principal
stress
2 2 ksi
stresses tensor:
and
For the fol owing strain analogous to that described transformation, determine and (b) the directions of the principal strains.
8-58. In classical mensional stress a thin-walled tube a torque. The results on 0.x-'r, plots. If
how would the
theoretical
stress magnitudes must be determined resultant stresses A. (b) Using Mohr's in (a), determine
mum shear stresses
by
and senses (a) Indicate the of the isolated element the state of stress found stresses and the maxithe associated normal
- 10V
0
5
0 -20
[m/m
discussed
in Section
(This
8-8. The
for stress 8-7.)
843
with
stresses.
ments.
Show
the
results
on
properly
oriented
ele-
cosines should be normalized. be solved using the equations discussed in Sections 8-4
and
-51. -52.
Rework ReworkProb.
Prob.
8-48 8-49
circle circle
of strain. of strain.
and on the yon Mises yield criteria Derive the two required equations sults on a diagram. 8-59. Ordinarily the Tresca stresses are made to coincide gives rise to a discrepancy for the yield condition is assumed what discrepancy wil result for
0.1 0'2?
look and
on such sketch
and yon Mises yield in simple tension. This pure shear. If, instead, to be the same in shear, simple tension and for
458
8-60.
stresses, stresses Such
Yield
and
Fracture
Criteria
A
loadings
critical
tr, tr2, are 5p,
element
and tr3, 2p, and are called
develops
the
principal
8-6t.
A metal
bar
is being
compressed
alon
in the ratio 5:2: -1, i.e., the -p, where p is a parameter. radial. If this element is sub-
jected
according material
to this
loading
condition,
the stresses to the Tresca
determine
the
and
that
maxiyield-
hibits
(b)
the sume yield Tresca
a yield
that the condition. condition
strength
trvp
and
Poisson's
by the expression
ratio
Introduction
for determining the state of stress in elastic members tradi-
in an introductory been derived in previous chapters. shear stress caused by a single For linearly elastic
considered
text
the
of solids have either a normal or acting at a section of main formulas are sum-
(a)
due
to
an
axial
force
(1-13)
(b)
due
to bending
straight
o symmetrical
members
cr =
---
My
I
(6-11)
curved
bars
shaft
shaft
thin-
2. Shear
(a) due
stresses
to torque circular
rectangular
closed
cr = Ae(R
* = --
My
y)
(6-32)
J T
(4-4)
Tma x --
otbt 2
(4-30)
walled
(b) due to shear force
tube
in a beam
? = --
2(t
VQ
(4-34, 4-35)
(7-6)
? = It
superposition
the
y using superposition
caused by axial forces and bending was discussed in Chapter 6. Likecaused by torque and direct shear
459
Elastic
Stress
Analysis
and
Design
Sec.
9-2.
State
of
Stress
for
Some
Basic
Cases
461
of
shafts.
the
in Chapter occurrence
stress-transformation
7. In this of normal
and
principles
are developed
in this chapter.
However,
some
simple
developed
transmission
in Chapter
8. This
condition
commonly
occurs
in beaml
In applying the above formulas, particularly in the analysis or of mechanical equipment, stress-concentration factors must be intro( (see Sections 2-10, 4-7, and 6-6). Because of the problem of fati monly occurring in such cases, reduced stresses are employed. consideration must also be given to dynamic loading (see Section: 4-11, and 6-7). For such loadings, if occurring in mil iseconds, able stresses may be significantly increased. This chapter is entirely devoted to elastic problems, an approach commonly used at usual working loads. In Part A, the state some basic cases is discussed from the point of view of stress
mations.
procedures for prismatic beams are given. is essential to recognize that in all elastic stress-analysis and design the material is assumed to be initial y stress free. In many materials, significant residual stresses may be present. These be caused by the manufacturing processes employed: rolling, weld-
ing,
forging,
some formidable
it is the engineering
temperature
or hydration
of the
the initial
shrinkage,
stresses with those due and/or fracture of a member. of residual stresses present
etc.
(see
Fig.
1-12).
In
to
problem.
The elastic design of members is considered in Part B. stress-analysis formulas listed before are applicable to both terminate and indeterminate problems, discussion wil be limited to ically determinate cases. There are at least two reasons for this. the more frequently occurring statically indeterminate problems beams; these are treated beginning with the next chapter. Second,
L2.
state
State
of Stress
for
Some
Basic
Cases
significantly,
he design
of statically
their stress analysis is necessarily elastic bar of variable cross section, an axial force P, as shown in Fig.
indeterminate
and lower parts of the bar are given, reactions R and R2 routinely using the procedures discussed in Chapter 2. After is known, the problem becomes statically determine, and can be found in. the usual manner. However, if this
can
the
of stress for four basic cases in the form of examples is conin this section. By means of Mohr's principal circles of stress, states of stress at a point are exhibited graphically. From such repthe critical stresses can be seen readily and related to the ,r fracture criteria discussed in the preceding chapter. The four cases pertain to the uniaxial stress, biaxial stress such as occurs in pressure vessels, torsional stresses in circular tubes, and beam caused by bending and shear. Because of the greater complexity last problem, some aspects of the solution accuracy are discussed
next section.
system
were
to be designed,
even
this
smple
the
involved. Generally, in a design problem, boundary conditions would be known. areas of the bar, an infinite number constraints in the realm of structural enter the problem. Such problems are,
only the applied By varying the of solutions is or machine design therefore, not
EXAMPLE
94
2onsider
a state of stress.
of stress Relate
loaded stresses
the
three criteria.
principal
It is to be emphasized that only the problem of elastic stresses sidered in this chapter. Some elastic designs may be governed the stif ness or the possible instability of a system. The commonly arises in deflection control and vibration problems; the
in lateral instability of members.
is
1-8.
maximum principal The remaining two The basic infinitesimal is shown in Fig.
stress principal
trt in an axial y loaded bar can be found using Eq. stresses are each equal to zero, i.e., tr2 = tr3 = element for this case, together with its three planar 9-2(a). The principal circles of stress are drawn in Fig.
indeterminate
Fig.
94
A statically
problem.
main
chapter is to provide greater analysis by solving additional problems. cases where applications of the basic of solids listed before lead to useful
of this
9-2(b).
For
a point.
diameter.
Since
case,
For
th and
the is at.
clarity,
tr2__e
maximum Therefore,
however,
equal,
shear the
it is shown
stress manner
Mohr's
circle
in the
for these
diagram
stresses
by
a small
the
degenerates
circle
of on
No
this
stress
fails
maximum depends
1/2
iC
Sec.
o 1
9-2.
State
of
Stress
for
Some
Basic
Cases
463
p0
A--
O2 0 3
01
iC
p0
Omin
(a)
Rg.
uniaxial
9-2
ohr's
state of
circles
stress.
for
O1O2=O3=0
(b)
strengths il ustrated
This is so
in
As material
in tension
already (cast
than
pointed iron)
in shear.
fails
out by
The
in a
01
O 0 2 0 3
0 2=a/2;
(a)
0 30
(b)
because
true for a ductile material. The cup and aluminum occur approximately axis of the specimen. These planes on the right in Fig. 9-2(a). Greater possible by considering the behavior
and cone fractures shown in Fig. 2-7 along the planes forming a 45 angle are identified by dashed lines in the refinements on the mechanism of of single crystals within a material.
of a pressure
vessel.
for wall
EXAMPLE
9-2
a state principal
of stress circles
in a'thin-walled of stress.
the state
of stress
circles
in a circular
tube
subjected
results
to a torque
to yield and
by constructing
fracture criteria.
principal
of stress.
Relate
the
Relate
cylindrical the
results
and
The
shear
stresses of the
for
tube
using are
Eq. shown
4-4.
the
According to Eqs. 3-24 and 3-25, the ratio of the hoop stress q to the Ion stress tr2 is approximately 2. These are the principal stresses as no shear act on the corresponding planes. The third principal stress tr3 equals the or internal pressure p, which may be taken as zero since it is small in tr and tr2. A typical infinitesimal element for the vessel and three planar are shown in Fig. 9-3(a). The principal stress circles are shown in Fig. maximum shear stress is found on the major stress circle passing origin O and tr. Its magnitude is th/2. The planes on which the maximum stresses act are identified by dashed lines in the lower right element. if only the principal stresses cr and or2 were considered, would only be half as large. In design, the yield criterion based on the distortion theory (see Section 8-18) can also be used. Construction of pressure vessels from brit le materials is generally such materials provide no accommodation nor warning of failure through
before fracture.
Tmax
c
= TO
It is interesting to note that for or2, and the corresponding principal theless, the maximum shear stress
--.,t. --.-
is
(a)
Fig. 9-4 Mohr's circles for stresses in a circular tube
01 0 2 0 3
462
subjected
to torque.
464
Elastic
Stress
Analysis
and
Design
stress circle constructing cr3, as shown in justifying the drawing of the For ductile materials, the shown earlier in Fig. 4-9, at If, alternatively, the material teristic fracture along a helix,
for
has
K i 10 r 1P ---250J
(a)
-500
[*-4o
lO
two small circles shown. strength in shear is smaller than in tension, failure, a square fracture occurs across is stronger in shear than it is in tension, shown in Fig. 4-10, is observed.
a me a
K
(b)
I
E 40 kN
EXAMPLE
9-4
A 40 x 300 mm rectangular
9-5(a). stresses vertical condition,
element
elastic
beam
spans
1000
mm,
as shown
in mm in
A
This
to prevent lateral buckling. (a) Determine the L', and K' caused by the application of a conce at midspan to the top of the beam. (b) For the on an inclined plane defined by 0 = +30
(d)
40
kN
--
16.67
MPa
Solution
Mohr's
circle
of stress
(i)
for
point
(a) At section K-K', the shear is 40 kN and the bending moment acting in the directions shown in Fig. 9-5(c). No shear stresses act on elements K and K' as they are at the beam Therefore, the principal stresses at these points fol ow directly by
6-21.
O'KrK'
Mc
6M
is 10
MPa,
-15.59
MPa
;2'37
45
6 x
10
106
by reducing
by
them
by a ratio
direction
are
zero.
These
(f)
Eq. 7-6 in Fig.
(g)
t __ 5 MPa
5 MPa
5 MPa
1..11MPa
06 MPa
(i)
of the distances
Afghj
140
L and
from
L' fol ow
the neutral
from
axis
the
to the ele
15.56 0.644 MPa
previous
corresponding area
obtained
MPa
_ 40 X 103 X 40 X 10 X 145
40 x 3003/12 x 40 in Figs. 9-5(e) and (g). is employed for obtaining are shown on a rotated
obtain the results. Note
0.644
MPa
(h)
--
16.67
MPa
Fig.
9-5
These Mohr's
results
Point
the
Fig.
1 of
9-5(i),
Section
circle and
8-7
element
the
principal in Fig.
invariance
stresses 9-5(e).
of the
the right face of the element at M acts in the same direction as the internal at section KK'. Its magnitude can be obtained by applying Eq. 7-6, or
+
corresponding
shown
i.e.,
hence,
of Fig. 9-5(0.
no flexural
The shear
stress
acts on
stress
stresses, solution
element
i.e.,
for
crx + cry = cr! + cr2 or -15.56 the principal stresses at point L'
in Fig. 9-5(g).
by using
Tmax = 2 A
3 V
1.5
40 x 300
40
103
= 5 MPa
465
466
Elastic
Stress
Analysis
71 =0
and
Design
9-3. with
Accuracy solution.
of
Beam Such
Solutions a com-
467
87.63
r 0.03 MPa
16.67
15.59 MPa
_
Fig. major
Behavior
2.37
MPa ~
5 MPa
i K'
2.37
:5 MPa
9-6
(a) principal
of
Behavior
stress
the minor
6.67
87.63-
(b)
0.03
MPa
of the symmetry of the problem, only one-half of the beam was using 450 finite elements. Z The contour lines for the principal stresses are shown in Fig. 9-7(a). point lying on a stress contour has a principal stress of the same and sign, with tensile stresses being positive. In this diagram, the major principal stresses are shown by black lines, and the minor prinal stresses are shown in color. Comparisons between the elementary
finite-element solutions of the normal stress distribution across sec-
Because
parison
is made
here
with
a finite-element
solution,
shown
in Fig.
9-7.
a 2 =0
(a)
principal
stress
2.
The
pure
shear
stress
transformed
into
the
principal
stresses'according
It is significant to further examine qualitatively the results obtained. For purpose, the computed principal stresses actbzg on the corresponding 1 shown in Figs. 9-6(a) and (b). In Fig. 9-6(a), the characteristic behavior of major (tensile) principal stress at a section of a rectangular beam can be This stress progressively diminishes in magnitude from a maximum value to zero at K. At the same time, the corresponding directions of el through 90 . A similar observation can be made regarding the minor (com principal stress _ shown in Fig. 9-6(b).
(b) To application find the stresses of Eqs. 8-1 acting on a plane of 0 = and 8-2 using the stresses +30 through point L', shown on the left ele:
6 is shown
on a rotated
element
in Fig.
9-5(f).
K-K'
in Fig. 9-7(b) and that for the shear stress in Fig. is seen to be excellent. However, section K-K' is the applied concentrated force P and the concenthese points, locally large perturbations in stresses
Fig.
9-5(g)
and 20 = 60 is made.
+ 15.56
resembling those shown earlier in Figs. 2-30 and 2-31. However, to the Saint-Venant principle, local stresses rapidly diminish a regular statically equivalent stress pattern sets in. In practice, large ;ses at concentrated forces are reduced by applying them over an to obtain an acceptable bearing pressure. Theoretically, in an elastic the stress at a concentrated force is infinite. In reality, some plastic solution
employing isoparametric technique enables the use where the stresses vary in the FEAP program through stresses. the thickness, the plate
was
obtained
using
the
forces,
Since
in a two-dimensional
across
plate
or0TO -These
2
-results
8-7 can
+ -sin
are
be
+ 15.56
2
60 +
cos (-0.644)
60 + cos
9-50). The
same
(-0.644) 60 =
sense
results.
sin -7.06
of the
60 = MPa
+11.11
stresses plane
in the thickness
of finite
FEAP
computer
thickness,
elements. An automatic meshsmaller elements at concenthan elsewhere. Conventional in the previous solutions cited.
program
developed
by
the
the stresses
in-plane
average are
stresses
values called
vary
gen-
of
15.56
Symm.
K -25
15.3
MPa
(16.67)
shown
in Fig.
sheafing
stress
'r0 '
-25
posite "wedge
Section
in Fig. explained
to
8-4(b),
obtain
since in Example
the
quantity Mohr's
is negative. circle
300 -10i
-15 i -5
-15
-5 , Finite
solution
5.0
MPa
-251
+5
+25
;
9-3.
Comparative
Accuracy
of Beam
Solutions
'N
The solution in the previous example for a beam considering flexure shear is based on stresses initial y obtained using the conventional mulas of engineering mechanics of solids. These formulas are sential y assuming that plane sections in a beam remain ing. Since this basic assumption is not entirely true in all cases, solutions can be referred to as elementary. Therefore, it is
-16.6
<
Fig. 9-7 (a) Principal stress
500 mm
(a)
(-16.67)
element I / (5.0)
J
L'
MPa
/J
,Elementary
solution
Shear
stress
(c)
(b)
)aftsons
between elementary
elementary
contours
solutions
and
finite in (b)
for
Example
9-4 beam
determined
by finite
and
shear
elements.
stresses
(b) and
at section
(c)
K-K'.
Symm.
Methods
Analysis
of Stress
Analysis
469
-5
-+2
-10
-25
Methods
procedures
of Stress
method are
contours
Fig.
9-8
Principal
for
left
half
stress
300
of a
1250 mm
the past, when mathematical )ossible to apply, the photoelastic .y used to solve practical tration factors cited in this text
ental work. Accurate stresses
became too cumbersome of stress analysis was Many of the stress-concendrawn or verified by such
specimen can be found
or exexan
Using
yielding,
force.
this
'over
method.
by the modem two
3 This
traditional
numerical
area
techniques.
ofphotoelasticity
An preceding il ustration
has been
largely
of such
reducing
the
stress,
takes
place
in the
proximity
+5
of the
MPa correst
approach
using
finite
solutions
elements
cited
has been
in the
shown
a few
section.
times
Nevertheless,
in this
text,
precisely stress
the principal
percent
stresses
to note from Fig. 9-7(a) that the than half of the span. This condition
photoelastic
remain hic,
The beam is relatively short, having a length to depth ratio of 3.1 is instructive to compare this solution with that for the somewhat similar beam having a length to depth ratio of 8.33, which is shown Fig. 9-8. For this beam of 2500~mm span, the applied concentrated P = 32 kN. One--half of this beam was analyzed using 900 finite According to elementary solutions, the maximum bending stress at N is the same as in the previous case. However, here the shear stres the neutral axis is 2 MPa. In the figure, the principal stresses of magnitude define the neutral axis in the elementary solution. In to the earlier case, it is seen that the neutral plane extends across the entire length of the beam. The stress disturbances caused
the concentrated force as well as reactions are much more
of the elementary
the neutral axis in the elementary bottom of the beam below force
element
M in Fig.
9~5(0,
solution. P is
and
useful in special applications. Moreover, several additional procedures became available. Among these, the Moir, holand laser speckle interferometries are playing an increasingly role. These methods are discussed in specialized texts. 4 Howterminology developed primarily in two-dimensional photois in general use and is given for reference. preceding section, the principal stresses of the same algebraic provided a "map" of stress contours. Similarly, the points at directions of the minor principal stresses form a constant angle
since the principal stresses
techniques
augmented
with
computers
have
now
advanced
stresses x axis. The stresses arallel directions. This line is called an isoclinic line. The adjective 'linic is derived from two Greek words, isos, meaning equal, and klino, slope or incline. Three isoclinic lines can be found by inspection in a rectangular prismatic beam subjected to transverse load acting normal to its axis. The lines corresponding to the upper and lower boundaries of
mutually
perpendicular, the direction of the major principal the same points also forms a constant angle with the so connected is a locus of points along which the principal
Further,
the
maximum
bending
stress
at point
is within
less
percent
from the applied force P, this solution again provides an example Venant's principle, and the elementary formula is sufficiently For beams carrying distributed loads, stress perturbations
marily at the supports.
of the
elementary
solution.
Since
point
N is a beam
depth
occur
For the previous reasons, the elementary formulas of the mechanics are generally considered to be sufficiently accurate usual design. They are also indispensable for the preliminary complex members, where subsequently a member is analyzed by
method such as by finite elements. analytical
that
for
analytical solution shows that it approaches lution with an increasing ratio of the beam Photoelasticity, Vol. I (New York: Wiley, 468
short
bending
and
given
elementary
in
theory.
3 Figure
4 See
9-A shows regularly spaced and perturbed fringes at concentrated load These photoelastic fringes provide a map for the dif erence in principal rhey do not directly give contours for selected stresses as does the finitemethod.
Fig.
9-A
Fringe
beam. by R. W.
photograph
the See
M.
M.
Clif s,
A.
S. Kobayashi
NJ:
Prentice-Hall,
(ed.),
1987).
Handbook
on Experimental
Mechanics
(Engle-
Sec.
9-6.
Design
of Torsion
Members
47i
tional
Fig. 9-9 trajectories
beam.
area,
where
the
stress
is a maximum.
This
requires
the
use
of net,
Principal
for
stress a rectangular
a beam
form
two
isoclinic
lines
neutral
as,
axis,
at the
where
boundary,
the
pure
flexural
stresses
are
stress
the
is zero
principal
at the
stresses
and
act parallel
to the
only
boundaries.
shear
The
rather than gross, cross-sectional areas. If an cross-.sectional area is imposed by the design Eq. 2-19, Crm = KP/A, is appropriate. The necessary in the design of machine parts to concentrations where fatigue failure may occur. tures, such as buildings, stress concentration
(see Fig. 2-35). Besides the normal stresses, given by the stresses act on inclined planes. Therefore, if strength in comparison to its strength in tension along planes approximating the planes of as discussed in Section 8-20. However, regardless may actually take place, the allowable loaded members is customadhly based on the ered
abrupt discontinuity in the requirements, the use of use of the lat er formula is account for the local stress In design of static strucfactors are seldom considprevious equations, shear a material is weak in shear or compression, it wil the maximum shear stress of the type of fracture stress for design of axial y normal stress. This design
ultimate occur
These pure shear stresses transform into principal stresses, all of act at an angle of 45 with the axis of the beam. Hence, another iso. line (the 45 isoclinic) is located on the axis of the beam. The other i
lines are curved and are more dif icult to determine.
Another
set
of curves
can
be drawn
for
a stressedbody
for
which
magnitude and the sense of the principal stresses many points. A curve whose tangent is changing
with the direction of the principal stresses
is called
a principal
to
at a
procedure
withstand
trajectory or isostatic line. Like the isoclinic lines, the principal trajectories do not connect the points of equal stresses the directions of the principal stresses. Since the principal stresses at point are mutually perpendicular, the principal stress trajectories for two principal stresses form a family of orthogonal (mutually ular) curves. 5 An example of idealized stress trajectories for a rectan
beam loaded with a concentrated force at the midspan is shown in
the
some
maximum
is consistent.
normal
is directly the
The
maximum
actual
related
stress
can be considered
to consider use of Eqs.
govern the
normal
stress
as the ultimate
that
a matedhal
can
strength.
The
trajectories by solid
the
2-7 selection
of In
of members.
point
(not of application
9-7(a).
Explicit formulas for elastic design of circular tubular and solid shafts are provided in Section 4-6. Some stress concentration factors essential in design of such members subjected to cyclic loading are given in Section 4-7. Large local shear stresses can develop at changes in the cross-see-
walled
area.
tubular
Stress-analysi
members
are given
provided.
for
formulas
formulas
in Sections
for
for
by
for some
noncircular
calculating stress-concentration
4-14
and 4-16.
the
members
solid
and
stif nesses
In these
thin-
of
of torsion
an axial y
Design of Axial y Loaded Members loaded tnsile members and short compression for strength using Eq. 1-16, i.e., A = P/cruow.
loaded member occurs at a section
analogous situation is found in fluid fluid flow problems, the streamlines and system of curves, the flow net.
of minimum
The
members
critical
where
in
torsion members are designed This amounts to a direct use ) failure. However, it is well to bear stress, which occurs in torsion, can stresses, and, in brit le matedhals, tensile tensile principal stress. A similar approach is used in the mechanical equipment. However, in to carrying a torque, also act as beams.
until Section 9-10.
types
Most
of cross
sections.
selecting an allowable shear maximum shear theory of in mind that a state of pure shear be transformed into the principal fractures may be caused by the
the
in
6 Slender
compression
members
are discussed
in Chapter
11.
470
472
Elastic
Stress
Analysis
and
Design
Sec.
9.7.
Design
Criteria
for
Prismatic
Beams
473
9-'7
Design
Criteria
for
Prismatic
Beams
If a beam is subjected to pure bending, its fibers are assumed to be state of uniaxial stress. If, further, a beam is prismatic, i.e., of a cross-sectional area and shape, the critical section occurs at the
M/m. After the required section modulus is known, a beam of, proportions can be selected. However, if a beam resists shear in to bending, its design becomes more involved. Consider the prismatic rectangular beam of Example 9-4 at a 250 mm from the left support, where the beam transmits a bendin and a shear; see Fig. 9-10(a). The principal stresses at points K, L L', and K' at this section were found before and are reproduced in 9-10(b). If this section were the critical section, it is seen that the of this beam, based on the maximum normal stress theory, governed by the stresses at the extreme fibers as no other stresses, these stresses. For a prismatic beam, these stresses depend only on magnitude of the bending moment and are largest at a section where maximum bending moment occurs. Therefore, in ordinary design it is necessary to perform the combined stress analysis for interior the example considered, the maximum bending moment is at the
For made
of
compre.
cross from
tst be examined.
ssion,
sections material
may
to the
the largest
Under The
without that
two
moments
some
has
circumstances,
of both
the
of symmetry, properties
senses
a smaller
(positive
or negative)
moment
of the section
greatest modulus
bending of such
moment. a beam
can
By
assigning be determined
an allowable using
Eq.
stress 6-21,
one
relation
sense
sense.
cause
section
a more
at which
extreme
stress
than
fiber
a larger
stress
of either
moment
sign
of
respective
allowable
stress
is highest
is the
critical
sec-
as may
tent.
the
stresses
by the
at a section
mo-
nitude of the shear remains At a small distance a from 40 kN, whereas the bending shear stress at the neutral
control
the
design.
In the
constant at every section through the beam. the fight support, the maximum shear is stil moment, 40a kN.m, is small. The maximum axis corresponding to V = 40 kN is the same
for any prismatic this criterion,
example
considered,
Fig.
9-10,
the
mag-
of the
span.
Th
foregoing
may
be generalized
design transverse
ment
of prismatic forces
reaches its
beams: acting
absolute
may
where to work
of
with the maximum shear stress that may be obtained from Eq. = VQ/It, and not transform *m SO found into the principal stresses. For rectangular and I beams, the maximum shear stress given by Eq. 76 reduces to Eqs. 7-8a and 7-10, *m = (3/2)V/A and (Tmax)appro x =
Whether section
respectively. the section where the shear
260
(a)
,0 kN
bending
moment
governs
allowable
the
bending
beam
able
shear
depends
stress
on the loading
is less
and
the material
used.
Generally
For
the allowexample,
10kN'm
40 kN 80 kN
for steel, the ratio betweefi these allowable stresses is about 1/2, whereas for some woods, it may be as low as 1/15. 8 Regardless of these ratios of stresses, the bending stresses usually control the selection of a beam. Only in beams spanning a short distance does shear control the design. small lengths of beams, the applied forces and reactions have small and the required resisting bending moments are small. On the other hand, the shear forces may be large if the applied forces are
..
(b)
5
16.67 MPa
15.59
large.
The
two
are
criteria
in dif erent
for
the
design
locations.
of beams
However,
are
accurate
in some
if the
instances
two
the
critical
max-
sections
imum through
"'"*'"'K'
16.67
L = 1000 mm
bending moment and the maximum shear the beam. In such situations, sometimes
as given consider by Eqs. 6-21 an I beam
parallel
occur higher
section stresses
? At point
8 Wood
M, the shear
is weak in shear
stresses
strength
are shown
transformed
to its grain.
into
the principal
Fig.
940
474
and Design
;ses increase linearly with the span
of Prismatic
the shear
Beams
stresses
475
.__10,,4 P=18.44k
1'
20" (a)
0.51
2
:emain come
ments.
constant. Hence, in most cases, the bending stresses d. ominant. Therefore, generally, it is necessary to perform stress analysis only for very short beams or in unusual
9.22
(b)
diagrams.
the previous discussion, it is seen that, for the design of prismatic the critical sections must be determined in every problem, as the is entirely based on the stresses developed at these sections. The sections are best located with the aid of shear and bending-moment such
5.
(a)
The
diagrams.
required
The
values
construction
of Mm
is discussed
easily
in
2.50
ksi
. .-r
.81
, 1.84
_ 2.81
2.50
2.81
ksi
9-8.
prismatic
sections
Design
noted
;ctions.
of Prismatic
is controlled
section,
Beams
section usually occurs where the bending moother where the shear is a maximum. These determined with the aid of shear and moment
in the preceding
0.5'
.50
(c) (d)
beams
by the maximum
the
customary
stresses
approach
at the
for
design
critical
of
Fig.
9-11
a force moment
P at the occurs
either
side
the
of the
applied
force.
the
At
maximum
diagrams.
9 In most
cases,
the absolute
maximum
moment,
Likewise,
i.e.,
the above
a simple diagram,
(b)
whether
Design
shear
same
a section
just it,
A section acting
that the
on
moment and the to the left of P, with the is shown in Fig. 9-11(b).
at the extreme
just
to the
right
or
stresses
2.50
the ksi,
ki,
whereas
the
principal
stresses
at the
juncturd
of the
web
+0
allowable
location and
weight of the beam, is shown in Fig. 9-12(a) as it is ordinarily by assuming the applied force concentrated at a point. In Fig. an allowance is made for the width of the applied force and reassuming them uniformly distributed along the beam. Note that case, the design shears are less than the applied force.
stresses
;the
Fig.
9-12
Design
shear.
flanges, neglecting stress concentrations, are +2.81 ksi and acting as shown in Figs. 9-11(c) and (d). It is customary not to consider directly the effect of the local on longitudinal stresses in the neighborhood of an applied corn
In most
the
and
cases,
of the same
the
to be used in design are prescribed by various the designer must fol ow a code, depending instal ation. In dif erent codes, even for the same use, the allowable stresses dif er.
In
= M/S
elastic
design,
allowable
after
the
Then
stresses
critical
the
values
are
selected,
of moment
the
beam
and
is usually
shear
are
As
force. Instead, as indicated is resolved by requiring force so as to obtain an such as wood, this may spread the effect of the
From always
normal
this occur
stresses
example, at the
and
in Section 9-4, the problem of local a sufficiently large contact area for the acceptable bearing stress. For some require the use of steel bearing plates in concentrated force. it is seen that the maximum normal stress does extreme fibers. Nevertheless, only the
maximum shear stress at the neutral axis
designed
or rrm
to resist
= Mc/I).
a maximum
moment
beam
is checked
using
Eq.
for
6-13
shear
or 6-21
stress.
(O'm
most ient.
the
investigated
in ordinary
design.
higher same
In design
low
codes,
the
allowable
are presumably set sufficiently remains, even though the increasing a span for the
so that an adequate factor of combined stresses are disregarded. applied concentrated force, the
9 With experience, reactions are computed mined, the maximum by using the method
for the
maximum
construction of complete and a section where moment corresponding of sections. For simple
shear and moment.
diagrams may be avoided. V = 0 or a change of sign to this section may be found loadings, various handbooks
have dif erent properties
0 This
and compression.
is not always
true
for materials
that
476
Elastic
beam
total
Stress Analysis
method cross
allowable
and Design
stress
the
area
of Prismatic
times
Beams
greater
477
The
used section.
is 1.5 times
VQ/It,
the
vertical
in computing the shear For rectangular sections, average stress, Eq. 7-8. For
shear ig taken
By arbitrarily
its
width
b, from
assutning
Eq.
that
6-22,
the depth
bh 2
6
h of the beam
h 3
12
is to be two
as the
wide
by an allowable
is used.
shear
stress,
Eq.
%10.
For
other
cases,
Eq.
7~6,
a staraced 106 mm 3, be used Let
the required h = 247
=--=
1.25
106
Usually, there are several types or sizes of commercial y members that may be used for a given beam. Unless specific size tations are placed on the beam, the lightest member is used for ect The procedure of selecting a member is a trial-and-error process.
For beams with statically applied there is an increasing trend to design behavior. This approach is considered
EXAMPLE 9-5
mm
and
b = 123
having
mm.
For
103
Eq.
S = 1.34 7-8a,
of allowable
It should
also
defldctions.
be noted
This
that
topic
some
loads, such as occur in buil them on the basis of inelastic in Chapter 13.
is treated
beams
must
in the next
be
selected
chapter.
on
the
*m
stress is well within
- 2A
the
3 X 8 X
2 x 140
allowable limit.
x 240
Hence,
the
beam
is satisfactory.
Note
:ssed
that
other
proportions
of the beam
can be used,
which
units.
to the gives
and a more
wanted properties
section
direct
modulus of standard
method
sections
cross allowable
Mm
Shear shown,
From
S =
diagrams in Figs:
M allow
Eq.
-
6-21,
section to carry two stress in bending is 8 to the grain of the wood, 1.4
tial y
The
analysis is unknown.
was
0.681
kN-m moment
in Fig. 9-13(d),
the
distributed
where
for the beam's own weight, which inioften make an allowance for the weight However, this may be accounted for now. Assuming 3, the beam selected weighs 0.218 kN per linear meter. load causes a parabolic bending-moment diagram, This bending-moment by the applied
moment section x
the maximum
ordinate
forces.
bending required
due modulus
diagram Inspection
is woL2[8
= 0.218
x 52/8 =
10 =
to
1.25
10 amm
+10
3
kN 'm
S surfaced
.10.68
106
O'al o w
= 1.34
selected
x 106 mm 3
provides the required
at applied
8 kN
8 kN
'25m--I ' 2m
I
kN
o
kN
(c)
+0.681 kN-m
In order
to avoid
be
140 by 240 mm
the
adequate bearing areas for these forces of the beam, such areas A at the four
P
tralo,
crushing
beam
of wood
already
at the
supports
and
Neglectto Eq.
coneen-
S.
8 x
1.4
103
5710
mm
--
-B
(b)
minimum
These areas can be provided by conservatively specifying on at least 50 by 140 mm (7000 mm 2) supports, whereas 80 by 80 mm (6400 mm 2) steel washers be used.
...... ,--=
ends
Fig.
9-'13
(e)
478
Elastic
Stress
Analysis
2 k/ft
and
Design
Sec.
9-8.
Design
of Prismatic
Beams
479
the
direct
stress
on
area,
(a
+ k)t
at the
ends
and
(a
+ 2k)t
at the
interior
a and or interior
values
Fig.
+10.24 k-ft
9-1](b),
manufacturers'
of a flange
t is the thickness
to the
rule,
toe
of the
of the web,
web
Eftlet.
of k and
from
t are
the outer
tabulated
catalogues.
6.4
25.6
For
support
this
example,
to the
assuming
are
gyp
as fol ows:
= 36 ksi,
the minimum
widths
of the
supports,
(a)
A: 27(a + k)t
= 0.09 in
+6,4
+12.0
6.4
or
27(a
+ 7/8)
x 0.245
6.4
-36
(c)
-13,6 k
support 27(al
al
27(a
+ 2 x 7/8)
x 0.245
= 25.6
Fig.
9-14
(b)
EXAMPLE
9-6
requirements
or a wide-flange
beam, creator,
can
easily
be met
in an actual
case.
Select
9-14(a).
Solution
k
an I beam
For the
steel
= 24 ksi' and
The Figs.
6-21,
shear 9-14(b)
and
and
the
(c),
bending-moment respectively.
36
beam
to support
the
load
shown
in
The
preceding
have
for
the
loaded moment
which
two
examples
are
il ustrate
in flexure.
the design
of beams
whose
cross
to
of as much
18.0
in 3
(a)
Examination a section
modulus
shows
weighing
wide-flange for
that 24.7
this lb/ft
requirement (S = I/c
the
f
=
material as possible away from the neutral axis results in the best sections resisting flexure, Fig. 9-16(a). Material concentrated near the outside works at a high stress. For this reason, I-type sections, which approximate this requirement, are widely used in practice. The previous statements apply for materials having nearly equal propin tension and compiession. If this is not the case, a deliberate shift
neutral
wide
6-5).
axis
use oft
from
and
the
channel
midheight
sections
position
for
is desirable.
such materials
This
(see
accounts
Example
(S = W8
Finally, two other items warrant particular attention in the design beams. In many cases, the loads for which abeam is designed are transient character. They may be placed on the beam all at once, piecemeal,
locations.
structure itself,
of
(Tmax)approx
This
..
which live
are loads.
not
a part
They
()
A,eb
0.245
7.93
7.00
ksi
(b)
Fig.
9-t5
stress is below the allowable value, and the selected beam is At the supports or concentrated forces, S and wide-flange beams checked for crippling of the webs. This phenomenon is il ustrated at the of Fig. 9-15(a). Crippling of the webs is more critical for members with thin than direct bearing of the flanges, which may be investigated as in the example. To preclude crippling, a design rule is specified by the AISC. It
the highest possible stresses in a beam. In many cases, the placement may be determined by inspection. For example, in a simple beam a single moving load, the placement of the load at midspan causes largest bending moment, whereas placing the same load very near to causes the greatest shear. For most building work, the live load, supposedly provides for the most severe expected loading condiis specified in building codes on the basis of a load per unit floor Multiplying this live load by the spacing of parallel beams gives the
(a)
(b)
Fig.
inefficient flexure.
9-t6
(a)
Efficient
sections for
and
(b)
48O
Elastic
Stress
Analysis
and
Design
Sec.
9-9.
Design
of Nonprismatic
Beams
the
live load per unit length is added to the dead weight force is delivered to a beam
Section 10-11.
For or
the
by
bending
Eq. 6-21:
moment,
the
required
section
modulus
at an
arbitrary
section
is
Px
CTallow
second item pertains if not held laterally, may buckle sideways is given in Section
to lateral instability of beams. The may be so narrow in relation to the and collapse. Special consideration, 11-14.
O'al ow
great
The
many
that
the
cross-sectional
beam
wil
be of rectangular
areas
satisfy
is given
this
cross
requirement;
section
and
so, first,
of constant
it wil
height
be
section
modulus
for
this
beam
by Eq.
6-22
as bh2/6
= S; hence,
9-9.
It should
Design
of Nonprismatic
from the preceding
Beams
discussion that the sole.
the is not: of Since shown, to resist constant where the the stroh the b
the
be apparent
----expression = L, the
width
or
like the wedge
b of the
-Crylow or
b =
u shown
beam
2nan
in Fig.
strength
x =-x
to bo/L, a constant
(9-1)
so that depth
a prismatic beam is based only on the stresses at the all other sections through the beam, the stresses wil able level. Therefore, the potential capacity of a given utilized. This situation may be improved by designing cross section, i.e., by making the beam nonprismatic. stresses control the design of most beams, as has been sections may everywhere be made just strong enough responding moment. Such beams are called beams of Shear governs the design at sections through these beams ing moment is .small.
EXAMPLE 9-7
a plan
wedge
m P.
view
must
looks
or breadth
-
9-17(c).
to resist
Near
the
the free
shear
end,
force
be modified
If the
width
is constant,
h = h o (9-2)
Design
at the
Solution
a cantilever
end. Neglect
of constant
the beam's
strength
own weight.
bh2 Px f 6Px NON-ACTIVATED VERSION This expression indicates that a cantilever of constant width loaded www.avs4you.com
6 bg'al ow
also
of constant
strength
f its height
varies
parabolically
from
the
free
at the end is
end, Fig.
in many to a diagram
in Fig. middle near
for resisting
Beams
beam
the -18(b).
cast
strength are used in leaf springs and In structural work, an approximation made. For example, the moment
with
a concentrated moment
force
diagram
applied is plot ed
in Fig. 9-18(a) is given by lines AB and BC of flexural capacity equal only to M, the However, cover plates can be provided
(x/L)
is not of constant cross-sectional area, the use of the eleis not entirely correct. When the angle included by the of the wedge is small, lit le error is involved. As this angle becomes large, error may be considerable. An exact solution shows that when the total inangie is 40 , the solution is in error by nearly 10 percent.
height
view
Since
this flexure
(a)
Beam
of constant
(c) Plan
(a)
-PL
(b)
L
Beam of constant width b
D--
I B
Fig. 948 Coverplated I beam.
(b)
Fig.
9-17
(d)
Side
view
482
and Design
1g-tooth sprocket 13-tooth sprocket
of Complex
reducer
Members
7.313" pitch diameter
P2
(b)
(c) pitch
0
diameter (b)
(c)
-3.13
k-in
Fig.
9-t9
Leaf
spring.
-6.27
k-in
the
the
required
middle
of the
value
beam
of the
to boost
maximum
the length
moment.
flexural DE
For
capacity
the
case
of the and
shown,
composite
Moment
diagram
for
P1
the
cover
must
extend
at least
over
the
of the
beam,
a beam
in practice
of constant
-4.55 k-in
in a routine manner times the size of a ysis performed at this type may require creasing frequency experimental methods
not be sufficiently
9-10. In many
Design instances,
as was done in the preceding simple examples. member must be assumed and a complete stress sections where the stresses appear critical. Desi several revisions. Finite-element analyses are used in such cases for final design. are also resorted to since elementai3
accurate.
Moment
diagram
20
forP
Y
-6.27 k-in
Moment diagrams
(d) ov
x
k-in
10
k-in
Torque
diagra
.m
for
(e)
P1 and
P2
Fig.
9-20
As a last example in this chapter, lyzed. A direct analytical procedure of great importance in the design
F. XAM PLE 9-8
'
to Eq.
= (63,000)20/63
the
= 20,000
torque
lb-in Similarly,
delivered
= 20 k-in.
to shaft
Hence,
segment
torques
CD
is T = 63,000(hp/
T and k. The T2 delivered pull P on
Since chain
=
chains at sprocket
10/(7.313/2)
the
1.88
Select the size of a solid steel shaft to drive the two sprockets shown in 20(a). These sprockets drive l{-in pitch roller chains, 2 as shown in Figs. and (c). Pitch diameters of the sprockets shown in the figures are from ufacturer's catalogue. A 20-hp speed-reducer unit is coupled directly to and drives it at 63 rpm. At each sprocket, 10 hp is taken off. Assume the
shear theory of failure, and let xatow = 6 ksi.
T and
force a torque
in Fig. freesubjected
is simultaneously
are best studied with the aid 9~20(e)-(g). Next, note that resultant of the moments
has a circular cross section.
2 Similar
sprockets
and
roller
chains
are commonly
used
on bicycles.
484
Elastic
Stress
Analysis
and
Design
Problems
485
0=?
By
imum
keeping shear
the stress,
Eq. and
8-9, torsion
giving
to
the
be ding
q_ Ttrsin 2
o=
Mc
57
However, 4-2, and since for a circular cross c = d/2, the last expression section, reduces
+
J = 21, to Eq. 6-20, J = 'rrdn/3Z
Fig.
9-2t
Analysis
stress
of a
used
in practice,
the
reader
is cautioned
in applying
them.
4 In
_ __
By
is
16
rd 3
X/M
to *m,
2 +
T 2
a design formula, based ont
maximum
assigning
shear
as
the
theory
allowable
n of failure,
shear
stress
for
a shaft
subjected
to bending
and
obtained
machines, shaft diameters change abruptly, giving rise to stress :entrations. In stress analysis, this requires the use of stress~concenfactors in bending, which are usually dif erent from those in torTherefore, the problem should be analyzed by considering the actual .,sses at the critical section. (See Fig. 9-21.) Then an appropriate pro:edure, such as Mohr's circle of stress, should be used to determine the ant stress, depending on the selected fracture criteria.
I 16 d = ' owVU2
This jected
convince
section
the reader
Thus,
that the
+ T 2 is largest
2 + (Mhoriz) 2 + 9.102
T2
roblems
at sprocket
C; hence,
Stress
the
M.
shear
9-3. A cylindrical thin-walled tank weighing 100 lb/ft is supported as shown in the figure. If, in addition, it is subjected to an internal pressure of 200 psi, what state of stress would develop at points A and B? Show
the the results tank is on isolated-elements. 10 in and its thickness The mean is 0.20 in. radius Comment of
M 2 + T 2 = (Mvert) = (6.27/2)
2 q- T 2 + 202 = 492.k2~in
the
plane
of failure.
on
the
the
total
importance
stresses.
of the
dead
weight
of the
tank
on
9-2.
In a research necessary
of a tube.
investigation to control
In one such
the
tsly
subjected
The
tube
What
of
was
and simultane100 mm
of
in
the
20"
with
at
4-mm was
walls.
surface
were
the wall
the to 1.5
prinMPa
if the
chamber
pressurized
I'*jA 8'-3'
Fig. P9-3
the
externally
applied
torque
was
200
N-m?.
The effect of shock load on the shaft has been neglected analysis. For some equipment, where its operation is jerky, requires special consideration. The initial y assumed allowabie sumably allows for keyways and fatigue of the material. Although Eq. 9-3 and similar ones based on other failure
3 See Prob. 9-50 for the formula based on the maximum
this stress
and Design (New York: Elsevier, C. E. Wilson, Machine Design, J. E. Shigley, Mechanical McGraw-Hil , 1977). M. F. Spotts,
relevant References
4 For further
details
on mechanical
design
Clif s,
on steel,
NJ:
Prentice
aluminum
Hall,
of Chapter in reinforced
alloys,
1985).
design,
A. D. Deutschman, W. J. Michaels, and Practice (New York: Macmil an, Design, 3rd ed. (New York: of Machine Elements, 6th ed. (Enwood
are
see A. H. Burr,
Mechanical
Anal-
11.
and
concrete
structures,
given after
see
Example
the
references
6-14.
486
Elastic
Stress
Analysis
and
Design
4kN
Problems
10"
100 50 150
mm
487
9-4. A cylindrical pressure vessel and its contents are lifted by cables, as shown in the figure. The mean diameter of the cylinder is 600 mm and its wall thickness is 6 mm. Determine the state of stress at.points A and
B and show the calculated results on isolated elements
when
vessel's
the
vessel
mass
is pressurized
is 102 kg/m.
4kN
to 0.50
MPa
and
the
90
View a-a
Fig.
2 300 600
mm
P9-8
2000 mm
element.
(b)
What
maximum
shear
stress
de-
s in the
circles
element?
of stress
should
(Caution:
be examined.)
All
three
principal
L1000-10C )4
Fig. P9-4
ooo
mm
lOOO
mm
A cylindrical thin-walled pressure vessel rigidly a wall, as shown in the figure, is subjected an internal pressure of p and an externally applied
T. Due a-a
T. The
Fig.
P9-10
Fig.
P9-6
x. vy,
of the
stresses Deter-
9-1t.
mm
9-5. A cylindrical pressure vessel of 2500-mm eter with walls 12 mm thick operates at 1.5 ternal pressure. If the plates are butt-welded helical spiral (see figure), determine the stresses
norma[ and tangential to the weld.
the
ae
internal
mean
thickness
pressure
diameter
is
p and
6 mm.
the
magnitude
vessel is 400
of the
_acting
stresses E at the
cluding
supports
A simple
its
a uniformly
beam
50 x 120 mm
own
weight.
distributed
Determine
load
spans
of 80 kN/m,
1500
mm
and
A, B, C, D, and
the
principal
in-
kN/m
-B
40 lb/h:
45'
(a)
(b)
Fig.
P9-9
-<--500
mm--
'
"O-o
Fig.
1000 mm
in the
__
wooden
figure.
I 120
-7--
P941
Fig.
P9-5
9-6.
mean
A
radius
cylindrical
r = 300
thin-walled
mm and
pressure
thickness
vessel
t = 6 mm
with
is
assembly of seamless stainless steel tubing part of a piping system is arranged as shown figure. A flexible expansion joint is inserted at which is capable of resisting hoop stresses but transno longitudinal force. The tubing is 60 mm in outFig. P9-7
An
ports
9-12.
of the
a 40-kN
wood
A 100
x 400 mm
makes
load,
an angle
as shown
rectangular
beam
the axis
of 20 with
The
of the
grain
sup-
hoisted by two cables into the position shown in the figure. If the vessel is pressurized to 0.50 MPa gage pressure and the vessel weighs 102 kg/m, determine the state of stress at point A. Show the results on a
properly oriented 9-7. A fractionating 12-in-inside-diameter isolated element.
what
your
is the
calculated
state need
of
of stress
stresses on
at point
an isolated
B.
Show
from
the
elements
is presat points
the
force.
shear wood
cipal
stresses
not
be found.
inside
made
in
and
in the
are
15
outside
calculations.
in mm. No
dimensions
All
stress
of the
dimensions
transformations
tube
shown
need
are
be
on the
re-
40
kN
9-8.
ft long, is made of a steel pipe weighing Appendix.) This pipe as indicated on the pressurized to 600 psi
mean
A cylindrical
diameter 20
thin-wailed
in and thickness
pressure
of
vessel
0.25
column, 45 standard 49.56 lb/ft. (See Table 8 of the is operating in a vertical position, sketch. If this pipe is internally
idly
attached
to.a
wall,
forming
a cantilever,
as
in the applied
= 31.4 caused
figure. and,
k acts at point
If an internal in addition, an
on the A? Show assembly, the results
(a)
pressure
what on a
of 250
of this
system
of piping.
to
and
is subjected
to a wind
load
of 40 lb/ft
of height,
Fig.
P9-12
Elastic
943. A short I beam cantilever is loaded
Stress
as
Analysis
shown in
and
Design
Problems
489
945.
application
The
principal
of force
shear
stress
psi;
at point
see the
A
figure.
the A,
principal B, and
formula
stresses C. Point
Neglect of stress
to
their B is in the
the weight concentrations.
the
and
direcweb at
of the
shear
P is 120
is the
magnitude
of P?
with ignore
accurate
the
determine
9.22
k
A
P
Fig. P9-15
Fig. P9-18
Section
a-a
1 c/
water
946.
At point
pressure
A on the
is -40
kPa,
upstream
and
a measured
face
of a
is 20
shown
By applying
in the
figure,
a vertical
The
exerts
force
a force
P, the toggle
slides
of 1000
lb on
clamp,
9-2t.
A -in-diameter
dril
bit
is inserted
into
a chuck
stress Calculate
them on
object.
prevents
movable
jaw
in a guide
as shown
an axial
k-in act on
in the
force
the
figure.
P = 3.92
bit. If
Duri
k and
a horizontal
ng the
a torque
dril ing
force of
operation,
T =
35.7
Fig.
P943
and
(a) Determine the force P and the at hinge A; (b) thrust, transverse on an element at
10r/128
lb is
944.
'The
cantilever
shown
P acting (a) What an axial
in the figure
is Ioafied
by
A? E = 30 x 106 psi.
cipal strain at A?
(b) What
in the plane of symmetry of is the magnitude of applied strain of 200 p,m/m at point
is the
maximum
prin-
a-a;
cally
stressed
point
on the
P
dril
T
by inspection.
show
the
and principal
circle, maximum
determine
shear
Fig.
P9-t6
A 2~in-diameter shaft is simultaneously to a torque and pure bending. At every the largest principal stress caused loading is +24 ksi and, simultaneously,
longitudinal tensile stress is + 18
ksi.
947.
cipal
A special
as shown
hoist
at point
supports
in the figure.
a 15-k
Determine
load
load.
by
the
the
applied
bending
moment
and
torque.
of a cable,
stresses
A due
to this
<6
the
x in steel
acts least
Compare
the
angle
moment-carrying
in the two
dif erent
capacity
positions
of a 6
6 in
the figure. In both cases, the applied through the shear center. (Hint: Table radius of gyration, r, for the cross
Section
can consist
per
be calculated of two
Eq.
11-19a,
plates.)
directly
Imin
by considering
= Ar2mi,.
Alternatively,
shaft
2"
10"
10"
the
is loaded stresses
in the 10-kN
force
and
the
weight
of the
shaft
and
round
drum
are
Section
a-a
FIg.'P9-t4
Fig.
P9-17
Fig.
P9-20
found to be as fol ows: maximum bending stress MN/m 2, maximum torsional stress is 30 MN/m 2, maximum shear stress due to V is 6 MN/m 2. (a) up elements at points A, B, C, and D and indicate magnitudes and directions of the stresses acting
them. In each case, state from which direction the
490
Elastic
Stress
Analysis
and
Design
200 mm 6 min.
Problems
100
mm
100
mm
i i
i
1?
Fig.
P9-22
ment
is observed.
(b) shear
Using
Mohr's
circle,
find
direc-
tions
the
9-23.
and
maximum
A
magnitudes
circular bar
of the
stress
of 2-in
principal
at point
diameter
stresses
A.
with
and
a rectan-
of
'1212 mm
F = 4.45 N
mmk
30
400 lb
P9-26
gular block attached at its free end is suspended as shqwn in the figure. Also a horizontal force is applied eccentrically to the block as shown. Analysis of the stresses at section ABCD gives the fol owing results: maximum bending stress is 1000 psi, maximum torsional stress is 300 psi, maximum shear stress due to V is 400 psi, and direct axial stress is 200 psi. (a) Set
(The
x axis.)
the
force
stresses
F in plan
Determine
due
view
the
the
acts
magnitudes
elements
in the
and
direction
direct
B at A and
to F on
Using
Mohr's
circle,
maximum normal
find
the
direction
and
the
inagand
(principal) stresses
Fixed end
on elements Principal
clearly stresses
are
at points A and B caused by the applied force stress concentrations. Show the results on viewed from the top. Stress transforto obtain principal stresses are optional. A 2 x 2 in square bar is attached to a rigid supas shown in the figure. Determine the principal at point A caused by force P = 50 lb applied
at these outside points. the pipe. These
Fig.
P9-28
elements
are
to be viewed
from
upwards
250
mm
1000
lb
l[z'
x
= efFor igure, rmi tthhepnree-hi pralesses m m 501 i'n9th-29. thdet ceiercul arienrcist arch rin75 bsged hown
above the centroid of the cross section at section a-
a due structure.
to the
applied Because
ve.rtical of the
load large
on the curvature,
left
half the
of the rib at
14/=
640
lb
Fig.
P9-23
Plan
view
End
view
9-24. clined
cross force maximum
N,
results stress.
to figure.
Determine (b)
an
inThe
the
Fig.
P9-25
the
state
and
of stress
show principal inclined
the
at point
A caused
by
the
Find
applied
9-25.
end
A 50-mm-diameter
to an force F
rod
is subjected
at its
figure.
free
= 225r
N as in the
9-26. A horizontal 12 mm long is attached at of the bar's sides form as shown in the figure. shown), a vertical force through a coruer of the
A 400-lb sign is supported by a 2-in standardsteel pipe, as shown in the figure. The maxihorizontal
to be 90
Fig.
P9-29
wind
lb.
force
Determine
acting
the
on
this
state
sign
of
is esstress
A and B at the builtnot required. Indicate cut out from the pipe
Find the largest bending stress in the figure due to the applied concentrations. All dimensions
for loads.
in the
the
beam Neglect
are
figure
492
2kN
Elastic
Stress
Analysis
and
Design
Section 9-34.
section
Problems
9-8 A Douglas
is loaded
w kN/m
493
20 x 60 intermitw. The ways, as are 4 MPa kPa shear be used,
fir
as
wood
shown
beam
in the
of rectan
figure. What
Side
view
required what
the
are
dressed
sizes
forces
concentrated
Fig.
P9-36
.k 00
ooJooJ:ool
Fig. P9-30
opvlew
4kN
lengths at the supports? In the calculations, the weight of the beam. The allowable stress in i is 1250 psi; in shear, 95 psi; and in pendicular to the grain, 625 psi. Use Table 10 for lumber sectional properties.
9-39. A plastic beam is to be made from two mm pieces to span 600 mm and to carry an tently applied, uniformly distributed load pieces can be arranged in two alternative shown in the figure. The allowable stresses in flexure, 600 kPa shear in plastic, and 400 in glue. Which arrangement of pieces should and what load w can be applied?
wooden beam is to be
A 4 x
6 in (actual
size)
symmetrically
,ads
in the figure. Determine the position and their magnitudes when a bending psi and a shearing stress of 100 psi Neglect the weight of the beam.
loaded
with
two
equal
loads
P,
as
Glue
Fig.
P9-39
-'9-31.
In
a mechanical
device,
a horizontal
rectan-
gular
bar
of length-L
is fixed
at the
rotating
end
Find
and
is loaded
P at the
by a strap
free end,
through
as shown
a bolt
in the
with
a vertical
figures.
force
the
Fig. P9-34
9-40. ning
Consider 24 ft to
two support
1 k/ft.
beams able
Both
beams
beam
designs distributed
for
load
supported.
One
The
of the
allow-
angle c for which the normal stress at A is maximum and locate the neutral axis for the beam in this position. Neglect stress concentration, which would have to be considered in an actual problem.
9-35.
device
lbs. What
A standard-size
shown
size
are
use
'width;
is to be used
a force
fithe
in the
member
figure
to transmit
Fig.
P9-37
should
used
A 12-in
deep
box
Centrated
tp
beam
i?. fbricated
by gluing
ksi psi based on the given sive design, beam termined.) Consider tions; see Tables percentage of the
beam in each
is to be of steel, stresses for steel in shear; and those and 95 psi. (a) Find
the other of wood. are 24 ksi in bending for wood, respectively, the size required for
strength deflections
the beam
criteria. are
weights
a comprehengenerally
in the calcula-
deWhat
of the
4 and
total
10 in the
load is due
(b)
weight
the
case?
of a span
(see
the
figure),
(a) based on the shear capacity of the section, what be the magnitude of the applied force P, (b) how may the span be, and (c) what bearing areas be provided under the concentrated forces? Neglect the weight of the beam. Use Table 10 in the
dressed sizes of wooden pieces. The alstresses are 1200 psi in bending, 120 psi in plywood, 60 psi in shear for glued j0ints, and in compression perpendicular to the grain.
9-4t. Select either an S or a W lightest section for a beam with overhangs for carrying an applied uniformly distributed load of 2 k/ft, as shown in the figure. The specified load includes the beam weight. The allowable
stresses are 24 ksi in bending
2 k/ft
and
14.4
ksi
in shear.
Sections
'9-32. Select
9.5
the 4 kN.m MPa.
and
diameter
9-6.
for the maximum a solid circular steel
Fig.
P9-35
psi
shaft
moment stress
to transmit
is
a torque
if
of 6 kN.m
and
allowable
a bending
shear
Fig.
P9-4t
of 80
'9-33. shear
the the
is 0.80.
For stress
diameter ratio
the given
of
loading in the
condition preceding
to
and problem,
steel the
the
allowable determine
such diameter that
9-36. A standard-size wood beam 16 ft long a uniformly distributed load of 2 k/if, weight, as shown in the figure. (a) I a such that the maximum bending moment
9-42. building
A portion is shown
for
an office spanning
the
lowable
supports
stresses
is numerically
(b) Select minimum the length
given
equal
beam of the
in Prob.
to that
size required supports.
9-34.
over
Use
thei
of the
shaft outside
"*----L/2 a ,
Fig. P9-38
Section
a-a
12 ft are spaced 16 in apart and support a wooden floor above and a plastered ceiling below. Assume that the floor may be loaded by the occupants everywhere by as much as 75 lb per square foot of floor area (live load). Assume further that floor, joists, and ceiling
494
20'
Elastic
Stress
Analysis
and
Design
Problems
495
lb/ft
placement
being
2 of
selected,
floor
etc.,
area
also
(dead
amounts
load).
to approximatel
Use
the
20
kN
(total
per
side)
Direction
/ woodenjoists
for
of
stresses 9-44.
in light
given in part (b) of Prob. A four-wheel car running industrial service. When
is to be a force
to each
respect
axle should
Section
bending
stress to
stress
be 40
to be
MPa.
80 MPa
and
the
allowable
9000mm
Fig. P9-46
30'
(a)
the
Locate moment
maximum
(c)
Determine
the
number
of
board
laminates
foot of the floor area (dead depth required for standard commercial joists nominally 2 in wide. For wood, the allowable bending stress is 1200 psi and the shear stress is 100 psi. (b) Select the size required for steel beam A. Since the joists delivering the load to this beam are spaced closely, assume that the beam is loaded'by a uniformly distributed load. The allowable
weigh load).
square
the
.. 4
I- . .
'the
The 1 MPa
beam.
allowable in shear.
(Hint:
stresses In calculations,
Locate the
are
left
14 MPa neglect
wheel
Fig.
P9-48
a distance
mm-Fig. P9-44
x from
bending
cart for the
the
equal
left
support
beam
and
Setting determines
write
the
moment.)
for
steel respectively.
are
24
ksi Use
bending which-
ever is lighter. Neglect the depth of the column. 9-43. A bay of an apartment house floor is framed as shown in the figure. Determine the required size of minimum weight for steel beam A. Assume that the
for
9-45.
an overhead
figure.
the
so as
A standard
the
and
crane
Determine
maximum
to
moment. to zero
traveling
steel
beam
crane
on
(S shape)
of 4-ton
hanger.
serves
capacity;
as
the
required
size
for
the
9-9
beam
connected.
for
section
force
cause maximum
the
Locate
for each
stresses
Determine
flexural
the
stress
elevation
and
and
circular
plan
cross
of a cantilever
section
the coverplates be cut off?. beam and assume that the and the coverplates are properly interNote that coverplates are usually extended
weight
structural weight
Assume a pinned connection at the wall, the weight of the beam in calculations. stress in bending is 16 ki and that in
a concentrated
the weight of the
force
member.
P applied
at the
end.
a few inches beyond the theoretical Obtain a revised solution if, instead distributed load were applied. Assume
able bending stress is 24 ksi in both
slab, beam
In many
determine
engineering
the
design
magnitudes
problems,
of the
k is very
loads that
act
--Columns
Wall
8'
1 Hanger
6'
on a structure or a machine part. Satisfactory an existing instal ation may provide the xtrapolation. With this in mind, suppose that sign, such as shown in the figure, has persatisfactorily on a 4-in standard steel pipe when
Section
9-t0
9-50.
circular a bending
(a)
shaft
Show
moment
that
simultaneously is
the
larger
principal
subjected
stress
to a torque
for
and
Fig.
P9-45
in fabrication,
the successive
In arranging
to
that the wind pressure on the sign wil be 50 percent greater than it instal ation. Vary the size of the as required; however, for ease
ch = (c/J)(M
(b) Show that the design basis of the maximum-stress
+
formula theory,
+ T 2)
for is shafts, on the
pipe
segments
must
fit
Fig.
P9-43
**9-46. A glued-laminated rail and is loaded by one shown in the figure. The
the
aesthetic
pipe
considerations.
also
For
in
calculations,
neglect
the
and
the
wind
pressure
on the
pipes
themselves.
d = /'rrtr,ow (M + V- + T 2)
/
16
496
9-5. At a critical
Determine
maximum shear
Elastic
Stress
Analysis
and
Design
Problems
Two pulleys
solid is limited
the
497
for shafts with loads by keyways. a shock Since factor the
section,
a solid
circular
shaft
not
shaft
trans-
mits
kN-m.
the
a torque
of 40 kN-m
the size
stress
and
would
a bending
exceed
moment
required
50
of 10
so that
MPa.
in-diameter
9-55.
shaft,
of 4r in radius
which
is supported what
are
attached
9-57.
by largest
direct
A drive
in the figure. the required
shaft
for
The size
two
belt
pulleys
is arranged
Dethat
as
of the
ings,
shear
as shown
stress
that
in the
forces
figure.
to 6 ksi,
F can
If the
assume.
maximum
X,o load,
6000
psi the
shaft
wil
multiply
operate
under
given
conditions
of suddenly
applied
of 1.
is the
9 The
9-52. Rework the preceding problem assuming Cryp = 100 MPa and the safety factor is 2 on the Mises yield criterion given by Eq. 8-54.
9-53. The head shaft of an inclined bucket elevator
that von
is
nitude
stress
caused
by
V need
not
be considered.
450
lb 50 lb
one-half
as shown reqQires
maximum
of the
each
psi.
the
sprocket,
determine
the
is used
exceed
at A at 11 Assuming
at
6000
Bearing
8" diam
required
so
The
assigned
Sprockets
stress
allows
for
keyways.
Bearings
9-56. trically
between
of force
A low-speed applied
the
P on
Fig.
P9-55
1001b
Fig. P9-57
600 lb
an
gears.
Determine
the
basis
9-54. figure.
not
introduce
into
shaft
as shown i.e.,
at the
supports.
in the they do
theory overhung
be
3P
if Xow shaft
the
and T =
= 6500 is 3 in.
shaft
6P in-lb.
small the
that since
diameter
and
the
where
in-lb
changes
that
B is the driving pulley. Pulleys. A and C pulleys and take off 9000 in-lb and 3000 respectively. The resultant of the pulls is 400 lb acting downward. Determine shaft required so that the principal shear
not exceed 6000 psi.
size
tion and
changes
factors K2 =
abruptly,
must
the
fol owing
K
stress
= 1.6 in
1.2
be considered: in torsion.
Fig.
P9-56
Sec.
10-2.
Moment-Curvature
Relation
499
chapter
of only a few points on a beam or a frame are required. it can be used to advantage in the solution of statically problems and for deflection check. An excellent insight into kinematics of deformations is obtained by using this method. deflection analysis of slender beams in the presence of axial comsive forces in some instances may cause a profound increase in decausing member instability. This topic is considered in the next
[0-2.
Introduction
The axis of a beam deflects from its initial forces. Accurate values for these 'beam practical cases: elements of machines must misalignment and to maintain dimensional ings, floor beams cannot deflect excessively chological effect of flexible floors on occupants distress in brit le-finish materials; likewise, characteristics of members is essential in chines as well as of stationary and flight used in analyses of statically indeterminate position under deflections are sought in be sufficiently rigid to accuracy under lead; to av. oid the undesirable and to minimize or information on the study of vibrations of structures. Deflections are problems.
Moment-Ourvature
deflections along due
Relation
to bending These are are determined based on the from kinematic deformations hypothesis taking
a span.
during
bending,
was
plane
sections
cross present, the 10-1,
through
a beam
remain
plane.
This
that hy-
first introduced having symmetric of arbitrary axes. For the only about one of is il ustrated in Fig. p of the elastic slightly greater generality,
in Section 6-2 in deriving the flexure formula cross sections, and extended in Section 6section for bending about either or both it wil be assumed that bending takes principal axes of the cross section. Such a where it is further assumed that the radius curve can change along the span. Except for the derivation that fol ows leads to the same
o
deflection of ary conditions ferent kinds indeterminate matical approach. provided for tinuous loading superposition ing are also An energy impact loads
of the inelastic
This.chapter
beams is derived in Part A, and are identified. Several il ustrative of loading and boundary conditions. beams, presenting no special A section on the application symbolic solutions for dif erential functions along a span. Methods as well as calculation of deflections presented. method for calculating beam are briefly introduced. Part A
deflection of beams. These results
has
two
parts.
The
governing
dif erential
equation
for:
Centroid
A
a
Elastic
curve
and with
essential
the a
(a)
Principal
(b)
axes
(d)
the
plastic
collapse limit states consideied B is devoted to the discussion of beams using the moment-area method. This specialized procedure
andi
the
Fig. 104 Deformation of a beam
Ic)
in bending.
5OO
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
t0.3.
Governing
Dif erential
Equation
Pulley
results as found earlier in Section considered in this development; given in Section 10-11, Example
The center of curvature
O for
the
Deflections consideration
curve for
due
to shear of this
element
are
can'
important 10-5,
elastic
any
this For
to note that as no material properties were used in deriving relation can be used for inelastic as well as for elastic the elastic case, since e = e, = cr,/E and cry, = -My/1,
found A'B'
adjoining
l(d),
it can be seen
sections
by and
extending D'C'.
any
is measured Au of any
is A0.
that
in a bent
in the fiber
If distance
beam,
sections
usual can
=
manner be expressed
--y A0
y from
the included
the
as being as
neutral
angie'between
[
in Fig.
(10-6)
surface
to
This beam equation relates bending having a moment of inertia 1/p of the elastic curve. moment I around M at a given the neutral section of an elastic axis to the curvature
Au
For
formation
negative
shown
y's,
this
in the
yields
figure.
elongation,
which
is consistent
with
the
The fibers lying in the curved neutral surface of the deformed characterized in Fig. 10-1(d) by fiber ab, are not strained at all. arc length A s corresponds to the initial length of all fibers between A'B' and D'C'. Bearing this in mind, upon dividing Eq. 10-1 by As, can form the fol owing relations:
lira a. o -A u
EXAM P L E t 0d
cutting metal, a band saw 15 mm wide and 0.60 mm thick runs over two
Fig. t0-2
stress
,s of 400-mm is developed
diameter, in the
saw
as shown as it goes
What Let
maximum E = 200
bending
GPa.
AS
-y
A 0
recognize y from
the
-y
dO
this
apphcation,
the
material
must
behave
elastically.
As
the
thin
saw
blade
strain
in a beam
fiber
By
using
it conforms cr = -My/1,
useful
pulley; 10-6,
mm. sim-
relation
cr =
y = +--c, the maximum bending
stress
--
(10-7)
in the saw
=
is determined:
300MPa
The
aid
term of Fig.
dO/ds 10-1(c),
a clear since
dO
As
=-=
geometrical = p A0,
1
meaning.
Ec
200
103
0.30
p
high stress developed in the band saw
200
necessitates
As
ds
superior
materials
for
this
application.
which
6-1.
is the
definition
of curvature
K (kappa)
introduced
before
in
On this
may
curve
basis,
the
the normal
upon
fundamental
substituting
relation
strain as
Eqs.
10~3
between
and
10-4
curvature
into
Eq.
of the
express
and
10-3.
texts
curvature
Governing
on analytic
of a line
Dif erential
geometry,
is defined as
Equation
it is shown
d2v
that
in Cartesian
coordinates,
1
Note that both 0 and s must increase in the same direction.
dx 2
v"
(10-8)
502
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
t0.3.
Governing
Dif erential
y
Equation
503
Elastic curve with I > 0
P
where
x and
v are
the
coordinates
of a point
on
a curve.
For
the
at hand, distance x locates beam, and v gives the deflection If Eq. 10-8 were substituted for the elastic curve would
a point on the elastic curve of a of the same point from its initial into Eq. 10-6 the exact dif erential ec result. In general, the solution of such
equation
erated in the vast majority dv/dx of the elastic curve v' is a negligible quantity
to
is very
dif icult
to achieve.
However,
since
and
are
the
the
very
deflections
sq
small,
Curvature for M > 0
+ dv
xx = 0
x
Eq.
(a)
(b)
p
This lem, beams simplification eliminates and the governing dif erential 2 using Eq. 10-6 is the
dx 2
geometric equation nonlinearity for small deflections from the of
Fig.
10-3
Moment
and
its
relation
to
curvature.
CUrve
This
Fig.
of the
sense
sides
becomes
10-3.
positive
Note,
larger
especial y,
y axis
and
agrees M.
as x increases,
that
the
if the
positive
curvature
positive
direction
1/p - d2v/dx
slope
of the
dv/dx
of the
applied
2 is positive.
elastic
load
(10-]
where
it is understood
that
= Mz,
and
I = Iz.
Note that in Eq. 10-10, the xyz coordinate system is employed to the material points in a'beam for calculating the moment of inertia I. the other hand, in the planar problem, it is the xv system of axes used to locate points on the elastic curve. The positive direction of the v axis is taken to have the same sense
the x axis curvature
www.avs4you.com ds = X/dx
Thus, in the
Generally, only Eq. 10-10 is used in this text, and if biaxial bending occurs, the deflection directions are determined by inspection. It is important to note that for the elastic curve, at the level of accuracy of Eq. 10-10, one has ds = dx. This fol ows from the fact that, as before, the square of the slope dv/dx is negligibly small compared with unity, and
2 + dv 2 = X/1
of
+ (v') 2 dx = dx
axis and
(10-11)
is said
of the
2 In some
directed is concave
texts,
the positive
is retained, upwards.
direction
For
Fig.
such
for deflection
6-51(b).
a choice
moments
one
M is opposite
has
to that
associated
the
v is taken
downward
usual
the
small-deflection
initial
length
theory,
the
beam
no dif erence
in length
the
arc
to exist
elastic
the
curvature induced
sense
of
The
beam
Stated lying
discussed
there surface,
here
is limited
is no horizontal i.e., at y = 0.
displacement
that are
of the
small
to deflections
relation
d2v dx 2
1-percent
problems in the xz plane, as
to span length. However, it is remarkably accurate when to exact solutions based on Eq. 10-8. An idea of the accuracy may be gained by noting, for example, that there is approximately
com-
in-
to one-tenth
w as positive. In this setting,
the order
error
of one-twentieth
from
the exact
governing
in Fig.
Some
6-51(b),
texts
analyze equation
and
define
also
basic has
downward
beam
deflection
a negative
d2w
deflection
sign:
flections
of plates and shells.
of beams
wil
be shown
the error is raised to approximately 4 percent. are required in most engineering applications, is not serious. For clarity, however, the de-
which
of its length.
solution
if deflections
ordinarily
By increasing
of a simple
would
be considered
the deflection
span
an
greatly
exaggerated
on all diagrams.
Bernoulli, extended
dx 2
E1
The
This
notation
is particularly
favored
in the
treatment
of the in 1694.
was Euler
formulated (1707-1783)
by James greatly
504
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
10-6.
Boundary
Conditions
505
*'4[{-4.
Alternative
Equation
Derivation
of the Governing
-5.
Alternative
Forms
relations among 5-4, can be combined of equations:
v = deflections
dv
of the
the
Governing
applied
Equation
loads, 10-10
curve
In the classical theories of plates and shells that deal with small tions, equations analogous to Eq. 10-10 are established. The characted approach can be il ustrated on the beam problem. ,. In a deformed condition, point A' on the axis of an unloaded Fig. 10-4, according to Eq. 10-11 is directly above its initial The tangent to the elastic curve at the same point rotates through an dv/dx. A plane section with the centroid at A' also rotates same angle dv/dx since during bending sections remain normal to the axis of a beam. Therefore, the displacement u of a material point
with
of the elastic
Eq.
shear, to yield
and the
= --
dx
= v'
d2v
slope
of the
elastic
curve
(10-13)
m = EI. q-
=EIv" =(EIv")"
shown flexural equations
distance
s y from
the
elastic
curve
is
V- dM_ d EI =(EIv")'
dx - dx EI dV d22 (d2v)
these relations, the adhered to strictly. For beams simplifies into three alternative sign convention with constant governing in Fig. 10-3 must rigidity El, Eq. for determining
where the negative sign shows that for positive y and u is toward the origin. For y = 0, there is no displacement by Eq. 10-11. Next, recall Eq. 2-6, which states that e = du/dx.
10-12,
The yielding e and
e =
-y
d2v/dx
2 since
v is a function
same normal strain also can e = -My/E1. On equating eliminating y from both sides
d2v
dx 2
deflection
of
a loaded
beam:
(10-14a)
d3v
= V(x)
(10-4b)
is the angle
dx
derived is small,
Initial
10-10.
(10-14c)
can
be taken
as unity.
d_v .ofsection
u = -y -
choice
with
of one
of these
equations
for
determining
v depends
on the
an expression for load, shear, or moment can be forconstants of integration are needed in the lower-order 10-14b is seldom used, since it is more convenient either with the load function q(x) or the moment func-
m(x).
+d_v
.0-6.
the
Boundary
solution equations,
Conditions
boundary
of beam-deflection boundary conditions
Fig.
section.
t0-4
Longitudinal
displacements to rotation
in a beam of a plane
due
Deflected segment beam
'homogeneous
conditions
problems, must
are
as fol ows:
in addition be prescribed.
to the Several
dif ertypes
506
Beam
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
t0-7.
Direct
Integration
Solutions
507
1. Clamped slope
a,
dv/dx
orfixed must
support: vanish.
the end
displacement considered,
v and
v(a)
v'(a)
8(a):
(a)
v(a) = 0
Clamped
v'(a) = 0
support
2. Roller moment
orpinned M can
support: exist.
v(a)
At
Hence, = 0
the
end
considered,
no deflection
M(a)
= EIv"(a)
RAx
to the Hence,
(a)
(b)
M,
C RAx 0
(i r
If it is assumed
'
IRc
(c)
Here
the end:
physically
evident
condition
for
M and
is related shear.
it
ative
3. Free
of v with
Such
respect
an end
to x from
is free
Eq.
of moment
10-14.
Fig. t0-6 The beam in (a) is indeterminate to the f"u:st deree. that the horizontal
M(a)
(b)
v(a) = 0
Simple
M(a)
= EIv"(a)
= 0
V(a)
=(EIv
)x=,
= 0 is [ is not
(10-1:
reaction
second
component
degree.
is negligible,
the
beam
in (b)
is determinate
and
in (c)
indeterminate
to the
= EIv"(a)
support
=0
4.
In this case, free vertical of the end is prevented. shear. Therefore, v'(a) = 0
conditions
V(a)
for
The
same
boundary
The
movement support
loaded
OhS in beams
10-6(c).
beams.
with
Therefore,
6 Therefore,
immovable
the beam
the
supports
shown
horizontal
are
considered
components
negligible.
for the beam
of the
On
to the
resame
in
the
shown
is indeterminate
second
=(EIv
tt
)=
= 0
In
this
beam
beams
with
constant
EI
are
In
M (a) = EIv"(a) = 0
V(a) = EIv'"(a)
(c) Free end
=0
/. Roller
V(a) : EIv"'(a)
(d) Guided
0(a)
v'(a) = 0
support
: 0
with
Homogeneous conditions
conditi6ns
constant
for
EI.
In
(a)
conditions
both
are
mixed.
marized in Fig. 10-5. Note the two basically dif erent types conditions. Some pertain to the force quantities and are said to be boundary conditions. Others describe geometrical or deformational havior of an end; these are kinematic boundary conditions. Nonhomogeneous boundary conditions, where a given shear, rotation, or displacement is prescribed at the boundary, also occur applications. In such cases, the zeros in the appropriate Eqs. through 10-15d are replaced by the specified quantity. These boundary conditions apply both to statically determinate indeterminate beams. As examples of statically indeterminate sin beams, consider the three cases shown in Fig. 10-6. The beam in Fig. 6(a) is indeterminate to the first degree, as any one of the reactions be removed and the beam wil remain stable. In this example, there no horizontal forces. The boundary conditions shown in Fig. 10-5(a) for end A, and those in Fig. 10-5(b), for end B. The vertical reactions for the beam in Fig. 10-6(b) can be found from statics. Since the pinned supports' cannot move horizontal y, is a tendency for developing horizontal .reactions at the supports the beam deflection. However, for small beam deflections, according Eq. 10-11, ds dx and no significant axial strain can develop in
case, any two reactive forces can be removed and the remain in equilibrium. problems, discontinuities in the mathematical functions for or member stif ness arise along a given span length. Such for example, occur at concentrated forces or moments
and aat brupt changes incross-sect areas iaf onal fectEIinI.ngsuch cases, vL
ments
ometry
boundary conditions must be supplemented by the physical requireof continuity of the elastic cure. This means that at any juncture the two zones of a beam where a discontinuity occurs, the deflection the tangent to the elastic curve must be the same regardless of the from which the common point is approached. Unacceptable ge-
of elastic
the
curves
is il ustrated
functions
in Fig.
10-7.
(al
By
using
singularity
discussed
in Section
10-8,
the
con-
As
Solutions
a general
EIv
iv
= q(x).
solution
example
successively becomes
of calculating
v is obtained. Theory
integrating
beam
deflection,
this
expression
consider
four
Eq.
times,
10- o
the
formal
for
Thus,
(b)
6 The
horizontal
force
6.
important
of Plates
in thin
and
Shells,
plates.
2nd
See
ed.
S. Timoshenko
(New
York:
geometric continuous
Fig. t0-7
Unacceptable
conditions elastic curve.
in a
kinematic; static;
in (b)
are
in (c) and
both (d),
are
508
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
10-7.
Direct
Integration
Solutions
509
both
equations,
constants
C,
C2,
C3,
and
C4
must
be
determined
/Er,
respectively,
are usually
7 the
are
initial
the
values
of V, M,
0, and
of
v at
re-
The first
Spective
origin.
term
dif erential
one
on the fight
in Eq.
10-19
hand
The
of Eq.
solutions
10-16
and the
the
In these
equations
Since, second
the constants
10-14b, 10-16,
this
V = fo' q dx + C
By substituting
5-7
as it depends only on the loading condition of the beam. This term remains the same regardless of the prescribed boundary conditions, the constants are determined from the boundary conditions. If the loading, shear, and moment functions are continuous and the t rigidity EI is constant, the evaluation of the particular integrals very direct. When discontinuities occur, solutions can be found for segment of a beam in which the functions are continuous; the comsolution is then achieved by enforcing continuity conditions at the boundaries of the beam segments. Alternatively, graphical or
equations.
one
in Eq.
10-16
is especial y
inter-
procedures,
8 of successive
integrations
can
be used
beam amount
very
ef-
this
is obtained.
relation
into
Eq.
5-7,
and
integrating,
a dif eren'
of Eq.
M=
The
These
right
side
results
of this
unequivocally
equation
necessary VERSION for solving a problem. If one begins NON-ACTIVATED f f:dXfo":qdx + Cix + C2 www.avs4you.com
integrations moment function
two.
in the solution of practical Any one of Eqs. 10-14 or 10-16 Fhe choice depends entirely on
problems. can be used for finding the initial data and the
On
with
hand, integrations
the applied
deflection. of work
if the
bendingis reduced
load,
all
is identical
show
to the
third
of Eqs.
10-16.
C2
that
the
constants
C and
Summary
part of the equilibrium equations and are the static boundary At this point, no kinematics nor material properties enter the However, next, by dividing M by E1 for substitution into Eq. 10-10, properties are brought in, limiting the solutions to the elastic behavior
prismatic
forms,
three basic concepts of engineering mechanics applied before are used in developing the elastic of beams. These may be summarized as fol ows:
same
of solids deflection
element to
rethees-
beams.
Thus,
rewriting
Eq.
10-10,
for
clarity,
in several
1. Equilibrium
conditions
(statics)
are
used
for
a beam
dx 2
dx
dx
E1
tablish the relationships between the applied load and 3, as well as between the shear and bending moment, 2. Geometry of deformation (kinematics) is used by assuming sections through a beam element remain plane after
Such planes intersect and define beam strains and the
Then, using Eq. 10-17, and integrating twice, 10-16 are reproduced. These two equations, stants of integration C3 and C4, define slope curve, i.e., they describe the kinematics of a constants are the kinematic boundary conditions. If, instead of Eq. 10-14c, one starts with Eq. two integrations the solution is
the last two relations and the associated new and deflection of the laterally loaded beam.
vature for an element. Although for curvature, Eq. 10-4, is exact, flections, since sin 0 is approximated
due to shear of sections
is accounted
in the above sense the expression the theory is limited to small deby 0, Eq. 10-9. No warpage
for in the formulation.
10-14a,
EIv"=
M(x),
not
cases meaning.
must
EIv= fodXfoMdx+
C3x + C4
8 Such
procedures
"Numerical Trans.
widely
are useful
used
the
conditions
functions function,
at the
in complicated
Computing 1161.
problems.
boundary.
do
For
example,
Moments, solutions
and of such
see N.
now
y,v I
Deflection of Beams
11/I 1
3. Properties
of
materials
(constitutive
relations)
in
the
0(0):
(d)
0
Hooke's normal
law, stresses
Eq.
assumed Poisson's
v(O) = 0
0
M1
f M(L) = +M 1
V(L) = 0
A solution of any one of Eqs. 10-14a, 10-14b, or 10-14c, 9 subject prescribed boundary conditions, constitutes a solution of a given versely loaded elastic beam problem. These equations are equally cable to statically determinate and statically indeterminate beam are continuous occur, continuity If I is constant,
local
M 1
(b)
(e)
+M
1 L/EI
lems.
m However,
the solutions
are simpler
if the functions
q(x)
although
at load
cross-section
the
are determined function. determinate
large
sensitive
perturbations
a process il ustrative
in strain
and
stresses
develop,
+Mi
(f)
us
v[
.
ol
"'"' +M1L2/2EI
x
Fig.
t0-8
beam
elastic
fol ow.
EXAMPLE
'10-2
A bending
of constant
Solution
moment
flexural
rigidity
M is applied
EI,
Fig.
EIv= Mix 2 + C4 NON-ACTIVATED VERSION at the free end of a cant ilever of length www.avs4you.com
But v(0) = 0; hence, EIv(O) = C4 = 0 and
The is given
applications in the
next
of sin section.
EI- = Mix
1
10-8(a).
Find
the
equation
of the,
v -
Mix
2EI
(10-20) due
elastic
moment
for
The boundary conditions are recorded ditions at the ends. At x = L, M(L) From a free-body diagram of Fig.
cessively,
v:
is +M
and
making
throughout
use
of the
the beam.
near the figure from inspection = +M, a nonhomogeneous 10-8Co), it can be observed that
of the
the
The rhe
positive largest
is +ML/EI
sign value
10-20
indicates at x = L.
the elastic
that The
curve
the slope
deflection of the
is a parabola.
to M curve
However,
Equation
shows
that
boundary
By applying
conditions,
Eq.
one
10-14a,
obtains
integrating
element
the
error
of the beam experiences equal moments elastic curve should be a part of a circle. The of an approximate relation for the curvature
commit ed
is in the
ratio
of (9 - v) 3 to 93. As
successive
This is shown moment
the
deflection
v is much
with
the the
EI 5 = M = M
d2u
than is important
solution
9, the
(f).
integration
in the diagram
EI- = Mx + C3
But 0(0) = 0; hence, at x = 0, one has EIv'(O) = C3 = 0 and
through
sequence is shown.
10-9
10-8(d).
and
10-10,
the
1/p d2v/dx
2 = M/EI,
the
curvature
diagram
is plot ed
in
elastic case, this is simply a plot one obtains the 0 diagram. In the In this example, since the beam
0 and
EI.
of M/EI. By integrating the next integration, the elastic is fixed at the origin, the
the diagrams. This
10-13
19.
9 The
o This
and
adopted
is analogous
10-14
having
sign
signs,
an advantage
loads
and
bar problems
in hand
shear
discussed
calculations.
results in
in
v(0)
0 are
used
in
constructing
approach
with variable
or its numerical
equivalents
are
very
useful
in the
solution
of
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
EXAMPLE '10-3
t0-7.
Direct
Integration
Solutions
5'f3
A simple
beam
second-order solution
supports
a uniformly
dif erential
distributed
equation
downward
to obtain
load
the deflection
Wo.
The
M = woLx _ WoX 2
2 2
rigidity
Use graphical
Solution
the
EI is constant.
the fourth-order
of the
Find
the elastic
curve
three
(a). (c)
metho,
of the
(b)
Use
problem.
equation
instead
of the
in part
conditions,
this relation
one
finds
into
the
Eq.
equation
10-14a,
of the
integrating
elastic
it twice,
curve:
and using
the bound-
d2v
A diagram
10-9(a). has
in Fig. equation
(a)
of the
The
beam
found
expression
together
in Example
for
with
been
the given
boundary
conditions
is
= M
. worx
worx
woLx
Wo x2
EI xx = EIv=
V(0) = 0; hence, EIv(O)
=
dv
4 1---
2
3
wox
+ C3
y, v
q =-w o lb/in
WoX 4
2- q- C3X q- C4
since
and
= 0 = C4; and,
v(L)
C3
= 0,
= ---
woL 3
EIv(L)
=
.J viol =o
(M(O)
=o
woe
.f vlt. I =o
LM(L)
24
EI
wL4 24
WoX 3
C3L
wL3 24
(10-21)
=o
(b)
x
v =
2--I (L - 2Lx 2 + x 3)
10-21, one obtains
(f)
I V Imax
value
ofx
into
Eq.
at x = L/2.
On substituting
I v Jmax
M
+--
= 5wL4 384EI
has
(10-22)
used to determine constant C3.
Wo L2
8
+--
WO La
24EI
condition
it is known
of symmetry
that
v'(L/2)
could
= 0, one
also have
been
(c)
(g)
EIv'(L/2)
as before, C3 =
= wL(L/24 )2
- woL3/24.
w(L/26)3
conditions.
+ C3 =.0
problem is direct. The con-
Application
+--
woL 2
EI
I v Imax
(h)
o
are
found
of Eq.
from
the
10-14c
boundary
to the solution
of this
(d)
El x 4 = q(x)
0o
d4v
= -Wo
+ C
WoX 2
EI d3 v dx 3
d2v
-WoX
Fig.
10-9
El dx 2 = -
+ Cx + C2
v
Deflection of Beams
WoL
2
But
M(O)
= O; hence,
EIv"(O)
= 0 = C2;
and,
since
M(L)
= O,
(b)
0
x
EIv"(L)
= 0 =
--
woL
2
+ C]L
or
C1
= --
woL
2
hence,
EI--
dev
dx 2
woLx
2
WoX 2
2
, vT
(c)
woL 2
24
problem is the same as in part (a). In this of reactions is required. As wil be shown statically indeterminate problems.
solution and (c), of the complete the convention.al problem shear
later,
are and ] in
13L
woL 2
12
steps through
10-9(d).
diagrams
are
by
shown.
The
curvature
diagram
the slope the construction the right
and vice versa.
is obtained
to the ordinate
By
by plot ing
M/E1,
v(O) = 0 v'(O) = 0
f v(L) = 0 L'(L) = 0
(d)
x
finds the elastic deflection v. The shaded area of Fig. 10-9(e) is equal to the maximum deflection. In the above, the condition of symmetry ployed. A gener.al y applicable procedure fol ows.
After the curvature diagram is established as in Fig. 10-9(d), be constructed with an assumed initial value of 0 at the origin. 0(0) = 0 and sum the curvature diagram to obtain the 0 diagram, Note that the shape of the. curve so found is identical to that Summing the area of the 0 diagram gives the elastic curve. In curve extends from 0 to A. This violates the boundary condition deflection must be zero. Correct deflections are given, however, them vertically from a straight line passing through 0 and A. corrects the deflection ordinates caused by the incorrectly assumed
Fig.
t0-10
by four
the
successive
integrations
of Eq.
are found
10-14c
from
in a manner
the bound-
ts.
Then
constants
of integration
Fig. of Fig.
conditions.
Fig.
at A, by This
El
In
EI--=
d4u
= q(x) = -Wo
+ C]
2
+ C]x + C2 --
EI ' i = -WoX
d2v
dx 2
d3u
after
onstructing
this
10-9(e)
Fig.
10-9(h),
Fig.
one
knows
that
0(0)
with
-d/L
=
have
-w
In
0(0).
WoX 2
When
Figs.
value
and
of 0(0)
(f). In
is used,
10-9(h),
the
problem
inclined
reverts
measurements
to the
overhangs.
preceding
no
The
procedure
described
is applicable
for
beams
the
EXAMPLE
base
line
'i0-4
for
measuring
deflections
must
pass
through
the
support
__ -- 24
Wo x4
q- C 1 - q- C2- - q- C3x q- C 4
are available for determining the constants
X 3
,X 2
boundary
conditions
A beam
fixed
Fig. elastic
the
Solution
10-10(a). curve
results found
The using
EI
the
using
for
is constant. governing
dif erential
the
expression equation.
(b)
EIv(O) EIv'(O)
= EIvA = EIv.
= 0 = = 0 =
Ca C3
EIv(L) As discussed
to the second
= EIva = EIv
= =
0 = 0 =
woL
24
4 3
6
+ G'g-
L 3 L 2
+ + C2L
L 2
(a)
minate
in connection
degree since
with
Fig.
horizontal
10-6(c),
reactions
this
beam
are
is statically
assumed to be
EIv'(L)
--
woL
+ C'-
5t5
5i6
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
enter the last simultaneously, two equations since they are
10-7.
Direct
Integration
Solutions
5'i7
Constants solving
the
1olving
the
last
two
equations
simultaneously, woZ
C
woL
2
and
C2
woL
12
2
elastic curve,
RA = 2
Substituting
Eq. 10-23
and
into the equation
M,a =
for
w oZ 2
12
these
constants
into
the
equation
for
the
these
is again
expressions
obtained.
deflection
with
C3 = C4 =
PLE
t0-5
to Eqs. v(x)
reactions
10-14a gives,
at A.
EI
M(x)
times
and
vertical
the
second
V(x). reaction
third At x = 0,
and C2 is the
and
shown
the
equation in Fig.
loaded
equation.
continuous
E1 is
at this
support.
In this
case,
because
moment
diagrams
of symmetry,
this is not and for
the vertical
reactions
from
cani
necessary in this typical shear at B can be found this beam are shown
:cause
because
the
solution
of symmetry,
zero,
can
be confined it can
but since
be concluded
the elastic
to determining
curve
that
in Fig.
deflection
10. The
absolute
maximum
deflection
is found
using
directly
Eq.
from
10-14a,
occurring
in the
middle
of the
span
is
in
either
By using
for
to the one-degree
M(x)
direction,
Eq.
its slope
statically
is also
indeterminate
zero.
In this
problem
manner,
shown
the problem
First,
in Fig.
10-1 l(b)
dif erential
can
be
is formulated
10-14a,
the solution
Boundary
and
two
proceeds
successive
integrations
manner.
of the
an expres-.
and,
although
the
vertical
statics,
it wil
be
treated
as an
for
Second-order
determining
are
performed. the
dif erential-equation
constants
conditions of integration
solution:
necessary reaction
information RA.
EI 5 = M(x)
Integrating twice,
der
= MA + RAx --
X2 23
MA
Wo x2
EI 5 = M(x)
EI
dv '
EIv= RA
dev
RA 2
6
x2
= RAx -
WoX 3
Wo x2
+ C3
+ C3x + C4
EI x = MAx EIv=
Constants boundary C3 and conditions: C4 as
did
+ RA 2
22
as RA and
t] o x3
23
Wo x4
24
+ C3 + C3x + C4
from the four found
MA
well
+ RA 6
Wo x4
24
are
y,vj q=-w
(b)
EIv(O) EIv'(O)
= =
EIVA EIv
= =
0 = 0 =
C4 C3
L 2
L 3
woL woL
6
L 2
2
24
3
Fig.
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
'10-7.
Direct
Integration
M
Solutions
Boundary
conditions:
= (L ) = =
= = =
0 = 0 = 0 = simultaneously,
C4 Ra RA
L 2
2
woL
6
-Z- (L -x)
+c3 + C3L
(b)
L 3
6
Wo L4
24
equations
RA
--
3woL
8
and
C3
woL
48
O) = 0
10)
= 0
v(L) M(L)
=0 = 0
x
which,
upon
substitution
into
the
equation
for
the
elastic
curve,
leads
to
Fig. t042
v'(a)
(c)
V =
From
reaction
-- --(L
WoX
48EI
3 - 3Lx 2 + 2x 3)
C are
5woL
symmetry,
at B is
the
reactions
at A and
equal,
and,
by
using
statics
RB--
This
EXAMPLE
reaction
'i0-6
is also
numeric.
ally
equal
to 2VB.
the
four must
constants be used.
A,
A2,
B,
and
B2,
two
boundary
and
two
con-
v(O)
0 = A2
segment
DB:
v(L)
=
both
0 =- -segments
PaL
3EI
BL
a:
B2
beam support,
elastic
flexural
downward rigidity
integration.
a the e
deflections
for
at x =
of the
vz>
wil be boundary obtained conditions using the second-order noted in Fig. dif erential equation. moment slopes
v(a)
for
both
pa3b
6EIL
+ Aa
pa 3
2EI
pa 4
6EIL
Bia
B2
are
10-12(a).
The independently
segments
at x = a:
plot ed
in Fig.
10-12(b)
clearly
At AD
Pb
shows
first, the
a discontinuity
solution proceeds
in M(x)
at x = a, re
for DB
Pa
pa2b
+ Ai = E1
simultaneously,
pa 2
--+B 2EI L
pa
segment
For
d2v M Pa
segment
one
finds
Ix 2
dv
E1
Pb Pb --
EIL
x 2 x 3
6
dx 2
dv
+ A2
EI
Pa Pax
EI
E1
Pax 2
2
EIL
2 Pax
x
A1
B1
dx-EIL
v -
2 + A
+ Ax
dxv -
EI x
EIL 2 + B]
EIL 6
=
=
---
(L 2 -
b 2)
A2
B2
= 0
=
Pa 3
6EI
Pa
6EIL
ElL
+ Bix
(2L 2 + a 2)
520
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
10-7.
Direct
Integration
Solutions
52t
With after
these algebraic
example,
becomes
Pbx
the
elastic
curve
for
segment
AD
of the
B(AMPLE
'i0-7
simply
v =
Deflection vB at applied force vB
-- --(Z
6EIL
2 -- b 2 - x 2)
5 m long Fig.
is loaded 10-13(a).
with The
a 20-N moment
downward of inertia
force of the
at a cross
section
Determine
of the
the
beam
elastic
is 413 for
segment
AB
and
I for
12o
the
N
remainder
of the
beam.
P is = v(a) = pa2b
3EIL
The
largest
deflection
occurs
is at x = X/a(a + 2b)/3, which fol ows from equal to zero. The deflection at-this point is
in the
longer
segment
of the
beam.
If a > b
4N
x
4m
(a)
--x,
'16N
[max =
Usually,
merically
recommends = L/2,
Pb(L
9X/g ElL
2 - b2)3/2
the deflection
largest
by direct
deflection.
at the center
Such
a deflection
simpler
nearly
to determine.
equal
to th e
[ v Irna x
-0B V B' --
Here
it is well
to
recall
the
definition
of
the
spring
constant,
or
st
given
distance
by Eq.
a from
2-11.
In the
a support,
present
context,
P
for
3EIL
a force
P placed
at an
a2b 2 this
48EI
(c)
equation
reduces
to
+16 N .m
koThis
sential
L3
Eq.
(1(
(f)
The
The
expression
previous
solution
in vibration
equations with
also
fol ows
analysis.
are useful
problems
directly
in static
from
10-30.
(d),
analyses discussed
load
and i
4
EI 1
greatly
tion.
facilitated
of deflection
having
EI
16 - 16x
Fig.
X 1
re)
t043
522
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
t0-8.
Singularity
Functions
for
Beams
523
At
Solution
the
= 1: v(1)
boundary
= vc = 0;
condition
therefore,
at C is applied
to determine
the
value
of 0.
A similar problem was solved in the preceding example. wil be il ustrated here that is convenient in some complicated dif erent M/E1 expressions are applicable to several segments
problems
method
Due
segment.
carded
successive
consists
to continuity
out
The values
for the
integrations
of selecting
conditions,
next
until
an origin
expressions
these
beam is reached; then the remaining unknown constants. ments, and all x's are taken
For segment AB,
M
boundary conditions are imposed to determine A new origin is used at every juncture of the to be positive in the same direction.
= 4x and
This
become
determined
process
the initial
obtained
and carrying(
EIt
the
of
32
and
Upon
9.4/EI.
0A =
for 0 and example,
EI
(a)
+16 N.m
4.8
is repeated
in the inte
se
the slope
to
in segment
the
3.1
AB
is 0 = x2/2EI
be m.
- 24/5EI.
maximum
expressions segment.
For
setting
this
occurs
quantity
this
zero,
x is found
to
deflection
of x, and
span
I v Im
- 9.95/EI.
m) is nearly
Characteristically,
the same, being
the deflection
at the center
0
(b)
16
(at x = 2.5
0 < x < 4:
d2v M x
self-explanatory
procedure is shown in Figs. 10-13(d) through (g). no complications in the graphical solution, a great Multiple origins can be used as shown in Fig. work as in the present example.
I
lO
EI
dx 2
0 ..
E1
dv
dx -6EI x 3
Ell
x 2
2EI +'Atx
+A
Singularity
A2
Functions
writing symbolic of lead, shear,
was introduced
for
Beams
expressions for disalong a beam using
5-16. These functions can
Xl
(c)
T
Multiple origins of
X3
At x = 0: v(0)
At the end
= vA = 0, and
of segment AB:
0(0)
= 0A. Hence,
0(4) = OB = + OA
For segment BC, 0 < x < 1:
possibility
for
functions
Fig.
X.
10-14
A = 0 and
A2
= 0.
functions
in
very
effectively
and
= 16 -
32
beam to prismatic
arise.
used deflection
for
of statically determinate However, it is best to limit EI. Otherwise, considerable singularity applied functions beams upon
and their of
the
In either
on
case,
a ingle
together
symbolic
with
mathematical
10-14c,
for
function 2
on
beams several
for
the
in-
M
d2v
= 4(4
16
+ x)
16x
- 20x
a beam,
Eq.
successive
gives
il ustrative
the
solution
examples
for
fol ow.
a deflection
in a problem.
dx
0 =
Ell dv
dx
-EI1
--
Ell 16xt
EI
+
8x 2
EI
A3Xl
A3
'EXAMPLE
t0-8
v --
3EI
A4
Rework
olutions
Example
10-6
using
singularity
functions.
At x = 0: v(0) = vB and O(0) = 0B. Hence from the solution = 32/3EI + 40,t, and A3 = 0 = 8/EI + O,t. The expressions
segment BC are then obtained as
before, for
A4
the
This
for
force integrations
P is writ en determining
for
0 - Ell
16x
EI-- + + OA
8x2
This
Singularity
Popov,
v - EI,
8X
8X]
8Xl
32
beams.
Introduction
functions The
is optional.
required
can
to Mechanics
also be special
used functions
for
of Solids
(Englewood
problems
influence
Clif s,
are
NJ:
lines given
for
1968)
in
524
Deflection
of Beams
d4v
Sec. t0-9.
= q(x) =
d2v
Deflections
by Superposition
525
-P(x
- a) -
: and kinematic
constants
conditions
= = = = 0: 0: 0: 0:
at A, B, and C provide
information
fo determining
C2=0 C4=0
of integration.
-P(x-
a) + C
-P(x= 0 = C2;
a) + Cx
and also
+ C2
since M(L) = 0,
---
woL
24
Cs 4L 3
C3L
But
M(L)
0; hence,
EIv"(O)
EIv"(L)
-Pb
+ CL
= 0
or
C
= Pb/L
the
EIv(2L)
2woL
--
+ Re--2woL
L 3
+ Ci + 2C3L
2 + ReL + 2CL
= 0
= 0
EI.= dv
EIv=
But v(0) = 0; hence, EIv(O) ' 2Pb 3
EIv"(2L)
last three
0:
equations simultaneously,
Cs = woL
C3 =
into the
woL
48
and
for beam
Re = woL
deflection,
EIv(L)=Ov = 6-
This omit ed. equation This
-++C3L
or C3=-6-
(L2-
b2)
these
constants
equation
-- --
Wo
48E/
(2X 4 -- 3Lx
3 + L3x
10L
(x
- L) 3)
in Example it becomes 10-
10L(x
**EXAMPLE
'i0-9
Rework
Solution
Example
10-5
using
a singularity
Deflections
by
Superposition
integration
of loaded
applying
this beam
procedure
are
simple subjected For
discussed
are
before
Nearly
for
all the
obtaining
The
the
reader loadings
elastic
deare
In
for
Eq.
10-14c
using
The
a singularity
unknown
function,
reaction RB
the
whole
continuous
as
however,
be
is considered.
is treated
upward
that the problem
d4v
force.
deflection is not
Here,
utilized.
besides
at B is zero.
the
four
This
boundary
is a general
conditions,
approach
it should
as symmetry
and
readily
loading
that
beams numerous
available.3
generally problems
tabulated
solutions
gives
conditions. Therefore, to several or complicated from the simpler loadings, example, the problem in Fig. cases as shown. The algebraic the total deflection.
in practice, the deflections loading conditions are usuusing the principle of super10-15 can be separated into sum of the three separate
-WoX
Wo x2
2
+Re(x-L)
+Re(x-
+ C
L) s + Csx + C2
3 See
P1
any
civil
P2
or mechanical
/
}
engineering
handbook.
w
WoX Ei dxdv = _ __ 6
Ely -
+Re
(X -- L) 2
2
Cs
.2
C2x
C3
Wo x4
24 +Re
(X -- L) 3
X3
X2
Fig.
t0-t5
Resolution
of a complex
problem
into
several
simpler
problems.
BJ M
L
w
Sec.
t0-9.
Deflections
by
Superposition
527
P
MI=
(b)
C
D
OB
A
Pa
(c)
v, y
Fig.
1046
A method
of analyzing
deflections
of frames.
The superposition procedure for determining elastic deflection of b can be extended to structural systems consisting of several flexural: bers. For example, consider the simple flame shown in Fig. 10-16( which the deflection of point C due to applied force P is sought. deflection of vertical leg BC alone can be found by.treating it as tilever fixed at B. However, due to the applied load, joint B deflect: rotates. This is determined by studying the behavior of member A flee-body diagram for member AB is shown in Fig. 10-16(b).
member is seen to resist axial force P and a moment M = Pa.
P
!R
(a)
'
(b)
:1A k
the effect of axial force P on deflections due to bending can be The axial elongation of a member usually is also very small in with the bending deflections. Therefore, the problem here can be to that of det.ermining the deflection and rotation of B caused by moment M. This solution was obtained in Example 10-2, giving 0B shown in Fig. 10-16(c). By multiplying angle 0B by length a oft vertical member, the deflection of point C due to rotation of
determined. Then the cantilever deflection of member BC treated
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION the usual manner. However, since the ordinates, www.avs4you.com
(c)
Deflections structure.
in a
an elastic
make
beam,
the elastic
angle
curve
between
nearly
A and
Ox
is increased by deflection of point In interpreting 10-16(c), it must exaggerated. In of all small angles
and the rotations
0a.
The
vertical
deflection
of C is equal
to the as shown
here,
ve
B. the shape of deformed structures, such be kept clearly in mind that the deformations the small deformation theory discussed such as 0 are taken to equal unity.
of the elastic curve are small.
of a point
a very
small
such
hinges tangent
for
as b is very
0 with
the
vertical,
Fig.
+ cb.
ab cb.
such
B' may
as ab, Fig.
Deflections
be found
Hence,
the
10of
are the
method
support
or reactions
of superposition
R, the
statically
can beam
be effectively
indeterminate
used
at the
for
As
determining
an
il us-
consider 10-19(a).
the continuous
isolated 5 and rotation of the tangent at B is found. The remainder problem is analogous to the case discussed before. Approximations similar to those just discussed are also made posite structures. In Fig. 10-18(a), for example, a simple beam a rigid support at one end and on a yielding support with a spring k at the other end. If Rs is the reaction at B, support B settles A = Fig. 10-18(b). A rigid beam would assume the alignment of making an angle 0 = tan- (A/L) A/L radians with the
4 See Section 11-9 on beam-columns.
overhangs can also be analyzed conveniently of superposition in the manner just described. For of a beam between the supports, as AB in Fig.
with
By applying force RB in an upward direction, the required displacement at B can be restored. The respective expres:se deflections are given by Eqs. 10-22 and 10-30. By equating R is found to be 5woL/4, agreeing with the previous result (see
10-5).
beam
would
deflect
analyzed
in Example
middle,
as shown
10-5.
By re-
in
R=/2
526
ducing
5 The
bending
effect
of the
moment
overhang
-Pa
at support
on beam
segment
B.
AB
must
be.
>%L
vB
wolf
VB 1
(a)
(b)
Fig. two
reactions.
10-19 solutions
Superposition for
determining
of
528
Deflection
EXAMPLE
of Beams
t0-t0
7J D --
Sec. 1040.
flexural rigidity E1 = 24 -x 1012 Nby a taut steel rod DC (E = 200 section of 300 mm 2. Find the
applied at F.
...
Deflections
109
1012
in Unsymmetrical
1.11 x 10-4Xmm
Bending
Xa
s
x
X
3 x 10-4X
2s x
24 x mm
Two cantilever beams AD and BF of equal shown in Fig. 10-20(a), are interconnected Rod DC is 5000 mm long and has a cross
of cantilever
Solution
7JCduetoX
7JCduetoP
3EI + 1.11
AD
at D due
to a force
P = 50 kN
using
Eq. A rod --
2-9,
= 0.833 x 10-4X mm
By separating
and (a at is of
(c) are obtained. In both condition of statics). The D or the top of rod DC is caused by X. Deflection beam BF caused by forces
From statics:
the structure
at D, the two
the same unknown force X is of point D is the same, whether Deflection A of point D in Fig. D on the rod is equal to the less the elastic stretch of rod DC.
-1.11
free-body
diagrams
in Figs.
Acz>E
deflections
300
and = -13.9
X
x 200
treating +
= 45.5
x
the 1.11
x
l0 s
equating x
downward x
103N
deflections + 0.833 x
as negative, 10-4X
10-4X
10-4X
XpullonAD
From geometry:
= XpullonDC
--- X
vz>
Note by particularly superposing
-1.11
that the
x
in these effects
10 -4
X 45.5
x
the force
10 3 =
--5.05
end
mm
of point C is deterof the cantilever
ter.
problem,
calculations, of applied
deflection P at the
Deflections
in Unsymmetrical
Bending
that
D
(b)
x
De
by
metrical
bending
discussion, around
takes
place,
deflections
are
calculated
were
in each
caused if unsym-
of the
Steel
mm long mm 2
planes and the deflections so found are added vectorial y. An is shown in Fig. 10-21 for a Z section. Here the y and z axes are principal axes passing through the centreid as well as the shear center the cross section. A positive deflection vl is shown for the beam detaking place in the xy plane, and, similarly, Wl corresponds to the in the xz plane. Their vectorial sum, AA', is the total beam
vc
ti =50kN
(c)
order
center
to prevent
for the cross
torsion,
section.
the
applied
If not,
forces
torsional
must
stresses
act
through
and defer-
the
Beams the-two
treated having
applied
stresses).
in Chapter 4, must also be considered. significantly dif erent magnitudes of moments of inertia principal axes of a cross section are very sensitive to lead As is shown in the next example, even a small inclination of force from the vertical causes large lateral displacements (and
Fig.
10-20
of a
530
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
t0-11.
10-22(d).
Energy
Method
for
Deflections
and
Impact
*EXAMPLE
to.t
These
A C 15 x 33.9
force
Determine
Solution
P of 2 kips
steel
through
channel
the shear
cantilever
at the applied
center,
100
force.
as shown
in long
is subjected
in Figs.
10-22(a)
to
the
horizontal,
deflections
are
and
shown
their
in Fig.
vector
sum
of 0.279
in, making
an angle
of 16.5 with
and
principal
axis is given
by subscripts H the horizontal, and by V the vertical A and. applied force P, one has
in Table
11 of the Appendix:
It is instructive
and finding the points of zero stress. One such point is 10.16 the other is 3.00 in to the right of A, as shown in Fig. 10-22(c). the neutral axis can be located using Eq. 6-43. Using this approach,
normal
to note
to the neutral
that,
as to be expected,
the
maximum
deflection
by performing
occurs
in
Vm = PL3/3EI.
coral;
(The
Iz
315
50
= 3.39
with the to roundoff angle
and shown
[3 = 73.6 in Fig.
10-22(d).
AHAv-
PHL_ 3 _ (2000 sin 5 ) x 1003 = 0.246 in 3EIy 3 X 29 X 106 X 8.13 PvL 3 _ (2000 cos 5 ) X 1003 = 0.0727 in 3EIz 3 x 29 x 106 x 315
error.)
Energy
comprehensive ections is given rem, it is possible
special
the
Method
treatment in Chapter to solve
for
Deflections
and
for
Impact
finding beam dethe necessary theoof problems. Unless
based action useful
P
100"
such as symmetry are at hand, of conservation of energy must or moment. This limited approach
of the energy method 12. Without establishing only a very limited class
v=P
in
the
axial
force,
torsion,
and
pure
bending
the bending
2k
energy
where
strain
U to the external
in the solution,
energies.
The procedure
work
and include,
problems
in Chapters
We remains
based
if needed,
the same.
by bending is concerned
the
on equat-
both
2, 4,
(a)
an assessment by shear.
The
it is assumed
caused example
example,
that
force
gradually
center%
>'1' Shear
I
0.896"
caused
applied.
deformation
10-t2
by a fal ing
By
contrast,
mass
is neglected.
is considered;
in the
second
in this
example,
an impact
the
effect
on
(a)
Centreid
7.50"
--0.246" >
J,
the
a rectangular
shear
maximum
deformations.
deflection
cross section,
due
to force
Fig. 10~23.
P applied
Consider
at the
the
end
effect
of a cantilever
of the flexural
7.50"
--2.613"
0.787" (c) (b)
axis
Fig. t0-22
(d)
is gradually
applied
to the
beam,
the
external
work
We
= PA,
where
L
Shear deflection
two
the total
parts.
deflection
One
part
These
of the end
of the beam.
bending may
stresses; be directly
The
internal
strain
is caused
energy
consists
by the
Fig.
(b)
t0-23
532
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec..t0-1t.
Energy
Method
for
Deflections
and
Impact
533
f M 2 dx/2EI, by noting that M = -Px. The strain energy in shear is found Eq. 3-5, Ush = f (x2/2G) dV. In this particular case, the shear at every is equal to applied force P, and the shear stress , according to Eq. 7-7,
tributed parabolically as
The
strain
energy
in pure
bending
is obtained
from
Eq.
6-24,
the
deflection
due
to
shear
is less
than
1 percent.
Small
deflections
due
to
shear
typical
for
uation
ordinary
for
slender
beams.
This
fact
due
can
to bending quickly deflection
be noted
further
from
as the
the
cube For
whereas
A. There,
the deflection
the
deflection
due to shear
the
increases
increases
directly.
Hence,
: P[(hh
At any
to the L of the
2does
volume
becomes due
dominant. to shear.
one
beam.
level
Therefore, work,
y, this
the
shear
the total
infinitesimal deflection
stress
not
vary
dV
across
two
in the
breadth
'
h and
*EXAMPLE
the
t0-t3
instantaneous maximum deflections and bending stresses for the 50 x
sion
is taken
external
as Lbdy.
By equating
the
sum
is obtained:
of these
Sheriding
J0
2EI
fo(_ex)2x2EI
240G [,bh ]
beam.
- 6-
e2L3
Lb
mm a height
300
steel beam shown in Fig. 10-24 75 mm above the top of the (b) the beam is supported at each
N/min. Let E = 200 GPa.
struck by a 15.3-kg mass fal ing from if (a) the beam is on rigid supports, on springs. Constant k for each spring
Ushear =
where A = bh
- 8GF
is the
Solution
}.81
deflection = 150
We
S =
5AG
Sheriding
pA
2
---+--
p2L3
6EI
. 3P2L
of the system due to a statically applied force of 15.3 g = 15.3 x N is computed first. In the first case, this deflection is that of the see Table 11 of the Appendix. In the second case, the static deflection is augmented by the deflection of the springs subjected to a 75-N
then
from factors
Eq.
2-27 to obtain
=
or
A=--+--
PL 3
3EI
6PL
PL
5AG
48E1
48
200
504/12
The first term in this answer, PL3/3EI, is the deflection of the bean The second term is the deflection due to shear, assuming no warping the built-in end. The factor at = 6/5 varies for dif erent shapes of the
impact
cross
factor
= 1+
= 1 +
+ A st
:h
since
It is instructive
it depends
on the
to recast
nature
the
of the
expression
shear-stress
for
the
distribution.
total
deflection
a as
(b)
1 + 2x75 0.030
+ Ap = 0.030
= 71.7 + 30---
75 = 0.280 mm
-where, as before, To gain further ratio E/G by 2.5, the last insight a typical
1+---
lOG
3Eh2)l
5
/ 1 + 20.2x8----- 75 = 24.2
75 ---,_.. '"''
5O
term gives the deflection due to shear. into this problem, in the last expression, value for steels. Then
500
A = (1 + 0.75h2/L2)Abending
From this equation, L = h), the total deflection is very it can deflection important be seen that is 1.75 times in comparable for a short beam (for example, that due to bending alone. Hence cases. On the other hand, if L
rn =
mm
15.3
kg
k = 1000
Fig.
10-24
534
Deflection
For plication either
of Beams
case, of P is the maximum bending stress in the beam due to a static i
Sec.
10-12.
Inelastic
Deflection
of
Beams
535
statically
he
O-max)st
Multiplying the the
required
-static results.
PL
150
1000
as long deflections
LE
S deflections
4S and
4 x stress
503/6 by the
1.800
respective
MPa
impact
rectangular
gives
and
plot
beam.
the
moment-curvature
relationship
for
an elastic-ideally
plas-
Static
Dynamic
olution
No S
129
With
Amax, Crmax, mm MPa
Springs
0.280 1.80
No
Springs
0.030 1.80
With
Springs
6.78 43.6.
6-30. gyp
and ac-
this table that large deflections and stresses are caused lead. The stress for the condition with no springs owing to the flexibility of the beam, it is not exces:
1 - = K = p
When
---
gyp
yo
curvature
yo
and
of the
Kyp
Kyp
=
member
h/2
at impending yielding
gives
these
the relations,
*610-12.
Inelastic
Deflection
for beam limitation relation, 10-6. The
All the preceding solutions behaves elastically. This law into the strain-curvature curvature equation, Eq.
mating
the curvature
as cFv/dx
not
2 and
the integration
deflections apply only is the result of introducing Eq. 10-5, to yield subsequent procedures
if the
the for
By
substituting
this
expression
into
Eq.
6-40,
one
obtains
the
required
mome..n.t-.
relationship:
schemes
do not
since
function
on
properties. does
2]
the
(10-36)
asymp-
related
to the applie
apply
to inelastic
d forces.
problems,
As a consequence,
At curvature
just
M
double
in Fig.
that
10-25.
of the impending
Note
how
rapidly
yielding,
it approaches
eleven-twelfths,
or
cases piecewise linear solutions for small lead or are made until the desired level of lead or displacement is reached. stepwise linear calculations are made with the aid of a computer. natively, time-consuming trial-and-error solutions are used to deflections in indeterminate beams. However, it is possible to simple solutions for ultimate strengths of statically determinate determinate beams and frames assuming ideal plastic behavior terial. For such a method, a relationship between the and curvature at a section of a beam must be developed. An defining such a relationship is given in the next example. is this approach that is relied upon in Chapter 13 for plastic analyses of statically determinate and indeterminate beams and
frames.
Asymptote
/
/
/
gYP 2gyp
/
Residual curvature
The
6 This
second
section
example
is optional.
that
fol ows
discusses
the
deflection
4gyp
l/p=
536
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
t0-t3.
Introduction
to
the
Moment-Area
Method
537
6-38
the
91.6
the On
middle
percent,
releasing
half
of the
of
the
ultimate
beam
remains
plastic
moment
the curvature
elastic.
Mp is already
beam can
reached.
At this
as
A check
of the
ultimate
capacity
for
the
2-in
deep
section
based
on
Eq.
figure.
On
moment, residual
The reader should recall that the ratio of Mp to Myp varies for dif erent sections. For example, for a typical steel wide-flange beam, M/Myp is about Establishing the asymptotes for plastic moments gives a practical basis for t the ultimate plastic limit state for beams and frames discussed in Chapter
EXAMPLE t0-t5
Mp
calculation
= Muir
shows that
= O'ypalthough
bh 2
4
40
3 x
4
22
120
k-in
applied
the
preceding
beam 11-in
moment.
example,
The applied
this
that at the of the beam
means
moment
beginning adjoining
the
that
is IM.
the
beam
curvature
According
yields
partial y,
in the
Therefore, is
to the results
2-in deep
the
it can
carry
section
curvature
found
the
of
in
in
is twice segment
A 3-in
Determine
wide
mild-seel
the tip deflection
cantilever
beam
shown
loads of 5 kips
in Fig.
each.
%
= +40
caused
ksi.
by applying
two
p
10-26(b). From Crm = Mc/I, ab is 24.4 ksi, which indicates it is
1 2Kyp
maximum
2yp -h/2
curvature
2-Eh/2tryp
for segment
30 x 103 x 1
ab is
2 x 40
2.67 x 10 -3 per in
The that
behavior.
diagram
stress
5k
is shown in beam
calculation
in Fig. segment
for
the
shallow
section
of the
beam
p
0(0)
1 _ Mmax E1
data on curvatures = 0 and v(0)
is 0.89
O'Ecmax _
in upward.
3 x 103
24.4
x 1.5
= 0.542 X 10 -3 per in
On integrating this 10-26(e), is obtained. twice The
is not
possible
as the
material
yields
at 40 ksi.
applied
be
If
(a)
29.4
k-in
confined to the 2-in deep segment the end load were applied alone, the plastic moment capacity
cannot be use.d
were analysis,
to solve
(b)
(d)
+2.67
X 10 -3 per
in in
Introduction
to
the
Moment-Area
Method
X 10 -3 per
v=+0.16"
(e)
numerous
determined,
engineering
applications
where
deflections
of beams
must
of
(c)
the loading is complex, and the cross-sectional areas vary. This is the usual situation in machine shafts, where gradual stepwise variations in the shaft diameter are made to accommodate beatings, collars, retainers, etc. Likewise, haunched or tapered
Part B is optional.
Fig.
10-26
538
Deflection
of
Beams
beams tion.
are frequently employed in aircraft as well as in bridg e By interpreting semigraphically the mathematical operations of ing the governing dif erential equation, an effective procedure taining deflections in complicated situations has been developed. this alternative procedure, one finds that problems with load dis
uities beam work and arbitrary variations cause no complications for this solution. The of inertia of the cross-sectional and require only a lit le more solution of such problems is the
(a)
(b)
small
element.
Fig.
i0-27
angle
Interpretation
change
in an
of a
method
sections
in comparison
the
and
to be developed
on the moment-area
of the
however, it is the deflection and/or the angular rotation of the curve, or both, at a particular point of a beam that are of greatest in the solution of practical problems. The method of moment areas is just an alternative method for the deflection problem. It possesses the same approximations and
tations discussed earlier in connection with the solution of the to deflection
terminate
with
equation
rotation
at a single
is generally
method?
used but
the direct
solution
elastic
point
curve,
on a beam.
to obtain
no advantage
It may
only
be
If the small angle change from an arbitrary origin see Fig. 10-27(b).
is
tinction between this geometrical
equation.
dO for an element is multiplied to the same element, a vertical As only small deflections are
and vertical one has distance dt need
be made.
dt = x dO = x dx
A and
The
(10-38)
two
B on a beam
first moment-area
integrating
(see
Eqs.
Fig.
10-37
10-28),
and
10-38
is
yields
between
the
any
moment-area
two
points
theo-
such
theroem
equation
of the
due
to the
elastic
flexure
curve.
of the
By
applying
beam;
glected.
*'10-14.
Application
and
indeterminate
of the
method
beams.
it, one
determines
wil
be developed
for
staticalit
dx
change A and
(10-39)
The
and the
necessary
theorems
of the
are
based
theorems
on the
geometry
theorems
conditions
of the
are
elastic
A 0m is the angle change between B and A. This in radians between any two tangents at points
in angle B on the
interpretation
metrical
For
deriving
fol owing
considerations
of definite
the theorems,
alternative
are
integrals.
necessary
As wil
10-10,
Eq.
to solve
be shown
c[2v/dx
2 = M/EI,
a complete
later,
can
furthe:
in the
forms:
C D
dx 2 = x
= x EI
or
dO = dx
to this area The is
(1C
From Fig. 10-27(a), quantity (M/E1) dx corresponds area of the M/EI diagram. According to Eq. 10-37, the change in angle between two adjoining tangents.
an angle
shown
change
in one element
to the deformation
method
of the elastic
who taught of Dresden,
in Fig.
10-27(b).
is due classes
Greene.
8 The
developed
to Charles in 1873.
development a similar
E. Greene, Somewhat
method
appears
to have
deflections
i +A0mA
curve
unknown
to
between
and
Fig.
t0-28
the
the
elastic
Relationship
M/E1
curve.
diagram
539
Deflection
of Beams
by
at'A
Sec. t044.
the. ordinates is known, Elastic
Moment-Area
Theorems
elastic curve is equal to the M/E1 area bounded A and B. Further, if slope 0A of the elastic curve at B is given as
0B-0Aq-AOBIA)
The first theorem shows that a numerical evaluation of the M/E1
+tl
(b)
curve
bounded curve performing moments ments such terclockwise clockwise tangents The element. distance placement at B. from
matical
between the ordinates through any two points on the gives the angular rotation between the corresponding tangents ] this summation, areas corresponding to the positive are taken positive and those corresponding to the negative are taken negative. If the sum of the areas between any two as A and B is positive, the tangent on the right rotates in the direction; if negative, the tangent on the right rotates direction; see Fig. 10-28(b). If the net area is zero, the are parallel. quantity dt in Fig. 10-28(b) is due to the effect of curvature By summing this effect for all elements from A to B, AF is obtained. Geometrically, this distance represents the or deviation of a point A from a tangent to the elastic Henceforth, it wil be termed the tangential deviation of a a tangent at B and wil be designated tA/B. The foregoing, in
form, gives the second moment-area theorem:
. I
reasoning, the
_-
+ tBi A
between
Cent ofthroi ed
M/EI area {d}
A and B
(c)A
Fig. signs
deviation.
t0-29 for
Interpretation tangential
of
By is
analogous
deviation
of a point
B from
a tangent
at
--tB/A=i
where
being
(10-43)
the
through let ers
same
point for
M/E1
area
is used,
first.
but
is measured
careful y The point the
from
order whose
the
vertical
subis
of the deviation
dO x =
This from
to the
x
(10-41
In the previous equations, distances and are always as E and I intrinsically are also positive quantities, of the tangential deviation depends on the sign of the A positive value for the tangential deviation indicates above a tangent to the elastic curve drawn through vice versa; see Fig. 10-29. The previous two theorems are applicable between continuous elastic curve of any beam for any loading.
taken positive, therefore the sign bending moments. that a given point the other point, any two They the points apply on be-
tween
and
beyond
the reactions
for overhanging
and
continuous
beams.
deviation point
of the
is
around
is not in
a vertical
the
line
desired
through
deflection
A.
In most
of
cases,
a beam.
the
tangential
area, one in a s' may
Using convenience
as
the
definition restate
it must be emphasized that only relative rotation of only tangential deviations are obtained directly. A further the geometry of the elastic curve at the supports to boundary conditions is necessary in every case to determine wil be il ustrated in the examples that fol ow. In applying the moment-area method, a careful y prepared elastic curve is essential. Since no deflection is possible a roller support, the elastic curve is drawn passing through
tangents considthe
include deflections.
ports.
tA/
where
considered
gent
sketch diagram between
to the centroid
the
At a f'Lxed
to the
elastic
direction
curve
support,
is permit ed,
neither
displacement
of the
unloaded
so the above
axis
elastic
nor
of the
curve
rotation
beam.
must
In preparing
be drawn
of the
tangent
tan-
cI) is the
and
total
is
area
the
of the
horizontal
M/E1
distance
the
of
two
this
position,
a point
of the elastic curve in the the anticipated deflections. on a beam is usually referred
without
emphasis
on the
signs.
manner, it is customary to exOn such a sketch the deflection of to as being above or below its initial
To aid in the
by curves
application
and
of the
are
from
A.
enclosed
centroids
Deflection
10 kN
of Beams
-1200
Sec. t0-14.
a b
Moment-Area
144
E
Theorems
of triangle of triangle
= t/4 =
are: leg:
dx +
2
= '+
= 2
1200
2E
0.24
600
800
C __B d
---400
600
x
2E
0.48
144
E 288
-0.24/E
-0.12/E
-0.60/E g
(c)
(.)
70
103
-4.11
10-3rad
vB
B t
X 106
N-mm
B = ABIA
800
-4.11
mm
the
tangent
A.
(b)
(d)
Fig.
t0-30
EXAMPLE
1600 in Fig. mm long 10-30(a). with For a 10-kN a distance force
t0-t7 the deflection due to the concentrated force P applied as shown in Fig. 10-
from
50
the
106 mm 4. For
fixed
end,
the
and assume
the
beam
the
remaining
is of greater
1000
at the
center
of a simply
supported
beam.
The
flexural
rigidity
E1 is constant.
mm
depth
of the
than
beam,
it is beyond,
end.
12 =
10
having
x 106
the
Neglect
El,
the
dividing is obtained.
appear
-0.60/E,
at point
applies
D.
just
One,
-0.12/E,
right
is applicable
of D. Since
just
the
to the
bending
let
moment
of D;
is
the
see
from A to C, the elastic curve 10-30(d). At fixed support A, direction AB' of the unloaded beam is tangent to the elastic
thrdughout this distance the elastic curve must beam. The unloaded curve at C.
(c)
(a)
CB
E' <
E
e
e (d)
B
After the foregoing preparatory steps, from the geometry of the sketch elastic curve, it may be seen that distance BB' represents the desired of the free end. However, BB' is also the tangential deviation of point B the tangent at A. Therefore, the second moment-area theorem may be obtain tmA, which in this special case represents the deflection of the Also, from the geometry of the elastic curve, it is seen that the angle between lines BC and AB' is the angular rotation of segment CB. This the same as the one included between the tangents to the elastic curve at' A and B, and the first moment-area theorem may be used to compute this It is convenient to extend line ec in Fig. 10-30(c) to point f
+ 3Pa 4
+P
tAIB
J n
(b)
tAlC
(e)
area
of the
M/E1
diagram.
This
gives
two
triangles,
the
areas
of which
are easi
Fig. 10-31
calculated.
Deflection
Solution
of Beams
at
Sec. t044.
generally
a distance
Moment-Area
of point E, Fig.
as
Theorems
10-31(d),
applicable.
The bending-moment diagram is in Fig. 10-31(b). Since E1 is constant, the diagram need not be made, as the areas of the bending-moment diagram by E1 give the necessary quantities for use in the moment-area theorems. elastic curve is in Fig. 10-31(c). It is concave upward throughout its the bending moments are positive. This curve must pass through the the support at A and B. It is apparent from the diagram of the elastic curve that the desired
e from
B is wanted,
For
example,
the
solution
if the deflection
may
be formulated
vr = E'E'
- E'E
= (e/L)tA/a
-- tE/B
' locating
'the elastic
point
curve
E at a variable
can be obtained.
distance
work,
although involve
x from
some
the
one
=
of the supports,
the
(not
the equation
tangent
shown portion
To simplify
must
is represented
considerations, tangent
by distance
to the
CC' elastic = C'C" curve
CC'.
Moreover,
- C"C, where passing through
from from
purely
distance the point
geometrical
C" of is measured support B.
or elastic curve at
A and to
CB
be this
exercised. solution
the
arithmetical
Thus, would
vc
care
use
in selecting
is more
at a sup-
in the of the
-moment
Solution
diagram
to obtain
tC/A,
which
tedious.
since
other distance figure.
the
support
deviation
such In this
Of a support
point
a tangent
to the
and
multiplying
By
may always be computed by the second moment-area as C'C" may be found by proportion from the geometry case, tA/B fol ows by taking the whole M/E1 area between
solution
is drawn
of the
foregoing
problem
in Fig. distances 10-31(e), AC
may
be based
where and CB
it 9 by its measured
application
this
from
a vertical
through
A; hence,
is equal
tA/B.
another
For
of the
second
theorem,
tc,
which
geometrical
elastic curve
case, the M/E1 area is hatched in Fig. 10-31(b), from C. Since the right reaction is P/4 and the distance ordinate for the shaded triangle is +Pa/2.
= CC'
= (tAlC
+ tmc)12 The tangential deviation tmc is M/E1 area in Fig. 10-31(b) the shaded M/E1 area about B. completion by the reader. This
is an average of tAlC and true the first moment of the unshaded about is given by the first moment of The numerical details of this solution are left for rocedure is usually longer than the first. Note particularly that if the elastic curve is not
symmetrical,
the tangent
at the
t048
a prismatic
The
through
beam
positive
B. As
is in
signs
may
a downward
of tam
be seen
and
direction.
tc/ indicate
from Fig.
that
10-31(c),
points
the
A and
deflection
C lie above
at the
t
center
caused
beam
by applied
loaded'
force
as in the
P; see
preceding
Fig.
10-32(a).
example,
find
the
maximum
Solution
The
ends and
slope
from
the
slope
Oa
Oc
0c
--
+
L
Oa
8EI
A Omc
the
maximum
bending-moment respectively.
deflection
diagram and the elastic curve are shown The elastic curve is concave up throughout
occurs where the tangent to the
right
elastic
support
tA/
5Pa
8EI
Pa 2
2EI
Pa 2 that
of a point
as two
This
point
horizontal
of tangency
distance
is designated
d measured
in the figure
from the
by D and
is located
B.
Then,
by
by
The
Alternatively,
previous
procedure
by
for
finding
whole
the
deflection
on the
and
9 See
Table
2 of the
treating
Appendix
the
for
M/E1
the
centreid
area
of the
triangles,
whole
triangular
tAm=
4 J3 +[,T--)[,
a+
= +2---
A0mz = 0 since the line passing through the supports is horizontal. Howthe slope 0 of the elastic curve at B may be determined by obtaining tA/B dividing it by the length of the span. On the other hand, by using the first theorem, A0mo may be expressed in terms of the shaded area in 10-32(b). Equating A0mo to 0a and solving for d locates the horizontal tangent Then, again from geometrical considerations, it is seen that the maximum represented by DD' is equal to the tangential deviation of B from a
tangent through D, i.e., true.
a tangent
to the elastic
curve
through
point
B at the support,
one
sees
546
P
Deflection
of Beams
Vmax
supported
O t
Sec.
t0-14.
Moment-Area
Theorems
547 of
of
= 11.2Pa3/12EI.
beams,
accurate
obtain the true
For
where
maximum.
this
applied
reason,
forces
the deflection
in many
act
practical
in the
at the
problems
same
center
all the
to calcuate
direction,
instead
0 e tA/e/L
t is often
sufficiently
to
tA/8
PLE
t0-t9
i-
---a >,,<
+ 3Pa 4
L =4a
(a)
3a
>-I
>
(c)
O t
In
a simply
supported
beam,
find
the
maximum
deflection
and
rotation
of
the
curve wo lb/ft;
of a uniformly E1 is constant.
distributed
load
.+Pd
A
diagram parabola
passing
is in Fig. 10-33(b). As established with a maximum value at the through the points of supports A and diagram
Horizontal
through
tangent seen
this
the
case,
center.
the
M/E1
Therefore,
the
is symmetrical
elastic
curve
must
about
be symmetrical,
a vertical
and
passing
the
(b)
Fig.
t0-32
q
.+--
SPa
2EI
to this curve at the center of the beam is horizontal. From the figure, it that A0mc is equal to 0B, and the rotation of B is equal to one-half the of the whole M/E1 diagram. Distance CC' is the desired deflection, and the geometry of the figure, it is seen to be equal to tmc (or twc, not shown).
(see
Example
10-17)
24EI
tam
L
tam
4a
SPa
8EI
Vc
woL
24EI
3 5L
16
5woL
384EI
4 enclosed by a
2 4 ] = 8EI
Since 0B = 0z + A0mo and it is required that
(area
0o
between
= 0,
and
B)
3arabola
20 See
Table
as
well
2 of the
as for
.
Appendix
Ib/ft
for
a formula
giving
an area
AOmz = 011
Vmax --- VD
EI
hence, d = X/a
12EI
1
deflections.
the two deflections
--L/2
< L/2
(a)
IC'
OB
+W o/2/8
(c)
After distance d is found, the maximum deflection may also be obtained as = two, or Vmx = (d/L)tw, - tom (not shown). Also note that using the two = tmo, Fig. 10-32(d), an equation may be set up for d. It should be apparent from this solution that it is easier to calculate flection at the center of the beam, which was il ustrated in Example 10-17,
to determine
sees that,
the
numerically,
maximum
Yet,
by examining
dif er lit le: v,t
the
=
end
results
I
{b)
Fig.
t0-33
3P
548
Deflection
of
Beams
A
The value of the deflection agrees quantity derived by the integration through C, the sign of vc is positive.
with method.
Eq.
10-22, Since
which
point
expresses B is above
the
(a)
EXAMPLE
l 0-20
forces.
A of the
beam
shown
in Fig.
10-34(a)
+P
The The
bending-moment bending
moment
diagram changes
for sign
in Fig. At this
inflection
in the
elastic
curve
occurs.
Corresponding
to the
positive
(b)
curve is concave up, and vice versa. The elastic curve is so drawn over the supports at B and C, Fig. 10-34(c). To begin, the inclination ofth{ to the elastic curve at support B is determined by finding tc/B as moment of the areas with the proper signs of the M/E1 diagram verticals through C and B about C. tc/a
tClB
VERSION + (+Pa) _= 1 [(+pa) -2a NON-ACTIVATED l a ( a + l a) + la (-aa) (3_ + 52)] www.avs4you.com
= cbX'l + C12' 2 q- CI)3. 3
pa 3
6EI
(c)
sign diagram
that the deflection sought is given by distance Further, since triangles A'A"B and CC'B are the other hand, distance AA" is the deviation elastic curve at support B. Hence,
the tangent at B. 10-34(d), where it AA' and is equal to AA" similar, distance A'A" = of point A from the tangent
C' (d)
VA
= AA'
= AA"
A'A"
tc/a/2
tA/a = (C4X--4)
where the negative sign means that
= (-Pa)-'
point A is below
l[a
2aI
the
=
tangent
3EI Pa3
curve
of point
sign
is not
used
henceforth,
displacements. the supports
as the
is
Pa
3
geometry
Thus, the
of the
deflection
elastic
indicates
A example
(e)
signs of the quantifies although usually less if the deflection of elastic curve at C, no of analysis is shown
Fig.
t0-34
1 Pa
26
Pa
4
Fig.
necessity of watching the in the of the moment-area method, is encountered than in this example. For instance, is established by ftrst finding the rotation of the in the direction of tangents occurs. This scheme 10-34(e), where VA = a t /C -- tA/O
549
550
Deflection
of Beams solving
Sec.
t0-t5.
Statically
Indeterminate
Beams
55
simple
geometrical statically
shapes. indeterminate
diagrams such
section,
superposition
is used
A P C lP .iB ..
(a)
(b)
by
0-15.
(c)
A
Statically
indeterminate
Indeterminate
beams
are
Beams
can readily
the
be
beam
solved
deflections
for
unknown
and
re-
tons
tAl
redundant
using
Two
the moment-area
reactions
determined,
method
by employing
for finding more widely
superposition.
After
rota-
'10-35
,sition.
can
be found
beam 10-35(a).
supports Find
two the
equal deflection
and
quarter of the
by the presence bending-moment sidered to consist of two independent by all of the applied loading
the other part for the
beams Therefore,
that
in the
usual
manner,
again,
the
often
used
restrained
mainly
22 and continuous
Solution
redundant
of redundant moments at diagrams for these beams parts--one part for the on a beam assumed to be
end moments. Thus,
beams
dif er
redundant procedure,
employing
reactions
from
simply
are it is rec-
super-
the
sup-
bending-mo _ment diagram and elastic 10-35(b) and (c), respectively. Then, and negative areas of the bending-moment
spectively,
at the Noting center this,
are numerically
of the span much work
equal,
of any
i.e.,
other
[ tAlC
,redundant
supports
on a beam be clarified
while
I = I tB/C
I, the
are
Served
maintained.
by
the
The
continuity
moments.
of the
elastic
curve
of the
beam
is pre-
in this the
case deflections
at
of the
in the
span.
usual
The
manner.
deflection
point
on the
elastic
curve
can
Although the critical ordinates of the bending-moment diagrams caused the redundant moments are not known, their shape is known. Appliof a redundant moment at an end of a simple beam results in a led moment diagram, with a maximum at the applied moand a zero ordinate at the other present at both ends of a simple superpose into a trapezoidal-shaped end. beam, Likewise, two diagram. when
are The foregoing area method minate beam. examples can be used No matter in which the of any statically diagrams may are applicable. In practice, any M/EI approximated by a number of rectangles to introduce concentrated angle changes at in the directions of the tangents at such the concentrations can be found from il ustrate the manner to obtain the deflection how complex the M/EI
triangular
The
known
used
in applying
moment-area
to the
whole
continuous
diagram diagram
such
built-in
the
curve continuity
of
best M/EI
by
the unknown values of An alternative method for procedure of plot ing the this method, only one
of the
ends
that
of a beam. of the
cannot
rotate,
a cantilever. applied
Then forces
permit
a rapid
moments at the supports. the redundant reactions employs diagrams by parts. In applyfixed supports is left in place,
unknown
formulation
of equations
at
diagrams reactions
called
for
each at the
22 Indeterminate
beams
with
or more
fixed
ends
are
restrained
552
Deflection
of
Beams
Sec.
10-t5.
Statically
Indeterminate
Beams
553
the
in
The' tangent
Hence,
yields
the
In either method, for beams of variable diagrams must be divided by the corresponding Both methods of solving for the redundant
the
EXAMPLE
Find the
EI's. reactions
tained
in the usual
the
a solution
reactions.
geometrical
at the built-in
The
for Mi.23
condition
end remains
The
is tB/A
horizontal
manner
after
final
the reactions
bending-moment
equations
= 0. An
after
of static
equation
the application
equilibrium
formulated Fig. 10-36(d),
of force
are used
on this is ob-
are known.
diagram,
to
Thus,
since
tB/A = 0,
are
il in
fol owing
t0-22
maximum
examples.
(0.25)(6)
downward defl ection of the small aluminum beam
(0.25)
= 0
and has of
force
P =
100
N.
The
beam's
constant
MA = -4.2 N-m. Since, initial y, MA was assumed to be positive, so shown in Figs. 10-36(a) and (b), this result indicates that actually MA an opposite sense. The correct sense for MA must be used in the equations that fol ow and is reflected in the shear and moment diagrams constructed
Figs. 10-36(c) and (d), respectively.
The
must
solution
be determined
of this
problem
to establish
consists
the
of two
numerical
parts.
values
First,
for
a redundant
the
MA MB
= 0 = 0
+ +
100(0.15) 100(0.10)
= 0 = 0
Ra RA
= =
43.2 56.8
N N
diagram; then the usual moment-area procedure is applied to By assuming the beam is released from the redundant end beam-moment diagram is constructed above the base line in moment diagram of known shape due to the unknown redundant shown on the sa.me diagram below the base line. One assumes
since in this manner, its correct sign is obtained automatically
beam
moment
sign
convention.
diagram.
The
composite
;ck:
The maximum
Fy
= 0 ' +
43.2
+ 56.8
- 100 = 0
her-
diagram
represents
a complete
deflection occurs where the tangent to the elastic curve is C in Fig. 10-36(a). Hence, by noting that the tangent at A is and using the first moment-area theorem, point C is located. This the hatched areas in Fig. 10-36(d) having opposite signs are equal, a distance 2a = 2(4.2/56.8) = 0.148 m from A. The tangential deviation tC/A) gives the deflection of point C.
7dmax = 7Jc = tAlC
(c)
P=
lOON
EI = --
x 0.074(+4.2)
= 0.256
0.074 + x 0.074
(a) (d)
+4.2 'm
0.15m 0.10m-
Solution
0.25R
+6 N.m
= (15.36)10-3/EI
+ x 0'.074(-4.2)5
also be obtained
in Fig.
x 0.074
mm the moment
one
(down)
parts.
solution
This
can
is shown
10-36(e).
by plot ing
Note
that
of the
diagram
ordinates
by can-
is in
terms
condition by statics.
t/A From
(b)
+MA=?
(e)
0.1 + x 0.15 = 0
distance of a whole triangle.
See Table
-15 N.m
2 of the Appendix
Fig.
t0-36
Deflection
MA
Here considered However, After
der of the
of Beams
= O
MA,
Sec. t0.t5.
MA + 43.2(0.25) -- 100(0.15) = 0 MA =
Statically
woL
Indeterminate
Beams
within the equation of statics for the summation of positive since it is assumed to act in a countercloclovise in the beam sign convention, such an end moment at A is the combined moment diagram is constructed, Fig. 10-36(d), the
work is the same as in the preceding solution.
:hen
assumed
MA = MB =
negative sign
in Figs.
12
(10-44)
their sense is opposite
In comparison reduction
for
these
10-37(a)
moments
diagram
and
(b).
indicates
that
from
with in the
bending
the
moment
critical
momen.
moments
EXAMPLE
t0-23
Solution
Find
distributed
Solution
the
moments
lead
at the
of we N/m;
supports
see Fig.
for
a fixed-end
10-37(a).
beam
loaded
with
0, one
the
and
former
solution
same
parts
as fol ows:
is shown geometrical
1
in Fig. condition
The moments at the supports are called fixed-end moments, and their nation is of great importance in structural theory. Due to symmetry in this lem, the fixed-end moments are equal, as are the vertical reactions, well2 each. The moment diagram for this beam, considered to be
EI
MA =
+
woL
12
=0
Although this beam is statically indeterminate to the second degree, of symmetry, a single equation based on a geometrical condition is yield the redundant moments. From the geometry of the elastic curve, of the fol owing conditions may be used: AOA/B = 0, TM tB/A = 0, or tA/ =
the first condition, AOAm = 0,
in Fig. 10-37(b), while the assumed' diagram shown in the same figure.
beam
Find
fixed
the
fixed-end
at both
ends
moments.
carries
E1
a concentrated
is constant.
force
P, as shown
in Fig.
10-
EI
24 Also
A 0c/'
since
= O.
the
.
4 t"v'
(a)
. .x,
beam AB as a simple beam, the moment diagram due to P is shown the base line in Fig. 10-38(b). The assumed positive frxed-end moments equal and result in the trapezoidal diagram. Three geometrical conditions elastic curve are available to solve this problem, which is indeterminate
second degree:
R A L = + wo L 2/2
AOA/B
zero.
= 0, since = 0, since
the support
change B does
between from
the
at A and at A.
B is
tB/A
(c) Similarly,
tA/
= O.
Pab
(b)
" A
-w
(d)
'
B [ '"
o
L2/2
+MA=?
(a)
+Ma
(b)
= ?
Fig.
t0-37
Fig.
10-38
556
Deflection
Any equations two
of Beams
of these governs conditions the choice. may be used; arithmetical Thus, by using condition simplicity (a), which of the is res
Sec. t0-t5.
Statically
Indeterminate
Beams
55
simplest,
and
condition
(b),
the two
equations
are 25
IOA,B
or
=
+ LMA
Pab
L
+
1 )
= 0
t, =
or
Solving the two
-g-5
reduced
( + b) +
equations
Pab
4
Pab
+ 4 5 =
(L + b)
gives
(c)
2MA + M = ---
MA =
These
simultaneously
2
an (b)
L2
and
opposite
MB =
sense from
pa2b
L2
initial y
tAiB
MB=?
Mc=?
and
shown
negative in Figs.
moments 10-38(a)
have and
that
EXAMPLE
t0-25
for whole
a continuous beam.
0'
beam
loaded
as shown
.
-14.04 k
This beam
to the
at A as
is stai cally
shown
end
indeterminate
to the second
moments For each
to
degree.
positive,
No
is contained
By treating
et
the
in
ea ch
are
o
.<-4.15'
---4.15'---*-
-.*---6.43'-----
+20.7
k/ft
+17.7
k/ft
earlier
is on a roller.
10-36(b)
clue
and
the
metrical
(a) (b)
conditions
0B = 0b. Since B that is tangent tB/c = 0, since
for
the
the
beam to the support
elastic
curve
is physically elastic curve B does not
for
the
whole
beam,
Fig.
10-39(d):
-gn
.ler
-23.3
...
k/ft
Fig.
t0-39
is a line tangent at
=
E1
10(+30)
10 + 10(+M)
10
To apply
condition
respective span lengths, the two equal. However, although tc/ the tangent through point B is considered negative. Hence, by
moments is obtained.
angles 0 and 0b are is algebraically above point C. using condition (a), one distance of a whole
and,
by
1 (1000+ 100M)
18(+40) (18 + 6) + 18(+M)
+ 54Mc) 18 + 18(+Mc)
1 1
with
redundant
=
See
Table
2 of the
Appendix
for
the
centroidal
= (2880 + 108M
558
Deflection
of
Beams
Problems
Os = O;
or
559
Since
tam
tC/B
Lam
Lcm
(1000 + 10
EI
or
E1
1 (2880+ 108M+54Mc)
18
28M/3
Using condition (b) for span BC
+
provides
3Mc
=
another
- 260
equation, tmc = 0, or
Generalizing the procedure used in the preceding example, a recurrence i.e., an equation which may be repeatedly applied for every two may be derived for continuous beams. For any n number - 1 guch equations may be writ en. This gives enough simultaneous the solution of redundant moments over the supports. This recurrence called the three-moment equation because three unknown moments
t. 26
roblerns
ection
04,
one end
tions,
a curve
internal
the
bent
maximum
into
The
a circle
deflection
of radius
from
R is approximately
removes
a chord
L long
of
27
or
18(+40)(
the two reduced
+12)+18(+M)518+18(+Mc)
3M + 6Mc = -200 equations simultaneously,
18 =
0-2
A 2 x 6 mm
as shown
(Hint:
microresidual
machining
stresses.)
operation
the
3142
when
mm
What
touch
long
is the
the
is clamped
required
What wall?
Section
t0-5. If the
t0-7
equation of the elastic curve for a simply
Solving
the
condition?
maximum
E = 200
stress
GPa.
the
strip
is in the
MB
where with
After necessary must and convenient shears For
-20.4
if-lb
and
Mc
-23.3
if-lb
of length +
beam
E1 is is the
L (b) and
signs agree with the convention of signs used for beams. These proper sense are shown in Fig. 10-39(b). the redundant moments MA'and MB are found, no new tec to construct the moment and shear diagrams. However, be exercised to include the moments at the supports while computing sht reactions. Usually, isolated beams, as shown in Fig. 10-39(b), are free-bodies for determining shears. Reactions fol ow by adding on the adjoining beams.
free body AB:
the their
t0-6.
An
elastic
has
the
deflected
shape
loading moment shape.
EIv(x)
= Mo(x
for
3 - x2L)/4L.
conditions. the beam
(a) Determine the Plot the shear and sketch the deflected
Fig.
Pt0-1
10-?. Rework Example 10-2 by taking the origin coordinate system at the free end. 't0-8. Using the exact dif erential equation, 8, show that the equation of the elastic curve
is bent
A round
aluminum
bar
of 6 mm
diameter
ample
(Hint:
p is a constant.
the equations
in the figures
a circular
ring
maximum
wil be the
having
stress.in
radius
a mean
the
of curvature
diameter
bar? if the E =
of 3 m.
70 GPa.
of a W 8 x stress in the
M=O+ Ma=O+
For free body BC:
2.4(10)5 2.4(10)5
20.4 20.4
10Rn 10Vb
= 0 = 0
RA
Vb
=
=
9.96
14.04
k
k'
beam
is the
What
t0-9
the
lhrough
elastic curves
t0-29.
for
(a)
the
Determine
beams shown
of
conor
bent
around
the
X-X
axis
due
ditions.
to the
Unless
applied
loading
directed
for
otherwise,
the
given
use
boundary
Eq. 10-14a
fibers
is 36 ksi?
E = 29 x 10 psi.
bar after distribution Fig. 6-29.
is machined
Mc=O M=0G+
Check:
From
10(6)
20.4
23.3
18V'3
0
v'3=
Assume that a straight rectangular cold working has a residual stress as was found in Example 6-12; see
one-sixth of the thickness of this bar
so-
(a)
10(12)
20.4
23.3
18Vc
Vc
=
=
0
Rc =
the
RA
above,
+ V
R
= 24k
= Vj
'
+ V'3 = 17.21
and
1
kips J'.
+Rc
10k
the previous
n long, what
conditions,
be
this
10-14c, whichever is simpler to apply. For all cases, E1 is constant, except that in Prob. 10-20, E1 varies. Wherever applicable, take advantage of symmetry or antisymmetry. (b) For statically indeterminate cases only, plot shear and moment diagrams, giving all critical ordinates.
40
27 This pansion
cluded angle.
wil
The complete
respectively.
shear
and moment
diagrams
are shown
in Figs.
10-39(e)
26 For
= 27 x 106 psi.
the
chord
Note
deflec-
discussion
2nd
ed.
of this
(Englewood
procedure,
Clif s,
for
example,
1976)
435-440.
see E. P. Popov,
Mechanics
560
Deflection
of
Beams
Problems
56'i
Fig. P'10*9 Fig. P'I 0-'15
w. N/m ,
-- L/2"--- "'.----L/2--
Fig. P'10-2
w o N/m
Fig.
L
P'10-26
Fig.
W (total)
P'I 0-'10
Fig.
P'I 0-'16
L
Fig. P'I 0-tt
Fig. P'10-'I 7
Fig.
P"10-22
Fig.
P"10-27
Fig.
110-t2
Fig.
P'10-'I
N/m
vI ksi n'x/L
Fig. P'10-'13
Ip
x
rn
Fig. P'10-24
't
Fig.
P'10-28
Fig.
P'I 0-'19
w o N/m
vT
Fig.
kx3
110-4
vI
ksinx/L
Fig. 110-25 Fig. P"10-29
L/2---L/2 ).
Fig. 110-20
562
10-30 through t0-32. (a) Determine
Deflection
equations
of Beams
for the
t0-36. rigidity mine curve
mine
Problems
A beam with an overhang of constant El is loaded as shown in the figure. length a of the overhang such that the would be horizontal over support B.
the maximum deflection between
120
563
to an imposed small vertical disend for the beams of length L and in the figures. (b) Plot shear and
stress
is 24
ksi
and
that
for
shear
is
14.4
ksi.
It
is
the
kN/m
required that the maximum deflection 1 in. This requirement corresponds pan length and is often used to limit to the applied load in building design. 103 ksi.
Fig.
A wooden beam is to span 24 ft and to support uniformly distributed' load, including its own Select the size required from Table 10 in the The allowable bending stress is 2000 psi and in shear is 100 psi. The deflection is limited to /360-th of the span length.
-40. 1 k/ft
[0-4t.
'procedure,
find the
The
maximum
deflection
for
a simple
beam
Fig. 1>10.47
t0-37.
Fig. PIO-3t
Using
Ii = 400
a semigraphical
10-9 point and 10-13, of the applied
Let
in 4, 12 = 300
in 4, and
2O k
= 30 x 106 psi. x
I0-42. be needed
24 ft and carrying a uniformly distributed oad of 40 k total, including its own weight, is limited 0.5 in. (a) Specify the required steel I beam. Let
size
aluminum-alloy
beam for
106 psi,
in
and
for
Table
same
Determine
requirements?
3 in the
the
Appendix
Let
maximum
E =
properties.
both cases.
Fig.
P10-32
10-33. If in Prob. 10-17, the cross-sectional beam is constant, and the left half of the of steel (E = 30 x 106 psi) and the right of aluminum (E = 10 x 106 psi), determine
tion of the elastic curve.
size) to have
an aluFig. 1>10-48
a steel I beam, and a polyesterthe same deflection characterbeam selections, neglect the
dif-
Fig.
P10-37
for
procedure, find the beam loaded of the axial
constant.
lb
wood
t0-34.
the
cantilever
What
is the
of constant
equation
width
of the
and
elastic
flexural
curve
for
loaded
9-17(a) and (d). Neglect the effect of the required increase in beam depth at the end for shear. t0-35. An overhanging beam of constant flexural gidity E1 is loaded as shown in the figure. For portion AB of the beam, (a) find the equation of the elastic curve due to the applied load of 2Wo N/m, and (b) determine the maximum deflection between the supports
f6rce
P? See Figs.
10-38. Using a semigraphical shown in Figs. 10-9 and 10-13, the center of the span for the
in the
deflection.
in their own weights. Let E = 1.5 x 106 psi and polyester plastic, E = 10 x 10 6 psi for and E = 30 x 10 6 psi for steel. For section
of all I beams, use Table 4 in the Appendix.
Fig.
kalb/in
1>10-49
as
force
figure.
E1
Neglect
for
25
the
the
lb
effect
is
25
Section 10-43.
19.
10-8 Using
Using
beam
singularity
singularity
functions,
functions,
rework
rework
Prob.
Prob.
1010-
ht0-50.
equations for the
Using
elastic
singularity
curves for
functions,
the beams
ob-
and
the
deflection
midway
between
2wo
the
N/m
supports.
Fig. P10-38
loaded
beams.
as shown
in the
figures.
w o N/m
E1 is constant
for
all
Fig.
1>10-50
Fig.
P10-35
t0-39. A steel beam is to span 30 ft and k/ft uniformly' distributed load, including weight. Select the required W section of weight, using the abridged Table 4 in the for bending around its strong axis. The allowable
its
a>a>2a__ '
Fig. P10-45
deflection through
given
loaded
'10-6
in Table
by
equa-
and
the
a cantilever
solution
in the
a concentrated
Deflection
force P at the end, at A for the cantilever show shown that free-end in the figure the
of Beams
Problems
565
deflection is
determine
the
deflection
at
the
center
of
the
caused
(Treat
by
a uniformly
distributed
downward
concentrated fc
-59.
right
wo dx as an infinitesimal
span
Two
there
3.6
identical,
m each.
horizontal,
The
beams
simply
cross
each
supported
other
---0.8
m---[
pb
b)
at A due to force P at B
at B due theorem
(See de-
integrate.) This method of influence named by Maxwell) can be effectively distributed-load problems. t0-55. Using the method outlined problem, determine the deflection beam for the loading given in Prob.
angles
used in the
for
beam
is a 6-mm
EI
at their
gap
respective
between
how
concentrated
carry?
downward
force
much is 6000
5 m
Wire
0-60.
10-56. loaded
mine the
beam end
end.
with moment
The:
an
Mo.
The
midpoint
midspan
k =
48EI/L
3.
A
at the in terms
both
of a simply supported beam the deflection of point A, where which results from the application
end of the cantilever of El, which is the beam. same
beams.
of a cantilever
beam
6 m long
State and is
8 m the of a
Fig.
Pt0.62
GPa,
X 106
ct = 12 x 10 -6 per
mm 4 and E =
10 GPa.
C. For
both
the
beams:
other
I = 10
end
nstant
t0-63.
crete.
-L
Fig.
Pt0-5t
10-52.
10-17
a = 1.2
The
are
m.
data
Wo =
If the
for
beam
a beam
P
is made
loaded
=
from
as shown
25 kN,
a W
in Fig.
=
24
------iL
Fig. Pt0-56
- a
member, such as shown
Let a bar of constant
vertical and
30 kN/m,
L
8 x
3 m,
section
and
_.m' 3 3m'
a
Fig. PtO-60
the mas:
the instal ation, however, the nut on the rod was poorly tightened and in the unloaded condition there is a -in gap between the top of the nut and the bottom
because
It was
One
end ofa
intended
W 18 x 50 beam
to support
is cast
into
in the figure.
develop
During
with
con-
of the beam.
end C caused
t0-55. A
(I = 29
x 106 mm4),
W 8 x
by the applied
40 steel
what
is the
beam
loads?
deflection
E = 200 Pa.
as shown
of the
free
in
t0-57.
10-16(a),
lion.
An
Determine
is made
is loaded
of point
Neglect
the horizontal
I.
C caused
the
the
figure.
Calculate
the
deflection
at the
center
of the
span.
E = 29
103 ksi.
the beam?
a force
E = 30 x 106 psi.
/ '/ / / / / / / / / / / / /.
of 15 kips
is applied
wil
(Hint:
See Prob.
at the
middle
in the rod
10-51.)
of
applied
and
force
P.
effect
on
deflection
of
the
axial
member
of
the
shear
in
member.
and
Express
A vertical rod
the
with
results
in
a concentrated
terms
of
t0-58.
end
free end is attached the figure. (a) At what imum bending stress
For
the
to
and the spring. The spring constant k = If a force of 100 lb is applied to the cantilever,
how much of this force wil
15k
be
10 as
Fig. Pt0.63
by the
spring?
(Hint:
See
Prob.
10-51.)
the
mass.
condition
The rod
in
the
and
is 5 mm
Fig.
Pt0-53
t0-54.
deflection
Using
of
the
a beam
results
due
found
to
in Example
a concentrated
10-6
force
for
P,
150 X 10 -6 kgJmm. The mass at the top of 60 x 10 -3 kg and can be considered to be at a point. cryp = 1 GPa and E = 200 GPa.
100 lb
0.02
figure.
30 in long beam AB
What
wire
is the
is stretched to a rigid
increase
from support
E
in
=
stress
in the
wire
area
if the temperature
of the
is 0.0001
drops
in 2 and
100F?
The
30 x 106 psi. For the aluminum beam, E1 = 1040 lbin 2. Let Ctst = 6.5 x 10 -6 per F, ct^ = 12.9 x 10 -6
per F.
A B
lOO
mm
Fig.
equal
A steel
of the of the
to 160 mm 2 is stretched
simple beam
as shown in the
wire
5 m in length
with and
the
tightly
a cross-sectional free
between
end
of the
the de-
the
Wire
figure.
Determine
Fig.
Pt0-54
Fig.
Pt0-58
end
drop
of the of 50C.
Fig.
Pt0-64
Deflection
10-65. A flexible steel bar is suspended
of Beams
by three steel
Problems
rods, as shown in the figure, with the dimensions given in mm. If, initial y, the rods are taut, what additional forces wil develop in the rods due to the application of the force F = 1500 N and a drop in temperature of 50C in the right rod? The cross-sectional area of each
rod bar,
N/mm
C ''600 mm
Fig. P10-67
as that of the cantilever, is 20 area of the wire is 0.40 mm 2. from steel having E = 200 GPa,
Section t0-7t.
a force
tical. The
t040 A 5-ft-long
P = 1000
member
cantilever
lb forming
is an
is loaded
an
S 8 x
at the
ct with
steel
end
the
beam.
with
verDe-
of a stainless-steel wire placed to the end of a cantilever The strain measured by the
of the beam
x 10 -6 per C. is measured by
angle
18.4
termine
and
(b)
axes.
90 caused
Verify that
the
total
by the applied
deflections
tip
deflection
force.
are
for
E = 29 x 10 6 psi.
to the neutral
ct =
0%
10%
45 ,
normal
P
outside
is a measure
x 10 -6 in/in?
that
200
Fig.
[ 200
P10-65
= 9.5 x 10 -6 per F, am = 12 x 10 -6 perF, = 30 x 106 psi, Ea = 10 x 106 psi, Awire = 5 x 10 -4 in 2, lbeam = 6.5 X 10 -4 in 4. The depth of the
shaft?
rod
in the
force
and G
wil
=
be carried
80 GPa.
by the upper
L-shaped
as shown
E = 200 (
mall
beam
is 0.25
in.
Fig.
10-72. Determine the
Pt0-71
maximum deflection for the
t0-68. 10-66. built-in An L-shaped at one end steel rod of 2.125 to a rigid wall and in diameter is simply
figure. wil
E
A horizontal
wire to
is sup-
taut
ported at the other end, as shown in the the bend is 90 . What bending moment oped at the built-in end due to the application
lb force at the corner of the rod? Assume
1.00
10 6 psi,
in n and
G = 12 x 10 6 psi,
J = 2.00
in n. 2000
and,
for
simplicity,
let I =
drop in temperature of 100C takes place and ward force P = 250 N is applied at the end cantilever, what maximum bending stress wil cause at the cantilever support? Assume ' havior and neglect stress concentrations. All sions shown in the figure are in mm. The diame
is connected
beam wood.
to the
6-15, the
E = 12 GPa deflection is
having
10-73.
Consider
an
aluminum-alloy
Z section
the dimensions given in Prob. 7-41. If a 100-in horizontal cantilever employing this section is fixed at one end and is subjected to a vertical downward 20-1b force
at the
deflection?
centreid
How
of the
does
other
the
end,
direction
what
is the
of this
maximum
force relate
lb
to the
neutral
axis?
E =
10
103 ksi.
'
Fig. P10-69
Section
t0-74. fixed
t04t
Consider at one end
that
"''Wire 10To0
Fig. P10-66
a W 18 and loaded
deflection
steel end,
cantilever as shown
in Fig.
With the the aid of the and first moment two solutions given in
such
10-23.
the
Determine
The
due
the
length
flexure
of this Note
is the
cantilever
same
as
Table
the
11 of the
deflected shape
Appendix,
shear
(a) find
of the
1 k/ft
the
diagrams
reaction
and
at A,
show
that
due
to shear.
steel
yields
at 36 ksi
in tension
beam.
10-67.
length
Two
are fixed
parallel
at one
circular
end and
steel
are
shafts
interconnected
of the
same
at
300
or compression and at 21 ksi in shear. a rectangular beam, it can be assumed web yields uniformly in shear. (Although is not exact, the results are representative
conditions.)
that
that this
the other end by means of a taut vertical wire, as shown in the figure. The shafts are 40 mm in diameter; the radius of the rigid pulley keyed to the upper shaft
is' 100 mm. The cross-sectional area of the intercon-
necting applied
pull
much
Fig.
P10-68
Fig.
P10-70
10-75. A heavy object weighing 4000 lb is dropped in the middle of a 20-ft simple span through a distance of 1 in. If the supporting beam is a W 10 x 33 steel beam, what is the impact factor? Assume elastic behavior. E = 29 x 106 psi.
568
Section '10-'12
Deflection
of Beams
the beams,
of deflection
Problems
569
as shown
and
in the
of
figures.
rotation
Specify
for the
wo
N/m
t0-76.
1-in
square
elastic-plastic
tion
material
shown required become
is to be wrapped
around
the
material
a round
mandrel,
as
quantities. of inertia
are
If neither given,
its
GPa.
curve,
in wide?
the
Fig.
6 k/ft
Pt0-83
Fig.
AI
I
Pt0-86
with gyp = 40 ksi. Let E = 30 x 106 psi. The pitch of the hells. angle is so small that only the bending of
the
be
bar
in a plane
need
the
be considered.
after the
(b)
What
wil
P
Fig. Pt0-78
21
the
diameter
of the
coil
release
of the
forces
used
coil
in forming
diameter after
it? Stated
elastic
alternatively,
springback.
determin&
the
Fig. Fig. PI0-84 Pt0-87
Fig.
Pt0-76
t0-77.
early force
nitude
A rectangular,
elastic-plastic P, as shown
of force P that
weightless,
would cause
simple
the plastic
beam-of
middle the
zone
linby
magto
penetrate one-fourth of the beam depth from (b) For the previous loading condition, sketch ment-curvature diagram, clearly showing
plastic zone.
P
side. mothe
Fig.
Pt0-88
AI
Fig.
h/2
Pt0-80
561
P
20 kN
Fig.
Pt0-89
---L/2--- "'--L/2
Fig. P10-77
I=80Xl
Fig. PI0-8t
0 mm
the
Determine loaded
separate
results.
deflection at the midspan of a as shown in the figure, by solving problems indicated and superimposUse the moment-area method. E1 is
the
Solutions of complex problems by into a symmetrical part and an unis often very advantageous because
numerical work.)
Section
'10-'14.
for
method.
Beam
deflections
and
for
specified
lems
area
sections
points
in many
'10-7
of
'10-8
the
can
prob-
be
I I
assigned
t078 method,
for
solution
t0-89. Using the deflection
by
and
the
the
the
moment.
moment-area slope of the
P
Fig. P'10-82
P/2 [ P/2
Fig. Pt0-90
P/2 I P/2
elastic
curves
through determine
at points
A due
to the applied
loads
for
570
10-9t. Determine the elastic
Deflection
deflection at
of Beams
the center
Problems
t0-100 and 10401. Using the moment-area determine the deflection and slope of the point A for the beams loaded as shown in the EI in the second problem is constant.
of the span if l = 10
70 GPa. All
5 kN
for the beam loaded as shown in the figure x 106 mm 4, 12 = 20 x 106 mm 4, and E =
given
(total)
Hinge
110 kN
10408.
6 in (actual) Determine a concentrated
A fight
pointer
is attached
only
atA
to a 6 x
dimensions
are
in meters.
5 kN (total)
m4+
Fig. PI0-t04
106 psi.
beam, as shown in the figure. of the end of the pointer after of 1200 lb is applied. E = 1.2 x
1200 lb
determine
force. E1 is constant
the
deflection
over the entire
at A
caused
structure.
by
this
405.
Fig. PI0400
stic
A hinged beam system is loaded Determine the deflection and curve at point A.
Fig.
PIO-91
t0-92.
equation
10-9.
Using
of the
the
moment-area
elastic curve for
method,
the beam
establish
in Prob.
the
6kN )inge
Fig. PlOdfit
't0-93.
equation
10-83.
Using
of the
the
the
moment-area
elastic curve for
method,
the beam
establish
in Prob.
the
the
t0-t09. Beam ABCD is initial y horizontal. Load P is then applied at C, as shown in the figure. It is desired to place a vertical force at B to bring the position of the beam at B back to the original level ABCD. What force is required at B?
P
t0-94.
maximum
Using
deflection
moment-area
for the
the the the
method,
beam in Prob.
determine
10-85.
t0-102.
Determine
t0-95.
maximum
Using
deflection
the the
deflection
moment-area
for beam
method,
in Prob.
determine
10-86.
the the
10-82.
t0-96.
maximum
Using Using
deflection
moment-area
for beam
method,
in Prob.
determine determine
in Prob. 10-87.
Fig.
P'10405
a beam constant.
loaded
shown
10406.
Beam
AB
is subjected
to an end
moment
moment
atA
I
Fig. P10-109
an
unknown
concentrated
Mc,
as shown
in the
figure.
Using
magnitude
method,
moment
Mc
deterso that
the
deflection
at point
B wil
be equal
to zero.
E1 is
t0-97.
maximum
the the
in
moment-area
for beam
method, method,
determine the
the Prob.
det0-t03. For the elastic
t0-98.
10-38,
flection.
Using
and,
moment-area
rework
maximum
30'
Fig. PI0402
beam of constant
stant.
Section
t0-1t0 and
t045
t0-tt . For the beams loaded as shown in
100
kN-m
. Mc
addition,
using
For
the
gidity flection
El, and
loaded the
find
Fig. The PI0406 figure has a constant distance a such
in if the end
= 3600
x
deflection
the
be 0.25
121b l 12lb
that
the
Fig.
Pt04tO
100 kN/m
subjected
to a concentrated
moment
M,
15
. 6"43"-*- -3"-
Fig. P10-99
Fig.
P'10403
10404.
A structure
is formed
by joining
a simple
in the of the
['"
10'
Fig.
Fig. PI041I
572
t0-tt2.
(a)
of
Deflection
For
determine
of Beams
in the
at the fixed
Problems
end
the
the
A. E1
beam
ratio
is constant.
loaded
of the
as shown
moment
figure,
rotation
2k /
/2k
to the
the
applied
end
moment
MA;
(b)
determine
the
2k/ft 2{_ 13
Fig. Pt 0-124
Fig.
Fig, P10-1t5
60
P10-tt9
kN/m
10425.
A beam
of constant
flexural
rigidity
El is fixed
Fig.
P10-1t2
stant
k = 3El/a
Show
For the
3. (b) Plot
the deflected
beam loaded
the
shape
shear
as shown
and
of the
in
moment
beam.
the
at both
what t0-126
its ends,
moments
a distance
wil be
L apart.
If one
of the
sup-
10413.
the redundant
(a) Using
the moment-area
moment at the fixed
method,
end for
determine
the beam
grams.
t0-t16.
vertically support
10-t27.
downward (without
induced
the figure, and plot the shear and moment Neglect the weight of the beam. (b) Select using an allowable bending stress of 18,000 shearing stress of 12,000 psi. (c) Determine deflection of the beam between the supthe maximum deflection of the overhang. 106psi.
10k
and
Plot
the
A relative rotation),
rig-
t0-t2t
through
sketch
shown
10424.
the
in the diagrams.
elastic
/1/I 1
plot
of constant
points the
ment idities
and
diagrams shown
sketch the
flexural of inflection
shear of in-
30 kN/m
40 kN/m
...
(a} determine
end A.
For
the
the ratio
moment
beam
loaded
of the moment
M,; (b)
as
shown
at the fixed
the
in
the
Fig,
P10-12t
to the
of
applied
determine
-4
6 k/ft
10414.
the redundant
(a) Using
moment
the
moment-area
at the fixed
method,
end for
determine
the beam
1000
the figure and plot the shear and moment Neglect the weight of the beam. (b) Select for a 200-mm~wide wooden beam using an bending stress of 8000 kN/m 2 and a shear
kN/m 2.
IL/2
10-tt8.
maximum
EI
Fig.
Fig.
P10-122
LI2--------L/2
Fig. P10-t27
10428. right
method,
fixed at both ends
Rework
support
Example C is pinned.
10-25
after
assuming
that
Using
deflection
the
moment-area
of a beam
t0-129.
rework
After
Prob.
assuming
10-124.
that
that both
10-25.
the left
supports
support
A and
is fixed,
C are
carrying
a uniformly
distributed
load
is one-fifth
maximum
ported. Fig. P10-tt4 E1
deflection
is constant.
of the
For using
fixed-end
same
the
beam
simply
constant
Fig.
P10-123
10-t30. fixed,
Assuming
rework Example
10-1t5. For the beam and loaded as shown reaction and the'deflection
El the con-
t0-tt9 shown
(a) determine
the
moments
beams of moment-area
due
method
to the
and
bending-moment deflections
Sec.
t -t.
Introduction
_ chapter
11ol.
The selection
Introduction
of structural and machine elements is based on three
acteristics: strength, stif ness, and stability. The procedures of stress 'deformation analyses in a state of stable equilibrium were discussed some detail in-the preceding chapters. But not all structural systems necessarily stable. For example, consider a square-ended metal rod say 10 mm in diameter. If such a rod were made 20 mm long to act as axial y compressed member, no question of instability would enter, a considerable force could be applied. On the other hand, of the same material were made 1000 mm long to act in then, at a much smaller load than the short piece could carry, the rod would buckle laterally and could collapse. A slender measuring if subjected to an axial compression, could fail in the same manner. consideration of material strength alone is not sufficient to predict behavior of such members. Stability considerations are primary in
structural systems.
American
Typical buckling for thin-walled (a) in compression in torsion for a cylinder. L. A. Harris of
Aviation,
A vast preceding
voted
of rockets are critically loaded in compression. These are important problems for engineering design. Moreover, often the or wrinkling phenomena observed in loaded members occur suddenly. For this reason, many structural instability failures are and very dangerous.
number listing
instability beyond
the
problems scope
by the 2 Essen-
The
phenomenon of structural instability occurs in numerous compressive stresses are present. Thin sheets, although ful y of sustaining tensile loadings, are very poor in transmit in Narrow beams, unbraced laterally, can turn sidewise and an applied load. Vacuum tanks, as well as submarine hulls, unle: designed, can severely distort under external pressure and shapes that dif er drastically from their original geometry. A tube can wrinkle like tissue paper when subjected either to
only the column problem wil be considered here. convenience, this chapter is divided into two parts. to the theory of column buckling, and Part B deals First, however, examples of possible instabilities
Part with
occur
static
1952).
in straight
This
prismatic
wil be
members
fol owed purpose by
with
establishing of the next
dif erent
two
cross
the stability introductory (New York:
sections
criteria sections McGraw-Hil ,
and
wil
be
for
equilibrium.
Buckling
The
is
2 F. Bleich,
or a torque;
are adapted
(July 1961):
see Fig.
from L. A. Harris,
5.
11-1..
Stiflened
During
H. W.
Circular
some
Suer, and
Shells,"
stages
W.
Exl
of firing,
T. Skene,
1957-1958).
ible
Stability,
D. O. Brush, and B. O. Almroth, Buckling of Bars, Plates, York: McGraw-Hil , 1975). A. Chajes, Principles of Structural Clif s, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1974). G. Gerard et al., Handbook
Strength
of Metal
Structures
Figures
of Unstiflened
3 and
and
'Elastic
Plates
I-VI, NACA TN, 3781-3786, (Washington, D.C.: NASA Johnston (ed.), Design Criteria for Metal Compression MemYork: Wiley, 1988). S. P. Timoshenko, and J. M. Gere, Theory 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hil , 1961). A. S. Volmir, FlexAir Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory (trans.), Technical Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, 1967.
574
576
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
for
aspects
of column
instability
*]1..=2.
Examples
of Instability
of even straight complex, and it is ' of the complexities invo derived by the type of cross fol ow. compression members is thin, the plate-like
Analysis of the general instability problem umns discussed in this chapter is rather be aware, at least in a qualitative way, understand the limitations of the subsequently ling of straight columns is strongly influenced and some considerations of this problem In numerous engineering applications, bular cross sections. If the wall thickness
Pi 9
Fig.
P
of such
lustrated large ternating
a seq the a smaller axial stress in the regions of large amount of buckling ment away from corners; see Fig. 11-2(b). For such cases, it is to approximate the complex stress distribution by a constant
stress acting over an effective width w next to the comers or
members
11-2(a) for a square the side walls tend and outward buckles.
can
buckle
locally.
An
example
of this
At
behaviOi
a
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
1t-3
Column
buckling
(b)
dis
:s
Section
a-a
In this text, exc_ept for the design of aluminum-alloy columns, assumed that the thicknesses of a column plate element are large to exclude the need for considering this local buckling [ Some aspects requiring attention in a general column instability lem are il ustrated in Fig. '11-3. Here the emphasis is placed on the of buckling that is possible in prismatic members. A plank of flexural but adequate torsional stif ness subjected to an axial, force is shown to buckle in a bending mode; see Fig. 11-3(a). If the plank is subjected to end moments, Fig. 11-3(b), in addition to buckling mode, the cross sections also have a tendency to twist. a torsion-bending mode of buckling, and the same kind of occur for the eccentric force P, as shown in Fig. 11-3(c). Lastly, torsional buckling mode is il ustrated in Fig. 11-3(d). This occurs
the torsional stif ness of a member is small. As can be recalled
sections buckle either in pure flexure, 1 l-3(d). For thin-walled members, when (Section 4-14) is smaller than the flexural stif ness, before exhibiting flexural buckling. Generally, in columns with cruciform cross sections than the torsional mode of buckling generally
metal cross
cross Fig.
11-3(a), or twist torsional stif a column may this is more likely to in I-shaped sections. does not control the the
sections are rela-
Fig.
The
cross
sections
shown
in Figs.
11-4(b)
and
(c)
have
their
centroids
sections principal
centers
flexural
S in dif erent locations. Flexural buckling in Fig. 11-4(b) if the smallest flexural stif ness axis is less than the torsional stif ness..Otherwise,
and
would around
occur
mem-
the si-
ber twisting
occurs in the wall
around
S. For
torsional
the
sections
buckling
in Fig.
would
11-4(c),
develop,
buckling
with
the
always
(a)
Section
stif ness.
4-14,
In
thin-walled
contrast, thin-walled
open
sections
tubular
are
generally
are
poor
excellent
in
member
having
lat er mode. In the subsequent derivations, thicknesses of members are sufficiently of torsional or torsional-flexural buckling. cross sections of the type shown in Fig.
it wil be assumed large to exclude the Compression mem11-4(c) are not con-
members
Stress
distribution
at
a-a
(b)
sisting torques and are torsionally stif . Therefore, as shown in Fig. 11-2, generally, wil not exhibit number of the open thin-walled sections in Fig. for their susceptibility to torsional buckling. Two sections having biaxial symmetry, where centers S coincide, are shown in Fig. 1 l4(a).
Plates references
next
C and
Schematic thin-walled
of
square
3 T. von
in Compression," given
Karman,
in the
E. E. Sechler,
and
54,
L. H. Donnell,
APM-54-5
(1932):
"The
53 to 57.
Strength
c,s ic, s
,
(a) (b) (c)
Fig.
t -4
Column
sections
exhibiting
dif erent
buckling
modes.
577
578
Stability
of
Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
t -3.
Criteria
for
Stability
of
Equilibrium
579
The
are also
fol owing
excluded
interesting
from
cases
consideration
of pos
in this text. One of these is
Fig. t -5 compression
Snap-through bars.
of
Fig. t -6 twist-buckling
shaft.
Spiral
spatial of a slender
in Fig. 11-5, where two bars with pinned joints at the ends form small angle with the horizontal. In this case, it is possible that force P can reach a magnitude such that the deformed become horizontal. Then, on a slightly further increase in P, snap-through to a new equilibrium position. This kind great importance in shallow thin-walled shells and curved plates. possible buckling problem is shown in Fig. 11-6, where a slender bar is subjected to torque T. When applied torque T reaches a value, the bar snaps into a helical spatial curve. 4 This problem is portance in the design of long slender transmission shafts.
Only
Then, if the restoring to upset the system, the system The .rigid bar shown in Fig.
one
' moment
Therefore,
degree
of freedom.
is k0,
if
and,
with
For
an assumed
upsetting
small
tending
rotation
moment
angle
is PL
0, the
sin
it has
PLO.
11-3,
Criteria
for
Stability
of
criteria spring
in Fig.
Equilibrium
for static of stif ness
11-7(b)
if
Right
the
system
(11-1)
(11-2)
is neither
this condition
of such
a bar
subjected
for
equilibrium, 5 k at th e base, as
to vertical
and a large a
transition
but
point,
is neutral.
k0
load,
= PLO,
The force
and
associated
the
be
equilibrium
with
critical,
or considered,
buckling,
which
wil
designated
Per.
For
the
The
How wil this system behave if F = 07 analytically, the system must be delibera amount consistent with the boundary
the Strength
Theoretical
"On
of Shafting
(London:
Forces,"
190-209.
Proceedings,
1883),
(11-3)
when
of the
Exposed
Institution
Stability of Mechanical
Both
to
by
In the
the dashed
at Pr.
presence
lines
of horizontal
in Fig.
11-7(b)
force
becoming
F,
the
asymptotic
P -
0 curves
to the horizontal
are
as shown
P
where
5 Some
columns
readers
Column
subjected
may
find
buckling
to axial
it advantageous
is the
and
transverse
limiting
to study
(degenerate)
loads
Sections
acting
case
11-9
and
11-lfi
line
considered.
in such
Point
Unstable
of equilibrium
the
that
at 0 somewhat
less than
x. The
placing the vertical force bar. In either case, even large, as there is always
for a
(a)
apparent
discrepancy
graph
F=O
equilibrium
/
Small
to a ball
is caused by assuming in Eqs. 11-1 and 11-2 that 0 is small 0 0, and cos 0 1. The condition found for neutral equiF = 0 can be further elaborated upon by making reference
resting
on dif erently
to relate
the
process
shaped
for
frictionless
determining
surfaces;
the
kind
see
of stability
Fig.
11-
(b)
bifurcation
equilibrium
Large F
F
Stable
o
Pcr=
gl
Fig. t -7 Buckling a rigid bar. behavior of
(a) (b)
figure, in all three cases, the balls in position 1 are in equilibrium. to determine the kind of equilibrium, it is necessary to displace an infinitesimal distance 0 to either side. In the first case, Fig. the ball would roll back to its initial position, and the equilibrium stable. In the second case, Fig. 11-8(b), the ball once displaced wil return to its initial position, and the equilibrium is unstable. In the case, Fig. 11-8(c), the ball can remain in its displaced position, where is again in equilibrium. Such an equilibrium is neutral. Therefore, by a structural system is in a state of neutral equilibrium when it neighboring equilibrium positions an infinitesimal distance
(c)
Fig.
unstable,
11-8
(a)
and
Stable,
(c)
neutral
(b)
equilibrium.
580
Stability
of
Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
t -3.
Criteria
for
Stability
of
Equilibrium
apart.
This
criterion
for
as at large reasoning,
neutral
equilibrium
is applicable
only
for
the
where
:mber.
F = 0
two'
the terms
bars.
rotations In writing
are
these
On this
in parentheses
infinitesimal, equations,
basis,
constitute
equations it should
the infinitesimal
g02 -
of equilibrium be noted
that
rotation
0)
are M
writ en = k(802
for
-
each
angle
between
in Fig.
A' 02. A A'
meaning To
11-7(a)
only demonstate
and
11-7(b)
is purely
=
schematic
for
defining
Pcr.
Theoretically
Me,
in ]
aid
= 0: = O:
-(2k
PL
k(02
neutral
Mc
PL
k gOi linear
0 + k(g02
- (k PL) 0
equations
- g0)
= =
a trivial
- k g0 = 0
0 0
solution, 80 = 802 =
displace angle
the 0 shown
bar
through formulate
g0 (not throu of ec
These two homogeneous
PL
or ((PL - k)gO.= O)
as well
as a nonzero
solution
? if the
determinant
of the
coefficients
is zero,
(a)'
(b)
This equation has two arbitrary, Fig. 11-7(b), vanishes. This second axial force, g0 is arbitrary. at Per. One of these is at an angle g0. Since at
distinct solutions: first, when g0 = 0 and and, second, when the expression in solution yields Per = k/L. For this Therefore, there are two equilibrium for a straight bar, and the other for a bar Per, there are these two branches of the such a point is Called the bifurcation (branch) point. 6 In the previous il ustration, the rigid bar has only one degree of freed since for an arbitrary infinitesimal displacement, the sy described by angle g0. A problem with two in the fol owing example.
**EXAMPLE '1'1-'1
-(2k
expanding this determinant,
k
-
PL)
one obtains
-(k- PL) ] = 0
k
the
k 2
characteristic
equation
the
smallest
of which
is the
P1
(c)
3-X/k
2 L
and
P2
3 +X/k
2 L
Two rigid bars, each of length L, forming a straight vertical member as Fig. 11-9(a), have torsional springs of stif ness k at ideal pinned joints B Determine the critical vertical force Pcr and the shape of the buckled
Solution
A'
Substituting the roots into either one of the simultaneous equations ratios between the rotations of the bars. Thus, for P, 802/80 for P2,802/80 = -0.62. The corresponding deflected modes are !l-9(d) and (e). The one in Fig. 11-9(d) corresponds to Pc. These called eigenvectors and are often writ en in matrix form as
1.62
-0.62/i
deflected
to determine the critical compatible with sense is shown as A'B'C bar AB independently degrees of freedom. positions are drawn
the
buckling force Pcr, the system must boundary conditions. Such a dis in Fig. 11-9(a). Bar BC rotates through rotates through an angle 802. Therefore, Free-body diagrams for members AB in Figs. 11-9(b) and (c). Then, assuming
be an this and
80
7 Heuristically,
manner.
A/B for
Let two
in
C
V V
(d)
(e)
Fig. '1'1-'9
Mass.:
systems where bifurcation does not occur Such cases arise, for example, when applied of the deflected bar at the point of application. studied by H. Ziegler. See his book, Principles
Blaisdell, 1968).
6 The
static
criterion
for neutral
equilibrium
and dynamic criteria must be force P remains tangent to This problem was of Structural Stability
is
first one of these equations requires that y/x = -A/B, y/x = - C/D. For the two equations to be consistent, = 0, which is the value of the expanded determinant simultaneous equations. There also is a trivial solution
582
Stability
of
Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
t -4.
Euler
Load
for
Columns
with
Pinned
Ends
583
As springs
can
be readily to represent
surmised, a column,
column problems, loads has
by the
increasing degrees
root
is
1.0
the
Vo
all A o
all d o
for curvature, it can be shown s that for elastic columns, one can equilibrium positions above Per. The results of such an analysis lustrated in Fig. 11-10. Note, especial y, that increasing Per by a mere percent causes a maximum sideways deflection of 22 percent of the umn length. 9 For practical reasons, such enormous deflections can
be tolerated. Moreover, the material usually cannot resist the bending stresses. Therefore, failure of real columns would be Generally there is lit le additional post-buckling strength for real and the use of Pr for column capacity is acceptable. This contrasts the behavior of plates and shells where significant post-bucklin may develop. Another il ustration of the meaning of Pr in relation to the
with the derivation of neutral equilibrium, analyses. Critical loads by using the exact
for critical column it is significant to do not describe the (nonlinear) dif erential
loads examine
L
(a)
A=dOq-Vma x !/Largedo
v
g/A o/L
rge do
0.4 A/L
Approx.
(c) Elasto-plastic columns
(b)
Elastic
columns
Behavior
of
in Fig.
the
paths
shapes
11-11.
with
In these
a maximum
plots,
center
columns
deflection
that
are initial y
of Ao are
considered.
bowed
into
initial
elastic
8 j. L.
(Paris,
and
Lagrange,
1867).
elastic-plastic
"On
an elastic
columns
the' by Shapes
column continues
of Columns," a force
long plete
see Fig.
of equilibrium for these curvature. However, load P,r serves as an asymptote which are commonly
column "circle,"
11-1 l(b).
with
pinned attains
It is to be noted
the
ends,
upon intolerable
that
cases vary, depending on the extent regardless of the magnitude of Ao, for columns with a small amount encountered in engineering problems; buckling deflection
a perfectly
into
elastic
initial y
straight
a comcolumn as in
length.
Oevres
de Lagrange,
beyond
11-11(c).
Behavior
Only
a perfectly
of elastic-plastic
straight
columns
colunto
can
is entirely
reach
dif erent;
and
thereafter
see Fig.
9 The
fact
that
to carry
saw.
a load
precipitously
stage may
can
be demonstrated
applying
in excess
referred
of the Theory
buckling
to as Lagrange
be found
in S. P. Timoshenko,
McGraw-Hil , "Untersuchungen
and
J. M.
Ueber
previous
Gere,
Knickfestigkeit,"
of Elastic Butterworth
in its carrying capacity. Column imperfections such drastically reduce the carrying capacity. Nevertheless, case, P provides the essential parameter for determining column With appropriate 'safeguards, design procedures can be devised this key parameter.
Publications,
of Theodore
yon
1956,
Karman,
90-140).
Volume
I, 1902-1913,
(London: P [
footnote.
bifurcation
Linearized solution
Point
of
1.015Per
x
failur e
11-4.
Euler
area may a compression
Load
buckle
for
Columns
with
Pinned
Ends
In the more general flexural rigidity
one centroidal
directions.
Fig.
ideal
equal
around
in
t -t0
elastic
Behavior
col/tmn.
of
an
minimum
significant
at the
flexural
critical
area a minimum
load
rigidity
a column
E1 of a column
buckles
around
the other;
either
depends
to one
occurs
in plane
column
of
584
Stability
Columns plane
fol ows
11-5.
Euler
Loads
for Columns
n2r2EI
with
Dif erent
End Restraints
585
P.,
4Pcr
pl
pl
or the
the
' '
are the eigenvalues
is understood.
Consider the ideal perfectly straight both ends; see Fig. 11-13(a). The least possible is the critical or Euler buckling
In order to determine the critical
M = -Pv
load
Pn =
bility problems
as unity, elastic
L------5
problem. However, since
(11-9)
n must
in sta-
9Per
column,
column moment
is displaced according
the
M
11-13(b). convention
and the critical or Euler load 3 Per for an initial y column wit h pinned ends becomes
only
the least
value
for
this
of Pn is of importance,
perfectly
be
/,n = 2
for
the
d2v
dx 2
P
E1
gives
E1 v
inertia
According
I r2Eil
Pcr= L--i-E is the elastic modulus of the material, I is the least moment
n=3 '/
(11-10)
of
(a) (b) (c)
by let ing
(a) (b)
k 2 = P/EI,
and
transposing,
of the constant
cross-sectional
area
critical
of a column,
load,
Xx
case of a column
the buckled
Fig.
both
1t-13
ends.
Column
pinned
at
j- + X2v = 0
This
motion,
case. to Eq.
elastic
pinned
11-7,
curve
referred
B = 0, the
at the
since
modes at both
pinned
is an equation
and its solution
of the
is
v =AsinXx
same
form
v = A sin
one
for
simple
(1;
where boundary
arbitrary These
v(0)
constants conditions
= 0 and
that are
must
v(L)
be determined
= 0
is the characteristic, or eigenfunction, of this problem, and, since X nr/L, n can assume any integer value. There is an infinite number of functions. In this linearized solution, amplitude A of the buckling remains indeterminate. For the fundamental case n = 1, the elastic is a half-wave sine curve. This shape and the modes corresponding n = 2 and 3 are shown in Fig. 11-14. The higher modes have no physical ignificance in buckling problems, since the least critical buckling load
atn = 1.
Hence,
and
v(0)
= 0 = A sin
v(L)
0 + B cos
0
kL
or
B = 0
same
Euler
Restraints
Loads
procedure
for
as that
Columns
discussed
with
before
Dif erent
can be used
End
to determine
= 0 = A sin
This equation can be satisfied by taking each equal to zero, as can be seen from straight column, and is usually referred
native
This
k was
occurs
solution
shape
of the column
defined
when
is obtained
as ,
kn equals
by requiring
possible
the nth
n'rr, where
critical
the
critical
solutions
axial
loads
of these
for
problems
columns
are
with
very
dif erent
sensitive
boundary
to the end
conditions.
restraints.
fol ows
from
force
solving
Pn that
X/P/E1
makes
Therefore,
shown
be
curve at
L =
the
Here considered
the
Mo equation
for
the
reactions elastic
2 For the positive direction negative. If the column were would be positive. However,
it must likewise be treated
as a negative
d2v the Pv
This formula was
dx 2 E1 derived by the
-Pv
great
+ Mo(1
mathematician
EI
- x/L)
Leonhard Euler
(11-12)
in 1757.
Fio.
11-15
Column
fixed
at
one
other.
end
and
pinned
at the
586
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
tl-5.
Euler
Loads
for
Columns
with
Dif erent
End
Restraints
587
Letting
k 2 = P/EI
as before,
and
transposing,
gives
Ip
L/4
d2v dx 2 +
The
that
X2v = X2M(1P
of this
right
)
by Eq.
equation,
becomes
(11,
11-7. The
i.e., when
the term
(11-1
L. = 0.7L
right
homogeneous
side
solution,
side is zero,
by k 2. The
is the same
complete
Xx
solution
as that
dif erential
solution
side,
Xx
given
then
is given
by dividing
- x/L)
+ B cos
+ (Mo/P)(1
where at the
constants, kinematic
and boundary
Mo
iL. Le2L
P
L = L/2
0.3L
L/4
= 0
v(L)
= 0
and
v'(O)
= 0
the
16(b),
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
columns restraints.
Fig.
t 46
with
Effective
dif erent
lengths
of
other
with
hand,
a load
the
critical
at the top
load
is
for
a fi'ee-standing
T2 EI
column,
TM Fig.
11-
and
v'(O)
= 0 = Ak
- Mo/PL
Solving
scendental
these
equation
eqhations
simultaneously,
XL =
tan
(11-18)
one-fourth of that for the
is only
All
which
at the
must
critical
be satisfied
load. The
for
smallest
a nontrivial
root
KL = 4.493
equilibrium
of Eq. 11-15 is
shape
of the
the
load for
actual
0.5L,
case,
for
inflection
the
column
fundamental
points
length.
that
on the elastic
casd
This
length
be made column
tums
is L,
but
curves.
out
the
for
The
to be the
cases
used
effective
distance
discussed
column
between
it is 0.7L,
length
and
2L,
length
respectively.
For
a general
case,
Le
end Fig.
= KL,
where
K is the
from fixed
or critical
20.19EI L2
case
2.05'rr2EI L2
of a column
4,tr2EI
(114
fixed at both ends,
factor, which depends on the In to the classical cases shown in are seldom truly pinned or completely the ends. Because of the uncertainty regarding are often assumed to be pin-ended. shown in Fig. 11-16(b), where it cannot Summary
restraints. 11-16, actual compresfixed against rotation the fixity of the ends, With the exception of the be used, this procedure is
in the is
PcrThe last two are substantial y equations larger show than that those
L2
(11:
buckling
same curvature-moment
loads
in this
and
relation
the
that
preceding
was derived
section
for
are
the
found
deflection
using
beams, 4 A telephone
top
Eqs.
is an example.
However, no external
the
are
writ en transformer
for at
588
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
H-6.
Limitations
of
the
Euler
Formulas
589
axial y loaded columns in slightly deflected positions. results in an entirely dif erent kind of second order than that for beam flexure. The solution of this equation the same load, two neighboring equilibrium configurations for a column. One of these configurations corresponds umn, the other to a slightly bent column. The axial multaneously with the bent and the straight shape critical buckling load. This occurs at the bifurcation
the solution.
Ocr , ksi
3C
Aluminum
alloy
limit
20
\
Long column
range
In the developed formulation, the columns are assumed to be elastic, and to have the same cross section throughout the Only the flexural deformations of a column are considered. For the second order dif erential equations considered in this the same kinematic boundary conditions are applicable as for beams flexure, Fig. 10-5. Elastic buckling load formulas are truly remarkable. Although they not depend on the strength of a material, they determine the capacity of columns. The only material property involved is the elas!
10
Fir-
Fig.
0 100 120 200 LB
column slenderness dif erent
1t-t7
Variation
stress ratio materials. with for
of critical
three
modulus
material.
E, which
previous proportional
physically
equations limit do of the
represents
not apply material.
the
if the This
stif ness
axial problem column
characteristic
stress is discussed ex in ne:: ..
general. The ratio L/r of the column length to the least radius of gyration is called the column slenderness ratio. No factor of safety is included in the last equation. A graphical interpretation of Eq. 11-19 is shown in Fig. 11-17, where the critical column stress is plot ed versus the slenderness ratio for three
The the
next section.
][-6.
The elastic
modulus
Limitations
E
of-the
was used
Euler
t: i curve is a hyperbola. However, since Eq. 11-19 is based on the elastic NON-ACTIVATED behavior of VERSION a material, Crcr determined by this equation cannot exceed the proportional limit of a material. Therefore, the hyperbolas shown in Fig. 11-17 are drawn dashed beyond the individual matehal's proportional www.avs4you.com
Formulas
and these
the derivation of the Euler
dif erent'materials.
-
For
each
material,
E is constant,
and
the
resulting
in
cannot inelastic
be used. material
The response
necessary wil
be
for columns; therefore, all the reasoning presented earlier is while the material behavior remains linearly elastic. To bring out significant limitation, Eq. 11-10 is rewrit en in a dif erent form. By niti0n, I = Ar 2, where A is the cross-sectional area, and r is its of gyration. Substitution of this relation into Eq. 11-10 gives
in
the
section.
:
One
The
useful
column,
portions
but rather
of the
the
hyperbolas
behavior
do not
of an infinite
represent
number
the
behavior
of ideal col-
of
at the most
For
example,
'Pcr -- L2
r2 EI
r2 EAr
L----
COlumn is now possible with the aid of these diagrams. Thus, a column said to be long if the elastic Euler formula applies. The beginning long-column range is shown for three matehals in Fig. 11-17.
carry
a particular
steel
column,
say,
with
decreases
an L/r
= 120,
6f 16fig
of
with
or
where the critical stress
i Pcr *r2E1
crcr - A - (L/r) 2
crcr for a column
is defined
shortest length L for a steel column with pinned area of 60 by 100 mm, for which the elastic Euler GPa and assume the proportional limit to be 250
average stress over load Pr. The length of the cross-sectional the minimum t: By
the cross-sectional area A of a column at the of the column is L, and r is the least radius of area, since the original Euler formula is in using the effective length Le, the
1.8
of the
cross-sectional
area
I.n
= 100
x 603/12
590
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
1t-7.
Generalized
Euler
Buckling.
Load
Formulas
59i
carry
increaging modulus
and
rmin
using
limit,
=
O'cr=
Euler
of the tangent modulus E, for the elastic modification necessary to make the elastic in the inelastic range. Hence, the generalized or the tangent modulus formula,iS becomes
Then,
tional
Eq.
11-19,
I 'rr2Et 1
Crcr -- (L/r)2
Since stresses compression buckle with
this
(11-20)
=
F
88.9
and
L = 88.9/
x 10 = 1540mm
to the tangent moduli can be obtained from diagram, the L/r ratio at which a column can be obtained from Eq. 11-20. A plot
low and intermediate ratios of L/r is shown
Et
proportional
11-7.
Generalized
from
Euler
is shown
A typical
vented
compression
O to A, buckling
hyperbola
buckling
strdss-strain
5 The
tangent
expressed
by Eq. 11-19,
is shown as ST in Fig. 11-18(b). does not represent the of an infinite number of ideal beyond the useful range is
O'er = q'r2E/(L/r2),
is applicable
in a elastically.
range
in
Column
load.
B.
of some stress, rebound with .hown in Fig. 11-A at point C. Inasmuch used in developing this theory (see F. Structures [New York: McGraw-Hil , is or the reduced-modtdus the same column slenderness ratio, column buckling capacity than between the two solutions was explained by F. concept,
tangent
modulus
it tends on the
modulus
Et.
to buckle. concave
formula
The
fibers
side
As
gives
on the
a column continue
the
carrying
Theory,"
aSymptotically
The
applied
can
buckling
J. Aero:
load
proceeds given
Sci.
However.
one the
prior
to that
given
anticipate
to reaching
by
by the
the
simultaneously
14/5
original elastic modulus E, as as two moduli, Et and E, are Bleich, Buckling Strength of Metal 1952]), it is referred to either as the theory of column buckling. For this theory always gives a slightly the tangent-modulus theory. The is not very large. The reason for R. Shanley (see his paper, "Inelastic
the
convex
capacity
side,
however,
of a column
on being
1.
Fig.
behavior
11-A
Stress-strain
in
buckled
column.
(May
1947):261-267).
with
proportional limit of the material. gram, Fig. 11-18(a), this means passed point A and has reached
elastic
dashed lines. with an L/r ratio corresponding to point S in Fig. column of a given material and size that wil column, having a stil smaller L/r ratio, wil not buckle
stress created,
level,
neously modulus
it may be said that a column of dif erent material has the stif ness of the material is no longer represented by modulus. At this point, the material stif ness is given by the tangent to the stress-strain curve, i.e., by the E,; see Fig. 11-18(a). The column remains stable if its new
On the compression stress-strain that the stress level in the some point B perhaps. At this
at
between the tangent-modulus load and the y time-independent elastic-plastic material and section was accurately determined by T. H. Lin (see his paper on "Inelastic Column Buckling," J. Aeron. Sci., Vol. 17, No. 3, 1950, 159J. E. Duberg and T. W. Wilder (see their paper on "Column Behavior the Plastic Stress Range," J. Aeron. Sci., Vol. 17, No. 6, 1950, 323have further concluded that for materials whose stress-strain curves
modulus The
mechanical
dif erently
the load
double-modulus
tangent-modulus
given
the theory;
theory
increasing
According
see
increases
Fig.
axial
to
cross-sections
failure, making the tangent that in the tangent-modulus cross section are the same,
in the double-
by the
double-modulus
the-
11-
Double-modulus
load
lying
Tangent-modulus
ctual
rotation
nley
since
gradually
irnum
the
load
inelastic
y above
in
is only
range
range,
the
slightly
tends
higher
to rapidly
than
exhibit
the
tangent-modulus
plastic
however,
column
behavior,
Cross-section
load.
the
max-
Fig.
t *B
Inelastic
buckling
dif erent
loads
theories.
by
592
Stability
of Equilibrium:
cr
Columns
Sec.
t -8.
Eccentric
Ocr
Loads
and
the
Secant
Formula
593
Yield
strength
.. .Euler's
hyperbola
Proportional limit
Euler'shyperbolas
Short
columns--
Pin-ended
(a)
(b)
columns
in columns versus
( L/r h
L/r
Fig.
slenderness
t 48
(a)
Compression
ratio.
stress-strain
diagram,
and
(b)
critical
stress
Fig. 1149
Comparison
of the behavior
of columns
with
dif erent
end
conditions.
in Fig. verify
As
by
the
buckle elastically are ferred having small L/r ratios buckling phenomena are called short columns. The remaining are of intermediate length.' At small L/r ratios, ductile materials "s( out" and can carry very large loads. If length L in Eq. 11-20 is treated as the effective length of a dif erent end conditions can be analyzed. Following this comparative purposes, plots of critical stress O'cr versus the ratio L/r for fixed-ended columns and pin-ended ones are shown in 11-19. It is important to note that the carrying capacity for these two per Eqs. 11-10 and 11-17 is in a ratio of 4 to 1 only for columns the slenderness ratio (L/r) or greater. For smaller L/r ratios sively less benefit is derived from restraining the ends. the curves merge. It makes lit le dif erence whether a "short pinned or fixed at the ends, as strength rather than buckling
the behavior.
curve remarkable
columns Columns
from
R to S. Tests accuracy.
that
NON-ACTIVATED where an VERSION eccentric load is deliberately applied. Thus, an eccentrically loaded column can be studied and its capacity determined on the basis of an allowable elastic stress. This does not determine the ultimate cawww.avs4you.com To analyze the behavior of an eccentrically loaded column, consider
on individual
of a column.
actual
or an columns
taken
and
the column
concentrically
at the upper
loaded
shown
force
in Fig.
equation
P, the bending
i.e.,
d2v M
11-20.
If the origin
column,
moment
P
of the coordinate
curve
at any section
is the same
as for a
y V
x
is -Pv,
axes
is
P
v solution
(11-5) is as before:
(11-7)
the general
+ BcosXx
Eccentric
A dif erent method a column than was nor are the applied umns may be studied
Loads
and
the
Secant
Formula
of analysis may be used to determine the discussed before. Since no column is perfectly forces perfectly concentric, the behavior with some statistically determined
However, the remainder of the problem is not the same, since the boundary conditions are now dif erent. At the upper end, v is equal to the eccentricity of the applied load, i.e., v(0) = e. Hence, B = e, and
v = AsinXx + ecosXx
(11-21)
possible
misalignments
of the
applied
loads.
Then,
for
the
design
i.e.,
the elastic curve has a vertical tangent at lFi g. t -20 Eccentrically oaded column.
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
v'(L/2) = 0
Sec.
ling in Eq. faster caused must For nPa, yield can exist 11-24,
the
t .8.
Eccentric
Loads
and
the Secant
Formula
Therefore,
,L/2, it is found
by
setting
that
the
derivative
sin
cos
of Eq.
kL/2
kL/2
11-21
equal
to zero
at x
Hence,
the
equation
for
the
elastic
curve
is
in the direction of no definite eccentricity. Also note that relation between Crmx and P is not linear; Crmx increases .than P. Therefore, the solutions for maximum stresses in columns by dif erent axial forces cannot be superposed; instead, the forces be superposed first, and then the stresses can be calculated. an allowable force Pa on a column, where n is the factor of safety, must be substituted for P in Eq. 11-24, and Crmx must be set at the point of a material, i.e.,
(1
This
since
of any constants appears in this equation, and the maxVmx can be found from it. This maximum defle, since at this point, the derivative of Eq. 11-22 is equal
ma y--p ec I O'xO'
procedure
such a force
"1 + sec 7
factor
n
4EA,/
for the
a critical
(11-25)
assures
can
a correct
be increased
of
times
safety
before
applied
stress
force,
is
- e sec-bending moment
(11-23)
M
Note
procedure.
nP appearing under the radical. 11-24 and 11-25 is cumbersome, Alternatively, they can be studied
requiring graphically,
a trial-
as
the
now
column
known,
shown
the maximum
in Fig.
11-20,
compressive
developed to Pvmx.
at the/)oint Therefore,
(contrast
this
with
the
usual
average
formula
stress
as
P/A
shown
in Fig.
11-21.
6 From
this
plot,
note
the
large
effect
that
load
ec-
acting
stress
is
on the
column)
in the
has on short columns and the negligible Graphs of this kind form a suitable aid equation covers the whole range of column
Trans.
can
computed
by the
P
umns,"
6 This
figure
P
ASCE
is adapted
101
(1936):431.
from
D.
H.
Young,
"Rational
Mc I
= P,
= AP +
hence,
PvmaxC Ar 2
o, ksi
36
But
k =
AP_( ec L 4E )
1 + ' sec 7
term,
elastic the
,1
of equal
24
0
er'hsyperbola
200 L/r
stress
does
A condition
the
Mild steel
1 O0
P
centricities
deflection.
of the
it is obtained
applied
forces
the
in the
value
same
direction
the
axis
since
Note
that
in 'Eq.
occurs.
11-24,
from
the radius
cases,
of I associated
of gyration
a more
r may
critical
with
not be minimum
the
(b)
which
bending
In some
condition
secant
Fig.
t -2t
formula.
Results
of analyses
for
dif erent
columns
by
the
596
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
'1t-9.
Beam-Columns
597
in using supposedly
formula
this
formula straight
for short
is that columns,
columns
some
and
when proaches
L/r
zero. For this case, the value in the limit, Eq. 11-24 becomes
P Pec P Mc
of the
Moreover, in the majority of applications, large deformations cannot be tolerated. Therefore, it is usually possible to limit the investigation of the behavior of systems to small and moderately large deformations. In this problem, this can be done by setting sin 0 0, and cos 0 1. In this manner, Eq. 11-27 simplifies to
P kO FL
Crmx
a relation normally used for
A + Ar 2
short blocks.
A + I
LO
or
0 =
-k
FL
PL
(11-28)
*'11-9.
In the jected
colurns.
Beam-Columns
preceding to equal
The
end
of
be
force are
to
solutions
as
bar
behavior
of
beam-columns
are generally employed for their example of the rigid bar shown initial y held in a vertical position
spring constant k. When vertical to the top of the-bar, it rotates wrriten for the deformed state, analysis. Bearing in mind that the spring at A, one obtains.
be clarified by the This bar of length Li at A having a force P and horizontal and the equilibrium equation must a form similar to that used in k 0 is the resisting moment developed
analysis in Fig. by
For small finite values of 0, this solution is quite acceptable. On the other hand, as 0 increases, the discrepancy between this linearized solution and the exact one becomes very large and loses its physical meaning. Analogous to this, for the analysis of elastic beam-columns, where the deflections are small to moderate, it is generally sufficiently accurate to employ the usual linear dif erential equation for elastic deflection of beams. However, in applying this equation, the bending moments caused by the transverse loads as well as the axial forces must be writ en for a deflected member. Such a procedure is il ustrated in the next example.
force curve,
(a)
MA
or
= O0
+
P=
' PL
kO
sin O + FL
FL cos 0
cos
0 - k0
= 0
Exact /
Linearized
solution
The This
sin
includes
the
M =
free-body diagram
relation
-(F/2)x
the effect
M
diagram assists
for with
=EIv",
Pv,
of the axiai
Eq.
one
10-10, =
force
and
P multiplied
noting
of
that
by the deflection
for the
left
side
v. Thus,
of the
span,
using
qualitative features of this result are shown in Fig. 11-22(b), corresponding curve is labeled as the exact solution. It is note that as 0 --> r, provided the spring continues to function, a force P can be supported by the system. For a force P applied upward direction, plot ed downward in the figure, angle 0
P increases.
has
EIv"=
-Pv
(F/2)x
The
tions.
secant
(b)
solution In complex
formula.
expressed problems,
there
The fact
by
question
the
large solutions
correctness
does
of
not
F
of
7 Moreover,
the
is some
that
that
as to the
is not
axial
that case.
column It can be
buckles, shown
i.e.,
an
stress additional
a measure load
can
of buckling be resisted
load
beyond
in
(a)
-L/2
(b)
Fig.
degree
t -22
Rigid
of freedom.
bar
with
one
point Buckling
1.
where
the Strength
maximum of Metal
York:
section
is reached. McGraw-Hil ,
Fig.
t -23
598
Stability
of
Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
t -9.
Beam-Columns
599 with
or
EIv"
q- Pv
- (F/2)x
By
dividing
through
dif erential
d2v
by E1 and
equation
let ing
becomes
k2F
h 2 = P/E1,
after
some
simplification
governing
Equations 11-31, 11-33, and 11-34 become infinite when since then cos is equal to zero and tan is infinite. require. ment, for an nth mode, where n is an integer,
is a multiple In conformity
of r/2, this
dx 2 q- .2v =
The homogeneous solution of this
2p'X
equals the
cos IX
=term divided by
load
kL = - L
for P, and setting
2
n = 1, the
,r2EI
(11-35)
critical buckling
dif erential
Solving
Eq.
Therefore,
11-6,
and
the
the
complete
particular
solution
solution
is
right-hand
(F/2P)x
is obtained.
the
last
two
expressions
n2,rr2EI
v =
Constants condition
Ci
sin
Xx
C2
Pnv(0) = 0, and
L2
infinite
deflections
--
deflections
are
Per = L2
and
(11-36)
moments.
trends
condition, condition
This
the
forces,
gives
Euler
procedure
on
buckling
the
shows
other
load
that
causing
the
a solution
of the linearized
reduced.
dif erential
These
equation
For
are
tensile
similar
yields
hand,
v(0)
Since
C2
to those
shown
in Fig.
11-22(b).
v'
with C2 already known
Ck
to be
cos
zero,
Ix
the
C2k
second
v'(L/2)
= .Ck
cos
XL/2
Next it is of considerable practical importance to obtain an approximate to this problem that can then be generalized for a great many beam-column lems for finding deflections and maximum moments. For this purpose, tan into the Maclaurin (Taylor) series and subtitute the result into
F/2P
(11-37)
(11-38)
or
On substituting this constant
Ci
= F/[2Pk
into Eq. 11-30,
cos
(XL/2)]
However,
Vmx = 2P
in view
F 1(-)3(
of Eqs.
1+
and
11-35
11-36,
v - 2Pk F cossinIXL/ x2
where the last relationship is obtained
(11-3
By
(11-32)
2 . .
substituting the last equation
.2L2 4
2.467411-38 and
P Pcr
(11-39)
into
Eq.
simplifying,
XL/2
Since the maximum deflection occurs
=
at x = L/2,
F
after
some
simplifications
48EI
0.9870
Vmx
and the absolute maximum bending
2Pk
(tan
occurring
)
(11-40)
By
moment at midspan is
approximating
the
For
expression
columns, beanspruchter
by unity
and
"Die
Der
s A. Chajes,
9 (1936):!2,
Principles
of Structural
22, and
of elastic-plastic und
Stability
auf
(Englewood
Clif s,
see
K.
39.
Jezek, Stahistaebe,"
NJ:
Prentice-
600
Stability
of
Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
t -t0.
Dif erential
Equations
for
Beam-Columns
60'1
recalling
form, one
that
has
the sum
of the resulting
power
series
9 can
be writ en
in
The
first
one
of these
equations
yields
dV
7)max 48---
In this
coefficient
FL3 1 (see
beam
/Pcr
Table
center
(11-41
11 in the
deflection
dx
second,
dM dx
q
on neglecting
dv dx
(11-43)
the infinitesimals
expression,
in front
it can
of the
be recognized
bracket is the
Appendix)
without the
to Eq. gives
5-3.
The
force. The bracketed expression gives the deflection magnification factor by the applied axial force P. When this force reaches Per, the deflection bec infinite. This magnification factor can be used with virtually any kind loadings as long as they are applied in the same direction, and the results remarkably accurate for small and moderate deflections. After the approximate maximum deflection is obtained using Eq. 11-41, maximum bending moment fol ows from statics as
V = -are
+ P--
(11-44)
Mmax
where the in a deflected
portant.
I - FL - PvmaxI
loading, beam-columns, and the second the last term to the axial becomes
(1
such as Eq. 11-29,
first
term member.
is due
For
to transverse stocky
Therefore, for beam-columns, shear V, in addition to depending on the rate of change in moment M as in beams, now also depends on the magnitude of the axial force and the slope of the elastic curve. The lat er term is the component of P along the inclined sections shown in Fig. 11-24. On substituting Eq. 11-44 into Eq. 11-43 and using the usual beam curvature-moment relation d2v/dx 2 = M/E1, one obtains the two alternative governing dif erential equations for beam-columns:
It is important
beam-columns are
to-note
of dif erent
that
the
kind
dif erential
than those
only.
applied
For
this
in these
reason,
problems.
the
singularity
functions
(11-45)
previously
presented
cannot
or
Alternative
Columns
I d4v K2d2v qi
-/
V
dx 2 - E1
(11-46)
M +dM
Dif erential
Equations
for
Beamto that
Yt
For some solutions of beam-column problems, the governing dif erential equations into dif erent cussed in the previous section. In order to derive the beam-column element shown in Fig. 11-24, small-deflection approximations:
dv/dx = tan 0 sin 0 0 cos 0 1
dis
fol owin
dx
V+dV
and
ds
On
this
basis,
the
two
equilibrium
equations
are
q dx
+ VP dv +
(V
unity
+ dv)
by the
= 0
dx/2 (M + dM) =
dv/dx + higher-order terms
x
MA
This
= 0
can
+
be verified
M-
V dx
+ q dx
by dividing
denominator.
Fig.
element.
t -24
Beam-column
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
EI is assumed to be constant, and, as before, conditions for these equations are the same (see Fig. 10-5), except for shear where Eq. 11-44 use of the beam curvature-moment relation, Eq. alternative form can be writ en as
Solution
Sec. 1t40.
as
Dif erential
Equations
for Beam-Columns
where, for simplicity, P/E1. The boundary beams in flexure By again making in more appropriate
Within the span, there Eq. 11'-46 is zero, and 11-47a is the complete
term by
of
Eq.
v(O)
=
M
v(0) v(L)
0
=EIv",
= =
v(L)
with
= 0
the aid
M(O)
of Eqs.
+ + c2 C2
=
11-47a
-Mo
and
and
11-47c, these
M(L)
conditions
+C4=0
-Mo
yield:
I. V d3v dvI
If P = 0, Eqs. 11-44a, 14b, 5-5, and 10-14c For future reference,
of its derivatives are
(1
Since
+C
sin
kL
cos
kL
C3L
+C4=0
for
11-46
loaded
revert,
beams.
to E{ and sev
Solving
M(O) M(L)
these
= =
four Mo
P
-C1EI'A
equations 1 sin
2 sin
kL
- C2EIPA - C2EI'A
2 2 cos
solution
simultaneously, 205
205
v= v' =
Xx
C2cosXx+ - C2X
sin
Xx
C3x+ + C3
C4
(1 Therefore,
C
cos
C2 elastic
= curve
-C4 is
Mo
P
and
v"
-CX
sin
Xx
v"' = -CX
These uating relations constants are useful C, C2, for C3,
3 cos
Xx + C2X3
The
Eq.
10-14b
is essential
when
shear
at a boundary
Solutions of homogeneous Eqs. 11-45 or 11-46 for 1; conditions lead to critical buckling loads for elastic prismatic These solutions have the same meaning as discussed earlier with the equivalent solutions of the second order dif erential
in Sections 11-4 and 11-5.
C2X 2 cos
Xx
the
equation
of the
must
conditions 11-44a
in
be considered.
in
rather
+ cosXxAfter some
1
simplifications,
(11-48) it is
The
maximum
be
deflection
occurs
at x = L/2.
found
to
Mmax
EXAMPLE t -4
= I -Mo
- Pvmax
to that
Mo
I = Mo
sec
XL/2
11-8 for solutions,
solution
(11-50)
an howand the
to end maximum
moments deflection
Mo
This centrically
ever,
solution loaded
should be
is directly column.
noted. The
ec-
Total
deflection
L
(a)
Fig. 11-25
Deflection dueto
Mo only
(b)
of the eccentrically loaded column is at a distance e Then, with the use of some trigonometric identities, 11-22 and 11-48 lead to the same results. results again show that in slender members, bending increased in the presence of axial compressive encountered in Example 11-3, when kL/2 = r/2, Vma x and Mmax become infinite. the applied axial forces are tensile instead of compresslye, and so does the character of Eqs. 11-45 and 11-46. are reduced with increasing axial force P.
the column shown that can be subto the P = Per, sign cases, of P the
For
such
Stability
been done the Maclaurin
using Eq.
of Equilibrium:
Eq.
Columns
as
and
Considerations
Next
11-49 is recast into an approximate form in the same manner in Example 11-3. For this purpose, sec kL/2 = sec is expanded (Taylor) series, and, after substituting into Eq. 11-49, is
11-39. Thus,
(L)
Using.these
conditions
with
Eqs.
C2 C2
11-47a
and
11-47c,
one
+ + C4= C4
obtains
0 0
sec=1+5-+7/
1 ,
5 4 +7-76 61 6 +'"
(11-5[
C sin
kL
-Ck2EI
sin
solution
+ kL requires algebraic
cos
KL
C3L
C2.2EI C2.2EI
that equations
cos
the
KL
determinant be equal
= = 0 = 0
and
Vmax =--
1 + 1.028
+ 1.032 + --(1
To for
11-1).
obtain this
Therefore,
set
a nontrivial of homogeneous
with
X2EI
= P,
Again,
unity,
and
series
in the bracketed
summed,
giving
expression
can be approximated
sin -PsinkL
0 , 0i
kL cos kL L
-P
-PcoskL
0 0
=0
The
coefficient
in front
of the
bracketed
of the span due to the end moments Me (see Table 11 in the Appendix). deflection magnification factor due to the axial force P in the brackets is
to that found earlier lead, the deflection
ory.
The maximum
bending
momeht
mmax
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com at the center of the beam fol ows from
same 11~8.
expression
is the
The
evaluation condition
of this as given
determinant by Eq.
leads
to sin
kL
is precisely
the
This
the snall
Euler deflection
The
the method
approach
axial
force
is advantageous
and
cannot
in problems
with
dif erent
boundary
conditions,
a member.
= I -me
- Pdmax
EXAMPLE
t -5
By using
a column
Solution
Eq.
with
l 1-46 in homogeneous
pinned ends.
form,
determine
the Euler
buckling
lead
'211.11.
For other than
General
short
Considerations
columns cross-sectional and blocks, areas the should buckling have theory for the largest columns possible
their
For
as
d2v dx 2
=0
as discussed
of gyration slenderness
rolled
r. Such ratio,
of the shapes
in Section
limitations
must
assures of higher
be placed
the smallstresses.
on
the
The
solution
of this
equation
column,
the boundary
v(L) = 0
and
several
of its derivatives
conditions
M(O)
are
are given
by
material generally
to prevent have
buckling.
ratios
Since suffi-
lem
= 0
ciently
as it applies
remainder
large
to prevent
to aluminum
of this
such
chapter
buckling,
alloy
compression
only
a brief
members
treatment
wil
of this
be given
prob-
v(O)
= 0
= EIv"(O)
2o The
is optional.
606
Lacing
Stability
of
Equilibrium:
Columns
]E
Lacing (a)
(b)
thin
from
buckling plate
that may control the and open unsymmetrical (see Section 11-2).
capacity
cross
sec
Oyplj
to
ocr
Vertex of
Oc r
parabola
\
Since
tubular
members
have
a large
radius
of gyration
in relation
Lacing
amount of material in a cross section, umns. Wide flange sections (sometimes very suitable for use as columns, and have narrow flanges, resulting in larger a large radius of gyration, columns are truded shapes, and the individual pieces desired effect. Cross sections for typical are shown in Figs. 11-26(a) and (b), for
they are excellent for use as referred to as H sections) are are superior to I sections, ratios of Le/r. In order to often built up from rolled or are spread out to obtain bridge compression a derrick boom or a radio
a,
0
\NJ/
(L/r)
tangency
Point of
Euler's
1
(a) (b)
and
are
11-26(d). longitudinal
The
angles shapes
regard to column-design
Fig.
t -29
Typical
column-buckling
curves
for
design.
(e)
(f)
column
Fig.
t -26
'cross
Typical
sections.
built-up
the other members are separated by plates, or are laced by light bars as shown in Figs. 11-26(e) and (f). Local instability careful y guarded against to prevent failures in lacing bars, as shown Fig. 11-27. Such topics are beyond the scope of this text. 2 Unavoidable imperfections must be recognized in the practical desi of columns. Therefore, specifications usually stipulate not only the c of material, but also fabrication tolerances for permissible ness. The residual stresses caused by the manufacturing process mu also be considered. For example, steel wide-flange sections, uneven cooling during a hot rolling operation, develop residual patterns of the type shown in Fig. 11-28. The maximum residual
formulas.
Now
that
the
column-buckling
phe-
pressive
Lacing Lacing
in aluminum alloy terial in the heat on column buckling After initial y range of applicability,
(New
stresses
may
be on the order
reduce
zone. a large the a chaotic
the
of 0.3Cryp
in such
properties experimental
members.
of the:
formula many
years
Lattice
2 B. G. Johnson
York:
Wiley,
1988).
Stability
Design
Criteria
Structures,
we in common use. For steel, it is now customary to specify two formulas. One of these is for use for short and intermediate-length columns; the other, for slender columns, Fig. 11-29(a). For the lower range of column length, usually a parabola, and, in a few instances, an inclined straight line, is specified. In this manner, the basic compressive strength of the material, residual stresses, and fabrication tolerances are accounted for. For slender (long) columns, the Euler elastic buckling load provides the basis for the critical stress. In this range of column lengths, the residual stresses play a relatively minor role. The dominant parameters are the material stif ness, E, and geometric fabrication imperfections. Often the two specified complementary equations have a common tangent'at a selected value of L/r. Such a condition cannot be ful "fled if a straight line is used instead of a parabola. In a few specifications, the more conserapproach of using the elastic formula and an allowable stress is ,y assuming an accidental eccentricity based on manufacturing tolerances. For some materials, a sequence of three dif erent equations is specified for the design of columns, Fig. 11-29(b). One of these equations for short columns defines the basic compressive strength of a material. Another equation, specifically applicable for the long column range, is based on the Euler buckling load. An empirical relation, such as an inclined straight line shown in the figure, or a parabola, is specified for columns of intermediate lengths. Such a type of formula is generally given for aluminum alloys and wood. In applying the design formulas, it is important to observe the fol owing
items:
1. The writ en. material and fabrication tolerances for which the formula is
nomenon
is more
clearly
understood,
only
a few
column
formula
types
Fig.
stress
t -28
pattern.
Schematic
residual
2.
Whether
the
formula
gives
the
working
load
(or
stress)
or whether
607
6O8
Stability
of
Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
t -12.
Concentrically
Loaded
Columns
609
it estimates the ultimate mula is of the lat er type, The range of the applicability mulas can lead to unsafe
carrying a safety
design
capacity of a member. If the factor must be introduced. of the formula. Some empirical if used beyond the specified ran:
F.S.,
the
factor
of safety,
is defined
5 3(Le/r)
as
(Le/r)
F.S. = 5 +
Le/r.
*]]42.
Concentrically
Loaded
Columns
alloy,
considered in
Note
As examples of column-design formulas for nominally representative formulas for structtural steel, an aluminum fol ow. Formulas for eccentrically loaded columns are
next section.
the
The equation
value slenderness
steels
structural
chosen
being
for F.S.
more
conservative
11-30.
Since,
for
Institute
with
Structural of Steel
two
Steel Construction
formulas in each
(AISC)
set.
22 provides
One of these
two
sets
set For
specifies
columns
in practical in Section
modification
built
in Fig.
approximates
sine curve,
kinds
ratios
of
of
stress
of the effective
ends: Le
the ideal restraint of the column ends, always be relied upon, conservatively,
lengths, for example,
= 0.65L
as fol-
for use in the allowable stress design (ASD) and the other for the and resistance factor design (LRFD). In the second approach, an probabilistic determination of the reliability of column capacity based load and resistance factors is made (see Section 1-12). These two sets formulas fol ow. Since steels of several dif erent yield strengths ufactured, the formulas are stated in terms of f yp, which varies for ferent steels. The elastic modulus E for all steels is approximately same, and is taken to be 29 x 103 ksi (200 MPa). AISC ASD Formulas for Columns. The AISC formula for allowab
stress, load talow,
For
with
for a safety
slender factor
columns of 23/12
is based = 1.92.
AISC LRFD Formulas for Columns. Here, NON-ACTIVATED tions governing VERSION column strength, one for elastic buckling. The boundary between the inelastic www.avs4you.com
on the Slender Euler columns elastic
Specifications.
columns built in at one end and pinned at the other: modification need be made for columns pinned at both = L. Modifications for other end restraints may be found
again,
kc
= 1.5,
where
the column
slenderness
parameter
and elastic
k is defined
are
Constant
as having
The formula
Cc
the
the
corresponds
slenderness
steel
for long
to the
ratio
critical
(Le/r)
f yp.
when
stress
= Cc = X/22E/tyyp
trcr at the
Euler
or
load
to one-half
yield
stress
columns
X L tr
r,lT
(11-58)
elastic critical
(L/r)
12x2E
> C is
expression
suming trcr
to the slenderness
= tryp.
results
from
Oallow
ratio
normalizing
the slenderness
ratio
stress,
Le/r with
as-
tralow - 23(Le/r)
where Le is the effective for the cross-sectional
Le/r of 200.
2
r is the least are permit ed radius
column area.
length,
and
No C,
to
of exceed
Euler's
For
an Ldr
ratio
less
O'al ow
than
a parabolic
formula:
hyperbola
[1 -- (Le/r)2/2Cc2]tyyp
F.S.
22 For
1989). Steel
ASD
1980).
For
formulas,
LRFD 1986).
W-W.
formulas, see AISC LRFD Manual of Steel See also B. J. Johnston, F. J. Lin, and T. V. 3rd ed. (Englewood Clif s, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986). Johnson, Steel Structures, 2nd ed. (New York: Yu, Cold-Formed Steel Design (New York: Wiley,
see AISC
Manual
of Steel
Construction,
9th ed.
C
40 80 120 160 200
Le/r
v.
columns specifications.
for
Fig.
concentrically
1t-30
loaded
stress
610
Stability
of
Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
t 42.
Concentrically
Loaded
Columns
61'i
For and
the
critical
buckling
stress
Crcr is based
on
the
Euler
For
These.
1 in of
aluminum
stresses
a weld.
in the
alloy
same
compression
11-61a
manner
as recommended
'members,
11-6lb
the effective
by
the
AISC.
lengths
are
in Eqs.
and
are
reduced
to 12 ksi within
local
where the factor 0.877 is introduced to account for the initial out-i
straightness
stresses.
of the
column,
see
Fig.
11-11(c),
and
the
effects
of res
For
and
h = 1.5, probabilistic
an empirical studies
relationship is given as
based
on extensive
Crcr = (0.658Xc2)Cryp
This equation includes the effects of residual straightness. Both of the previous formulas of columns and must be used in conjunction resistance factor (b of 0.85 (see Example 1-7).
ratios Le/r are determined as for the ASD.
In designing aluminum alloy columns, it is also recommended to check buckling of the column components. Therefore, formulas are also by the Aluminum Association for the allowable stresses for outflanges or legs and column webs, i.e., flat plates with supported legs..These formulas, in groups of three, are similar to Eqs. 11-61, except in place of the slenderness ratios L/r, the ratios b/t are used, where is the width of a plate, and t is its thickness. The allowable stresses by such formulas may govern the design if such stresses are smaller than those required in Eqs. 11-61. Two basic groups of formulas for determining local
outstanding
buckling
legs
for
or fianges:
6061-T6
alloy
are 0 -< b/t 5.2 -< b/t 12 -< b/t -< 5.2 -< 12 (11-62a) (11-62b) (11-62c)
and
initial loads
For
ksi
Column
Formulas
for
Aluminum
Alloys
A large number of aluminum alloys are available for engineering cations. The yield and the ultimate strengths of such alloys vary wide range. The elastic modulus for the alloys, however, is
constant.
column mulas, shown here elements that alloy rosion 2024 formulas The
The
Aluminum
Association
design formulas for dif erent aluminum alloys. In all the allowable stress varies with the column slenderness ratio, in Fig. 11-29(b). A representative set of three equations is fof6061-T6 alloy. As identified by the first number in this aluminum alloy are magnesium and silicon. T6 desi this alloy has been thermally treated to produce stable temper. finds its greatest use for heavy-duty structures requiting resistance as in trucks, pipelines, buildings, etc. Alloys and 7075 in their various tempers are used in aircraft, where are employed. three basic column formulas for 6061-T6 alloy are
cruow cruow = = 19 ksi 20.2 51,000 0 < L/r < L/r
-< L/r
Since stresses
usage.
groups sections,
for
of these formulas are given for the allowable they include factors of safety for the intended
Wood
Column
The
essary
National
information
Forest
cross
Products
Association
columns. In treating such columns, it is formulas in terms of the slenderness ratio column length, and d is the least dimension
11-31. On this basis,
of wood
columns.
(NFPA)
5 provides
Here
attention
the
nec-
wil
O.126L/r
ksi
ksi
9.5
66
< <
9.5 66
rmin =
webs.
= V 12 bd
x/T
(11-64)
Cranow = (L/r)2
April 1981
Structures,"
23 Aluminum
1978; and (Washington,
5th
Construction
"Engineering DC:
ed.,
April
The
1982;
Manual,
Data Aluminum
Section
for
Section
Aluminum Association,
2, "Il ustrative
1, "Specifications
Structures,"
Examples
for
5th ed.,
of
zs See National Design Specifications for Wood Construction and Design Values for Wood Construction, NDS Supplement, National Forest Products Association DC. Table compiled by National Forest Products Association. See also D. E. Breyer, Design of Wood Structures, 2nd ed (New York: McGraw-Hil ,
Inc.).
wooden
Fig. t1-$t
column.
Cross
section
of a
Stability
of
Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
1t-12.
Concentrically
Loaded
Columns
the
Substituting
recommended
this
relation
factor
'rr2E
into
of safety
Eq.
11-19
of 2.74,
and dividing
'rr2E
the critical
0.30E
stress
)nunended
The
effective
for
by
the
lengths
loaded
AISC.
are approximated
columns.
in the same
manner
as rec-
mulas
axial y
examples
il ustrate
some applications
of the design
for-
(row
= 2.74(Le/r)
2 = 2.74 x 12(Le/d)
2 - (Le/d) 2
EXAMPLE
Since this stress is deduced from the elastic Euler formula, on its use must be placed for the smaller values of Le/d. In the design specifications, this is achieved by requiring that at a slen ratio Le/d, designated as K, the allowable stress does not exceed
that
thirds allel
of the design stress F for a short to the grain. In the form of an equation,
2 0.3E
wood
using
0.3E
block
Eq.
in compression (11-65),
Assume
Solution
(a) Determine the allowable using AISC ASD formulas other has one end fixed and ft W 14 x 159 columns. For
A36 steel having
try v = 36 ksi.
axial loads for two 15-ft W 14 x 159 steel when one of the columns has pinned ends the other pinned. (b) Repeat the solution for the given section, A = 46.7 in 2 and rmi, =
F = (Le/d)2min
Hence,
-- K2
it is necessary
to calculate
Cc to determine
whether
Eq. 11-56 or
C c = 'V/'/O-yp
value of K provides
dif erent
= 126.1
The
assumes
the
boundary
use
in Eq.
11-65.
Note
values.
that
since
E and
A qualitative graphical representation for the allowable stresses columns over the permissible range of column slenderness ratios shown in Fig. 11-32. Note that for short columns, a constant stress specified; for the intermediate and long slenderness ratios, a curve an inflection point at K is shown. There is a small discontinuity
=11.
with pinned ends, Le/r = 15 x 12/4 = 45 < Co, and Eq. NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com 5/3 + 3 x 45/(8 x 126.1) - 453/(8 x 126.13)
for the least slender column
column
(a) For the W 14 x 159 shape, the minimum r = 4.00 in. Hence, for the 15-ft
11-57 applies.
[1 - 452/(2 X 126.12)]36
F for
dif erent
woods
vary,
18.78 ksi
Pxow
applying Eq. 11-57,
= Arow
cro, = 19.50
= 46.7
x 18.78
= 877 kips
= Atropos, = 46.7 x 19.50 =
The
are
allowable
' Fc
stresses
in axial y
loaded
wooden
rectangular
0 --< L/d --< 11
-< K
For the column with one end fixed and the other pinned, according to the AISC, the effective length Le = 0.8L = 12 ft. Hence, Le/r = 12 x 12/4 = 36, and again
kips.
ITallow
by 3.9 percent
since
by firdng
one of the
fixed at one
row = F
0.30E
12
11
< Ldd
(b) For a 40-ft column with pinned ends, Ldr = 40 x 12/4 = 120 < Co. Hence, n using Eq. 11-57 again, it can be determined that cro, = 10.28 ksi and Pow
for a column
(rmow - (Le/d)
t
K --< L,/d
-< 50
11
50
Slenderness
ratio,
Le/d
NFPA
loaded
specifications.
where F, is the allowable design stress for a short block in parallel to grain, E is the modulus of elasticity, and K is defined 11-66. Note that the maximum allowable slenderness ratio Le/d It must be recognized that F, and E for wood are highly variable titles, depending on species, grading rules, moisture, service temperature, duration of load, etc. Therefore, in actual applications, reader should consult texts dealing with such problems in more
by
is
and pinned at the other, Ldr = 0.8 x 120 = 96, Eq. 11-57 gives cro, = 13.48 ksi and Po, = Acruo, = 46.7 x 13.48 = 630 kips. For this case, the allowable axial force is increased 31.2 percent by fixing one of the column ends. This contrasts with the 3.9 percent found earlier for the shorter This finding is in complete agreement with the generalized Euler theory
for columns,
their
Section
strength.
Restraining
the
Stability
EXAMPLE
of Equilibrium:
t -7
Columns
Sec. t1-12.
Concentrically
Loaded
Columns
Solution
ASD
carry
=
Using
50
a concentric
ksi.
the
AISC
lead
column
of 200 kips.
formulas,
The
structural
select
a 15-ft
steel
long
is to be A572,
pin-ended
having
column
column
slenderness
parameter
as defined
by
Eq.
11-58
is
Solution
- 0.5047
the critical stress and
'
The
Steel
required
Construction
of the column
Manual.
However,
can be found
this
example
directly
this
provides
from
the tables
an
in the
in
Since
Xc is less
than
1.5,
Eq.
11-60
applies
for
determining
Eq.
First
whose
stress Cc:
= 6.67
11-57,
try:
solution
is found
in 2. From
Let since
trial-and-error presented
fol ows
procedure from
that using
is so often method.
requires
necessary
IYcr = (0.658's472)36
=
for this column, the nominal compressive
= 32.36
strength
ksi
11-56
L/r = 15(12)/1.61
or 11-57,
whichever
= 112. With
a W
is applicable
thsL/r,
8 x
24
Pn
= After
= 46.7
x 32.36
1510
kips
depending
and since
factor = qbP,
Pow 11-6, between
Oc = 0.85, = 0.85 x
compressive kips.
strength
Cc = /2'iT2E/O'Yp
Hence, using Eq. 11-56,
= X,/2'rr 2 X 29 x 103/50
crmow =
12,r 2 X 29 x 23 x 1122 103
=
= 112
dividing the P, Example relationship by
This
must
is much
be selected.
smaller
than
the
initial y
assumed
Second try: Let cro, = 11.9 ksi as found before. Then A = 200/11.9 = in 2, requiring a W 8 x 58 section having rmin = 2.10 in. NOW L/r = 15( = 85.7, which is less than Cc found before. Therefore, Eq. 11-57 applies,
for a comparable column analyzed 1.46. This load factor gives an and the LRFD for this case.
in the
indication
F.S.
and
= 5/3 (r,ow
+ 3(85.7)/(8 = [1 - (85.7)2/(2
A = 200/17.9
x 107)
- (85.7)3/(8 x 1072)]50/1.90
X 1073) = 17.9
for this section the requirements
= 1.90 ksi
shows = 4.563
dimensions
the aluminum
allowable
shown
Assume
alloy
in Fig.'
each
axial having
11-33.
One
of the
members
rmi
ends.
members wide-flange
is 20 in long
the
made section
and
section,
from with
the
Outstanding leg
This
lem.
stress
requires
= 11.2
in 2, which
is met
by a W 8 x 40
of the
in 2, and
the
minimum
strut
to be pinned
radius
of gyration
at both
= 1.188
For
in.
given
Regardless
values
of the
For legs determine
column
length,
for
aluminum
alloys,
it is necessary
to investigate
one for instances, the
the given section, two of the flanges, and the the allowable compressive
calculations must be made, other for the web. In both stress. For the flanges,
= 7.51
0.312"
bi
*EXAMPLE t -8
t
5 2 x
0.312
0.312
5.00"
Determine
46.7
pinned
in 2 and
at both
the design
rmin
ends
= 4.00
based
compressive
in. Assume
on the AISC
strength
A36
LRFD
Pu for a 15-ft
steel
having
provisions.
W 14 x 159
ratio
requires
the
use
of Eq.
11-62b;
hence,
cr,o,
For
= 36 ksi.
this
---0.312" "*---5.00'Y' -
= 17.2 ksi
Fig. 11-33
((rnow)nng
= 23.1
0.79
x 7.51
6i6
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
is
'11-t3.
Eccentrically
Loaded
Columns
6'7
The
web
width-thickness
--=
ratio
to or less
2 x
0.312
axial
loads,
than
Eq.
for
6-45,
an axial y
and setting
loaded
P
the maximum
column.
Mc
For
compressive
a planar
case,
stress
this
equal
be-
bw
t
5-
0.312
comes
14.0
Since
this
ratio
is less
than
16,
according
to Eq.
11-63a,
(11-68)
as positive moment
allowable
materials.
(traUow)web
19 ksi
Overall
for a 20-in
buckling
strut is
is investigated
_
L --
using
20
Eqs.
11-47,
which
depend
on L/r.
Pc,
e is the
stresses an eccentric
load
for
eccentricity;
axial y
Fig.
The
stress
quanM =
Usu-
preceding
*ow ally,
is determined
section
from
an appropriate
loaded
columns
formula,
of dif erent
such
as given
in the
1.188
16.8
Hence,
using
Eq.
11-61b,
the
solution
of Eq. intermediate
11-68
unconservative
requires length
is
craow
For buckling this case controls.
= 20.2
- 0.126
design,
x 16.8
the
= 18.1
allowable
ksi
stress for local
of a well-balanced Therefore,
deflection
Interaction
Pnow
The slenderness ratio for
= 4.563
the
L
x 17.2
strut
60
60-in
-
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION www.avs4you.com usually higher than the allowable axial stress.
= 78.5 kips
Method
in Example
the
or
11-4.
approximate
Fig.
loaded
t -34
column.
Eccentrically
is
=
loaded moment.
column, However,
much
the
of the allowable
1.188
50.5
column,
it is desirable
to accomplish
some
balance
total
Hence,
again
using
Eq.
11-61b,
stresses, depending on the relative magnitudes of the bending and the axial force. Thus, since in bending,, = Mc/I = Mc/Ar r is the radius of gyrati6n in the plane of bending, in effect,
required by bending moment M is
iranow
This stress is smaller than
= 20.2
those
- 0.126
for local
x 50.5
buckling;
= 13.8
hence,
ksi
mc
(abF12
Pnow
= 4.563
x 13.8
= 63.0
kips
where
11-14.)
Aa
required
maximum
for
stress
P
axial
in bending.
force
P is
(See
also
Section
Loaded
for the design
found
Columns
of eccentrically
formulas
discussed
in Section
fol ow.
loaded
11-8 were
columns.
methods
have
Method
a wide-use
for a column
where traa is the allowable axial stress and which depends on the L/r ratio.
subjected
to an axial
force
and
a bending
Mc
moment
is
A procedure
adapting
the elastic
for designing
solution
eccentrically
for short
blocks
loaded
subjected
columns
to bending
is
A =Aa
+Ao
=--
O'aa
+
O'abrl 2
(11-69)
68
Stability
By dividing
of Equilibrium:
by A, P/A
--+---1
O'aa
Columns
Loaded
11-34) AISC
Columns
69
Mc/Ar
O'ab
or
cra
O'aa O'ab
where (ra is the axial stress is the bending stress caused only an axial load and the that the column is designed
allowable stress becomes
caused by the applied vertical loads, and by the applied moment. applied moment is zero, the formula for the stress (r. On the other hand,
the flexural stress crb f there is no direct
additional
nature
both fox and roy by an amplification into account the slenderness ratio
of the end moments. The
secondary
moments
is greater
may
term
be approximated
than
0.15,
of the
pressive force acting on the column. Between these two extreme cas Eq. 11-70 measure the relative importance of the two kinds of action specifies the nature of their interaction. Hence, it is often referred to an interaction formula and serves as the basis for the. specifications
the AISC ASD manual, where it is stated that the sum
long
plification factor brings in the effect of the slenderness ratio through the use of F;, the Euler buckling stress (using Le/r in the plane of bending) divided by 23/12, or 1.92, which is the AISC factor of safety for a very
column with Le/r greater than Co. (See Section 11-12 for a definition
not exceed unity. The same philosophy other than those pertaining to structural suggests a similar relation. The National developed a series of formulas to serve of the notations used by the AISC, Eq.
has steel.
found
favor
of Co.)
It can
blows
be noted
that
the
amplification
account
F;.
factor
increases
as f in-
the
eccentricity moments
to
0.15
as well as their relative sense of direction. The term C,, is larger f the end moments are such that they cause a single curvature of the member, and smaller f they cause a reverse curvature. The formula for f/F >
then becomes
Cmyf
f,/Fe'y)Foy
value
ly
-< 1.0
of C,, shall
(11-74)
be taken
to the
AISC
specifications,
26 the
modified
1. For
(sidesway),
compression
C,,
= 0.85.
members
in frames
subject
to joint
translation
Subscripts about
Fa F
which
with
stress
subscript applies,
b indicate
and
the
axis
in the
and
plane
of bending,
members to transverse
0.6 -
in frames loading
0.4MJM2
braced between
against their
joint sup-
= allowable = allowable
existed
(but
not
less
than
0.4),
where
MJM2
is the
ratio
of the
smaller
to
= computed b = computed
axial bending
stress
stress
At points
of Fy,
the
of the
in the plane
material,
of bending,
and
F is equal
to 60
(11-
in single
the member
in the plane
larger
moments
of bending
is bent
at the
ends
curvature.
in reverse
under
of that
consideration.
curvature
portion
of the
and
negative
Mi/M2
member
is positive
when
unbraced
it is bent
when
0.6-y
f
+ fx
- + y - 1.0
roy <
26 AISC
Steel
Construction
Manual,
AISC,
1989),
5-27.
620
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
Sec.
1t-13.
Eccentrically
Loaded
Columns
ysis. used:
for
in lieu members
whose ends
of such whose
are
analysis, ends
unrestrained,
are
C,,=
0.85;
with
has
Second
A = 9.12
same
before 50 -9.12
Try:
in 2, S = 27.41
properties.)
shows 176 27.41 that
Select
8 in x 8 in
Substituting
in 3, and
10.72
rmin
lb/ft,
= 2.01
quantities
the
in.
next
(A W 8 x 31 steel
into the first equation
larger
available
section,
section
for-
the
these
mulated
*EXAMPLE
t -t0
11.9
--< 20.2
0.126
alloy Assume
column the
for
the column
8 x -2.01
12
14.2
ksi
this
is satisfactory. For a complete and webs should also be checked, not given here, shows that the axial stress and do not control
solution of this problem, as was done in Example local buckling stresses the design.
are
Fig.
t -35
by one range,
L
of Eqs Eq.
!l
*EXAMPLE t -t
A
the
20
20
Select interaction
F
a steel method.
column
for Assume
the the
loading column
ASD at both
ends.
Let
Fy
= 50 ksi
and
Fb
= 30 ksi.
where applicable
used
A,
to solve
S, and to the
First
Try:
It is convenient
to recast
the
' + .A ,S]
where
for
50
176(h
Note procedure
Solution
or Eq.
11-73,
must
be satisfied,
last
equation
into
the
fol owing
depending obtained
than
0.15.
The
solution
column.
can using then
is
A/S
a whole
= B defines
class of cross
a bending
sections.
factor.
Therefore,
27 These
the
factors
solution
are
can
reasonably
begin by
First Try: Let Le/r = 0, although it is a'poor assumption Corresponding to this value of the slenderness ratio, F, Eq. 11-57, as F, = 50/(5/3) = 30 ksi. The required area be computed using Eq. 11-72:
1.0 >--
here
a plausible equation
size
an 8 in
can
x 8.5
which
then
x 8.32
a trial
lb/ft
value
aluminum
wide-flange
for this
the
The
f,
or
P M
A->-?-7
Af,
Afb
P = 200
minum Association Construction Manual gives the fol owing A = 7.08 in 2, Sx = 21.04 in 3, and rmi, = 1.61 in. (Geometrically, is very similar to the W 8 x 24 steel section given in Table
data
for
The
= 1.61 design
corresponding
on this
values
data,
given
B = A/S
there
are A = 7.08
= 7.08/21.04
in 2, Sx = 20.9
= 0.337.
this 4 of the
Hence,
this cross
secti0h
Since
-For any
a few
fb
fa AP
value
not
Then 13.7 in 2
M =800k-in
a good
in 3, and
one depth the
- + - x 0.337 -
50
109.3
8 x
12
Therefore,
if a W 10 section
values A
is to be chosen,
in Table 4 of the
800 x
30
bending
a typical
Appendix). -
B does
of B is about
vary
0.264
deal.
Levels
bracing
of
of A/S =
200
30
The solution of this equation gives A = 8.61 by the assumed section, and requires another 27 Bending factors of Steel Construction
known.
0.264
r M = 600
k-in
S are
and
Select a W 10 x 49 section with A = Bx = 0.264, and carry out the necessary the interaction Eq. 11-72 or 11-74 governs.
14.4
in 2, rm, calculations
in,
P=200k
Fig.
t -36
622
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
Problems
623
a = A
Le rn
14.4
12
200
13.9 ksi
= 70.9 < Ce
MB:,
800
14.4
x 0.264
14.7
ksi
149
15
-- x 2.54
(Le/t:) 2
has
10 3
149
10 3
Ce = X/2'rr2E/Fy
= 107
propriate
Again,
using
quantities,
and substituting
+ 0.41 = 1.00
Using
Eq.
11-57,
be checked.
= 13.9/19.3
For 149
= 0.72
this
purpose,
> 0.15;
using
hence,
11.4
19.4
(1 -
11.4/88.6)30
0.59
F - 23(Ldr,)2
Then,
= - 600/800
- (15 x 12/4.35) 2 =
subject the column
and
x 103
(41.4) 2
x 103
86.9
ksi
Since
M
this relation
satisfies
Eq. 11-74,
the W 10 x 60 section
is satisfactory.
since
=
to a single
curvature,
11-14.
only
Lateral
if such beams
Stability
occasional
are in stable
of Beams
theory
lateral
equilibrium.
C, = 0.6
With bending taking
- 0.4M/M2
place
f, F
= 0.6
only,
- (0.4)(-0.75)
Eq.
----
= 0.9
reduces to
The strength
and deflection
of beams
supports
developed
may
in one plane
11-74
1.0
C.fo (1 - f/F)F
On substituting
--+
the appropriate
0.9 x 14.7
quantities
=
13.9
19.3
(1 -
13.9/86.9)30
be used to maintain the stability of such beams. The nature of the reduced stresses resembles the curves displayed for columns in Figs. 11-29 and 11-32. The key parameter for stress reduction depends on the material properties, geometry of the cross section, and moment gradient. Several
thus become unstable; see Fig. 11-37. Theoretical and experimental ies of this problem show that, within limits, reduced bending stresses
that
do not have
Narrow
sideways
beams
studcan
and
Fig.
beam.
tl-37
Lateral-torsional
Since
Eq.
11-74
is violated,
a larger
section
must
be used.
Second Try: As an aid in choosing is the value computed for the section
for W 10 sections,
to qualify supports
According
to the AISC
this topic.
of lateral
In this section,
torsional
buckling
of a narrow
buck-
ASD
allowable intervals
specifications,
in order
for a compact
intermit ent the value
lateral
beam
where
the depth
76b
nor
Fy is the yield
(d/A)Fy
flange,
stress
20,000
(11-75)
b is the flange
for the material.
A is the area
of a beam,
of a compression
and
width,
d is
Problems
Section
A rigid bar hinged at the base is held in a vertical
fo15 x 12
MBx
A
70.0 <
800
Ce
17.6
0.264
= 12.0
position
rmin
..
2.57
Using
11-74
must
Eq. 11-57,
be
checked.
= 114/19.4
hence,
frictionless
and the other, 2k N/mm, as shown in the figure. termine the critical force P= for this system. throughll-4. Rigid-bar segments ofequallengths are connected at the joints and at the bottoms
by
two
springs:
one
has
a stif ness
k N/mm
Deby
Fig. Plt-1
hinges
in straight
po-
624
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
P
Problems
the lateral wire only ing slack, displacement with the as shown of the diametrically by the
dashed
625
by the that
all joints
details
sitions by torsional springs of the stif nesses shown in the figures. Determine the eigenvalues for these systems and show the eigenfunctions on separate diagrams. Identify the critical loads.
top
force plied
and that
F, governed at A? Assume
the connection
size
of the
are
are
mast,
pin-connected
made that
can
be apthe
so
columff
tions.)
to be perfectly
top. (Note:
rigid
be
during
lateral
displacecolumn applica-
should
is loaded concentrically. The top of the mast is to prevent sidewise displacement. Use Euler's with a factor of safety of 3.3. E = 29 x 106
t -?.
bar and can
A 1-in round
steel
bar 4 t long
in the designed, Use
acts
figure.
Euler's
as a spreader
what
and
assume
a factor
Spreader
bar
of safety
of 3. E = 29 x 106 psi.
Fig.
Ptt-4
Fig.
Plt-2
't -5. A weightless prismatic elastic column can approximated by a series of rigid bars each of a, with an appropriate torsional spring constant each joint, as shown in the figure. Set up the minental equation for finding the critical load for a:
tem having n. degrees of freedom.
Cable'd
Fig. Pll-7
is made
from
an aluminum
pipe
of 60 t140.
shown minum-alloy
Fig.
Pll-3
diameter part of an the figure. could be controlled by the capacity tor of safety of 3 for
dimensions
and having a 4-mm wall thickarrangement for lifting weights, Determine the magnitude of the applied to this planar system as of the boom. Assume a facthe Euler buckling load. E = 75
are shown in mm.
B
Fig.
Plt-9
VVnat
in the
force
F can
be Assume
applied
system
buckling
E = 70
load
GPa.
is to be 2.5.
are pinned.
of 80
mm
in diameter.
For
E = 200 GPa
t -6. An ideal column is pinned at the base and guyed at the top by four wires, as shown in the figure. The 3000-mm-long column has a solid circular cross section
P
diameter
of the
and
wires
a perfectly
What
sho
Assume
1000
top?
I Pcr
1000
,Column
Wires "x
t -9.
Plan
C F2CLO
-*ii-1500
Fig.
Rod
Bar
B
400 mm
- 1500
Pll-8
4
rec(A
Fig.
P11-10
The
= 2.02
s assembled
in 2, Ix = 1.29
in 4, Iz = 3.87
in the
in4.)
If this
what
derrick
Fig.
Plt-6
as indicated
figure,
vertical
t 4t. Governed can be applied factor of safety that the ends concentrically sibility of torsional
by the steel T section, what to the system shown in the figure? on the buckling load must be 2. are pinned and that the applied applied. E = 200 GPa. Neglect buckling.
force The
Assume
626
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
Problems
627
lect
a factor
the
of safety
weight
of the
of 3 on the Euler
members.
E = 29
buckling
lead.
103
ksi.
Neg-
Section
11-5
of the angles.
t -t6. A tripod is to be made up from 3 x angles, each 10 ft long, to support a vertical 8 k at the center, as shown in the figure. Euler buckling formula with a factor of safety account for impact, determine the required
are loaded concentrically, E = 30 x 106 psi.
Neglect
the weight
of the angles,
and
11-18.
1t-t9.
+ Pv
Derive
Derive
-
= Me,
v),
Eq.
Eq.
where
11-17
11-18
Me
using
using
is the
Eq.
Eq.
end
moment
end.
EIv"
EIv"
11-5
deflection.
in the form
= P(g
where
g is the
that
assume
ends
El.)
Determine the critical buckling lead for the shown in the figure. (Hint: See the preceding enforce continuity conditions at a change in
0mffl
Fig.
Pt1-tt
EI
L/2
1142.
A thin
bar
of
stainless
steel
is axial y
procom-
plates that are fixed at a apart; see the figure. This How high can the temperto have a factor of safety Assume E = 200 GPa
mula safety
11-t4.
with
a factor
29 x 10 6 psi.
steel AB fo:
2E/ L/2
system
150 lect
shown a factor
and
to resist
a vertical
force
of 2. E = 29 x 103 ksi.
Assume
at B and C. pinned
Fig.
Plt-20
Fig.
3--' 150
Pl1.t6
finding
ence
'1t-21.
the
Determine
critical
force
buckling
the
transcendental
lead
for
bar
AB
equation
of constant
for
1
Fig. PI'M2
16'
Fig. Ptt-14
" 12'
for the tripod lead F =
beam middle
the
of flexural rigidity EIb is by a slender rod of flexural deflection of the beam at the
the Euler lead for the column
E1 due to the application of axial force link BC. (Hint: In a deflected position,
of a shear at B.)
if a force
F double
is applied
system.
F
1143. What size standard steel pipe should be used for the horizontal member of the jib crane shown in the figure for supporting the maximum force of 4 k, which includes an impact factor? Use the Euler buckling for-
t -15. in the
Select figure
standard to support
EI
L Hinge
Fig.
F
Plt-21
1t-22.
ended
column
Five
An
allowable
of a certain
axial
columns
linearly
made
lead
for
elastic
a 4-m-long
have Using criterion,
material
same
pinma-
is
20 kN.
L/2
dif erent
of the
Fig.
Ptt-13
Fig.
Plt-15
Fig.
Plt47
terial and having the same cross porting conditions shown in the umn capacity for the 4-m column
are the allowable loads for the
628
Stability'
of Equilibrium:
Columns
P4
Problems
629
conv.enience,
stresses
up
stress-strain curve in simple tension for alloy is shown in the figure, where, for e x 103 = e. The alloy is linearly elastic
to 40 ksi; the ultimate stress is 50 ksi.
A
Fig. Pll-3'1
abola
uous
Hinge
(a) Idealize
to the
the
curve
stress-strain
so that
limit
r and
relation
and
do/de
by fit ing
the
= Et is contin-
a parMB
P sin
at the
proportional
so that
r = 50-
Fig.
t -23. A machine bracket of steel alloy is to be made
PI1-22
ultimate stress, and E, the tangent r. (c) Plot in one graph O'cr against and pinned-pinned columns, where
a ksi
sin
LL
Xx
Mx
PL
is
M=
50 40
- MsinXx
sin
as shown in the figure. is so arranged that it can in the plane ABC, but direction perpendicular ness of the member is h to have equal probability
tually
and the factor of safety on instability is 2, what force F can be applied to the bracket? Assume that the bar
perpendicular
directions?
The compression member AB buckle as a pin-ended column as a frxed-ended column in the to this plane. (a) If the thick in, what should be its height of buckling in the two mu-
LL
t -32. chanical
an
(b) If E = 28 x 10%
Fig.
end wil
Fig.
PI1.27
X
103=e
PIt-24
designed
in (a) controls
the capacity
of the assemlily.
be unsuppc
the column
12"
against
buckling
on which
is 2.5,
the equipmeni
what
is the
maximum
can be
tl-28. For some materials, the stress-strain relationship in normalized form can be expressed 28 as r = 1 - exp(-ce), where c is an arbitrary constant. Setting c = 500, plot the stress-strain diagram for e from
0 to 0.01, and the normalized-stress-vs-column slen-
using
maximum
Consider properties
deflection
example.
the accurate
Note
and then
in the
figure.
expressions
the
method. Use Table 11 deflection due to an end results in (a) with those
the maximum
force
bending
the
maximum
found
moment
in the preceding
occurs
at
dM/dx
inaccurate in relati
stresses
due
0. (c)
to the
Calculate
axial
force
the
and
maximum
bending.
37 mm
in-span
column.)
derness t -29.
for
L/r
ratio Using
= 0 and
Ldr Eq.
75.
from 11-24,
Assume
Sections
t -25. Find
11-6
the
through
shortest lengths
11-8
for
Section
elastic dif erent
size (
11-9
pinned mula
ends would
such apply.
Euler three
of nominal
cases:
a 2 x 4 in wooden
of the Appendix)
ifE
compression stress is 1500 psi, (b) a solid alloy shaft 50 mm in diameter if E = 70 GPa = 360 MPa, and (c) a W 14 x 193 steel section
Table
=
4 of the Appendix)
Two grades
slenderness
if E = 29 x 103 ksi
are
for
Fig.
Pll-23
36
ksi.
the
A high-strength thin-walled steel tube 1250 mm is loaded as shown in Fig. 11-23. The axial force 25 kN and the transverse F = 500 N. The outside of the tube is 37 mm, and its cross-sectional is 223 mm 2. For this tube, I = 34.2 x 10 3 mm 4 E =, 200 GPa. (a) Determine the maximum deand bending moment using Eqs. 11-33 and 11-
Fig.
Pll-32
1t-33.
the
figure,
If an elastic
show
that
bar
the
is initial y
total
deflection
curved
as shown
in
approximate
the results
Eqs.
moment.
11-26.
of steel
ratios
in common
stresses
due
11-41
in (a) with
to the Neglect
and
11-42.
axial
the results
force
(c) Calculate
and
using
1-}/Por 1
) a sin
P
--
tl-24. A piece of mechanical equipment is to be ported at the top of a 5-in nominal-diameter standard steel pipe, as shown in the figure. The equipment its supporting platform weigh 5500 lb. The base of pipe wil be anchored in a concrete pad and the
sup-
umns A572
smallest
with each
which
centrations.
bending
MB, as shown
local
stress
deflection
the con-
t -31.
buckling
at both
formula
and
when
applies
it is fixed
when
the
at both
column
ends.
is
moment
Show
figure,
loaded
the
by an end
is
Fig. Pll-33
28 Courtesy
of F. C. Filippou.
630
Section tl-34. Show 1140 that since the character
Stability
of Equilibrium:
Columns
t -43. aJong
its
Problems
A pin-ended length bar
by an elastic
63'i
is often
are
of
of Eqs.
11-45
and
constant foundation,
EI
is supported as shown
A572
in
where
grade
the
steel
columns
used
stocky.)
in building
construction
is + C3x
the
figure.
The
foundation
modulus
is k lb/in
2 and
is
v = C sinh
such that when the bar deflects by an amount v, a restoring force kv lb/in is exerted by the foundation normal to the bar. First, satisfy yourself that the governing homogeneous dif erential equation for this problem is
EIv i' + Pv" + /iv = 0
t -47.
is laterally braced 12 ft apart in the weak direction of buckling and 24 ft apart in the strong direction, as shown in the figure. (a) Determine the allowable axial lead for this column per AISC ASD. (b) Is this a wellbalanced design?
P
A 14 x 193 column
of A36
(%,
= 36 ksi)
steel
where
from the
constants.
boundary
C,,
that
deflection
C2,
conditions.
C3,
and
11-3,
C4 are
axial
determined
force P were
t -35.
tensile,
Show
the
if in Example
11-45, for
as
the loaded
Then, ential
show equation
that is
the
required
eigenvalue
of the
dif er-
v = 2- sech
t -36. due
sinh hx - 2-
found in Prob.
the deflections end using
expression
column identical
special
1]
the
classical
Euler
buckling
lead.
deflections members
11-37.
an elastic sinusoidal
can be found by superposition for subjected to the same axial force. the equation of the elastic curve fdr
of constant E subjected in the figure is
the solutions
for beam-
EI = const
P
Fig. Plt-47
to a
v - 1 - P/Per
L 4
Yl
qosin rx/L
Fig. Pll-37
'
tl-40. Rework Example 11-4 using Eq. show that for P = 0, Eq. 11-49 reduces MoL2/SEI. tl-41. Using Eq. 11-55, rederive Eq. 11-16.
11-45, to
1t-48. A standard 12-in-nominal-diameter steel pipe (see Table 8 of the Appendix) supports a water tank, as shown in the figure. Assuming that the effective length of the free-standing pipe-column is 30 ft, what weight of water can be supported per AISC ASD? Let
11-11
and
11.12
Gyp
should
= 36 ksi.
also be
(Note:
considered.)
In a complete
Water tank
design,
wind
lead
t -42. critical
ness
conditions
Using buckling
shown
figure.
change
Enforce
11-38. Using Eq. 11-45, show that the equation for the bending moment for an elastic beam column subjected to a uniformly varying increasing lead to the right is
given as
If a pin-ended solid circular shaft is 1.5 m its diameter is 50 mm, what is the shaft's slenderness ratio? (b) If the same amount of material as in (a) is reshaped into a square bar of the same length, what is the slenderness ratio of the bar? t -45. The cross section era compression member for a small bridge is made as shown in Fig. 11-26(a). The top cover plate is x 18 in and the two C 12 x 20.7 channels are placed 10 in from back to back. If this member is 20 ft long, what is its slenderness ratio? (Check L/r in two directions.)
30'
EI
L/2
1t-46.
from
36 ksi.
Consider two axial y loaded columns W 10 x 112 sections of A36 steel, where
One of the columns is 12 ft long and
the
made cryp =
other
Fig. Plt-48
M =
where q = qox/L.
X 2 sin XL
Fig. Pll-42
qo sin
Xx
EI
= oo
L/2
is 40 ft long. Both columns are braced at the pin ends. (a) Using the AISC ASD, determine the allowable loads for these columns. (b) What would be the allow-
1t-49.
is
able
loads
instead?
if A572
(Note:
grade
This
steel
il ustrates
having
Cry v = 50 ksi
the reason why
For
A36
steel,
11-56
the and
ratio 11-57
%0
= 36 ksi and
Le/r for the for AISC
transition ASD
E = 29 x 10 3
point formulas.
632
(These formulas are constructed
Stability
using
of Equilibrium:
the concept
Columns
11-57.
mine the
Problems
Using
allowable
633
on
axis.
Aluminum
shown in Fig. 11-29(a).) (b) Show that the AISC LRFD Eq. 11-58 reduces to Le/r = 89.2Xc, and then determine the ratio Le/r for the transition point between Eqs. 1159 and 11-60.
axial
Association
loads
for
two
formulas,
8 in
P using
conditions.
the
AISC
Let F0
ASD
formulas.
Assume
pin-ended
= 27 ksi.
centtic
tance
load
of 25 k applied
the X-X
the
The
Y-Y
column
axis
at a disis braced
of 6 in from
10.72 that
erties
W
aluminum-alloy 30 ft long.
use
section.
For
Table
pin-ended cross-sectional
4 of the Appendix
colu
t -62.
this
columns,
20 ft. lOsing
column
a concentric
A W 12 x 40 column
the AISC
load
ASD
load
k.
has
formulas,
that
an effective can
figure,
column
determine
length
the
of
and and
allowable
bending
magnitude the
t -50.
the nominal = qbcAtrcr, columns
tween
(a) Using
axial where in Prob.
the factored
the
AISC
LRFD
method,
determine
Pn two befor
of an eccentric at A, as shown
of 20
in the
The
be applied in addition
is braced
to
at
column strengths (factored loads) A is the cross section for the 11-46. (b) Determine the ratios
and the allowable axial loads
t -58.
lowable
Using
axial
loads
the
NFPA
lengths:
ends,
for
three
formulas,
6 x 6 in Douglas
determine
psi
umns
is braced
of dif erent
at both
5, 12, and
and F = 1000
20 ft.
and E =
top and
ksi.
bottom.
The
allowabl
bending
Y
stress
F0 = 17
'1t-65. A narrow rectangular beam, such as shown in the figure, can collapse when loaded through lateral instability by twisting and displacing sidewise. It can be shown 29 that for this case, the critical force that
may be applied at the end is
the
for
lowable
with
corresponding
the
the
axial
loads
columns
are
593
k and
in Prob.
153
k, respectively,.
11-46.
Such
al-
x 106 psi.
Per = 4.013V'BiC
where B = hb3E/12 is the flexural
/ L2
stif ness of the beam
short
aid
form
and the
the long
1-28.
Interpret rework
factored
of Eq.
Sections
11-59. An
1143
observation
and
1144
platform 6 ft in diameter is
around
the
vertical
axis,
and
C = [3hb3G
sections,
is the
coefficient
tor-
1t-5t.
11-47
_Using
and
AISC
the ratio
between
the
axial
1-28. Using
Two
loads. Interpret the result with the (See the preceding problem.) AISC LRFD formulas, rework Prob.
A36 steel C 10 x 15.3 channels form
t -53.
square compression member; are turned in, and are adequately Using the AISC ASD formulas, axial force on this member?
29 x 103 ksi.
the
tached to the top of a standard 6-in pipe 20 ft supported by a footing. Governed by the the pipe, what weight, including a person or can be placed on the platform? Locate the live load ft from the pipe centerline. Neglect the weight struction. Use Eq. 11-68 with the allowable given by the Euler formula with FS = 3. E = 10 6 psi and try" = 36 ksi.
11-60.
an eccentric
from
steel
(try"
= 36 ksi and
E = 30 x 103 ksi)
and
is
A W
12 x 85 column
load of 180
up
ure. mine.
allowable
Using whether
the
stresses
What is the magnitude that can be carded an effective length the reaction
shown to the
by of
20 ft long
is subjected
at the
outside
flange
of the
colwith of the
loaded as shown in the figure. (a) Determine the critical load Pr and the critical length Lr, where both the strength and the stability criteria are equally applicable. (b) Plot P vs L in the neighborhood of Pr and L for the two criteria. (Note that the smaller of the P values governs the design.)
k located
as shown
in the
as
interaction is adequate.
formula, Use
and top
the
as in Example
11-11.
column
22
ksi.
are
held
laterally.
Assume
Fy
= 36 ksi
and
Fb
two principal axes are equal. (b) If is 32 ft long, what is the nominal axial strength of the member according to provisions? try" = 50 ksi and E = 29 x
the
l 0"
Fig.
Fig. Ptt-63
Plt-65
t -55. A boom for an excavating machine is made up from four 2 x 2 x in A36 steel angles, as shown in Fig. 11-26(c). Out-to-out dimensions of the square
Fig.
Pll-60
t -64.
68 column made of A36 grade
Using
to carry
the
AISC
a concentric
ASD
code,
load
select
a W shape
an ec-
column,
AISC ASD
29 x
excluding
formulas,
103ksi.
lacing
what
bars,
axial
is 14 in.
load can
According
be applied
to
1t-61.
A W
14
column
of 60 k and
t -66. Using Eq. 11-75, determine the maximum tance between intermit ent lateral supports compression flange of a laterally unsupported 76 beam spanning 24 ft.
disfor the W 24 x
to this
=
member
if it is 52 ft long?
tryp
= 36 ksi
and
is loaded the
allowable
tl-56. A compression chord of a small truss consists of two 4 x 4 x in steel angles arranged as shown in Fig. 11-26(d). The vertical legs of the angles are separated by spacers in apart. If the length of this member between braced points is 8 ft, what axial load may be applied according to the AISC ASD code? try" =
36 ksi and E = 29 x 103 ksi.
Fig.
Pll-61
-"--n
bility,
29 See Timoshenko
p. 260.
and
Gere,
Theory
of Elastic
Sta-
Sec.
t2-2.
Elastic
Strain
Energy
635
chapter
12-2.
The elastic ume, for principal of stress,
Elastic
Strain
Energy
strain energy per unit volby Eq. 8-49 in terms of element in a general state
strain-energy density Uo, i.e., the a three-dimensional body was given stresses and strains. For a cartesian the main energy density is
Uo = (crxex
Therefore, linearly ]2-].
was the of of In
(12-1)
energy in a
the
elastic
general body
for
the
total
internal
strain
Introduction
obtained internal employing the most Part A,
In a few
instances
in bodies. energy discussed from a somewhat more general point of view. This is fol owed by a specialized statement of the law of conservation of energy for formable bodies, and the reason for the need to develop additional meth ods based on work and energy concepts to solve deflection problems.
Part B serves as an introduction to the two virtual work methods
by invoking the law of Conservation of energy and strain energy to the external work. This Lagrangian scalarfimctions can be greatly extended, resulting effective procedures for the analysis of deformable the previously encountered concept of elastic strain
in the preceding
chapters,
the deflection
of
U =
+ 'r,.x',.x)dx
dy dz
(12-2)
Integration extends over the volume is used in elasticity. In engineering of problems is considered and Eq.
of a body. Such a general expression mechanics of solid, a less general class 12-2 simplifies. An expression
(12-3)
u =
is sufficient well as in writ en in problem of the major For linearly shear, '/xy
(c,,e:, + ,yxy) dx dy dz
deformable
useful
is not
bodies.
for
limited
One
all to
of these,
deflections
elastic behavior.
the
caused
method
by
This
of virtual
any
method
forces,
of deformation
is one of the
is
and
determining
at
kind
The in the
available of virtual
structures
and
in finite
elements,
deflections of great
is also
of members. importance
discussed.
The
conjugate matrix
duality
two
methods In Part C similar problems are discussed. energy or the nal work. The tems and are given for both discussion on column buckling
is il ustrated by considering discrete structural of this chapter, the classical energy methods to those susceptible to analysis by virtual work These methods are based on considering the internal complementary strain energy and the corresponding derived equations are specialized for linearly elastic known as Castigliano's theorems. Il ustrative examples statically determinate and indeterminate cases. A an application of the elastic energy concep loads concludes the chapter.
for determining the strain energy in axial y loaded bars as bent and sheared beams. Moreover, the last term of Eq. 12-3 the appropriate coordinates is all that is needed in the torsion a circular shaft and for thin-walled tubes. These cases include types of problems treated in this text. elastic material, for uniaxial stress, e = ,x/E, and for pure = 'rxy/G. Thus, Eq. 12-3 can be recast in the fol owing form:
U = dddv -dx dy dz + if iv
s
for axiloading bending and ofbeams for shear
or
dx dy dz
in beams
(12-4)
(12-5)
u=
-5-dxdydz+
dxdydz
634
636
Energy
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Sec.
'12-3.
Displacements
by
Conservation
of Energy
637
These equations can be specialized for the solutions gineering mechanics of solids, where it is generally with stress resultants P, V, M, and T. In this manner, are reduced to single integrals. Assuming that E and special cases of the last two equations fol ow.
in
to
where
factor
ct depends
on
the
cross-sectional
area
of a beam,
and
was
both
shown
s. hear
to be 6/5 in Example
V and area Energy for Circular
A can
10-12
vary
for a rectangular
along in Torsion
the
span
beam.
of length
In this
L.
equation,
Strain
Tubes
Strain
In this P and
Energy
problem, cross-sectional
for
Axial y
rx = P/A area
Loaded
and A A can
Bars
= f dy dz. Therefore, only be functions since of x, axial
For this case, the basic ogous to the last term previously in Example
simplifications, becomes
=
elongation
dV fi. T2
by Conservation of Energy
(12-9b)
A = PL/AE,
along constant,
bar
alternatively,
per
12-3.
namics
Displacements
expresses this principle
of energy, which states that energy can be neither can be adopted for determining the displacements to the applied forces. The first law of thermodydone = change in energy
(12-10)
Strain
According around
Energy
for
Beams
in Bending
elastic axes strain reduces
www.avs4you.com
work
length
L,
bending along
the
law
For with
for
conservative
process applied
systems
4 reduces
(12-
(12-11)
where
cross
M
section.
is the
bending
moment,
and
I is the
moment
of inertia
for
where We is the total work done by the externally the loading process, and U is the total strain energy
It is significant to note that the total work
W = We + Wi
in Eq.
W must
applied stored
be zero,
Strain
Energy
for
Beams
in Shear
10-34 for using a rectangular the last
= 0
12-9a.
term
to
= 1, provided
neglected.
For a circular
2 No heat
3 These
system
forces
is added
only
cross
web
section,
area
are applied
generally,
any
or subtracted system,
closed
A,eb
ct = 10/9,
is used
and box
sections,
ct
to the body
path.
from
so slowly
the system.
energy
can be
5-&dy&
around
638
Energy
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Sec.
12-4.
Virtual
Work
Principle
639
where
We
is the
from
Eqs.
12-11
work,
one
and has
W is the
internal
work.
u =
- w
(12-13
for
Fig.
where Wi has a negative sign because the deformations are opposed the internal forces. (See the discussion in connection with Fig. 12-2. Some formulations for determining the internal elastic strain were given in the preceding section. For linearly elastic systems, a force, or a couple, is gradually applied, the external work We is to one-half the total force multiplied by the displacement in the of its action. The possibility of formulating both We and U provides basis for applying Eq. 12-11 for determining displacements.
(a)
(b)
equilibrium.
determining
'12-'1
Alternative
static
means
Virtual
the concepts basis, the
Displacement
Method
The
conventional
procedure for twist of a thin-walled hollow member subjected to a tore Lastly, this method was applied in Example 10-12 for finding the tion caused by bending and shear in a cantilever loaded by force at the end. In all of these cases, the procedure was limited to determination of elastic deflections caused by a single concentrated at the point of its application. Otherwise, intractable equations are tained. For example, for two forces P and P2, P A/2 + P2 A2/2 = where A and A2 are, respectively, the unknown deflections of the forces. An additional relationship between A and A2, except in cases symmetry, is not available. This requires development of the more methods discussed in the remainder of the chapter.
of a circular
an axial y
This
procedure
loaded
shaft.
bar,
was used
and
A general
again
in Example
relation,
in Example
Eq.
4-37,
for
was
determining
the deflection
solution
of static
equilibrium
problems
of levers.
usually
On
fol ows
this
derived
using
Pai
= P2a2
(12-14)
virtual quantities are expressed as 80 rather than the dqb employed in usual dif erential notation. The rotation shown causes virtual displacements 8A and 8A2 at the points of load application. Then, assuming that the system is conservative, the v#'tual work 8W done by real forces moving through virtual displacements in the direction of the applied forces is zero. Such work is positive when the direction of forces and displacements coincide. Applying this principle to the rigid bar shown in Fig. 12-2(b),
- P2 8A2 = 0 (12-15)
agina:y
An
alternative
or v#'tual
method
angle
80.
s consists
Here,
as elsewhere,
of rotating
the lever
for
emphasis,
through
all such
an bn-
However, change
during
since
the
8A
= a2 8qb,
80 = 0
and
P and
P2 do not
(12-16)
12-4.
Direct
deflections
Virtual
use of 'external
breaks
Work
work
down
Principle
and internal
deflections
strain
and/or
energy
rotations
for
are
Inasmuch as 80 is perfectly arbitrary, bearing no relation to the applied forces, the expression in parentheses must be zero, reverting to Eq. 1214. Stated dif erently, for a system in equilibrium, the virtual displacement equation simply leads to an equation of statics multiplied by an arbitrary For eralized. inon. ntroduced
Stevinus
if several
at dif erent points in a deformed body subjected to one or more It is possible, however, to devise extraordinarily effective means for ing such problems by replacing true or real work and strain energy external and internal virtual (imaginary) work. Two dif erent for applying the virtual work principle are described, resulting in the tual displacement method and the virtual force method.
work
s This approach
apparently
the notion
of virtual
Galileo
was considered
(1564-1642),
displacements
and
by Leonardo
(velocities)
Johann
da Vinci
in his let er
who
(1452-1519),
Energy
Initial
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Sec.
t2-4.
Virtual
Work
Principle
64'i
--
equilibrium position
of
gWe
and
the
internal
virtual
work
gW,
is zero.
approach restrictions
fit,
leads are
to the placed
method. relations,
total virtual
In
again, with
no
therof
Initial
--
mal
In
gW=
gWe
gWi=
can
deformations,
be
This equation can be interpreted by making reference to Fig. 12-2, a weightless spring supports a rigid mass. This mass applies a force P the spring, and the system is in equilibrium. Then a virtual dis gA is imposed on this system, as shown in Fig. 12-2(a). During this placement, force P and internal forces F, shown on isolated parts in Fi
As virtual virtual can be seen from the isolated mass in Fig. 12-2(b), the extern work gWe done by force P is P gA. On the other hand, the intern work gWi done by F is -F g/x. Therefore, this-internal work is negative. However, it can be noted that the work done by F acting on the
12-2(b), remain constant.
the
'order
external
to
the
as well work
method,
as settlement gW
the
the
and
force
in
lack gW,
are
of member
consisting
equilibrium position
of
bP
virtual
and
work
this
gW*,
is zero.
with that
In
by
dif erentiate
between
virtual
method
in the asterisks.
virtual
method, analogous
the
to Eq.
work
12-17,
quantities
identified
(12-20)
gW*
This spring force forces mation
Thereafter,
= gW
+ gW*e
= 0
{a)
shown fore,
gW,,
diagram internal
of Fig. virtual
gWi ='
be clarified with the aid of Fig. 12-3, where rigid mass. However, unlike the previous on the system first and is in equilibrium as shown on isolated parts in Fig. 12-3(b). is permit ed to take place after force
constant.
a weightless case, virtual with internal The deforgP is applied. when force
(a}
remains
In
gP does
the
next
the
step,
external
real
virtual
displacement
work:
A is allowed
to occur
(b)
By
substituting
this
relation
into
Eq.
12-17,
Virtual
mass-spring
' gWe
Applying Eq. 12-19
pgA
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION 12-3(b), the internal virtual work gW done by www.avs4you.com here, again, the internal virtual work is negative.
During the same process, as can be seen from
gF is - gF A. Therefore,
work
the
isolated
mass
in Fig.
be reversed
external
by considering
gP =
the internal
gW?
virtual
However,
gW* caused
force
mass-
force
gF,
i.e.,
to the
= FgA
simple
or
system
(P-
in Fig.
F) gA
12-2,
= 0
= -gWe
12-14.
Here
gA is arbitrary,
so P
Therefore,
since
from
Eq.
12-20,
to note
relations
the
that
method equations
during
do
a virtual
not enter
displacement,
the
equilibrium.
systems
It is to be
expressed
the of the basic virtual work equation for the virtual force method is
and
that work
Virtual
the
constitutive equations.
directions
of applied
forces
change.
deviation
(12-22)
Force
Method
where
virtual work can be formulated in two
work
gW
calculated
is the
in
external
the sense
virtual
described
work,
and
before.
gW**e
is the
internal
virtual
For
deformable
bodies,
ways. tiplying
obtained
as a product
discussion, by virtual
of the
virtual
virtual displacements.
work
and
forces
was Here
real
displacements.
In applying Eq. 12-22 to the simple system that gF = gP. Then, since the virtual Aspr, A --- Aspr, an equation of compatibility.
it is known a is gP A =
642
Energy
and Virtual
Work Methods
to recognize of the simple
such over elements all of
Sec. t2.5.
that only one deformable systems in Figs. 12-2
and
them.
Virtual
Forces
Deformation
for Deflections
due to real
643
force is u
and
for the
element 12-3.
internal
is
Virtual
force
element
in a typical
is/F
in a typical
element
P2
calculations
To summarize: in the virtual displacement method, the use of matically admissible (plausible) displacements assures compatibility, solutions lead to equations for static equilibrium. By contrast, in the tual force method, the requirements of statics are fulfil ed by the virtual force system in equilibrium, and solutions lead to of compatibility for the systems.
referred that
P
A
In applying
these
to
Eqs.
the terms
(a)
Real
(b)
in
the
displacement
direction
AB
of point
is A
with Eqs. 12-18 and 12-21. five sections, self-contained development at an introductory level is given. For
virtui
Fig.
t2-4
Virtual
forces
and
real
displacements.
ment
this
12-5. The
of this
text, the
Virtual virtual
important
applications
Forces
subject,
are
for
the
limited
Deflections
reader
to small
is referred
deformations.
to other
texts.
For
the
virtual
virtual
forces
by real
on a deformed
displacements.
An
The
algebraic
may
implementation
of
First, apply an imaginary or virtual force gP at A acting in the desired direction AB to the unloaded body. This force causes internal forces throughout the body. These internal forces, designated as gF, Fig. 124(a), can be found in any statically determinate systems. Next, with the virtual force remaining on the body, apply the actual or real forces, Fig. 12-4(b), or introduce the specified deformations, such as those due to a change in temperature. This causes real internal deformations u, which can be computed. Owing to these deformations, the virtual force system does external and internal work. Therefore, since the external work done by virtual force gP moving a real amount A in the direction of this force is equal to the total work done on the internal elements by the virtual forces gF's moving their respective real amounts u, the special form of the virtual-work equation becomes
equatio
element)
n enables
one
to calculate
body.
deflection
deformations
(or rotation)
be due
of any
to an3
such as a temperature change, misfit of parts, or external forces a body. The method is not limited to the solution of elastic problems. this reason, this method has an exceptionally broad range By confining the discussion to typical problems of engineering of solids involving stress resultants, the basic virtual work equation, responding to general Eq. 12-23, can be readily derived. For this purpose consider, for example, a body such as shown in Fig. 12-4 for which deflection of some point A in direction AB caused by deformation distortion of the body is sought. For this, the virtual work equation be formulated by employing the fol owing sequence of reasoning.
6 For rigorous elastic problems mathematical requiring
the
real
(12-24)
virtu__J
Since all virtual forces attain their ful values before real deformations
are or,
all
imposed, in general,
internal virtual
virtual integration,
work
work
must
Summation, indicates
that be
Oden, and E. A. Ripperger, Mechanics McGraw-Hil , 1981). For an extensive Davies, Virtual Work in Structural
theorem, of Elastic Structures, 2nd ed. exposition of virtual work, see Analysis (Chichester: Wiley, 1982).
of virtual divergence
work (Green's)
for
Note regardless
G. A.
that
infinitesimal. choose
24 as
the
convenient to unity,
and
in applications to restate
Eq.
to 12-
644
Energy
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Sec.
12-6.
Virtual
Force
Equations
for Elastic
Systems
645
Fi is the force
extends
Peams
over
all
in the same
members
of a truss.
member
loads.
The
summation
I
virtual
where
virtual
unit
force
real
virtual
displacement
unit force
of a point
in the
direction
of the
work
If the deflection
method,
a virtual
of a point
unit
force
on an elastic
must
virtual'
force
internal
internal
forces
displacements
in equilibrium
of a body
with
the
virtual
real
virtual beam
reall
a
in Fig. 12-5(a).
Next,
This virtual force wil set up internal bendof the beam designated by , as is shown
be applied
beam
is wanted
first
in the direction
by the virtual
in
are applied
to the beam,
bending
d M dx/EI
(b)
For and
formations case.
positive result indicates that the deflection occurs as the applied virtual force. In determining the angular rotations of a member, instead of a unit force. In practice, the procedure force or a virtual unit couple in conjunction with
to as the unit-dummy-load method.
in the
same
xA=
EI
dx
(12-27)
and
(a) m.
sections
they
cause.
An analogous VERSION expression may be used to find the angular rotation of a NON-ACTIVATED particular section in a beam. For this case, instead of applying a virtual unit force, a virtual unit couple is applied to the beam at the section being i nvestigated. This virtual couple sets up internal moments along the www.avs4you.com beam. Then, as the real forces are applied, they cause rotations M dx/EI
a unit couple is of using a virtual virtual work is
12-6.
Virtual
Force
Equations
for
Elastic
Systems
Equation 12-25 can be specialized the solution of problems. This flexural members. Application
Trusses
for linearly elastic systems to is done here for axial y loaded examples fol ow.
by multiplying
27 applies
of the cross
here.
sections.
The external
Hence,
work
by the virtual
expression
0 of the beam
unit couple
at this couple.
Hence,
(12-28)
Yxo=
unit
to be
E1
A virtual
deflection
force
determined.
must
be
applied the
at a point
in the bar
direction
of
axial
For
linearly forces
Therefore,
elastic F, according
Eq.
bars
cross real
section axial
A subjected deformations
to
FL/AE.
pressed
EXAMPLE
In Eqs. 12-27 and 12-28, is the bending moment due to the virtual loading, and M is the bending moment due to the real loads. Since both and M usually vary along the length of the beam, both must be ex-
by appropriate
t24
functions.
x A= .= AiEi
where i is the axial force in a member due to the virtual unit force
in of member
of point B in the pin-jointed steel truss shown in Fig. causes: (a) the elastic deformation of the members,
AB by means of a turnbuckle,
and (c) a
646
Energy
and
Vidual
Work
Methods
Sec.
12-6.
Virtual
Force
Equations
for Elastic
Systems
647
AA' -/ I
3'
L
drop in temperature of 120 F occurring in member expansion of steel is 6.5 x 10 -6 inch per inch the possibility of lateral buckling of the compression
.psi.
Solution
per
BC.
The degree
member.
effects
could
Find
(a) A virtual unit force is applied in the upward vertical direction, as shown Fig. 12-6(b), and the resulting forces are determined and recorded on the diagram. Then the forces in each member due to the real force are also
and recorded,
out
shown
Solution
the
in Fig.
deflection
12-7.
and
EI for
rotation
the
beam
at the
is constant.
middle
of the
cantilever
beam
loaded
as
Fig.
in the
12-5(c).
table.
The
solution
fol ows
by
means
of Eq.
12-26.
The'
.
C.,i
L = 60 in
(a)
is carded
respectively.
Member
AB BC
The downward virtual force is applied at point A, whose 12-7(b). The diagram and the M diagram are shown
For
deflection.
, lb
-0.833 + 0.833
F, lb
+2500 - 2500
L, in
60 60
A, in 2
0.15 0.25
FL/A
-833,000 - 500,000
the cantilever.
the
After
these
these
functions,
moments
X
3
the same
are determined,
Wo X3
6L
origin
ofx
Eq. 12-27
is taken
deflection in Figs.
at the free
is applied
of
M=
X HJoX
2 L
O<x<L
0 <x<L/2 L/2<x<L
* '"833
lb
From
this
table,
FL/A
= - 1,333,000.
Hence,
7 x A = wzFL AE
and A =
-1,30333,0x 00 106
-0.0444 in
- 0.0444
lb-in
= 0 = -l(x-L/2)
/+0.833
lb
The negative sign means is done by the virtual direction. Note particularly
in members are taken
that force
positive,
EI
4
- EJ
(0) , 6L / dx
49woL
N.m
wox/L
(b)
Virtual
loading
since
12-25 is used to find the vertical deflection of point B due of member AB by 0.125 in. The forces set up in the bars by in the direction of the deflection sought are shown in Fig. u is -0.125 in (shortening) for member AB and is zero for
to
-'
Wo~
(a)
Realloading
diagram
(d)
T x and
/t =
(-0.833)(-0.125) /t =
+ (+0.833)(0) + 0.1042 in up
to the
+0.1042
lb-in
3000 lb
(c)
2-18,
Again,
Ar
using = -6.5
Eq.
12-25, x 10 -6
x /t = (+0.833)(-0.0468)
and A = -0.0390 in down
-0.0390
lb-in
diagram
'L/2
due
to '' N
TN.m diagram
Fig.
t2-6
By superposition,
of point
causes
is
(c)
(f)
Fig.
t2-7
648
Energy The
due to
and deflection
shear
Virtual
has been
Work of point
Methods A is numerically
neglected.
Sec. equal
middle of the
0 and
12-6.
Virtual
Force
Equations
for Elastic
Systems
649
to this
beam,
and
quantity.
a virtual
The
unit
To
find
virtual
of
the
beam
rotation
at the
The
The
applied
of the
tation
real
at A, Fig.
bending
the
moment
moment
12-7(e).
these
at A.
The
= 0 for
M is the moments,
corresponding
x between
same and
as in the
L/2,
diagram
previous Eq.
is shown
= - 1 for
part
of the
the
in Fig.
12-7i
the
of the beam is 5000 mm 2 (50 x 10 -4 m2), m2). The moment of inertia for the beam mm 4 (60 x 10 -6 m4). Neglect deflection
Solution
and that of the bar, 500 mm 2 (5 x 10 -4 around the horizontal axis is 60 x 10 6 caused by shear. Let E = 70 GPa.
beam.
Using
beam
applying
12-28,
determines
A unit
virtual
force
of 1 kN
is applied
vertically
downward
at C. This
force
causes
WoX 3
6L
and
-1
L/2<x<L
an axial force in member DB and in part AB of the beam, Fig. 12-8(b). Owing to this force, bending moments are also caused in beam AC, Fig. 12-8(c). Similar computations are made and are shown in Figs. 12-8(d) and (e) for the applied real force. The deflection of point C depends on the deformations caused by the axial
forces, as well as flexure; hence, the virtual work equation is
Ix0=
The rotation
15woL
384EI
EXAMPLE
the application
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION , D 4AIiminum bar www.avs4you.com 4m =2kN pFL/.AE = 3.75 x 10 -3 kN.m
Member , kN
+5 -4
by a pin at one end and an inclined in Fig. 12-8(a). Find the deflection at C caused force of 2 kN at that point. The cross
The rrst term on the right side of this equation is computed the integral for the internal virtual work due to bending is found. parts of the beam, two origins of x's are used in writing the and M; see Figs. 12-8(c) and (e), respectively.
F, kN
+10 -8
L, m
2.5 2.0
A, m 2
FL/A
+250,000 +12,800
DB AB
50
5 X 10 -4 X 10 -4
From
or
the table,
FL/A
= + 262,800
(a)
fo L MEI dx - fo 2 (-2x)(-4x)dx EI
D '5kN
2 kN Virtual
(b)
+
kN.m
8.kN
DA 10
4 kN
'NB
kN
Real loading
(d)
15.25
10 -3
/04 (-x0(-2x)dx EI
and point C deflects
Therefore,
19 x
10 -3
T x A = 0.75
m = 19 mm
down.
+ 15.25)10
two
-3 = 19 x 10 -3 kN.m
loading
1 kN
Note that the work due to the that the origins for the coordinate venient; however, the same origin
types of action was superposed. Also note system for moments may be chosen as conmust be used for the corresponding and M.
EXAMPLE
-8 kN.m
t2-4
diagram
diagram
(e)
Find
curved Neglect
the
horizontal
bar shown the effect
deflection,
in Fig. of axial 12-9(a). force
caused
and
by concentrated
The
force
P, of the
of the bar
end
is constant.
of the
Fig.
12-8
(c)
650
Energy
and Virtual
Work
-R(1
Methods
- cos O)
M = -PR sin 8
Forces
for Indeterminate
Problems
R P
(a)
(b)
Fig. '12-9
Solution
of the problem, the deflection of this system. It is necessary to multiply fz>z> by a factor Xz> to chose the gap Az>p = 44.4 x 10 -3 in at D caused by the force P in the determinate system. This simply means that the deflection Az> at D becomes zero. Stated algebraically,
is large in comparison
structure,
the deflection
determinate by cutting bar DB at D. in Fig. 12-10(b). In this determinate of point D must be found. This can be done by applying at D, Fig. 12-10(c), and using the virtual force method.
term for
same as that of B. -3 in down and is of point D, shown and a vertical force of point D due to a
In Example 12-1, the lat er quantity was found so shown in Fig. 12-10(b). in Fig. 12-10(b), violates a boundary condition must be applied at D to restore it. If z>z> is unit (real) force at D, it defines the flexibility
BD
is zero,
the
vertical
deflection
-B
-4
(a)
If the
dimensions placing
radius
wanted,
load,
Applying
from
of curvature
of a bar
formulas
with
the
may
be used,
Fig.
a horizontal
12-9(b),
Fig.
12-9(c),
it is seen
virtual
M = -PR
that
force
7fi = -R(1
sin.0.
of the deflecti0h
for the
T-lb virtual
the real
Hence,
the problem
forces
using
Eq.
12-26.
force
A=
f ) MEI ds
are numerically
The
at D, then applying
forces
resolves
into
finding
same,
fz>z>. This
structure
can be done
by applying
by the virtual
and then
between
and
caused by a virtual force are designated is carried out in the fol owing table.
p, lb L, in
60 60 40
by and the
,pL/A
+278 + 167 + 400
, lb
A, in 2
0.15 0.25 0.10
EI
AB BC BD
right
is numerically
equal
to this
expression.
5001b
= 0
From
the table,
,pL/A
= + 845.
Therefore,
since
determinate
(b)
Real
loading-
3000lb
structure
12-7.
Virtual
Forces
for
Indeterminate
Problems
fzz = 28.1
x A = '. SpL _
AE
30 X 10 6 -- 28.1 x 10 -6 lb-in
28.1
l-lb the the
+845
lb,
The unit-dummy-load be used to advantage Here the procedure the first degree. The described in Section indeterminate axial y
is best
(or flexibility) method to problems of higher degree of is discussed in Sections 13-2 and 13-3. In general,
suited for linearly elastic problems, where
method derived using the virtual force concept for the solution of statically indeterminate t is il ustrated on a problem statically inde basic procedure is essential y the same as that 2-15 on the force method of analysis for loaded bar systems (see Fig. 2-43).
x 10 -6 in
and
x 10-6Xz
-44.4
x 10 -3
To close the gap of 44.4 x 10 -3 in, the 0.0444/0.0000281 = 1580 times. Therefore 1580 lb. The forces in the other two members shown in Fig. 12-10(c). lb (tension), and in BC,
or by superposition
of the forces
shown
in Fig.
real force at D must be increased actual force in the member DB is may now be determined from statics
+1
lb
12-10(b)
force
in AB
with
is found
Xz> times
to be
the p forces
+ 1180
recognizing
the
(b) Three dif erent virtual systems nodal point B caused by the applied
deflection
that
at B
since
the force
in vertical
1580
to determine the deflection simplest of the three consists member BD is known to be 1580
lb,
of of
ture
ding
--
EXAMPLE
t2-5
(a) Find
the forces
the deflection
of joint (nodal
point)
steel
structure
B. Let E = 30 x 10
shown
in
Aa
..
FL
40
(c)
AE
0.10
30
106
21
10 -3
in
Fig.
'12-t0
652
Energy
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Sec.
12-8.
Virtual
Displacements
for
Equilibrium
653
This virtual
Alternatively, the virtual force system may consist of active members AB BC, with a zero virtual force in member BD. Then, by assuming that the unit force acts upwards at B, the virtual forces in members AB and BC are shown in Fig. 12-10(c) (or Fig. 12-6(b)). (Remember that the force in member BC,
is assumed
table.
solution force
point of view of a virtual force system means DB is unity and is zero in the other members.
that;
*'12-8.
The virtual placement can begin
Virtual
Displacements
be adapted analysis. work
work =
for
for The principle
internal
Equilibrium
developing delivation in words:
virtual
The
solution
to be zero.)
From
12-26
to be, respectively,
to obtain
the solution
for (a),
the deflection
lb, and
in members
+ 1580
Member
AB BC BD
, lb
-0.833 +0.833
0
F, lb
+1180 -1180 + 1580
L, in
60 60 40
A, in 2
0.15 0.25 0.10
FL/A
-393,000 ' -236,000
0
Virtual work for the virtual displacement tiplying the virtual displacements by with the virtual force method, where the virtual forces by real displacements. .Because dif erences arise in the virtual work In the virtual displacement method, placements must be compatible with lem. This means that the member boundary conditions and the displacements
real virtual
mulof
equations. both the virtual and the real disthe special requirements of a probdisplacements must conform to the of the load points. Since the
Hence,
The
AB =
negative
FL/A
30 X 10 a
consist
629,000
boundary
= -21 x 10 -3 in
conditions
are
simplest
are considered meeting
to satisfy
at pin-ended
here. Moreover, a single pinned
axial y
the joint discussion where
loaded
an
in the bars
Lastly,
sign
shows
to a unit
force
that
downward
system
the deflection
force
can be found
by dividing
bars.
The virtual
at force is applied. Such a joint is referred to as a nodal the discussion is limited to the simplest class of problems, procedure provides an introduction to the most widely
matrix analysis of structures and finite elements,
point.
the used
where it
the bar
Member
AB BC BD
, lb
+0.393 - 0.393 + 0.527
F, lb
+ 1180 - 1180 + 1580
L, in
60 60 40
A, in 2
0.15 0.25 0.10
,FL/A
+ 185,000 + 111,000 + 333,000
in the
virtual displacement method, and the virtual displacements, of the nodal displacements. relationships. Here such elastic behavior.
an-accurate definition forces must be defined is achieved with the aid are strictly limited
of as of to
librium, In
tiofi s of equilibrium.
12-25, one
a virtual the
As with
Archimedes'
In this manner,
and
lever,
the virtual
the three
work
equations
Hence,
AB = . FL/ A E
results
30
629,X000 10 a = 21 x 10 -3 in
in general.
dif erent
are in static
The
system
can be used
case,
equilibrium.
are
the
same
provided
This
by three
its displacements
certain
the
is true
entirely
go through
Any
virtual
self-equilibrating
force
sy
Eq.
can
unit
formulate
virtual it by going
relations work
basic
requirements
to the
provide
of equito
moves Simul-
force at its ful value direction of the force. ful values move through
directly
the
unit
virtual
displacement.
This
yields
the prescribed
is applicable,
displacements.
imum
In any given
stresses
linearly
must be determined.
elastic range for
to make
to be correct,
analysis
these
mustl
virtual
in the
(12-29)
654
Energy
where
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Sec.
12-8.
Virtual
Displacements
for Equilibrium
655
virtual
of P
unit
external
displacement
(nodal) force
at a nodal
compatible
with
as those
point
in the
with
P
of finite
dire,
the
real
displacement Eq. 12-29 must be applied twice. The equilibrium equation for forces acting in the horizontal direction fol ows by taking = T. causing virtual bar displacements 7/ = 7/2 = 0.8. Noting that no horizontal force is applied at B,
virtual
unit real
internal
displacement internal of flexural
displacements
forces
members
T X 0 = F
0.8(60A
eleme
+ 2F2
+ 75A2) = 0
in equilibrium
as well
45A2)
+ 0.8(100A
.z
%/
. TP=3k
()
Deformations
or obtained
Similarly,
'128A by setting
Again,
+ 24A 2 = 0 in virtual
for forces
the
require examples
more
that
than
fol ow
one
nodal consider
point
only
for
the equilibrium
applying
7/2 = 0.6.
A2 = T, resulting
Eq.
equation
12-29,
bar displacements
acting
in the vertical
7/ = -0.6
direction
and
is
EXAMPLE
t2-6
T x (-3)
-0.6(60A - 45A2)
24A1 +
= 1FI
q- 0.6(100A
72A 2 =
q- 2F2
+ 75A2)
--3
--3
(a)
linearly
Solution
Using
the virtual
elastic
steel
displacement
truss
of Example
method,
12-1;
determine
see Fig.
the bar
12-11.
forces
E = 30 x 103 ksi
in the
or
Solving
reduced
equations
In this truss, bar AB has the cross-sectional area A = 0.15 in 2, and bar BC an area A2 = 0.25 in 2. Because of this lack of bar symmetry, during a process, joint B can move both horizontal y and vertically, Figs. 12-1 l(b) and l Hence, this system has two degrees of freedom, or two degrees of
indeterminancy (see point B are designated,
in Fig.
(b)
12-11(a).
X 10 -3 in
x 10 -3 in
sense:
The nodal
with A linear
by the
by
These results are in complete agreement with bar forces as well as for the vertical deflection.
are more apparent in the next example.
those The
EXAMPLE
t2-7
(b)
AE
Li
bar
0.15 0.25
forces
x 30
60
x 103 x 103
F2 can
determine the bar forces in the statically steel truss of Example 12-5; see Fig. 12-
A2E
L2
x 30
60
%
//
Solution
F and
be determined
of the joint
displacements th = 0.8At
F1 F2 = klltl = k2u2
and
are
bar
deformations u2 = 0.8A
th and
l 2 COlTeS
-- 0.6A2
= 75(0.8A = 125(0.8At
+ 0.6A2
degrees
Although this problem is statically indeterminate previous example of a statically determinate case, ically indeterminate to the second degree. In both deflection components, a horizontal and a vertical,
of freedom.
Therefore,
the solution
becomes
x
to the first degree, the system remains cases, nodal point and both systems
only
as before, in 2,
k/in
slightly
more
and noting
,xhlC
compli-
Fig.
'12-'H
Hence,
0.6A2) + 0.6A2)
= 75
k/in.
Fig.
'12-'12
As this
problem
is kinematically
indeterminate
to the second
degree,
the
the
previous
k = 75 k/in
and
k2 = 125
656
Energy
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Sec.
t2-9.
Virtual
Work
for
Discrete
Systems
657
The displacements of the system in the horizontal and vertical shown in Figs. 12-12(b) and (c). It is to be noted that the length considered not to change because A is very small (see Fig 2-24). Bar u and u2 due to A and A2, respectively, remain the same as in example, whereas u3 is equal to A2. Summarizing these results,
DB
*'12-9.
The virtual same ;virtual terrelationship tems, i.e.,
Virtual
Work
for
and
Discrete
Systems
Il
Hence,
= 0.8AI
recalling
-- 0-6A2
the earlier results,
t 2 = 0.8A1
and adding
+ 0.6A2
only a new
and
term for
u3 = A2
bar DB,
F = 60A
- 452
equation
F2 = 100A1
for the forces
+ 75A2
acting
F3 = k3u3
= 75A
By noting
on Eq.
the equilibrium
12-29,
displacement
virtual force methods both stem from the It is instructive, therefore, to show the inthe two methods using discrete structural syssystems with a finite number of applied forces, members, and nodal displacements. This is done here by employing matrix notation. The required matrix definitions and operations required for this purpose fol ow. A matrix is an ordered array of numbers, such as encountered earlier in Eqs. 1-1a, l-lb, and 3-12. The special matrix in Eq. 1-1a is commonly referred to as a column vector. The matrices in Eqs. l-lb and 3-12 are known as square tnatrices. Here matrices are identified by braces for column vectors and by brackets for square matrices, or are shown in boldface type. A matrix product of a 2 x 2 square matrix by a 2 x 1 column vector
results in a 2 x 1 column vector:
x 0 = 7F
However, since u3 = 0, this equation
128A +
+ 2F2
reduces
24A
one
given
before,
a2
e vector
a22_[
2-42.
b2
La,_b
square
+ a22b2.]
matrix by a 4 x 1 column
for
Since the
2 = 0.6, direction,
x (-3
0.6(60A
or Solving the reduced equations
= F
+ 0.6(100A
24A + 147A2
+ 2F2
=
of a 4 x 4 symmetric
in Eq.
The obtained
vector rows
and
such
and if
is
q- 3F3
45A2)
+ 75A2)
--3
+ 75A2
--3
p =
then
P2
and
x =
A2
simultaneously,
A = 3.947
Hence,
x 10 -3 in
F F2 F3 = 60A = 100A = 75A2 agreement
of this
and
-
A2
-21.05
x 10 -3 in
pr
The fitnction: fol owing
= [p
P2 P3 '" P,
products of these
and
two functions
X r = [A A 2 A 3 . . A,
lead to the same scalar
pri Xrp x
earlier
the
= pA Ap
These
12-5.
results
kinematic
number
are
in complete
indeterminacy
meeting
those
would
found
remain
in
These
that
fol ows.
scalar
transpose
functions
of the
reverse
are associated
product
the
two
work
matrices
term
in the discussion
needed in the sub-
The
of the
The
Problems
of higher
of bars
degree
with the
of statical
displacement
at joint
indeterminacy
method
are discussed
of analysis.
in
13-6
in connection
taken
sequent
in the
development
order,
Clif s,
is defined*
as the product
if F = bP,
of the transposed
matrices
Algebra
7 For proof,
(Englewood
Prentice-Hall,
algebra
such
1969).
as B. Noble,
Applied
Linear
658
Work Methods
Fr= prbr
Systems
The duality of the virtual force and virtual displacement be readily shown with the aid of this matrix notation. Eq. 12-23 in words, a parallel development employing given. For the virtual force method, the forces are
forces
placements
virtual methods
are
work are
real
are real,
and
the
whereas
displacements
for
the
are
virtual
virtual.
displacement
Except
for
two
method
for
barred.
In the
outline,
the
internal
forces
{F}
applied nodal forces {P} by the (deformations) {u} are related {A} through a displacement designating virtual quantities are
but
the
are
determined
forming
the
thl
external
virtual
work
= internal
virtual
work
(12-23
is confined erations
dures
EXAMPLE
'The parallel development in the two methods is striking, the virtual force method leads to equations of compatibility, displacement method determines the equations ofequilibriutn. An example il ustrating the application of these procedures
are
whereas virtual
It
in texts
determinate statically
on finite
problem, indeterminate
element
analysis.
as additional problems;
8
fol ows.
Virtual
Force
Method
Virtual
W*
Statics:
= W,'
(12-22)
Kinematics:
Method
(12-19)
= b
{F} [b] {P} = internal = force = external member transformation forces forces
(12-30a)
fi
aA
(12-30b)
{u}
matrix [a] {A}
= member
=
tion
displacement
at nodes
= nodal
W
Equating:
= rA
and
W;
=ru
We
Equating:
= rp
(a) Using the virtual force method in matrix notation, determine the displacement components for nodal point B for the pin-ended elastic truss system shown in Fig. 12-13. (b) Using the virtual displacement method in matrix notation, find nodal forces P, and P2 for static equilibrium of the same system if the elastic elongation of bar AB is 5L/AE, and that of bar BC is 25L/AE. For both bars, lengths L and cross-sectional areas A are the same, and E is constant.
displacements
Solution
(a)
From
statics,
and
gWie
= TF
6 - and
McGraw-Hil ,
Fac = F2 = P + 2
Structural Analysis (New York:
prA
From Eq. 12-30a:
= aTF
8 See,
for
example,
1971).
J. L:
Meek,
Matrix
r
Hence,
= rar
rA=rbru
and
or
r(A-bru)=0
(12-31a)
rP=rarF
and
or
P = arF
r(P-arF)=0
(12-31b)
A = bru
Since
forces, 12-31a
arbitrary,
bearing
no relation
must vanish,
to
and
Fig.
660
Energy
and Virtual
Work Methods
This result
processes
Energy
This means
Theorems
that the
The
to the joint
reversible
forces
for
given
elastic
for part
systems.
(a).
Hence,
F =
By using Eq.
I I=
F2 = bP = {F}
constitutive relations for the bars
P P2
two
use
2-9, the
--
of computers
analyses of structures and especial y in finite element applications, to the previous ones contain a large number of unknowns. is essential for the solution of such systems of equations.
are
l 2
--
Hence,
'912-10.
By using Eq. 12-31a, for the compatibility of the system,
General
strain-energy are summarized
Remarks
equations for in Section
total
in conjunction elastic energy
Elastic of solids
direct
mechanics equations
work
classical
of
= {A;} = bru =
(b)
aid of Figs.
Compatible
12-12(b)
bar
deformations
and
(c),
are
determined
as functions
externally 12-3.
was
An
discussed
applied effective
an alternative
pointed of pos-
of nodal
with
work
on elastic strain energy and complementary This requires the derivation of appropriate similar to those treated in Part B describing
The derived equations wil be found
useful
4 - A 3 2 th = A,
Hence,
and
4 x + u2 = /
A A2
33A 2
chapter in considering problems with a high An example of the use of the potential energy buckling loads is given at the end of this part.
degree approach
'12-11.
unloading
Strain
respond
Theorems
Energy
it was
in a nonlinear
and
that
Complementary
manner
Strain
materials
along the
Energy
stress-strain
u = Lu2j
From constitutive relations for linearly elastic bars,
In Section
2-5,
indicated
some
during
same
loading
and
since
th
= 5L/AE
and
25L/AE, AE AE
curve, Fig. 2-11(b). Such materials are elastic although they Hooke's law. It is advantageous to consider such nonlinearly terials in deriving the two theorems based on strain energy this manner, the distinction between elastic strain energy
mentary strain energy is clearly evident. The derivation
F = th
Hence, using Eq. 12-31b, for
= 5
static
and
equilibrium,
F2 =--u2
the joint forces
= 25
are
of the
These theorems are specialized in the next section for the solution of the linearly elastic problems considered in this text. As a rudimentary example for deriving the theorems, consider the axial y loaded bar shown in Fig. 12-14(a). The nonlinear elastic stress-strain plying
theorems
for
nonlinear
and
linear
elastic
systems
is essential y
the
same.
P =
P2
12
diagram
9 The
the
for
normal
the
material
stress
cr in the
of this
bar
bar
is shown
by the
cross-sectional
in Fig.
12-14(b).
area
By
A of the
multi-
remainder
of this
chapter
is optional.
662
Energy
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
bar,
one
obtains
axial
force
P.
Similarly,
the
product
of
the
axial
e by suitants,
bar
L gives
for scale, mechanics
bar
corresponds of solids
elongation is considered
A. The
in detail it is customary
p-A
in Fig.
Since stress
to displacement
a general
to the
p-A
diagram
in the
According to the diagram in Fig. 12-14(c), when force P is increas{ by dP, the bar elongates dA. Therefore, neglecting infinitesims higher order, the increment in the external work dWe = P dA to Eq. 12-11, this increment in the external work must equal the increa in the strain energy of the system, since dWe = dU. The colored strip in Fig. 12-14(c) corresponds to P dA, and the area under the curv is the total strain energy U, which is equal to We. Stated mathematic
complementary strain energy U* for a statically determinate body, such as shown in Fig. 12-16(a), is defined to be a function of the externally applied forces P, P2 . . . Pk . . . P,,; M, M2 . . . M v, i.e.,
The
theorem
by the same
corresponding
nonlinear
to Eq.
(or linear)fitnction.
12-35
is derived.
On this
basis,
M 2
U*
ferential
= U*(P,
infinitesimal
as
OU*
P2 . .
increase
OU*
', Pk . . .
in this function
P,;
M1,
U*
OU*
M2 . . .
is given
M i ...
by the total
My)
(12-36)
P1
An
dif-
We = U= fPd6,
A derivative of this relation with
dU d6,
respect
P
to the
+ . . + 8Mi+
In this expression,
(12-33
OU*
--- (12-37)
of ordinary
quantities.
entials
to emphasize
P2
8P's,
the
linear'
and 8M's
independence
of these
dif erFrom
determinate
member.
A generalization
basic theorem.
of
this
procedure,
which
An causing
ment
in the comple/nentaty
this quantity By analogy defines the
analogous a force
expression increment
can
dP,
external
work
(b)
U*
= W*.
On
this
by integral
basis,
one
can
dW*
by Then,
= A dP,
increasing by defining
it can be noted)
strip in
A by an '
P1
q-
write
Op..
(a) (b)
U* = W** = f A i dPi
dP
A derivative
of this
relation
with
dU*
respect
to the
upper
limit
gives
A k + SA k
dP
_ A
basic theorem. ]
(12-3
,Pk
+ ;',
7
M 1
A k + A k
P + P
This
is the
prototype
of the
second
In order to generalize these results for problems where several (and/or moments) are applied simultaneously, consider the externally sta ically determinate body shown in Fig. 12-15. The stress resultants in a member, or group of members, in any given problem must be
(c)
M1
Fig.
t2-14
Work
and
and
work, and
complementary
Strength
erally
o The
concept attributed
of Materials
of complementary to F. Engesser's
(New
York:
equation
HistoO
(c)
(d)
Fig.
t2-t6
Alternative
loading
sequences
for
an elastic
system. 663
strain
664
Energy
this point mentary
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Pk were increased would be
=
OU*
Sec. 12-t2.
by 8Pk, the
Castigliano's
Theorems
8U = 8A,
(12-38
OU
(12-44)
since relation 8We =
OP,
gP
colored tution
in Fig. previous
external
12-13(c). quantities
work
this
OU
and
to the vertical
substi-
The
addition
of the
incremental
force
gP
is il ustrated
in Fig.
If the order of load application were reversed, Fig. 12-16(d), force gP, would be applied to the system first, Fig. 12-16(b). Then, already applied to the system, it would do work by moving throu deflection Ak caused by the application of the loads shown in Fig2 16(a). This work may be likened to the horizontal strip in Fig. and, by definition, is an increment in the compIenentay work
Hence,
Pe
0A,
(12-45)
This relation is a generalization of Eq. 12-33, and gives the external force acting at point k if U is expressed as a continuous function of displacements and rotations. A similar expression can be writ en for an external moment acting at a point by taking a derivative of U with respect to a rotation angle such as 0s. In the next section, the general expressions are specialized for linearly
elastic materials.
However,
celling gPe,
since
W* = U*,
setting
Eqs.
OU*
12-38
and
12-39
equal,
and
12-12.
Castigliano's
formations.
Castigliano's
theorems apply
The mathematical
Theorems
to linearly elastic
these
OP
which
direction
is the
of before,
generalization
force P.
of Eq.
12-35,
systems
theorems
for
are
small
the same
de-
of
and
gives
deflection
A
in
as those derived in the previous section for However, as shown in Fig. 12-17, for linearly strain energy U is equal to the complementary U = U*
By retaining
as
a derivative
with
respect
OU*
to M s in Eq.
12-37
and
t
The
O- OM s
where 0s is the rotation in the direction In an analogous manner to the previous be defined as a function of displacements as known members' constitutive relations,
U =
The total
(12-41
M.
strain energy rotations 0s, as 12-7. On this basis 0s . . . Or.)
can
as
W.
external
express
Therefore,
work
the
second
using
We is also
Eqs.
Catigliano's
12-40
equal
and
to the
theorem
12-41,
complementary
because
for
linearly
of Eq.
external
elastic
12-46,
work
material
one
(12-47)
Pkj Complementary
energy U
U(fi,
dif erential
h2 . . .
for
k . . .
this case
A.;
is
OS*
j
by Italian
attributed
OS
(12-48,
cases developed to F. Engesser
These
theorems
tv=
If only fixed,
0A 1
vtx
1 0A 2
00 s j
other
+..
ruhe.
Further
developments
were
Errst
derived
J. H. Argyris, "Energy Theorems and Structural 26 (1954) and 27 (1955). These articles, combining were republished in book form by Butterworth
of this approach
elastic
engineer
C. A. Castigl ano
in the of Karls-
in
Analysis," joint pa- Fig. t2-t7 Energies & Co. in elastic materials.
and
a
in linearly
666
Energy
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Sec.
t2-t2.
Castigliano's
Theorems
667
M'P/3
In both equations, f U is expressed as a function of externally forces, Ak (or 0) is the deflection (or rotation) in the direction of the (or moment) Pk (or M). The expression for the first Castigliano's theorem remains the same before for nonlinear elastic materials, and Eq. (12-45) is repeated here
reference.
Deflection
of a rectangular
U -
cantilever
+--
due
hence,
to end
-
load
P:
-
p2L3
6El
3p2L
5AG
OU
OP
PL 3
-3EI
+--
6PL 5AG
""A
Verify the
EXAMPLE
t2-t0
(12-45)
where,
(or
of the deflection (or rotation) Ak (or from Eqs. 12-5-12-9 that the strain ener is of quadratic form. Therefore ' Castigliano's theorems, it is advantageous to form derivatives of carrying out a complete solution of the problem. It is also important to note that f a deflection (rotation) is rec where no force (moment) is acting, a fictitious force (moment) must applied at the point in question. Then, after applying Eq. 12-47 or the fictitious force is set equal to zero in order to obtain the desired result Several examples fol ow il ustrating the application of Castigliano's
f U is expressed
as a function
of displacements,
Pk is the forci
before,
Solution
cross-sectional
with
the
let E = 10.6
area,
result
with
found
x 103 ksi.
At
in Example
= A = 0.125
2-2.
Assume
in 2, and ABe
that
= A2 = 0.219
is of constant
second
in 2. As
From
Eq.
12-7,
the
elastic
strain
energy
is
Fig.
be
By dif erentiating
is at B determined.
u=u*=
with respect
k= 2AkEk
to P, an expression
PLx AlE OP -OP
2AE + 2A2-
for
P2L -A2E
(12-49a)
deflection A
ond theorem to statically determinate plication of Castigliano's first theorem is given in Example 12-17, where the
priate.
the
OP2 OP
vertical
(12-49b)
By
'12-9
statics,
the
forces
in bars
as fitnctions
of applied
force
P are
EXAMPLE
By
4-11, Solution
applying
and 10-12.
Castigliano's
second
theorem,
verify
the
results
of Examples
Subsituting operations,
Pa = P = - P
Here A = 0.125
the
and
PBc = P2 =
carrying
2x/5
3 P
the necessary
the
above deflection
in 2, A2 = 0.219
quantities for
necessary
law.
the
the
internal of Eq.
constant): A --
strain 12-47
or
energy 12-48
is all
that
the
axial y U =
required
loaded
results.
bar hence, (P
In all cases,
=
the material
obeys
A = 0.125
Deflection
= 0.002813P
X 103 .2- P/ 3' 10 3)(2__) -(X/P/X 3)10.x6 (3X/ )(__) + (-2X/ ). x X(6X/
+ 0.003249P = 0.006062P = 18.2 x 10 -3 in
dif erent
P2L
2AE
OU
OP
PL
AE
This more easily obtained result, except roundoff errors, is in agreement with that in Example 2-2. 2
TL
for found
because
method
of
Angular
rotation
U
of a circular
-
shaft
hence,
(T
= constant):
cp=O = OU
T2L
2JG
OT
JG
Eq.
12 A solution
-2X//3,
12-26.
resulting
For a downward
of this
problem
in an identical
virtual
by the
expression
unit force
virtual
for
applied
force
method
A.
at B, = /5/3
requires
the
and 2 =
use
of
668
Energy
and
Virtual
Work
Methods Solution
Sec.
2-'12.
Castigliano's
Theorems
669
fictitious
Fig. t2-t9
EXAMPLE t2-tt
No forces to be found.
are
force
applied Therefore,
TM must
be added
corresponding
of the to be
displacements
are
theorem,
to the displacement
sought,
force Ra = 0, gives one has
Thus,
to the specified loading, OU/ORa, which with R Eq. 12-50 in this manner,
and
OM
A linearly elastic prismatic beam is loaded liano's second theorem, find the deflection
at the center.
---
WoX-
ORA
+x
Solution
OR.4 - E1
sign for force
due
oU 1 fo( WoX2
to Wo and Ra would
2 +
be found.
( + x) dx =
Wo L4
8EI
For
In problems
this
purpose,
M is a complex
strain energy in bending is given theorem, the required deflection to dif erentiate the expression
relation
function,
becomes
this
applicable:
scheme
where that
the
the assumed
end
negative
deflection
shows that the deflection Ra. If R in the integration at A can at the end,
before:
is in the opposite were not set be found in an analogous Fig. 12-20(c), and the
to
OP
EI
(a)
Proceeding
on
this
basis,
one
has,
P
from
A to B:
M = + x
On substituting
the problem,
and
Eq. 12-50
OP
2
the symmetry
sign sense
indicates of the
of the
end
coincides
with
these
relations
3 into
and
observing
EXAMPLE
t243
A = 2
{b)
fo L/2 -dx= Px 2
the deflection takes
pL +48---
place
3
in the direction of
Using
Castigliano's
second
theorem,
determine
the
horizontal
deflection
for
the
The
plied
positive
force
P.
sign
indicates
that
elastic frame shown in Fig. 12-21(a). ing. The flexural rigidity E1 of both
sponds, couple
Consider members
of
by bend-
14 Application
respectively, at A in the
of a fictitious
virtual
to
force
or a fictitious
couple
unit
force
at A precisely
or
a virtual
corre-
unit
EXAMPLE
'12-t2
Using
Castigliano's
second
theorem,
determine
the
deflection
and
the
rotation
Fig. 12-20,
of the end
again.
corresponding = x/2.
of a uniformly
that for a downward
to OM/OP.
loaded
virtual
cantilever,
unit force
Fig.
12-20(a).
at the middle
E1 is
of the
A P
t3 Note.
(a)
(b)
Fig.
12-2t
670
Energy Solution
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Sec.
12-13.
Statically
Indeterminate
Systems
67t
Using
energy function is a scalar. Therefore, the separate strain elements of an elastic system can be added algebraically. energy is determined, its partial derivative with respect displacement of that force. For the problems at hand, Eq.
A to B:
The strain the dif erent total strain gives the propriate.
From
to a 12-50 is
placements
this
function
and Castigliano's
second
theorem,
p displacements
+Px
and
OM/OP
+x
From
B to
C5:
.U= 0
solving
are
(j = 1,2,3.. . p) (12-52)
simultaneously,
directly these procedures.
system.6
By
these
equations
the
magnitudes
A A --
- 44 L
the
redundants
obtained.
(a)
ically
can il ustrating
be used
for
the
solution
of stat-
P-X 2 cos a X
P-X 2 cos a
+ ] fo L
Note the for bending axial force caused by
bending
) dx= + 192---
EXAMPLE
t244
If at A
P1
F = normal
free choice in location of the x-coordinate axes and the sign moments. If the elastic strain energy included the energy due to in member BC and the sheax7 energy in member AB, the deflec these effects would also be found. However, deflection AA due is generally dominant. the vertical deflection of point A were required, a fictitious vertical force would have to be applied. Then, as in the preceding example, OU/OF, 0, would give the desired result. In a similar manner, the rotation of section for this beam may be obtained.
applied
the system A of
Solution
to visualize the system to be cut atB and to designate BC by X. From statics, the forces in the inclined bars shown in Fig. 12-23(b). Hence, using Eq. 12-49a, with complementary strain energy is
U* = U=
the
(b)
Fig.
12-23
12,-13.
Statically
Indeterminate
Systems
Since the deflection
.X2L
2AE
Castigliano's second theorem can be generalized for statically minate linear elastic systems. The necessary modifications d0nsist pressing the strain energy not only to be a function of n externally forces (and/or moments) P, P2, Pa . . . P,, but also of p indeterminate redundant forces (and/or moments) X, X2 . . . possible system of such forces is shown in Fig. 12-22. The number of selected supports for maintaining static equilibrium of the mary section (Section 2-15) are excluded from the enumeration of redundant forces. On this basis, strain energy U for an
system can be defined as
+ 2[2 (P-X)2L a]
at point (P 2AE cos
P
of the OU OX
-
system
xl+
B is zero, X)L
3 a
3 a
x
by
(-1)
applying
= o
Eq.
12-52,
XL AE
X-
1 +
2 cos
the
for
Fx
in Eq.
2-34.
Here
the
procedure
U*
FiG. 2-22 indeterminate Statically
=
reader
by
U =
should
U(Pi,
check
virtual
P2,
P3 . . .
the
unit
P,;
Xi,
X2 . . .
of the OM/OP
X . . .
terms with
for a problem solved in this manner principle of least work. Castigliano
statically indeterminate problems.
6 Italian
mathematician
L. F. Menabrea
system.
5 The
caused
correspondence
force applied
a horizontal
at A.
is a minimum. employed
(1809-1896)
this
proved
that
the total
work
672
Energy EXAMPLE
and
Virtual t2-15
Work
Methods
Sec.
12-t3.
Statically
Indeterminate
Systems
673
M
uniformly as represented loaded beam in Fig. clamped 12-20(b). at one Determine end
the
= MA
1
+ RAx
and
aM
kx3/6
x
Consider ported
Use
Solution
and
simply reaction
Hence,
aM
not
to that permit ed
of Example to vanish.
12-12 The
except key
that RI kinematic
must condition
be tre
OU/ORA at A due
Carrying
out
the
indicated
operations
and
simplifying,
no deflection
-
occurs
Wo and
R21
Solving these two equations
MA/2 MA
+ RAL/3 q- RAL/2
= kL/30 = kL/24
WoX 2
2
RAX
and
aM
ORA
simultaneously,
AA -- ORA OS EI1;oL(__poX2 2
Therefore, Rt = +3woL/8, the
EXAMPLE 12-t6
RA
where
sense.
= 3kL2/20
sign of Mt shows
and
that this
MA
end
=
moment
-kL3/30
has a counterclockwise
(12-53)
fixed at both ends and subjected as shown in Fig. 12-24. Determine the beam is constant.
the
negative
to
the
a uniformly reactions
Rework
Solution
Example
12-14
using
Castigliano's
first
theorem.
See
Fig.
12-25.
at end
In applying
must
be expressed
deflections,
Castigliano's
in terms
f'Lrst
of'the
theorem,
vertical
= A
the
elongation
COS a
elastic
strain
A of the
energy
in all three
center
bar.
bars
For
This prob16m is statically take reactions RI and MI of these forces as well as that the vertical displacement can be fulfil ed by applying 0t at A equal to zero. This Rt and MI. Proceeding in
indeterminate to the second degree. as the redundant forces and to express of the applied load. The kinematic and the rotation at A be zero. Eq. 12-52 twice and setting deflection provides two simultaneous equations this manner,
It is M as a conditions AI
small
rec
A2
and
LAC
using
= LDC
Eq.
12-7
= L/cos
expressed
o,
as a function
of displacement
A , and
noting
that
U=
MB
(12-54)
and
OA
A + 2COS3 aAl = P
PL 1
Fig.
t2-24
Hence,
A
AE1
2cos
3ct
Fig.
t2-25
674
Energy
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Sec.
12-t4.
Elastic
Energy
for
Buckling
Loads
675
Then
the
force
in the
vertical
bar
using
Eq.
2-10
is
x = kA = --A
This result
= 1 + 2 p COS3 ct
12-14. of s, of the
This
type
bars with degree of terminacy. If the inclined bars lack symmetry or the applied force forms an angle with vertical, the problem is more complex. In such cases, the elongation in each is determined from two separate displacements at the load point. This is analogous to that shown in Example 12-7 and il ustrated in Fig. 12-12. discussion of this approach can be found in Section 13-5, where lhe method of analysis is considered.
For conservative, elastic systems, this relation is in agreement with Eq. 12-11. This condition can be used to determine the position of equilibrium. However, Eq. 12-57 cannot discern the type of equilibrium and thereby establish the condition for the stability of equilibrium. Only by examining the higher order terms in the expression for the change Ali in the total potential I can this be determined. Therefore, the more complete expression for the increment in I .as given by Taylor's expansion must be examined. Such an expression is
Fig.
equilibrium
t2-26
Dif erent
conditions.
8li + "'
(12-58)
of equilibrium, 8li = 0, it is the first that determines the type of equilibrium. second term suffices. Thus, from Eq.
*'1244.
Stability problems
or the
Elastic
can
virtual
Energy
be treated
methods.
for
Buckling
in a very
Loads
general manner
to such
using
the basic
method.
energy
riteria
for determining
conservative
work
the stability
linearly
As
in this
article
for
the stability criteria, a function I , called the must be formulated. This function is expressed energy U (strain energy) and the potential forces that act on a system, i.e.,
l= U+fl
an introduction
are
elastic
using
an energ
total
as the
The to Fig.
meaning 12-26,
for for
unstable neutral
equilibrium equilibrium
load
(12-59)
associated
with
the
critical
may
represents
by
making function
reference I . The
origin
of this
function
is shown
three
below
the
curve,
second
since
the
derivative
absolute
for
that
value
the of equideter-
Three in this
for all
it is the
mines
fl = -We, i.e., the loss
Disregarding
a possible
additive
constant,
For
dif erentials,
procedures
alike.
the
function
derivatives,
of
potential done
rewrit en
on
the by
of the forces.
forces Hence,
is equal Eq.
to 12-55
expressed complicated,
by
integrals, requiring
the the
mathematically of variations
much or finite
I is more ele-
ments.
EXAMPLE
The
treatment
t2-t8
of such
problems
is beyond
the
scope
of this
text.
9
I must
As
is known
be stationary;
from
classical
7 therefore,
mechanics,
its variation
for
equilibrium,
8ll
must
equal
total
zero,
i.
energy spring
method, at the
critical 11-7(a).
load
found
before
for
a rigid
bar
with
8 A point
left
7 In terms
the
and
the
function
derivative
of the ordinary
itself
of a function
has
functions,
a maximum,
with
respect
this
simply
a minimum,
to an independent
means
that
a condition
variable
or a
a minimax,
is
York: bility
1962).
9 H. L. Langhaar,
Pergamon, Analysis
on a curve
resulting
from
a combination,
to the corresponds
right
for
example,
of the
curve
K. Washizu,
1975). of Complex
Variational
Energy
Methods
J. S. Przemieniecki, Structures,"
Methods
in Applied
in Elasticity
Mechanics
and
Plasticity,
(New
1077.
Methods
2nd
York:
ed.
Wiley,
for
(New
Sta-
Energy
Solution
and Virtual
a displaced
same displacement,
Work
position
Methods
12-4.
of the
force
Problems
bar,
P lowers
677
12-11
the flexural
For
the
strain
an amount
energy
in the
L - L cos
spring
0 = L(1
is k02/2.
cos
metry,
Using
determine
Eq.
and
taking
deflections
advantage
at the
of symload
Therefore,
the
due to the application of both forces P for the beam shown in the figure. The moment of inof the cross section in the middle half of the beam
Yl =
If the study of the cos 0 = 1 - 02/2!
accuracy simplifies
U-
W,
k02-
PL(1
cos0)
LI12
order i
L
hi4 I_b.I
problem + 04/4!
to
Fig.
P
PI2-4
Note into
especial y that the in the last term is due to the expansion the series. Full external force P acts on the bar as 0 is permit ed Having the expression for the total potential, one must solve dif erent problems. In the first problem, a position of equilibrium this purpose, Eq. 12-57 is applied:
t2-5.
Fig. DI24
board,
What
the
A man
maximum
deflection
as shown
weighing
an =
At this point
ao =
of the solution,
- P0) ao = o
k, p,
an equilibrium dif erent, equilibrium,
and
phase
L must
cannot be zero. Therefore, In the second, distinctly part of Eq. 12-59, for neutral
position of the
deflection.
(c) Repeat part (b) for L = 500 Neglect the effect of local stress
mm and concen-
bending
characteristics
in the
figure,
180
lb jumps
from
wil
stress
this
a height
onto
a diving
cause
of 2 ft.
in the
board? The diving board is 2 x- 12 in cross section, and its E = 1.6 x 106 psi. Use Eq. 12-11 to determine
of the board.
tion, in mm, of the free end of the cantilever shown in the figure due to the application of force P = 500 N. Consider only flexural deformation. E = 200 GPa.
4O
deflec-
Assume
pinned
:)
be considered
occurs solution,
constant,
and
at 0 = 0. according
to the
oo I 100 1
4--
8'
PI2-5
a2yl =a02
(k
since buckling
d2yl
+a20
- PL)O
yields P
dH
='0
g20
= k/L,
10
which is the
Plan
view
P
advantage
forces
Fig.
- PL)(g0)
zero, the first
2 + (k
term
= 0
Sections
All problems
2-5
for
and
these two
2-6
sections should be soh,ed
For equilibrium
g20
cannot load.
at 0 = 0, the second
be
term
whereas
t2-3. Using Eq.
{'
Side
800
view
Fig.
PI2-2
metry,
determine
12-11
the
flexural
and taking
figure.
deflections
at the
of symload
Problems
Sections t2.2 and t2-3
bent 90 at two points in the figure. Application
causes an axial force.
points elastic
(a)
flection
of both
P for
the
using the virtual-force method. For planar problems, the fol owing notation applies: v and n are, respectively, the vertical and the horizontal deflections, and 0 is the rotation of an element at a specified point.
clearly
quantity.
indicate
the
direction
and
sense
Using
of
Eq.
the
12-11,
free
obtain
end.
the
Constants
expression
A, I, J,
for
E,
12-6.
to
Trusses.
the
In Example
enumerated
Consider
planar
12-1,
three
axial
mast
determine
causes.
deformations
and
only.
B due
is built
of
direct
are given for the bar. (Hint: 10-12.) (b) IlL = 100 mm
See
and
12-7.
d
mm.
to each
in percentage,
of the four
what
causes
amount
enumerated
of deflection
earlier?
is
shear,
bending,
andtorsion
in the
three
bar
segments.
shown
For
in the figure,
position?
the
(a) determine
A v of load
boom
W caused
678
B
Energy
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
mine x v and An 10 kN. For simplicity,
12-t0. For the truss
Problems
of joint C due assumeAE
in Problem
679
to applied = 1 for
12-9,
force all m,
determine
t2-2t. find
cation
For the overhanging beam shown in the figure, A v and/or 0, as assigned, at the point of appliof couple
Mo
Mo.
E1 is constant.
relative deflection between joints B and E caused applied force P = 10 kN. (Hint: Place equal posite unit forces, one at joint B and the other at E, along a line joining them.) 12-tl. For the truss shown in the figure, determini of joint B due to applied vertical force P = 9 k at
-6m
Fig.
> 6m
Pt2- 7
Fig. PI2-21
For
simplicity,
assume
L/AE
is unity
for
all memb
Beams. only.
Fig. Pt2-7
Conside;'
flexural
t248. ai3plication
.section
Find
shown
at the of variable
point
cross
of
Frames. only.
t2-22.
Conside;'
A planar bent bar
flexural
of constant
deformations
EI has the di-
12-8.-A pin-joined system of three bars, each having the same cross section A, is loaded as shown in the figure. (a) Determine A v and Au of joint B due to applied force P. (b) If by means of a turnbuckle the length 'of member AC is shortened by 0.5 in, what A v and Au
take place at point B?
lo, t
10'
mensions shown in the figure. Determine 0, as assigned, at the tip due to the application P. Comment on the virtual-force method
son to the geometric approach based
on the
P
equations
and
superposition
discussed
in Chapter
10.
10'I
1242. stant A simply supports
the
t2-19.
For
the
cantilever
shown
in the
figure,
deter-
EI
mine
is
constant.
force,
and
a/2
Fig.
PI24t
E1
supported a downward
maximum
beam in
beam
of length uniformly
to
12-3,
L and
Wo. find
find Av
Fig.
PI2-8
12-9.
For
the
planar
truss
shown
in the
figure,
deter-
load Wo. Find '1243. For the imum A v.due t2-14. For the 0, as assigned,
forces.
A v due
Problem
the
to the
beam
two
in
applied
Problem
forces.
12-3,
For the planar frames shown in A v, Au, or 0 for point A, as applied loading. For all cases, as-.e----ii-a .
at the
left
force
P due
to both
"
due
L
Fig.
<
PI2-19
of application
L and
12-20.
of
force
Find
P.
E1
the
is constant.
deflection
at the point
0, as
at the
in the
center
figures.
of the
'EI
span
is constant.
due
to the
applied
loads
z Hinge ! P
Fig. PI2-20
A
Fig. P12-9
',-----4 m
Fig. Pt2-16 14
-
.
Fig.
PI2-23
L/2
' ""ei---L/2
/m
k N/m
A
Problems
frame plest
3m
68
sume
segment, expressions
EI constant.
locate for
(Hint:
the m(x)
For
origin and
ease
ofx M(x).)
of solution,
to obtain
for each
the sim-
t2-;5t
EI
oriel
t2-32.
or 0 for loading.
frames
points For
shown
in the
by
what This
point
of a turnbuckle.
D to its initial
removing
force
this force,
position
to make
it is necessary
1.57
a con-
of
Frames.
mations.
Consider
axial
and flexural
A
defor-
t2-35. section
Fig.
8 kN/m
PI2.24
Fig.
PI2-27
B 3 4
supported hanger
GPa.
the downward deflection of point C due to the application of the vertical force of 2X/ kN. Let E = 200
as shown in the figure. The inclined steel has a cross section of 600 mm 2. Determine
having a cross x 10 a mm 4, is
1,5
Fig,
PI2-25
Fig.
PI2-3t
2x,/kN
Fig. PI2-35
B
Fig. PI2-26
D9 '
Wo
B A
B/
t2-36.
A planar
system
consists
of an inclined
canti-
lever and rods BC and CD, as shown termine v and/or flu, as assigned,
vertical
t2-33.
tem
shown
For
the aluminum
in the
figure,
alloy,
determine
planar
the
structural
sys-
de-
400
flection of D due to the applied rod, A = 0.5 in2; for the beam,
Fig. PI2-29
in 4. Let
E =
10 x
103 ksi.
member,
mm 2. For
E
rod
=
the
200
cantilever,
GPa.
I = 10 4 mm 4. For
400
I 100 t
200--*,-
6,--
680
Fig. PI2-30
Rod
Fig. PI2-36
682
t2-37. sisting Determine
horizontal
Energy
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Problems
683
A planar structure consists of a moment-reframe ABC and a truss CDE with pinned joints. Av and/or Au at C, as assigned, due to the
force 8 k at D. For all members, EI = 800
a
tions,
,%,
A.,., and
rotations,
F.
0., 0y,
Con-
'12-46.
18-kN
determine
(a) For
the
axial
the
planar
forces
truss
find force
in all
shown
the
members
in the
due
figure,
fo the
k-ft
units
2 and
of
B
EA
k and
= 500
ft.
c
k. Work
the
D
problem
8k
using
the
shown
't2-43.'A
in the
solid
figure
circular
Problem
bar is bent
translations,
into
is built
the shape
in at
vertical
force
at B.
(b)
By
vertical at B. Let
using
at least 2 for
two and
one end.
and the three rotations, end due to applied force G for the bar are given.
12-7
Determine
the three
values
09, of the A, I, J, E,
3 for
CB.
of L/A
Consider
be as fol ows:
member
BC
1 for
18kN
to be
AB,
redundant.
DB,
E
Fig. PI2-37
Fig. PI2.40
Section
A system of steel rods, each area of 0.20 in 2, is arranged At 50F, joint D is 0.10 in away
what temperature stressing any
figure. by the
to the
Determine application
semicircle.
12-38.
the
generating
rotation
CD
in Problem
due
12-37,
forces
applied
determine
force
of at
the
10 6 psi,
and
c = 6.5
x 10-6/F.
(b) What
stresses
be made E = 30 x
wil
deformation.
D. (Hint:'Apply
a unit
equal
couple.)
and
opposite
at C and D,
Curved
due to direct
Members.
shear.
Neglect
in the figure. forces away
deformations
Deformations defortnations
shear.
Neglei
develop tions
in the at D, the
members temperature
if after drops
connec-
-"<---3 m
Fig. PI2-46
12-39.
to
A U-shaped
member
of constant
Determine from
'12-47. termine
L/A
For the planar truss shown in the figure, the reaction at A, treating it as redundant,
is unity.
dedue
to the
applied
vertical
force
at B.
For
all
members,
100k
P (down)
Fig.
PI2:44
Fig.
t2-42. A solid bar of circular
PI2-4t
cross section is
t2-45.
is built in at one the three
shown
in the
Find
the
figure
force
due
in bar
to the
AC
30-kN
for
the
horizontal
planar
force
truss
AC, members,
L/AE
c
= 0.50,
10' - '-10'-
Fig. PI2-47
t2-40. In order to instal a split ring used as a retainer on a machine shaft, it is necessary to open a gap of A by applying forces P, as shown in the figure. If EI of the cross section of the ring is constant, determine the required magnitude of forces P. Consider only flexural
effects:
1m!m
Fig. PI2-45
30 kN
12-48.
the reaction at A, treating it as redundant. mine the moment at B, treating it as redundant. Use the solution given to Problem 10-51.)
shown
in the figure,
(a.) determine
(b) Deter(Hint:
B 1P 1P A
12-41.
a semicircle
A bar
having
and
a circular
i built
cross
in at one end
section
is bent
as shown
into
in the
Fig.
P12-42
< 3m
684
Energy
and
Virtual
Work
Methods
Problems
applied forces, and plot the entire moment dia-
685 12-17
BC is twice
t2-49. A uniformly loaded beam fixed at both ends has the reactions shown in the figure. By using a simply supported beam with a unit lead in the middle as a virtual system, determine the maximum deflection
for the real beam.
the
12-63.
12-64.
Rework
Rework
Problem
Problem
12-30.
12-31.
gram.
the tions.
sider
(b) Find
applied (Hint:
the moment
the
forces. Take
decrease
Consider advantage
at A as
in diameter
only flexural of symmetry
redundant.)
AB
caused
by
12-72. cross
AC or
Rework
section
DC.
Example
of bar
deformaand con
t2-65.
12-66. 12-67.
Rework
Rework Rework
Problem
Problem Problem
12-32.
12-33. 12-34.
w o N/m
Section 12-52.
termine
12-8 Using
the forces
1243
Section
12-52, shown
same
t244
displacement
BD and
method,
BC in Prob
12-68. elastic
force P.
determine in the
for each
the
figure
bar.
12-73.
rium,
11-1.
determine
Using
Eqs.
the
12-57
critical
and
for
buckling
12-59
neutral
pinned
for neutral
lead
in Problem
equilibdea
Fig.
P12-49
12-46 assuming that member system, and (b) find the forces the complete framing. 12-53. For the elastic truss using the virtual displacement
BA
from members
shown method,
termine the critical Euler buckling tic column of constant EI with that
*'t2-74.
Using
Eq.
12-59
lead
equilibrium,
12-50. idealized
can be points
A and B are immovable. Derive an expression for the ' horizontal abutment reactions R caused by the change in temperature gT in the pipe. The coefficient of thermal expansion for the pipe is ct and its flexural rigidity is EI. Consider flexural deformations only.
AB is inactive due to the applied force at A, and (b) find the forces in all four members in the complete[ framing. The relative values L/A are as fol ows: 0.40
for AB and AD, 0.20 for AC,
1Ok
the
forces
in members
AC,
AD,
and
AE
assuming
and 0.80
for AE.
[ I
120
D 12
60
in Fig. 11-13. Assume that the deflected shape slightly bent column in a neighboring equilibrium sition is v = A sin rx/L, where A is an arbitrary
stant. eral (Hint: deflection Axial shortening v is given by of a column due
for
to lat-
pocon-
,x, = 5 fo L
for
ax
work gW = P A,.
the expression
noting
and heuristically
gU
from
then
fol ows
Eq.
2 the external
11-5
from
that
Eq.
M = -Pv,
12-8.)
By
continuous beam is loaded with a downward lead we N/m. If the the right one is 2L, what is the re-
Fig.
Fig. Pt2-50
P12-53
Section t2-54.
ample due
12-5t. A circular ring of a linearly elastic material is loaded by two equal and opposite forces P, as shown in the figure. For this ring, both A and I are constant. (a) Determine the largest bending moment caused by
A
beam.
the solution.
action
at the middle
Draw
shear
support?
and
moment
.Use Eq.
diagrams
12-52
to obtain
for this
lutions
shape EIv",
*'t2-75.
Find
an approximate
sensitive
the deflected shape of the v = A(x 2 - xL), satisJ,ing conditions. (Note: Energy soto the
=
solution
to the preced-
assumed
deflected
-Pv
not of an assumed
and
as M = func-
theorem,
deflection 3 k.
in
lead
using
Eq.
1252;
determine
in Problem
12-49
with
due to applied
components
Numerous problems
solutions in this
of colmanner.)
problems second
Problem Problem
Problem
are theorem:
12-8. 12-19.
12-16.
for
solution
t2-71.
12-52.
supported,
Assuming
determine
that in Example
the reactions
end B is simply
20 For
further
Festigkeitsprobleme
study
of this problem,
Springer,
des
see K. Mar-
Rework Rework
Rework
Fig.
Pt2-5t
t2-62.
Sec.
13-3.
Force
Method
687
=chapter
13-2.
Structural
Two
systems
Basic
that
Methods
experience is applicable effective
for Elastic
only small such for
Analysis
deformations structures the analysis and and are combasis
posed
of linearly
elastic
most
materials
methods
are linear
for
structural
systems.
The
prin-
*x13-1.
The
Introduction
force and
A of this formulations. criteria often
is referred to
In the first of these methods, a statically duced initial y to one that is determinate by fluous) reactions or internal forces for maintaining Fig. 2-42. Then these redundant forces are plied, and their magnitudes are so adjusted
are for
conditions determined, strength
indeterminate
in Part
problems
important
displacement
chapter
previously
They
methods
encountered
complex
for
to more
particularly
element design
teflon
in the
the
based
as
matrix
analysis
for
solving
linearly
text
elastic
are exter
methods
staticall'
force
cases.
two
applicable allowable
the
of structures
maximum
in
satisfying stress.
and
in
nethod, or the flexibility method; see Section In the second method, referred to as the displacement stif ness method, the joint displacements of a structure unknowns; see Sections 2-16 and 2-17. The system
duced
earlier.
This
widely
system is reredundant (superstatic equilibrium; see considered as externally apas to satisfy the prescribed
Once determinate by the
2-15.
indeterminate removing
used
method
is commonly
referred
the
to as the
are is first
or the as the to a
sufficient more
Such
stress.
In
fron
series
any
of members
the
movement.
whose
The
joints
joints
are imagined
are then
released
to be completely
and, hence,
to an extent
restrained
is even
cases, effect
limit
deflection, are
ove
or
extremely
to satisfy
well-suited
force
structures.
equilibrium
for
computer
conditions
coding
at each
joint.
This
method
is
or members for emergency the elastic maximum stress design. For ductile materials,
of large-scale
widely
used
in practice
than
the force
method,
especial y
limit
state where
problem does not arise, merely reaching the maximum or a few points of a member does not necessarily capacity of a system. The ultimate strength of such
the
solution
some and
of indeterminate
classical methods
structural
utility,
to
plastic.
limit
discussed
state other and
A few
well
in Part
is of
such
approximated
B of this structures,
overload
cases
were
by considering
chapter
encountered
for
beams
earlier.
and
the
Force
frames.
This
approach
desi
considerable
importance
in understanding
The first step in the analysis of structural systems using is the determination of the degree of statical indeterminacy,
same as the number of redundant structure, reactions, as discussed a statically
behavior
of ductile
emergency
especial y
situations.
as it applies
to seismic
1-
9 and
2-15.
determinate
The
redundant of beams
of
reactions
which
3 are
is referred rotations
temporarily
removed
to obtain
or
as well (New
shells,
see
are
are often
3 In the analysis
considered
treated
instead
as redundants.
and flames,
deflections.
In such
cases,
the bending
of tangents
moments
at the supports
at the supports
686
688
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Sec.
13-3.
Force
Method
689
primary
ical
methods previously discussed. For example, the beam shown in Fig. l(a) is indeterminate to the first degree. For this beam to remain in st: static equilibrium, only one of the vertical reactions can be remov Removing the vertical reactions at b, Fig. 13-1(b), deflection caused by applied forces P can be calculated. By reapplying the removel
redundant
determinacy,
structure.
it is possible
Then,
any
desired
is artificial y
displacement
reduced
to
by
I &
P2
JP
/.
(a)
b
(d)
ctR,=xc
beam must be zero, by superposing the deflections and requiring + A ob = 0, the magnitude of Ro = Xo can be determined.
reaction
Rb to the unloaded
Since
member,
the deflection
Fig.
13-1(c),
at b of the
w
9'/ / / bP
/ P,
P2 JP3
l N
that the
(b) (e)
placement reapplied
ments. the
tions.
This
However,
procedure
By removing
beam
As an example, becomes
of evety point on the pritnay structure is affected redundant force. This also holds true for the rotation
any two of the redundant
determinate occurs, and consider the beam the in Fig.
it is essential
can be generalized
in such
to any number
cases
to recognize
of redundant
that
computed, respectively,
where
Fig.
By reapplying
at b can be found,
Fig.
two
A,.o, sum
at b and c due to NON-ACTIVATED VERSION are designated respectively. Similarly, Aoc and Ac, due to R, can be 13-2(d). Superposing the deflections at each support and settin www.avs4you.com equal to zero, since points b and c actually do not deflect,
the deflection
13-2(b). These deflections are designated Ao,, and A where the first let er of the subscript indicates the Rb to the same
Fig. 13-2(c).
and the second,
deflections
reactions
13-2(a).
by ea, of
c can
Rb = Xb
(c) (f)
such
at b and
as Ro and
Fig.
continuous
13-2
Superposition
beam.
for
beam,
These
the deflections
deflections
the cause
of the deflectio
system
can
Abe
is being be expressed
considered,
as
(13-2)
= oX
and,
similarly,
at point
c as
equations:
+ AOc + A
= 0 = 0
(13d
where Xb
becomes
and
Ac
= fX
(13-3)
and
Xc
are
the
redundant
quantities.
+ fbX + fcX
Using
+ A oio = 0 + Aio = 0
this
notation,
(13-4)
Eq.
ticlents oo, o., cO, and , which are defined as the deflections in Figs. 13-1(e) and (f) due to unit forces applied in the direction
These
can be rewrit en
in a more
meaningful
form
using
flexibility
13-1
[P b
a b c
bb
(a)
[P2
(b)
A o = fooXo A = foXo
where the only unknown quantities are Xo and X; simultaneous of these equations constitutes the solution of the problem. Generalizing the above results for' determining the unknown systems with n redundants, using superposition, the fol owing bility equations 4 can be formed:
A a = f,,X, A b = fbaXa
:
solution
forces compatifor
+ + +
+ + + Maxwell-Mohr
Abe
(13-5)
R, = X
= f, ,Xb expressions
Fig.
the
force
13-1
Superposition
method.
for
(c)
equations.
690
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
are such column immovable, deflections can the left column can be prescribed. be calculated for the of thi s
Coefficients
Reciprocity
When the redundant supports equation is zero. Alternatively, terms for deflections in the right
structure.
The
flexibility
in these depending
method,
coefficients
equations on whether
6 u are for
represent they are
to
either associated
the
whole
deflections with
13-5
primary
forces
in
or
sy.,
<
a
(b)
;11 N
deflections
Fig. t3-3 Reciprocal
it is customary
express
Eq.
(a)
fij = fji.
Xb
au
zXs =
equality O2U
oP:
au
By
preceding
taking
partial
equation,
derivatives
the OAi
oP:
fol owing
of Az with
respect
is obtained:
to Pi in Eq.
13-5a
and
Because the square matrix is made up of the flexibility coefficients, method is often called the flexibility method of structural analysis. It should be clearly understood that the previous equations are cable only to linearly elastic systems that undergo small It should be noted further that the matrix exhibited by Eq. 13-6 is a or global flexibility matrix. Such matrices can be readily constructed rectly only for the simpler problems. For treatment of more
and,
similarly,
aAj =
problems,
or
the reader
is referred
to previously
in Sections 2-10 and 12-9. examples, it is shown next that u is symmetric, i.e., u = Ji.
aPi
a2U
(13-7)
the displacement to the displacement
of the forces be noted that
13-4.
According systems, after Eq.
Flexibility
Coefficients
Reciprocity
coefficients, for linearly to forces P at i and Pj atj
to the definition for flexibility the displacement A at i due 13-5 can be expressed as
in Fig. to a unit
13-3, force
at any
and this
of
dere-
A = fP
Similarly, the deflection at j is
+ fuP.
lationship holds true for several cases considered of virtual force equations in Section 12-6. For flexibility coefficients, using Eq. 12-26, by setting p, its role with 2' is interchangable. This is also
12-27 and 12-28.
earlier in applications example, in calculating Fi equal to unit force true in the use of Eqs.
theorem of reciprocal
Ai
= fPi
+ fP
relationship 7
is often
called
Maxwell's
where
fi, fu,
i, and
energy
are
the
system
flexibility
due second
coefficients
to the application theorem, Eq.
also
is increased
the
For
5 If an elastic
a The
support
support
coefficients
is provided
adding
flexibility
are also
the
at an ith point,
called
flexibility
the
deflection
of such
the
flexibility
supported elastic beam shown in Fig. 13-4, show that to the elastic curve at the support i, caused by applying to the deflection atj caused by applying a unit couple
was demonstrated
the
rotation
a unit at i.
force
a support.
influence
co
general
7 This
case
relationship
was
discovered
by
E.
by James
Betti
in
1872.
Clerk
Maxwell
in 1864.
The
more
692
Statically
Indeterminate
------0 U
Problems
Sec.
1 N'm
13-4.
Flexibility
Coefficients
Reciprocity
693
+%L
L
L
-woL
, e woL 2
Fig.
13-4
Solution
(a)
(b)
(b)
< L L
by Eql
to (c)
b 1N
(e)
+T 9 woL 2
The
deflection
of the beam
due
to a concentrated
force
P atj
is given
10
_1
27, applicable for 0 < x < a. The gives the slope for the elastic curve. rotation 0ij, defining fo, when the
with respect at x = 0
ft
.
Fig. t3-5
WoL
v =
- --(L2x
6EIL
Pb
- b2x = 0(0) =
- x3) -- --(L
Pb
' and
v'
-- --(L i I
Pb
6EIL
Pab
2 -
b 2 - 3x 2
EXAMPLE t3-2
v'(O)
6EIL
2 -- b 2) =
ab
and
The equation derived next. a counterclockwise By
0o -- fu = 6--
for an elastic proceeding moment
( a + 2b)
diagrams.
EI
for
elastic in Fig.
the
beam
beam 13-5.
is constant.
on simple Determine
disand
subjected
atj
to an is found.
-Mo
+ Mox/.L
EIv'=
Hence,
-Mox -Mox2/2
= 0, and from
and + Mox2/2L
EIv"=
-Mo
+ Mox/L
Reaction flection
to make structure
the using
beam Eq.
statically 10-22 is
determinate.
The
de-
+ C3 + C3x
= MoL/3,
5Wo(2L)
384EI
5woL
24EI
EIv=
v(0) = 0. C4
+ MoX3/6L
v(L) = 0, C3
+ C4
and
From
by
The
setting
deflection
P = 1, the
at b due
flexibility
to a concentrated
coefficient
force
is
is given L 3
6EI
by Eq.
10-30.
Therefore,
EIv
- -Mo =
mox
6EIL
(-
3Lx
+ )5 2 q- 2L 2)
fbb
1 x (2L)
48EI
Therefore,
for
v(a)
and
a
1,
By using + a 2 + 2L 2) - --(a
ab
6EIL
Eq.
(13-5)
and
assuming
that
the
supports
are immovable,
f i -- --(-3La 6EIL
This result is identical to that given
2b)
Ab in Figs.
From
= fbbXb 13-5(d)
statics,
+ Abe
= 0
and
and
Xb The
the
= Rb
shear
=
and
--Abv/fbb
moment
= 5woL/4
diagrams
by
Eq.
13-8.
R = Rc = 3woL/8
elastic
curve
is shown
in Fig.
13-5(0.
are
as
694
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
fa fbb
Sec. t3-4.
Substituting the relevant quantities from before,
Flexibility
the required
Coefficients
equations
Reciprocity
are
(a)
(c)
fba
(b)
Solving
these
two
equations
simultaneously,
X,
Abp
= M,
signs
unit forces.
= O.0714woL
of these quantities
and
indicate
Xb
agreement
= Rb
= 1.143woL
with the assumed di-
The
Fig, t3-6
rection
positive
of
EXAMPLE
t3-3
EXAMPLE
t3-4
beam 13-6(a).
and
simply caused
by
supported the
at
is constant.
Consider the planar elastic pin-ended bar system shown in Fig. 13-7(a_). Determine the bar forces caused by the application of inclined force P = 10X/5 kN at joint e. All bars can resist either tensile or compressive forces. For simplicity in calculations, let L/EA for each member be unity.
must
is statically indeterminate to the second degree. Therefore, be removed to proceed. A convenient choice is to remove in a simply supported beam, Fig. 13-6(b). Using the results 10-3, and summarized in Table 11 of the Appendix,
fou
wo(2L)
24EI
3
--
woL
3EI
A bP
--
5wo(2L)
384EI
5woL
24EI
One
Fig.
set 13-6(c),
of flexibility coefficients and determining the in Table 11. This process and finding the rotation
a unit
force at b using
at
(b)
P = 10x/kN
by
the
applying deflection --
at
fb f.
Note
13-5,
..
(2L)
16EI
2
2L
3EI
L 2
4EI
fbb =
(2L)
48EI
-- --
L 3
=
6EI
b\
L 2
4EI
(2L)
3EI
L[(2L)
6EI(2L)
2 - L 2]
Forming
that
as to be expected,
two equations
for compatibility
fab
= fba.
of displacements
at a and b
f
lkN
A o = A or
+ fbX
+ fooXo
0
Fig. 13-7
1 (o)
(d)
696
Statically Solution
Indeterminate
Problems
and
Sec.
13-5.
Introduction
to the
Displacement
Method
697
This
bars
problem
ae and
is statically
ce are assumed
indeterminate
to be redundant.
to the
second
Therefore,
degree,
the
and,
bar
in this
system
soluti
with
Fae
indeterminacy.
-13.42
10.52
x 0.894
+ 2.36
x (-0.800)
-5.90
kN
the possible displacements removed to restore the of the unloaded primary studied first, as shown each case are shown directly on the is unity, the force in bar ce is zero,
the bar ce is unity, the force
in Fig. 13-7(b), is on the diagram in that may develop required compatibility system due to the in Figs. 13-7(c) and
Calculations for the required in tabular form using the pattern of Example 12-5.
at a and conditions. application (d). Again, Note that when 13-7(c); conversely, flexibility method
system. The bar force s In this primary system c are noted and must be Therefore, the behav of unit axial forces the axial bar forces for
the force in bar, when the force
Computer
solutions
are
commonly
used
for
problems
with
a high
degree
of
in
13-5.
In the force
Introduction
method discussed
to the
Displacement
13-3, the
Method
redundant forces were
in Section
out
virtual
force
and
are
the
Bar
ae be ce de
F, kN
0 + 17.89 0 -13.42
a or pa
+1 -0.447 0 +0.894
-0.60 +1 -0.80 Sum:
or p
0
fiF
0
-8.00
fibF
0
-10.73
,p
+1 +0.20 0 +0.80
p
0
+0.36 +1 +0.64
aPc 0 0
0 -t2.00
- 20.00
+10.73
Since
according
for
each
to Eq.
bar,
12-26
L/AE
are
= 1, the
relative
deflections
and
flexibility
coefficients
A a, =
and
--20 f
= fc
to be the unknowns. In the displacement method, on the other the displacement--both linear and/or angularof the joints or points are taken as the unknowns. The first step in applying this is to prevent these joint displacements, which are called kinetnatic indeterminants or degrees offi'eedom. The suppression of these degrees of freedom results in a modified system that is composed of a series of members each of whose end points are restrained from translations and rotations. Calculation of reactions at these artificial y restrained ends due to externally applied loads can be carried out using any of the previously described methods. The results of such calculations are usually available for a large variety of loading conditions and a few are given in Table 12 of the Appendix. In beam analysis by this method, counterclockwise moments and upward reactions acting on either end of a member are taken as positive. This beatn sign convention dif ers from that used previously in this text, and is necessary for a consistent formulation of the superposition equations. Sometimes this sign convention is referred to as "analyst's" to distinsign convention pressive regions The procedure degree of kinematic
guish
the required conditions
it from
"designer's".
Therefore; compatibility
for bar forces Fac = Xa and Fcc at a and c, using Eq. 13-5 gives
A
and
= f, aX,
+ fac
A,
= 2X
0.448X
20
= 0
conveniently dif erentiates between in flexural members. for applying a displacement method indeterminancy is il ustrated
used
previously
throughout.
tensile
The
designer's
and
com-
A,.
By solving
= fXa
these two
+ fXc
equations
A cj,
-0.448X
2X
+ 0 = 0
simultaneously,
Fe
Using
= X
+ 10.52
the forces
kN
in the
and
other two
Fe
bars
= Xo
are
+2.36
kN
superposition.
Foe
17.89
10.52
(-0.447)
2.36
(-0.600)
+11.77kN
(c)
Fig.
3-8
698
Statically
the
an
of a fixed-end
Indeterminate
beam. Both
Problems
the vertical
Sec.
t3-5.
Introduction
to
the
Displacement
Method
support
at b is restrained,
Fig.
13-8(b),
reactions
reducing
end,
and
end
the
moments
problem
first
in
to
Solution
a beam
example
can
be found
of such
a reactive
by methods
the location reactions
force
discussed
at an
previously.
where
the
Moment
let er
Mt,v
is
Since joint rotation at b is the 9(a), this beam is kinematically in the Appendix, the fixed-end
the end moments and reactions
unknown to the
first
to the
Fig.
applied
13-9(c),
1312 and
beam ends. For general use, fixed-end let er A with two subscripts. For the P refers to any kind of applied lateral Next, moment Mt,t, at b, Fig. 13-8(c),
actions are identified here above case, At,v --- Mt,v. load. is determined as a function
of:
For
Mbp
Mbb
m AbP
= Abb
Rbb
Eq.
=
13-11a,
-- 6EIOb/L
titles the location titles the location moments and reactions ment are given in Finally, an equation the beam is simply general use, such Therefore, assuming
applied
rotation
0t,. In this
of the of the
fixed-end force (moment) and the second ide applied displacement. Two basic cases for caused either by applied end rotation or Table 12 in the Appendix. for static equilibrium is writ en. In this case, supported at b, total moment Mt, must be zero. FOi force quantities are identified as Pt, i.e., Mt, -that the system is linearly elastic and
notation,
the first
let er
of the
subscript
Mt,---Pt,
Hence,
Using this 0b in the
= Mt,v+Mt,t,
superposition equations,
woL
12
+ 0t,
4EI
= 0
0t, = woL2/48EI
small
dislacements,
for
equilibrium
Mt, = Mt,v
a[ joint
+ Mt,t,
or in generalized
+ At,t,
b,
Ma = May + Mat, --
woL
12
+
2EI
0b Ot, Ob -beam
5woL 3woL
woL
2
(a)
8 8
sign convention.
= 0
The
EXAMPLE t3-5
sign
of Ma
is opposite
from
that
of the
designer's
beam
constant.
Using
fixed'
a displacement
at one
end
method,
and
simply
determine
supported
the
reactions
at the
other,
for
a uniformly
Fig.
13-9(a).
loadec
EXAMPLE
t3-6
Three
system
elastic
shown
pin-jointed
in Fig. 13-10(a).
bars
by
are
The
symmetrically
cross-sectional
arranged
area
in a plane
A of each bar
to form
is the same,
the
(b)
and 23,
Solution
(b)
the and
elastic 12-17
modulus caused
is E. applied
Verify
force
the
P.
bar
forces
found
in Examples
2-14,
12-
ob
(a)
Because of symmetry, this system has joint c can only displace in the vertical is restrained from displacement, Fig.
are
zero,
bc.
and
Ac,
--- Pc,
= 0. s
12-17,
13-10(b).
next
Here
compatibility
all of the
fixed-end
of deflection
Force
Pcc
for
the
system
is determined
as a function
bar
Rbb
As
in
Example
at joint
c,
A2
' Fig.
t3-9
(c)
8 If an axial
force
were
applied
somewhere
between
b and
c, P,
Ld4 = 3P/4.
would
not
above
be
Fig.
(c)
t3-10
700
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Sec.
t3.6.
Further
Remarks
on
the
Displacement
Method
70t
A cOS
(or dc),
a. Hence,
respectively,
using
are
Eq.
2-12,
the
bar
forces
F and
F2 in members
bc and
ac
F
Then
= k A ] =
for vertical
_
force
A
equilibrium Pc
and
= Pc' + F
F2 = k2 A 1 COS Ct
at joint + c, 2F2cosct = P
AE ct L/cos
A cos
. a
(a)
b
.
a
(d)
gbp
Substituting
An,
one
finds
the values
of PeP,
the above
equation,
and
solving
(b)
0b=lrt
AE(1
b
+ 2 cos 3
the relations for the bar forces, the results
ic in Example
Fig. 13-12
By
substituting
2-23
this
are
value
verified.
of A into
If in this example there were no symmetry about the vertical axis (either due to lack of symmetry in the structure itself or due to application of force P at an angle), a horizontal displacement would' also have developed at the joint. force equilibrium equations, one in the horizontal direction and the other in the vertical direction, mr/st then be set up and solved simultaneous13 and vertical displacements. Such cases are il ustrated in Figs. 12-11 and 12-12
and are also considered in the next section.
force
that increase
on
the
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION of two fixed-end beams, ab and bc, Fig. 12-13(b). www.avs4you.com
(c)
(f)
Fig.
t3-13
to the
of statical
The
beams
ba and
effect
bc
ternally of reactive
b is the
applied
volves
creases, dants.
as does However,
the solution
compared
for
force
to the
determining method
method.
sum
forces
of the
two
moments
in beams
a set Abe, at
always
by
the
applied
loads.
Similarly,
the
action
is the
vertical
Consider
simultaneous
of a propped indeterminate
equations
are required
(rotations is needed
cantilever only
using
reaction pable
level.
displacement. at c, it does
not
Since enter
is caat this
rise to the
fixed-end
Next
as shown
displacement
in Fig.
actions
support
Ac
13-13(c).
(moments)
at b is rotated Similarly,
Aoo
and
through Aoc
Aco
at c, Fig.
13-13(d).
and
at points
Act
an angle
are caused
b and
0b, giving
c, respectively,
by the vertical
'13-6.
Further
Remarks
on the
Displacement
Method
restraining
The displacement method of kinematic indeterminancy the beam shown in Fig. for vertical displacement degrees
is extended to problems with several de in this section. For this purpose, 13-13(a), where the guided support at c allows but no rotation Of the beam. The other degree of freedom,
Since no external moment Pc at c, the resultant forces zero. These two forces may yses, shown in Figs. 13-13(b)-(d),
equations:
Pb Pc
Mb is applied at b, nor a vertical reaction Mo = Po and Pc at these points are equal to be found by superposing three separate analleading to two simultaneous equilibrium
q- Abc= + Act 0 0 (13-12)
b.
These
coefficients
equations
kob,
can
koc,
be rewrit en
and
kcc,
defined
in more
as the
meaningful
fixed-end
form
actions
using
shown
stif ness
in
702
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Sec.
13-7.
Stif ness
Coefficients
Reciprocity
703
and (f) due to the unit displacements to the kinematic indeterminants. Then at b and the vertical reactions at c, caused
are
'13-7.
For linearly ficients'can
coefficients.
Stif ness
Coefficients
Reciprocity
for stif ness coef13-4 for flexibility is U, according to Casof forces P and Pj
system's
elastic
energy
tigliano's
in the By substituting these
Pa Pc
first
respective
theorem,
Eq.
12-45,
of A's
the
are
and
displacement
au
relations
= = kaa &a kcbAb
into
Eq.
13-12,
+ Aa, + Ac, = 0 = 0
aA
Pj
(13-18)
These
equations
can
be solved
simultaneously
to systems equilibrium Ai are equations having
for unknowns
n degrees for determining
Ao and
the
Alternatively, it can be seen from Eq. 13-16 that a partial derivative of Pt with respect to As is ku. Similarly, a partial derivative of Pj with respect to At is kit. Carrying out these operations with Eqs. 13-18 establishes the fol owing equalities: aPi a2U
ku
and
Pb -- kba Aa q- kbb Ab .q- "' q- kbn An q- AbP
where
terms
points. In the absence coefficients k u are The fixed-end actions applied loads. form, Eq. 13-16 for
Pa,
Po . . .
P,correspond
aAi
aPs
aAiaA
a2U
k,
derivatives is immaterial,
(13-19)
mixed
to the
forces, either ...
external
with A,, method
these
forces
are
applie
by
(13-20)
the
displacement
can
be
as
This relation proves that the matrix of stif ness coefficients is symmetric, a very important property for analysis of structural systems. The relationship between the. stif ness and flexibility coefficients is illustrated in the next example. It is more complex than that for systems with one degree of kinematic and static indeterminancy.
EXAMPLE t3-7 9
between shown elastic in Fig. flexibilities the 13-14. flexibility and The externally and stif nesses the stif ness applied for each matrices forces spring are are for the P and shown
(13-1'
the
square method
consists entirely of stif ness coefficients, is often referred to as the stif ness method. for constructing the stif ness matrix, the reader cited texts on finite elements or structural 2-10 and 12-9. In this text, only the
matrix
Show the relationship two-spring system P2, and the linearly in the figure.
Solution
Before matrix
matrix.
proceeding is symmetric,
with i.e.,
examples, k o = k,
and
it wil that
be shown it is related
The using
(Englewood
displacement spring
of nodal flexibilities
Clif s,
points as
b and
c for
the
loaded
system
can
be
writ en
(b)
9 Adapted
from
M.
N.J.:
F. Rubinstein,
Prentice-Hall,
Matrix
1966),
Computer
60-63.
Analysis
of Structures,
Fig. t344
704
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Sec.
13.7.
Stif ness
Coefficients
Reciprocity
705
A
where force
=
P
(p
+ P2
+ p)
acts on spring
and
ab.
A2
for each
and
(P
nodal
P2
+ P2)f
point
= k2(A2
+ P2f2
kcb
. Similarly,
stif nesses,
the
are
equilibrium
= kl A k2(A2
equations
A1)
b and
-
c, using
Ai)
(a)
P
kbb
(c)
where Recasting
the
stretch these
of spring equations
bc
gives
and
(b) (d)
be noted of the
constants,
that spring
giving
spring
Then
by the
the
flexibilities flexibility
matrix
can matrix,
using
be replaced expressed
the rules
by
fixed-end
Fig.
t3-t5
stif ness
against
rotations,
actions
a system
for
these
of two
beams
fixed-end
can
be obtained
beams
with
is obtained,
the
aid
Fig.
of Table
13-15(b).
the
12 in the
The
1
This identity
are zero.
k + k 2
Appendix.
In the
fol owing,
the
the end
first
let er
where
of the
the fixed-end
[Ab,]a
subscript
action
=
outside
applies.
brackets
For
beam
ab:
[Aaa]ab
+ PL/8
and
-- PL/8
For
beam
bc:
that
of a flexibility elements
matrix by a stif ness of this unit matrix are matrix is an inverse this can be
to
[A,]c
or
For joint
= + Wo(2L)2/12
b:
= + woL2/3
and
[Ac,]
= - woL3/3
This
vice
versa.
a flexibility symmetric
matrices,
writ en
a,
Abt
[Ab']ba
+ [Abt]bc
--PL/8
+ woL2/3
[fi
For problems expressions with degenerate single
= [k]
into
degrees simple
or
of static reciprocals and
[k]
The stif ness coefficients can be calculated by subjecting the temporarily ends b and c, to unit rotations one at a time, Figs. 13-15(c) and (d). Again, formulas in Table 12 of the Appendix and by noting that the two adjoining
contribute to the stif ness of the joint at b, one has
EXAMPLE
t3-8
Using
the
displacement
method,
calculate
the
rotations
at b and
c for
the
tinuous
moments
beam
at
of constant
a and b.
EI
loaded
as shown
in Fig.
13-15(a),
Solution
Similarly,
supports b and c, the beam is free to rotate, making the system
for
the
member
ab,
due
to a unit
rotation
at b,
At
indeterminate
to the
second
degree.
By temporarily
restraining
these
= F4E!]
= L
and
kab =
J,,b
706
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Sec.
applied become forces (moments) at b and c, for
13-7.
Stif ness
Coefficients
Reciprocity
707
Since rium
there at these
are joints,
no
= --ab
6E/
+ zXc
2EI
E/
- -- 8
woZ
3
PL
woL
3
-0
-0
By
solving
these
two
equations
simultaneously,
A=O
By
tions,
- 11EI
the end
L2 (-' -*vol )
these
moments
and
values
are
15
Ac--Oc-into
found.
2
11
the member
L2 ( P8 + 7
superposition e
(a)
substituting
displacement
in all members
M = [A,],
Mb Note
+ Mbc
kcbOb beam
of opposite
+ sign
that
with
kcOc
convention
sign.
employed
in this
solution,
= 0, since
Fig.
t3-t6
EXAMPLE
t3-9
Rework
16(a). Solution
Example
13-4
using
the
displacement
method
of analysis;
see
Fig.
1!
P=
nodal point e can of freedom. As to the second the statical indeterminancy
would remain
(13-22a)
In this problem, since system has two degrees also statically indeterminate from e would increase
degree of indeterminacy
where
this bar the
shown
k
the
and
same direction horizontal
system
By vertical spective
The 13-16(b)
horizontal and
(c),
displacements, unknowns.
For
A,
P'i,
of bar ie is constrained to move only horizontal y, 13-16(d), the bar elongates by A sin ai. This'would p = k i A sin ai, where the bar spring constant
= P sin
can
be resolved,
ai and
P2
= Pt cos
respectively,
el.
Therefore,
into
horizontal
(13-22b)
and
vertical
components
k2 and
displacement
k2 are
A2.
bar
vertical
and
horizontal
stif nesses,
respectively,
for
708
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Sec.
t3.8.
Plastic
Limit
Analysis
of Beams
709
To
and
is
solve summed
out
this
problem, to obtain
in the table.
the
and
bars
carried
yields
as the remainder
the
continues
Bar
ae
at,
degrees
90.
sin al
1.
cos
0.
ai
sin 2 al
1.
cos 2 at
0.
sin
at cos
0.
be ce de
limit
the for
tab
From
deformations
to deform
the practical
the system's horizontal stif ness kn = k = sin 2 at = 2.2, k22 = cos 2 ai = 1.8, and k12 = k21 = sin ai cos ai = -0.4.
Writing these results in matrix form,
The
relative
bar
stif ness
AiEdLi
for
each
bar
is unity.
Therefore,
from
and,
the
behavior. If at a service or working load some prior yielding had occurred, the deflections and distribution of forces remain unknown. Only step-bystep computer solutions, or solutions for simple cases, as in Examples 2butions.
point
of view,
examples, materials
structures. provide
unbounded.
continues of behavior
elastically.
This
such
calculations
This
is the range
of strain
is the
hard-
However, complete
provide
direct
an insight
solutions on inelastic
into
18 and
2-23,
can
provide
complete
history
of force
and
deflection
distri-
[k, Lk2
The fore, solution again,
kn- 1 A, k22J A2
for since
=
equation bar, AiEi/Li
or
gives/x = 1,
2.2 --0.4
= 10.536
1.8
and A2
A2
= 7.895.
10
The
F = A sin
Using this equation, Fae = -5.88 kN.
force method.
cti + A2
Fbe with
F,e These
bypassing
for determining
and
The
same frames,
general behavior is exhibited by elastic-ideally and here the objective is to develop simplified
Myp, for elastic-perfectly dif erent cross sections. lished in Example 10-14
the plastic
the elastic,
directly
limit
and
the elastic-plastic
limit
states
plastic beams are shown in Fig.-13-17 for three Basic results for a rectangular beam were estab(see Fig. 10-25). Results for the other two cases
the procedure
stages
for such
becomes
of loading,
members.
relatively
simple.
de-
By
to
can be found
Myp
1.7
1.5
using
the same
procedure.
Curves
normalized
with
respect
Application
would only be
of the
slightly
displacement
to a similar
1.0
- Typical
= 1.12
13-8.
Procedures
Plastic
for
Limit
determining
Analysis
ultimate
of Beams
loads for axial y loaded bar s]
of elastic-ideally
These these increasing there spond ultimate loads,
plastic
material
are
given
in Examples
2-18
and
of obtainin under systems s
2-23:
loads are the plastic limit states. In the process the entire range of elastic-plastic system behavior load is considered. As can be seen from Fig. 2-54(e) are three distinct regions of response. At first, these in a linearly elastic manner. Then a part of the structural
70yp
0 2
OVp
Oyp
4
rectangular,
I cross
shape
sections.
Mp/Myp
= k, the
710
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Sec.
13-8.
Plastic
Limit
Analysis
of Beams
forces
nitudes termining
biaxial
.symmetry,
and
is discussed
the positive
in Section
be accounted for in the analysis. A method plastic capacity of members in the presence
6-13.
and negative
moments
dif er
in their
as well lacks
mag-
terminate placement
anism. matically
By inserting
the collapse mechanism. For each degree of static indeterminancy beam, an additional plastic hinge must be added to form a collapse
The
a plastic
hinge
at a plastic
limit
load
into
a statically
de-
matically
to
Fig. t348 Moment-curvature
fol ow.
admissible
limit
insertion admissible
collapse
design,
mechanisms
to obtain of safety
other
is il ustrated
in the examples
This This
a kineof kine-
of a mech-
idealizations
a. nalyses
dif erent
of beams
cross
for
plastic
sections.
of
In plastic
it is necessary
to multiply
working
loads
is analissue is
method
by a
large flanges and a negligibly thin web is added in this diagram. In both diagramg, as the cross sections plastify, a rapid ascent curves toward their respective asymptotes occurs. This means that sh after reaching the elastic capacity of a beam, a rather constant moment, very near to Me, is both achieved and maintained. This is true for the important case of an I beam. As can be noted from Fig. 18, for this cross section, the elastic-plastic behavior is essential y fined to the range between B' and C; for the remainder, the moment essential y Me. The influence of the elastic core next to the axis is more pronounced for members with rectangular or round sections, whose shape factors, k, are larger than those for an I beam, 13-17. Nevertheless, in the plastic limit analysis of members subjected b. ending, it is generally assumed that an abrupt transition from elastic ideally plastic behavior occurs at Me. Therefore, member behavior tween Myp and Me is considered to be elastic. It is further assumed when Me is reached, a plastic hinge is formed in the member. In to a frictionless hinge permit ing free rotation, the plastic hinge large rotations to occur at a constant plastic moment Me. In a plastic limit analysis of beams, the elastic displacements to the plastic ones are small and can be neglected. Detailed analyses shown m that it is sufficiently accurate to consider beams n with plasticity confined to plastic hinges at points. In reality, extend along short lengths of beams and depend on loading
Wiley,
(New
with
to M e are shown
in Fig.
13-18.
The behavior
NON-ACTIVATED VERSION The procedure for forming kinematically admissible mechanisms, what similar to continuity conditions in elastic analysis, is il ustrated www.avs4you.com
moment
of an ideaiized
cross
sectio
the bending
on conventional
There
are two
Me,
moments
and
statics
common
the
conditions
anywhere
and
methods
the
of plastic
along
of equilibrium
a member
on virtual
limit
must
cannot
work.
analysis.
always
exceed
In either
One
is based
be satisfied.
the plastic
somein
the
fol owing
examples.
EXAMPLE
t3-t0
effect
A concentrated force P is applied at the middle of a simply supported prismatic beam, as shown in Fig. 13-19(a). If the beam is of a ductile material, what is the plastic fir/fit load Put? Obtain the solution using (a) the equilibrium method and (b) the virtual work method. Consider only flexural behavior, i.e., neglect the
of shear forces. Neglect beam weight.
Solution
elastically.
of P, the maximum
diagram
the moment
Pyp
moment
is the same
is at myp,
M = PL/4,
regardless
the force
and ifM
= 4myp/Z
o See,
York:
for 1966)
Wiley,
Plastic Methods
Design for
Steel
of Steel and
Frames Concrete
When My v is exceeded, contained yielding tinues until the plastic moment Mp is reached,
commences
and
con-
erable
n In seismic
to call such
analyses,
mechanisms
the plastic
energy
hinges
dissipating
dissipate
mechanisms.
energy.
Therefore,
it is pref-
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Sec.
t3-8.
Plastic
Limit
Analysis
of Beams
7'!3
o
Pult
shown in Fig. 13-19(c). The external virtual work is Put 8A, where from geometry 8A = L 80/2. The internal virtual work is caused by rotating M e through an angle of 2 80. Hence, per Eq. 12-19, equating the previous expressions for work,
P,lt
Plastic
B A = P,t
expressions for
L B0/2
Pult,
= My(2
as before,
g0)
On
solving
the
last
two
Put
EXAMPLE '13-tt
= 4M,/L
virtual
displacement
beam
beam of ductile material, fixed at one end and simply supported at carries a concentrated force in the middle, as shown in Fig. 13~20(a). the plastic limit load Pult using (a) the equilibrium method and (b) the
weight.
method.
Compare
the
result
with
that
of an elastic
solution.
Solution
(b)
Fig.
t3-19
The that
Me elastic
(a) The results of an elastic analysis are shown in Fig. 13-20(b). The same results are replot ed in Fig. 13-20(c) from horizontal baseline AB. In both diagrams, the colored portions of the diagrams represent the net result. Note that the auxiliary
can
of the at most
(a)
be
in this fi
(d)
Pult L/4
it is exceeded
near the narrower.for the middle
as shown
above
line
ab.
At Mp,
13-19(a). cross
the
ful y
This section
plastic
flanges.
region implied
part
The
is M e and
(b)
PL/4
of the
of the beam
bending
becomes
is carried'
large
in the
as it rapidly
approaches
13-18). the
By result
setting sought:
the
Pult
PL
Put
Note that unnecessary consideration of the actual
= 4Mp/L
region indicated in Fig.
(e)
in this
calculation.
plastic A comparison
of this
result
with
Pyp
shows
L/2
(c)
PL/4
the
dif erence
between
the
two
forces
depends
only
on
the
shape
(b)
An
admissible
virtual
kinematic
mechanism
assuming
Fig.
13-20
714
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Sec.
13.8.
Plastic
Limit
Analysis
of
Beams
715
ordinates
with
PL/4
a concentrated
have
yield:
precisely
force
the value
in the middle.
of the maximum
moment
in a simple
By setting
at impending
the maximum
elastic
moment
equal
16Myp
to Mvp,
one
obtains
force
P2
D
(a)
(e)
PYP --
3L
When the load is increased above Pyp, the moment at the built-in end increase and can reach but cannot exceed M v. This is also true of the moment at the of the span. These limiting conditions are shown in Fig. 13-20(d). At the limit load, it is necessa. ry to have a kinematically admissible mechanism. the two plastic hinges and a roller on the right, this condition is satisfied, Fi
13-20(e).
(b)
(f}
My
geometric = PultL/4.
construction Hence,
Put
in Fig.
= 6Me/L
has
13-20(d),
in the
middle
of the
(c)
Comparing
this
result
with
Pyp,
one
(g)
equalization
13-20(c)
increase
and
of the maximum
(d)).
in Pult
over
Pyp
moments.
is due
to two
(Compare
2P3IPa
q- M,o I+M.o
0
the moment
the
shape
diagrams
factor
k and
in Figs
wo
(d)
(b) For the virtual displacement shown in Fig. 13-20(e), the external virtual at plastic limit load is Put gA. The internal virtual work takes place in the' hinges at the left support and in the middle of the span. Equating these
of work per Eq. 12-19,
-M
(h)
Fig.
13-2t
P,t
giving, as before,
BA
= PutL
g0/2
= M e g0
+ Me(2
and
An
Put
EXAMPLE t342
= 6Me/L
for
this
the
admissible internal
case
as P and
one
By
the
limit
external loads
(2P0(L
g0/4)
on the right
of this
= M e g0 + Me2
equation
g0 + Me
to the
g0
plastic hinges at A,
beam of ductile material is loaded as shown displacement method, determine the plastic
of the beam.
B,
where
and
the
C. The
three
solution
terms
apply,
gives
respectively,
P = 8Me/L
displacement process. generates mechanisms The correct a compatible are possible, and mechanism is moment diagram.
and
2P
= 16Me/L
Fig. This than basis
In this case, several kinematic solution is found by a trial-and-error the assumed virtual displacement
By applying the forces to the beam and assuming hinges B and C rigid, 13-21(c), the resulting bending moment diagram is as shown in Fig. 13-21(d). diagram shows that with P and 2P, the moments at B and C are greater M e. This is an upper bound solution that asserts that a load found on the
7t6
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Sec.
t3-8.
Plastic
Limit
Analysis
of
Beams
717
of an assumed
equal
By reducing
to the plastic
of the
admissible
P and
member
limit
2P by a ratio
and that
the upper
lead.
kinematic
2
is always conditions
satisfied.
greater
Since
assumed
than
such
or at bes t momen
a sotutio
capacity
(a)
(d)
Occurs bound
the
prior 3 for
development loads.
obtained bounds:
of a kinematic
mechanism,
the
the
lower
have
-x
7
8--for
My
L
16My
7 L
Me
L
a t,L b
(b)
21(e)
to
for
give
forces
solution,
P2 = 3.5Me/Z
which
the earlier
is shown
are
applies shown
and
in
procedure,
Fig.
2Pi. in Figs.
These 13-21(e)
2P2
13-21(f).
= 7Mp/Z.
the results
These
The
moment
results
apart,
and
alter-
---L/2
diagram
corresponding
better
in Fig. 13bounds
w.2/ tiL8
b8
Wult
(e)
(c)
a=L -b
"'
3.5
2.8
<
P,
<
3.5
By
carrying
out
a solution
for
the
mechanism
that
and
13-21(h) The
P3 = 3Me/L
confirms
and
equal
the
2P3
correct
= 6Me/L.
choice
The
of the
moment
the
C are
each
to M e. Therefore,
even hinges
in Fig. 13-21(b) is not a good as can be seen from Fig. span should be at C. By taking
it can
be shown
f
Fig. t3-22
mechanism,
diagram
for these
the
moments
forces
in Fig.
at A
solution
is "exact."
choice for this problem. However, 13-21(c), indicates that the plastic advantage of such observations,
Solution
the
This
first.
exact
Then
lution,
moments
an
inclined
could have been obtained more quickly. can be easily solved by the equilibrium the beam simply supported, the moment
line, as shown in Fig. 13-20(d)
method.
is drawn
For
such
a so-:
e
diagram
such
is prepared
that
ually
and there
such
is no distinct
13-22(b).
plastic hinges are required is at the built-in end. The moment is not known,
pak.
However,
an admissible
with
mech-
anism,
diagram
as shown
in Fig.
13-22(c),
which
the
moment
M e develop
at A and
C.
of Fig.
EXAMPLE
t3-t3
purposes of analysis, the beam with the assumed plastic hinges is separated into two parts, as shown in Figs. 13-22(d) and (e). Then, by noting that no shear is possible at C, since it is the point of maximum moment for a continuous function, one can write two equations of static equilibrium:
fixed
the
For
A prismatic
the
the
other,
plastic
method.
carries
limit
beam
lead
a uniformly
Wut using
of ductile
material,
distributed
(a)
ioad
equilibrium
at one
as shown
method
end
and
in Fig.
and
simply
1322(a).
(b)
supported
the
Ma=00+ Ma=0+
H.
in
= 0 - b)2/2
= 0
force
2 For Greenberg
117
proof, and
cited
of the "Limit
cited
Trans.
be found
and
Simultaneous
(X/
- 1)L.
Either
solution
one of these
Wult --
of
these
equations
2M.
equations
yields
locates
the limit
the
plastic
lead
hinge
C at
b =
previously
of the
2M.
b2
[(V-
1)L]
718
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Sec.
t3-8.
Plastic
Limit
Analysis
of
Beams
719
(b) On a virtual
the
average, displacement
the
uniformly of A/2,
plastic Hence,
limit for
Wu R
12Mp/L
(c)
L/2
<
L/2
work their
is done respective
by plastic rotations,
at plastic Hence,
hinges
+%
(b)
By
fications, Solution
(d)
equating
the
previous
two
relations
and
solving
for
Wut,
after
some
sim
Fig.
13-23
L
by taking a derivative of Wutt with respect
Thus,
By
applying
Eq.
12-19,
i.e.,
equating
the
external
and
the
internal
virtual
work,
distance
it equal
a can
to zero.
be found
to a and
dWult
da
-0
After
carrying
out
the
dif erentiation
-a 2 + 4aL
and
-
simplifications,
and
the
factor
of reduces
this
to
an average an upper
for
the
the plastic
distributed limit
load
load. wut
of the assumed
gives and
],Vul t = 12Mp/L
and diagram
2
above load to the in Fig. 13-23(d). beam, Since,
2L 2 =
assuming 13-23(c),
in Fig.
hinge moment
must
C rigid
be'reduced
By
solving
this
quadratic
equation
and
retaining
the
root
in this
bound
diagram,
solution.
the
maximum
positive
lower-bound
this
bending
by
moment
of 24/25
exceeds
the
to
obtain
My,
the
limit
the
applied
load
lower-
a'=
(2 - X/)L
and
b = L - a = (X/
applies to this loads, such alternative solution as just procedures,
- 1)L
as well. shown, are however,
(24/25)l2Mv/L
possible.
In one,
forces,
Summarizing,
2 = 11.52Mv/L
the bounds
Therefore,
the
for
2.
solution
solution are
for
plastic
is
the
distributed
load
Two
can
be approximated
by a series
of conBy
13-23(d)
11.52
taking
and
The lower
possible plastic hinge locations are more easily of a plastic hinge can be estimated, leading of such a solution can be judged by calculatin as has been il ustrated in Example 13-12.
identified; to a simp
the
plastic
repeating
hinge
the
at the
calculations,
maximum
an exact
positive
plastic limit
moment
load
in Fig.
is found.
t3-t5
Rework bending
bounds
example in the
that span;
hinge 13-23.
for a Determine
is fixed at both ends, load using the equilibrium (b) Verify the plastic
720
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Sec.
P
t3.9.
Continuous
Beams
and
Frames
[ P I P2
(c)
Ps
()
(a)
(c) (d)
(b)
Fig. Solution
t3-24
Fig.
13-25
Collapse
mechanisms
for
continuous
beams.
Beams in the
and Preceding
According
yield,
built-in ends and are equal to woL2/12. The at the middle of the span and is woL2/24.
moment,
in Example
10-23,
Fig.
10-37(c),
the maximum
maximum Therefore,
bending
maximum
Myp
By increasing
anism of the The
= wypL2/12
plastic
for
or
hinges
until
a simply
Wyp
hinge
---= 12Myp/Z
also develops
2
in the
the load,
deveiop
a plastic
supported
w,tL-/8 ,
Comparing this result with
= 2My
wyp, one has
or
= 16Mv/L
examples, can be extended to the simpler cases for plastic limit analysis of continuous beams and frames. Usually, the kinematic mechanisms in continuous beams, associated with a collapse mode, occur locally in only one beam. For the two-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 13-25(a), the plastic moment at the middle support is limited to (Mv)m of the smaller beam. Then, whether the kinematic mechanism would develop in the right or the left span depends on the relative beam sizes as well as the magnitudes of the applied loads. The solution in either case fol ows the procedure discussed in Example 13-11, 13-12, or 13-13. The beams, restrained at both ends, usually develop the kinematic mechanisms shown in Fig. 13-25(d) for the two left spans in Fig. 13-25(c). The solution of such problems resembles that of Example 13-15, except that the end moments for each span are not necessarily equal. For example, for the left span of Fig. 13-25(c), the plastic moment on the left is determined by the large beam, whereas that on the right depends on the
The
plastic Plastic
ber
moment limit
of the analysis
joints,
rather
conditions
complex
as the
increases.
numFor
4My
As in Example
the equalization
4.
on shape factor
hinges
12-19, one
of
members,
loading
moments.
k and
of such problems, the reader As a reasonably simple il ustration an example fol ows.
t3-t6
is referred of the
cited frame
(b) Because
in Fig. 13-24(c).
of symmetry,
By writing
the precise
a virtual
of the plastic
Eq.
is as sho TM
has
E,
Consider
and
loaded
a rigid
the
as shown
jointed My,
planar i.e.,
limit
in Fig.
frame effect
13-26(a).
of ductile
All
members
material forces
are
fixed
of the
at A and
same
pinned
size
and
at
WuttL
--
= M(g0
+ 2 gO
+ gO)
Determine
Solution
can
develop
ful
plastic
the
loads.
of the
axial
on My
can
be neglected.
and
w.
= 16Mv/L
2 as before.
capacity.
both
kinematically equilibrium
adand
722
-----a
Statically
2_a
Indeterminate
,,
Problems
J Pa 8/2
Since
be reduced
for the
Problems
MA is twice
by a factor
assumed
as large
mechanism,
as My,
the
the
upper
bounds
bound
the
for
solution
lower
the
found
bound solution.
are
before
On
must
this
?/2
of 2 in order
to obtain
{a)
P3/2
2a E
(d)
/2
basis,
solution
3My
2a
3My
a
in the 13-26(c),
same
manner
using
the
(sway)
mechanism
for
the
frame
P2
--2a 80 = My(80
For this upper bound solution,
+ 80 + 2 80)
the moments at the
and
critical
P2 points
4My
a
=
the
(b)
_P/2B S8
P2
are
3 8/2
C
MA
-%
=
Mc
for
- M,
is three
must this
Ma
times
be case, reduced
= Mp
greater
by
Mc
than My, the
a factor
= 3Mp
upper bound
of 3 to obtain
and
solution
the lower
Mo
for
bound
- Mp
assumed
solution.
Since
mechanism Hence,
(c)
Fig.
'13-26
solution
two
is no better than the first. However, mechanisms, such as to eliminate For a proper combination of these can be reduced. Such a mechanism equation for this case is
it is possible to combine the the plastic hinge at B, leading to mechanisms, the internal plastic is shown in Fig. 13-26(d). The
A virtual
work
solution
for
an assumed
mechanism
provides
an upper
is then [ Since the be constructed the up[
mechanism
bound
P3
=
T 2a so + a,a so =
The -M The consisting
so + --5(38080
+ T + 2 so
and
P3
2a
for the plastic limit loads. With these loads, a static analysis on members or parts of the frame separated at plastic hinges. at each plastic hinge is Me, a complete moment diagram can the frame. The lower bound solution is obtained by reducing
loads
Fig.
The
virtual 13-26(b)
by a factor
is
work
such
equation
that
nowhere
for
the
is M e exceeded.
admissible
moment diagram corresponding to P3 is shown in Fig. 13-26(e), v, Mc = Mv, and Mo = -Mv. last solution satisfies the three basic conditions of plastic limit of the requirements of an admissible mechanism, equilibrium,
MA all
kinematic
(beam)
moments
being
at most
My.
Therefore,
this
is an exact
solution.
PROBLEMS
80 = My(g0
frame
Pia
Applying moments solution, gives
+ 80/2)
and
and
Pl
= 3Mv/2a
Sections
13.3
and
13.4
the
P and P2/2 to the are M v, the moment using the designer's fol owing moments
separating it at joints B and D, where for the frame is found (not shown). sign convention, such as shown in Fig. at critical points A, B, C, and D:
diagram
Ma
- 2M,
M
- M,
Mc
= M,
and
Mo
that for a linearly angle of rotation j due to a couple acting at i, the angle of rotation 0u at i j. (Hint: Use the results in mine 0u by the moment area
t3-1. beam,
Show the
elastic simply supported 0si of the elastic curve at see the figure, is equal to due to the same couple at Example 13-1, and deteror singularity functions.)
Fig.
P13-t
724
Statically
Indeterminate
Problems
Problems
725
displacement method,
curve at b and the
t3-2.
ure,
moment
stant
For
El.
the
diagram.
(Hint:
planar
the
Both
Use
elastic
reactions,
members
the
structure
and
have
virtual-force
shown
(b)
method
(a) determine
deflections.)
final
confind-
the
13-13.
rotation
Using
of
EI is
the
the elastic
determine
moments
the
at
a, b, and
ure.
c for
constant.
the
continuous
beam
shown
in the
fig-
ing
110kN
Fig.
P13-5
2woN/
and
rework'Problem
that
rotation
t3-6.
method,
Assuming
rework
elastic
Problem
behavior
2-64.
using
the
force
12-53.
Fig. P13-9
Fig.
P13-13
13-7.
Consider
8m - 3m--->.
Using
the
the
forces
force
method,
in AB and
AD
as redundants.
t344. bars
each
Rework
supported.
Determine
Problem
the deflection
13-13
assuming
and
end
at the
c is
end
13-8.
at the
For
ends.
the
The
planar
determine force
system
the
cross-sectional
of six
area
elastic
A of
shown
bars
bar is
Fig.
P13-2
forces P = 30 kN.
t340.
= 1 for
ce and
Rework
members
de.
Example
ae and
13-4
be, and
after
L/AE
assuming
= 2 for
that
members
L/AE
simply
13-t5.
t3-3.
beam
A 10
is braced
x 12 in (actual
by a 1-in round
size)
steel
rectangular
rod and
wooden
an 8 x 8
(Hint:
-
Take
advantage
of
in (actual Determine
applying
size) the
span. For
post, would
force
as shown develop
P =
a concentrated
of the
post bd
E,.
1500
ksi
and
steel,
Est
= 30 x 103 ksi.
For
purposes
of calculation,
consider
to be 5 ft long.
P=10k
13-11. termine
For
the
the
planar reactions
structure at the
shown support,
de-
force that
of the
equations
Mb
P.
cantilever
Use
the
shown
the
displacement other
in the
pertain
that
figure
Rb
method. =
due
-P.)
(Hint:
to applied
requires
Both
of equilibrium
= 0 and
to end
b; one
deis confinding
P
L
Fig. P1345
P
b
}-
St
d
1346. tinuous
is loaded
conditions apply for the conin Fig. 13-13(a): (a) Both spans
(b) span downward
downward
bc
Fig.
P13-3
P in the
span,
remain
(d)E1
as shown.
is constant.
Determine
The
t3-4.
Use
Consider
the
Using
the
solution
the force
reactions
given
method,
at b and
in Problem
c as redundants.
10-51.)
rework
Example
(Hint:
13-3.
t3-9.
dundants, is
Fig.
PI3-8
ary
tion
at b and
loads.
the
vertical
Calculate
displacement
the moments
at c due
to the
c.
for the frame. All E1 for the frame IE/5. Assume the
in k-ft units.
t3-5. For a planar structure consisting frame bcde, as shown in the figure, reactions, and (b) plot the bending
members are of the same is constant and AE for force in the bar as redundant.
Theplanarpin-endedbarsystemofExample
by Assuming
determine
13-4
member members e, ae,
coefficients
. 1.5m J
Fig. P13-1t
applied
at a, b, and
adding
in the as
a 3 x
t3-11. with
figure.
action
A propped a concentrated
(a)
at b.
cantilever force
the
calculate
of constant P = 100 N,
method,
the rotation
Using
Then
force
the
elastic
reFor
the
numerical
of the
find the
flexibility
and
Sections
13-5
and
13-6
the
corresponding
column
forces
vectors
in all bar
as in Eq.
members.
13-6.
If assigned,
t3-12.
fixed.
Rework
Example
13-8
assuming
that
end
c is
at
b and and
deflection use
at
the the
c. (Hint: moment-area
the
method, deflection
deterat c.
726
Statlcally
Indeterminate
Problems
Problems
727
shown
hinges The
column
t3-23.
(a) What load w can this beam carry when in the middle just reaches yield and plastic point hinges develop at the built in ends?
Fig. PI347
uniformly
A T beam
distributed
fixed
load
at both
w including
ends
its own
is loaded
the
weight,
mom,
by
Section t3-26. Using that would beam shown. 120 mm wide MPa. Neglect
13-9 limit analysis, calculate cause flexural collapse The beam has a rectangular and 300 mm deep. The the weight of the beam. of value of P the two-span cross section yield stress is 15 the
t3-29.
that Based lower
AC is
For
the
structure
in the
form establish plastic
DE
figure,
assume
stress
of the
deflection
is the
material is 50 ksi. (b) What due to w? Let E = 30 x plastic limit load
The
yield
all quantities
are given
that
for
in a consistent
system
Assume
of units.
that
Then
calculate
the
=
moments
at a and
b,
and
= -100N.)
the
rew N/m
action
atbandcareMb
at b. (Hint:
The
three
0, Me=
external
0, andRe
forces
applied
2P
I'-3'2m
Beam section
w o N/m
C
t5-t8.
for
and
Rework
members
de.
Example
ae and be and
13-9
L/AE
assuming
= 2 for
that
L/AE
members
= 1
ce
t$-t9._Using
forces
13-9.
the
for the pin-ended
displacement
bar system
method,
given
find
the
in Problem
bar
t3-27. Using limit analysis,
;I-0.);8 I
Fig.
;I-'
select a steel
;I
W section
--10 10 >
P13-26
Section
'13-8
Fig.
P13-23
t3-20.
centrated
Rework
force
Example
P at C.
13-12
after
other,
removing
the
conin the
t3-24.
one end uniformly termine
sult
A prismatic
simply increasing the plastic
the
beam
of ductile
material,
fixed
a
be
2. The
beam
throughout.
27k
Fig.
P13-29
and
t5-2t.
at one
A ductile
end. and
prismatic
fixed at the
beam
is simply
as shown
supporte_d
smallest mechacritical
figure. concentrated
nism.
force
hinges
method
forms
in the
and assuming
middle
using
equilibrium
position
of applied
force
P.
supported at the other, carries load, as shown in the figure. limit load Wut using the
13-30.
izontal The
vertical
Rework
force at force
Example
B is P and P remains
13-16
column at
assuming
DE
C.
that
is fixed
the
at
horE.
t3-31. concentrated
A portal
forces
frame
P,
at A and as shown
My
collapse
plying
of all members
value
both the
is the same
of P.
upper
throughout,
your
bound
obtain'the
results
theorems.
W(tot
Fig. PI3-24
Fig.
PI3-27
by
ap-
13-28. governing
beam
Determine factored
of ductile
P=2woL
the
load
material
ultimate for
shown
the
the
figure.
13-22.
limit both
A ductile
load Pult. the upper
prismatic
Demonstrate and lower
beam
that
is fixed
the criteria.
at both
result
ends.
satisfies
t3-25. loaded,
A prismatic as shown
is the u
N/m
and lower bound solutions by assuming a plastic in the middle of the span. Let Mp = 1000 in-lb. assigned, refine the solution by placing the' hinge at the point of maximum positive moment for the lower bound solution in part (a).
Wult
(b)
IL/4[L/41 l>l<
j
L
Fig. P13-28
t
Fig. P13-31
Fig.
P13-22
--,LI3 >j-
2L/3
Fig.
P13-25
Tables
1A.
lB.
Typical Common
Typical Common
Physical Materials
Physical Materials
of and Customary
of and
Allowable System
Allowable of Units)
Stresses of Units)
Stresses
for
for
Some
Some
3. American
signing
Standard
Steel
Beams,
S Shapes,
Properties
for Designing
4. American
5. American
Wide-Flange
Standard Steel
Steel
Channels,
Beams,
W Shapes,
Properties for
Properties
Designing
for
De-
6. Steel
7.
8.
9.
Angles
Angles
Steel
Section
with
with
Pipe
Moduli
Equal
Unequal
Legs,
Legs,
Around
Properties
Properties
the X-X Axis
for
for
Designing
Designing
Steel
Standard
Plastic
10. 11.
12.
American Deflections
Beams
Standard and
Actions
Timber Slopes
for
Sizes, of
Prismatic
Properties Curves
Beams
for for
Elastic
Fixed-End
Acknowledgement:
Data
for
Tables
3 through
9 are
taken
from
the
AISC
Manual American
with
of Steel Institute
this
Construction of Steel
text.
Original
reproduced Inc.
should
by
The
be
consulted
for
of the compiled
actual
A-2
A-3
[=g
Table 2. Useful Properties
Areas
RECTANGLE
Appendix
of Areas
and moments of inertia of areas
CIRCLE
aroand
centroidal
axes
oleo
TRIANGLE
= bh
hi2
! o = bh3/12
t
SEMICIRCLE
= bh/2
A = 'n'R 2
I = J/2
= rR4/4
00
HALF OF THIN TUBE
R
rR2/2
I o = bh3/36
0.110R
, 2R [ 4R/(3r)
A = lrRavt
THIN
TUBE
0
' TRIANGLE
Centroid
A = 2Rav
Io = J/2 R3v t
Areas
TRIANGLE
-K2Z_
Centroids of areas
and
I o 0.095rRaavt
dd
ddd
dd
d-d'5d
dd
dd
dd
dd
dd
dd
dd
dd
dd
(a+L)13
A = bh/2
A = hL/2
L)/3
VertexI__
A = -bh
PARABOLA
Vertex
PARABOLA:
Vertex
y =
- ax 2
y =
_ ax n
Vertex
The
A = bh/3
area
for
any
segment
A = bh/(n
+ 1)
of a parabola
is A = hl
. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
XXXXX
XXX
XXXX
XXX
A-6
A-7
Appendix
A-9
Y
Table
6. Steel
Angles
with
Equal
Legs,
Axis
Properties
X-X and
for
Aris
Designing
Y-Y Axis Z-Z
Size and
Thickness
in
L 8 x 8 x 1 1
Weight
Foot
per
Area #l 2
16.7 15.0 13.2 98.0 89.0 79.6
I #l 4
S = I/c in 3
17.5 15.8 14.0
r in
2.42 2.44 2.45
x or y in
2.41 2.37 1.56 1.56 1.57
r in
lb
56.9 51.0 45.0
a fl
38.9 32.7
11.4 9.61
69.7 59.4
12.2 10.3
2.47 2.49
1.58 1.58
L 6 x 6 x 1
26.4
37.4 33.1
7.75
11.0 9.73
48.6
35.5 31.9
8.36
8.57 7.63
2.50
1.80 1.81
2.19
1.86 1.82
1.59
1.17 1.17
a
28.7 24.2
8.44 7.11
28.2 24.2
6.66 5.66
1.83 1.84
1.78 1.73
1.17 1.18
L 5 x 5 x a
19.6
5.75
19.9
4.61
14.9
27.2 23.6
4.36
7.98 6.94
15.4
17.8 15.7 11.3
3.53
5.17 4.53
1.86 1.88
1.49 1.51 1.54
1.68 1.64
1.57 1.52
1.18 1.19
0.973 0.975
3.16
1.43
0.983
12.3 10.3
18.5 15.7 12.8
3.61 3.03
8.74 7.42
2.42 2.04
2.81 2.40 1.97
1.56 1.57
1.19 1.20 1.22
1.39 1.37
1.27 1.23 1.18
0.990 0.994
0.778 0.779 0.782
L 4 x 4 x a
L 3 x 3 x
9.8
2.86
4.36
1.52
1.23
1.14
0.788
8.2 6.6
11.1 8.5
2.40 1.94
3.25 2.48 2.09
3.71 3.04
3.64 2.87 2.45
1.29 1.05
1.49 1.15
1.24 1.25
1.06 1.07
1.12 1.09
1.06 1.01
0.791 0.795
0.683 0.687
L 3 x 3 x
7.2 5.8
9.4 8.3
1.69
2.75 2.43
2.01
2.22 1.99
0.976 0.794
1.07 0.954
1.08 1.09
0.898 0.905
0.990 0.968
0.932 0.910
0.690 0.694
0.584 0.585
3.71
1.09
0.962
0.984 0.849 0.703
0.441
0.566 0.482 0.394
0.939
0.820
0.596
L 2 x 2 x
5.9 5.0 4. t
3.07
0.92
0.547
0.303
0.778
0.694
0.495
A-8
Appendix
A-11
Table
8. Standard
Dimensions
Steel
Pipe
Properties
Nora. Diam.
b
8
Outside Diam.
h
0.405
Inside Diam.
in
0.269
Thickhess
h
0.068
I
in 4
0.001 0.003 0.007
A
in 2
0.072 0.125 O. 167 0.16 0.21
r
in
O. 12
0.540
0'.675
0.364
0.493
0.088
0.091
0.42 0.57
0.85 1.13
a4
I
0.840
1.050 1.315
0.622
O. 824 1.049
0.109
O. 113 0.133
15
1
2
1.660
1.900
2.375
1.380
1.610
2.067
0.140
O. 145
O. 154
0.017 0.037 0.087 O. 195 0.310 0.666 1.53 3.02 4.79 7.23 15.2 28.1
72.5 161.
0.250 0.333 0.494 O. 669 0.799 1.07 1.70 2.23 2.68 3.17 4.30 5.58
8.40 11.9
0.26 0.33 0.42 0.54 0.62 0.79 0.95 1.16 1.34 1.51 1.88 2.25
2.94 3.67 4.38
2
3
2.875
3.500
2.469
3.068
0.203
0.216
3
4
4.000
4.500
3.548
4.026
0.226
0.237
5 6 8
10 12
40.48 49.56
279.
14.6
Table
Shape
W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W 36 33 36 36 36 36 36 33 36 33 33 30 30 30 27 24 27
9. Plastic
Section
Plastic
Moduli
Modulus
Around
Z,
the
X-X
Shape
Axis;
'i'yp
Plastic
---- 36 ksi
Modulus Z,
in 3
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 230 221 194 182 170 160 150 141 135 130 118 116 108 99 94 94 84 943 855 767 718 668 624 581 514 509 467 415 378 346 312 278 254 244
W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W
in 3
x x x x x x x x 84 76 68 68 62 55 57 55 44 40 40 35 31 26 22 24 18 224 200 177 160 153 134 129 112 95.4 78.4 72.9 66.5 54.0 40.2 33.2 23.2 17.0
24 24 24 21 24 24 21 18
,-
.
oo
.
oo
X
x
-J
X
x
-J
X
x
-J
X
x
-J
-J
X
x
('q
X
x
-J
X
x
-J
X
x
-J
21 18 16 18
16
x x x x
x
14 14
x x 8 x 8 x
A-'O
A=2
Table
Standard
Appendix
10. Properties
Dressed
Standard
Appendix
A43 Beams
Curve
of Structural
(S4S)* Sizes.
Lumber
(Abridged
List).
Sectional
Standard
Properties
of American
Table
11,
Deflections
and
Slopes
of Elastic
Curves
for
Variously
Equation
Loaded
of Elastic
Nominal
Size in
2 x 4 6 8 10 12 14
Dressed
Size in x in
I.X_, x 3.x_, 5 7, 9 11 13
Area
Section #l 2
5.25 8.25 10.9 13.9 16.9 19.9
13.8
of
Motnent
of Inertia in 4
5.36 20.8 47.6 98.9
178 291
34.7
Section
Modtdus in 3
3.06 7.56 13. I 21.4 31.6 43.9
12.6
Weight
er Foot lb
1.46 2.29 3.02 3.85 4.69 5.52
3.82
Nominal
Size in
lO x lO 12 14 16 18 20 22
Dressed
Size in x in
9-' ._, x 9 I l 13 15 17 19 21
I -' 13 15 17
Area
Section in 2
90.3
of
Moment
of Inertia in 4
679
Section
Modnlus in 3
143
Weight
per Foot lb
25. l
Loading
Maximum
Deflection
Slope
at End
P (9L 3
Vm = v(O) = --
3Lr + .r )
pL
3El
109
1204
209
30.3
128
147 166 185 204
1948
2948 4243 5870 7868
289
380 485 602 732
35.6
40.9 46.1 51.4 56.7
o(0)
pL
2El
3 x 46
8-
2 x 5-' 3
7{ 9{ I 1{ 13{
8.75
8.93
5.10
2.43
12 x
24
12 14 16 18 l . x
23
223
132 155 178 201
10274
1458 2358 3569 5136
874
62.0
IO 12 14 16
qo
o(o)
6EI
15{
38.
739
96.9
10.6
20
22
19
21
224
247
7106
729
62.3
4 x 46
8
10 12 14 16 6 x 6 8 l0 12 14 16 18 8 x 8 l0 12 14
3 x 53-
2
12.3 19.3
25.4
32.4 39.4 46.4 53.4
30.3
12.5 48.5
Il
231 415 678 1034
76.3
7.15 17.6
30.7
49.9 73.8 102 136
27.7
3.40 5.35
7.05
8.94_ 10.9 12.9 14.8
8.40
24
16 18 20 22 24
23
15 17 19 21 23
270
182
12437
2768
4189 6029 8342 11181 14600
9524
1058
410
541 689 856 1040 1243
886
75.0
50.6
58.1 65.6 73.1 80.6 88.1
68.7
7
9 II 13 15
_, x 5-'
14 x 14
13 x 13
5 7-' 9 I I 13 15 17 7 9 I l 13
17
q,,x v = 24E1
=
t'-L 3 _ 2Lx2
v( L/2) -
+
4
See
Example
10-3.
Vm,,
When
5q,,L
384E1
0(0) = -0(L)
See Example
- 24EI q"L3
10-6.
16
16 18 20 22 24 18 20 22 24
22
15
15 17 19 21 23 17 19 21 23
21
0 -< x -< a,
then
a =
b =
--4x)
, then
18
17
7-' ._, x
4-- (3L'
= v(L/2)
2
pL 3
Vma
48.EI
o(0)
-O(L)
pL
16E/
16 20
* Surfaced are based
National
18
15 19
116.3
131.3
2327 4634
All properties average
3350
300 475
383
32.0 40.6
36.4
20 x 20 24
24 x 24
19 x 19 23
23 x 23
380
552
12049
16150
1236
1502
106
116
146.3
458
sizes
21089
25415
1795
2163
127
153
6EIL
M,,x (L 2 _ x2 )
See
Example
13-1.
Forest
Association.
and weight
are cubic
for
dressed
foot.
Based
given
by the
P P
7Jmax v(L//)
pa 2
9/3 E1
MoL
o(o)
0(L)
Mo
6E/
Vmax = v(L/2)
Pa
0(0) = (L
Pa
- a)
Appendix
Table 12. Fixed-End Actions of Prismatic Beams'*
Loading
Moments*
Reactions*
Mao
-Moa
q,,L 2
12
R,,
= Ro
qoL
2
M,.a =
Pab L2 2
P ba 2
pb
<
mdc-
L2
L3 (a + 3b)
Chapter
1-3.
M,,o
---
qoL 2
30
R,,
---
3qoL
20
/re at 0 and at 45: 0.5/0.5; +m at 0 and
at 45 and
1-51.
38.9
k.
M,, = q"L2 20
M,a, = Or,
Ru = - 7qoL 20
1-53.
8.57
in,
18.2
in.
2-45.
2-47. 2-49. 2-51.
194 MPa
RL (a)
MPa, (lower
129 rod).
MPa,
kN.
228
Chapter
ksi, 2.34 ksi, 6.43 ksi, 18.2 ksi. MPa; 30 mm, 35 = 25 MPa, f min
ksi.
2-1.
2-3.
2-5. 2-7.
29.3
(a)
mm. =
10 mm,
X 10 6 psi.
(b)
2-53.
1.67
2-55.
2-59.
N (middle
0.6062P. 0.65P.
wire)
Mr,, =
4El
Or,
6El
Rt, = - _
12El 12El
6El
10 MPa. 2.11-kPa.
2-61.
2-63.
Ru
4.8
=
kN.
1-17.
1-19.
- 109 psi.
(a) (c)
MPa. 6.5 2.83
psi,
- 198
(b) (d)
psi,
40.9 113
- 119
MPa,
2-9.
2-11. 2-13.
(a)
from
9.20 0.0363
0.0289
left.
mm.
in,
in.
(b)
8.57
in
2-65.
Ru
=-4P.
2-67.
2-69. 2-71.
2-73.
P/[(a/b)
37.8 C. at
+
11.
2-15.
2-17.
zk
597
=
ft.
3.7
mm.
2-75.
(b) 0.028 in.
Pyp
kN
= 376
M,, = - L-- T zk
R,,
L_ iX
1-21. 1-23.
2-19. 5.97
crc
Mi,. = - -5-_,A
6El
R = ~
1-25. 1-27.
4.81 cr.m
ksi,
=
ksi. = 100.3
MPa
2-21. 2.23.
2-25.
(a)
0.122
in,
5 mm.
kN,
P
= 518
2-77.
Chapter
3-1.
2'yw2L3/3gE.
3
51.2 N/mm.
1-29.
73.6 psi,
10.7 16.4
psi, 184
in. mm.
111 psi.
psi,
(b)
902.1
0.707 m.
2-27.
2-29.
2-31.
Mb,.=M,,(-I
M;.
* For all the cases tabulated, the positive
+ 4- 3a2' L 2 ]
of the end moments and
Rb = --
6M,,a
1-31. 1-33.
1-35. 1-37.
0.00375 graphic
2 mm
3-3.
3-5.
(a)
0.325,
- 3.50
0.25.
(b) 0.25
in.
147
kN. plate,
=
senses
M"a (2 - 3)
distributed method loading. in Section The
13-5.
R,.
reactions
6M, L2,a (1 - )
are the same
1-41.
1-43. 1-45.
1-39.
2-33.
A^ 7950
mm
= 5300mm mm 2, Ae
2, Ac = 3640
=
2-35. 2-37.
in,
0.0714 solution
3-7. 3-9.
3-11.
0.212
in.
0.080
70.7 25.9
in,
MPa. MPa.
0.025
kiN.
special
sign
convention
1-47. 1-49.
&max 0.909
= 14.5 in 2 vs
(a) (c)
28.7 0.565
3-23.
41.0
(a) (b)
txm,
P-2
Answers
to
Odd-numbered
Problems
Answers
to
Odd.numbered
Problems
P-3
Chapter 9
- 7.5
97.7
3-25.
(b) 90 MPA,
(c) 30.3
m,
3-29.
Chapter
4-1.
4-3. 4-5.
3-27.
Add
to Eq.
term
3-38.
(1 - v2)to2r/gE
7.80
in.
5-11.
5-13. 5-15. 5-17. 5-19. 5-21.
5-9.
4 k, - 0.8 k, - 17.6 k-ft; 0, - 0.8 k, 2.4 k-ft. - 416 lb, 139 lb, 832 lb-ft.
5-85.
5-87.
P/2,
-P/2,
- PR/2.
-P/2,
-PR;
O,
282
MPa.
b2h2/24,
- b2h2/72.
8-9.
225
kPa,
not
6.99 ksi,
permissible.
8-11.
8-13. 8-15. 8-17. 8-19.
45 MPa, - 5 MPa.
22.9 ksi, 10ksion0 (a) 18.3
5 MPa;
ksi. = 26.6 - 38.3
5 MPa,
,0. ksi on
0 0
9-1.
9-3. 9-5. 9-7.
MPa,
13.0
MPa.
4
17.9
1:0.375. 2 in.
MPa:
5-23.
in,
in.
4-7.
4-9.
3.71
0.310
5.35
in,
3.72
. MPa,
4-11. 4-13.
4-15. 4-19.
4-21. 4-23.
4-17.
(a) 0, 40.4 MPa, 8.1 _16.2 MPa, (b) 8.6 . (a) ri = 21 mm, (b) strength. (a) 0.75 .
rad/ib-in.
720/JG. 0.837T.
5-25.
- woL, 2x, M^ M^
34 k, -12 k, 30 k-ft. - 7.2 k, 9.6 k - 24 k-ft; - 3.15 k, - 12.6 k, 30 k-ft. -3k,-3k, 6k-ft. 6.75 kN, - 3 kN, 3 kN.m. 3P, -2PL.
mm 4, I,
= 753.9757
Chapter
6-1. 6-3. 6.5. 6-7. 6.9.
10.0 ksi,
1.2
ksi, 47.7
MPa,
MPa,
ksi;
33.8 MPa.
10 ksi, 0.22
MPa;
5 ksi.
ksi,
9-9.
9-11.
9.90
- 1.6
ksi,
MPa, ksi,
45.2
ksi,
- 167
kN.m.
Chapter
7-1.
7-3.
7
35.2
Use
0.168
+ 5 MPa.
MPa,
- 83.5
MPa;
ksi, 0.51
+ P/2,
- woL2/2.
lb/in,
(a), 2.44
105
in.
lb.
8-21.
(a)
16.1
ksi
on
0 = - 28.2
9-13.
- 2.5
ksi;
764
(a) 0.264
, (b)
17 x 10 -6
5-35.
I m Im
= Pa/2.
(a) 704
NA.
kN, 71.0 29
(b) mm mm
kN.
7-5.
7-7.
7-9.
(a)
3.4
10.2
1.6
in,
kN.
in,
9.08
(b)
in.
8 in.
ksi,
,-4
9-15. 9-19.
9-21.
9-17.
+ 1.83
lb.
0; - 2.81
ksi. - 4.93 ksi. 18.8 k-in.
59.4
NA.
6-17.
6-19.
6-21.
.
Negative,
26.9 k.
- 22.5
MPa, - 96.8
ksi.
MPa.
6-23.
6-25.
119
15
-kx4/12
(F
wa/2)a. + kL3x/3
mm.
tY/nax
0, 7.06 MPa, 11.3 or MPa, 35.3 MPa, 27.3 MPa, 0. 132 MPa, 139 MPa. 0, 78.2 kPa, 125 kPa, kPa, 125 kPa. 51.1 k, 197 k-in.
144 637 kN. kPa.
8-25.
8-27.
140
8-29.
0, (b)
(b)
(b) (a)
(a) + 10 MPa
10 MPa, 6ksion0
0.
at 45 ,
= 116.6
0.272 14.1
- 40
ksi, k-in,
ksi.
+50
psi,
50 psi.
=
9-23. 9-25.
9-29. 9-31.
- 35
MPa.
9-27.
(b) - 32 MPa, - 6.5 MPa. - 212 psi, - 167 psi. - 16.4 MPa, 0.01 MPa.
56.3 .
(b) 241 psi, - 41 psi; 141 psi, 100 psi. (a) 17 MPa, - 6.2 MPa,
4-25.
4-27.
5-39.
= 5-41.
5-43.
M
rx/L.
= --(kZ2/4
- Mx/L. =
+ b).
2) sin
(b)
4,
4-2J.
4-33. 4-35.
4-37.
2toL22/9X/3JG.
573 MPa.
(a) toL/3,
rad.
- M/L,
2P,-P(2a
0) 10)Im
=
hp.
5-47.
5-45.
5-49. 5-51.
V,
MN.m. k-ft.
IVIm
= 10k,
2P/3,
= 600kN,-2.8 = 1.98k,
+Pa/3.
48k-ft.
6-27.
U =
8-31.
8-33.
7-25. 7-27.
7-31.
7-33.
7-29.
kN-->ea,
(a)
(b)
(a)
254
1.82
psi,
20kN
2.22 240
MPa.
9-33.
9-35.
88.9
3 x4in.
mm
outside
diameter.
kN
x 106 mm 4,
7.69
MPa, plate
(b)
31 psi.
', 20kN
<--,
250
- 15 ksi,
$.
8-37.
8-39.
5p,
5 MPa.
.
ksi.
9-37. 9-39.
9-41.
2 ft. section,
30. 25.4. 54.7
2.13
51.6
or
5.49
MPa,
MPa,
8-41.
18.7
MPa.
4-39.
10.5 +2
6-45.
6-47.
+35.7
Angles
48.2 MPa.
2.5
MPa.
9-43.
8-43.
kN/m,
8-45.
7-35.
7-37.
(a)
415 5.30
83.0
kN/m. mm.
kN/m,
194
(b)
9-49.
9-45. 9-47.
d = do(x/L)
(a)
+
v3.
6 =
79 in
44
6 =
50 in,
from
(b)
center.
73
4-41.
4-43.
4-45. 4-47.
(a)
rad.
85 MPa,
X ][0 3 mm psi, 0.691/G
(b)
2.
4.
89
x 10 -6
5-53.
5-55. 5-57.
= 3 kN,
10 k-ft. - 24 k-ft.
6-49.
(a)
54
D. MPa.
kN.m,
470 11.1
3R/t,
t2/3R
6-51.
m
and 126
12 MPa,
MPa,
NA
+9.57
through
MPa,
7-39.
7-43.
MPa, - 10.4827 MPa, (c) (-18.3 0.47, ksi, 0.20,0, - 38. 0.83 6). ksi. 0, - 1000 txm/m;
4.58; +5.76 81.9
4.57
a).
a.
rad/in.
4-49.
67%,
(b)
5.3
5-59. 5-61.
- 700 lb, 625 lb-ft. 20 kN, 40 kN-m. - 10 k, 50 k-ft. R^ = 35k, RB = 50 N,10 N.m.
- 68
kN.m.
+2qoa, 1.5qoa,
2.5qoa 0.625qoa
2.
aR/sin
8-51.
kPa, kPa, kN.
8-57.
8-49.
1128
2.
6-53.
6-55.
6-57. 6-59. 6-61.
+24.6
28 mm. 282 MPa. 15.6 mm. - 18 ksi.
0, - 154
kPa.
kPa; kPa;
kPa.
0, -195
- 120
8-53. 8-55.
txm/m,
- 128
- 26.6 .
txm/m;
iO
800
483 - kx.
mm,
ft.
200
MPa.
20k.
60
t51
N/mm,
6 0
kN,
---24
kN,
6-63.
6-65.
6-67.
- 174
150
420
psi.
kN,
N.
10-7. 10-9.
5 kN.
- 5.34
- 50 to 100
problems.
5-3. 5-5.
Chapter
ksi.
mm.
8
P/A; VQ/It; PJA My/I, + My/I; Tr/J; P/A, Tr/J.
10.2 - 5.91
5-1.
5-75.
k,
5-77. 5-79.
5-81.
100 2k,
N.m.
I V Imax
Iglm-
= 2P/3,
kN-m.
4Pa/3.
3.2
6-69.
6-71.
16.0
From
ksi,
8-1.
8-3.
160N,
4
6-73.
6-75.
R/4.
27.6 ft.
5-7.
k-ft; k-ft;
5-83.
M=
10)3/3.
900x-
6-77.
(a)
40.5
kN,
e =
25
mm,
8-5.
txm/m,
1.33
39.8 MPa, 14.3 MPa; MPa, - 14.3 MPa. - 12.1 ksi, 5.24 ksi; ksi, - 5.24 ksi.
(_:4 _6)
-12 8 8 6 8
10-11.
10-13.
8-59.
8-61.
2Vo,
Cryv/(1
--
X/ 7o.
- v + v-j
M(x
2- 2Lx
'xl/9
~, %./(1
10-15.
EIv=
for origin
Mo(x3/L
on the
- Lx)/6
fight.
8-7.
- 2 psi,
3 psi.
to
Odd-numbered
Problems
Answers
to
Odd-numbered
Problems
EIv=
for
O-<x-<
P(4x
for
L/2.
3 - 3L2x)[48
O-<x-<a;
10-75.
4.1.
EIv=
10-21. 10-23.
aLx/2)
P(x3/6
+ a2x/2
10-79. 10-81.
10-77.
10-83.
5.74 1.15
(a) P = 11bh2ctyp/12L.
mm, mm, 0.00137 0.00094
10-85.
10-87. 10-89.
10-91.
I v^l = 19Wo an/8EI, [ 0A[ = 11woaa/6EL Iv^ I = M, a2/4EI, [ v^[ = Ma2/6EI, Iv^ 1 - Pa/12m,
= 13Pa2/28EL
rad. rad.
12-35. 12-37.
0.604 0.0587
mm. ft.
12-59.
See
answer
for
12-21.
13-11.
12-61.
EI0
0.336PL2/EI.
Rdy
- 0.714P.
= 2.29P,
Rdx
12-39.
'+ buckling, 2.
+ L).
12-41.
EI/
+
11-17.
10-25.
xx/L
= Ma//12EI.
10^
O. Io^
= P[2L3/3
+ R(rL
12-63. 12-65.
12-67. 12-69.
13-13.
13-15.
Mb
Ab
=
=
=
11-21.
11-23.
kL
k.
k(a
12-43.
reaction
11-25.
(a)
9.16
30.1
30e
ft,
ft.
- 40.
(b)
548
mm,
12-71.
12-73.
R^
33woL/16.
10-27. 10-29.
+ 3Lx2/2
- L,c].
3 mm.
11-27.
11-29.
11-45. 11-47.
(a)]
+
(c)
cr]
ksi,
= - 2.5e 2
30.4
1070
10-93.
[ v]
+ 64a3)/24
= 3VoX(X
EI.
3 - 8ax 2
34.3
51.5. 1109
ksi.
k.
- 13kL3/120.
= 9kL2/40, = 10EI/L 2.
M^
13-17.
13-19.
3kL/2.
12-75.
1/2)/EI.
A =
Pc
q3
9.01
F 11.68 kN,
=
8.96 kN, =
kN, F - 4.17 =
F 3.67 kN,
= Ff
Chapter
EIv=
for
P(5x3/3
O-<x--<L/2;
- L2x)/32
EIv=
10-95.
10-97. 10-99. 10-101.
Iv Imx
10-31.
10-33.
P[5x/3 - 16(x - L/2)/3 - Lr]/32 for (a) v = (3x2/2L 2 - x3/2L3). Eslv = P(x 3 - 5L2x/4)/
12 for
x)/12]/12
224/EL 8/3EI.
k vs
11-49.
(a)
126,
k. k.
(b).
134.
11-51.
11-53. 11-55.
P./P,o, ,
144 117
=
k,
lb. k. k.
1.47.
k.
12-55. 12-57.
11-57.
11-59. 11-61. 11-63.
116
742 146 121
14.7
= 10.3 k, FAr = k, F^ = - 6.52 k; = 6.41 k, F^c = FD = - 5.32 k, - 3.71 k. 1.34PL/AE, A, =
13.1.
13.3.
(2L 2 + 3a 2- 6La)/6L.
k.
13-21. 13-23.
13-25.
(a) (a)
W
13-5.
R
3 k.
13-7.
10-103.
-
I Vc ! = 64/3EI,
5/EI.
5.64
I Oc [
10^ i =
0 = woL3/384EI.
= p[(L-x)
O-<x-<L/2;
for
3 - 7L2(L
E^Iv
See
answer
for
12-53(b),.
(b) 0.172PL. 3.90 k/in, CO) 0.055 in. 11.25 < Wul < 15 lb/in.
14 x 26.
0.41L, w =
0.89
- 0.45
45
13-31.
13-29.
4.92
E.
< Pl
<
5.
Plastic
hinges
at C and
10-105.
10-107.
Iv^
I = 18/EI,
ft.
10-35.
L/2-<x-<L.
10-109.
7P/8.-
10-39.
10-111. 10-113.
10-4'1.
10-45.
EIv= 95ax
EIv=
(a) (c)
S18 14.2
10-47.
RL (a) 26,
in.
kN.
(b)
in,
W16
0.207
10-115.
10-117.
10-119.
Pab2x
10-121.
M/M^
(a)
R^
= 2/5,
k-ft,
0.382P.
11-65.
Chapter
12-1.
q2
[ 0^ I =
12-3.
=
=
M
+ 20PL/ +
PL/GJ;
(b) 0.5,
(c) 0.02,
2.8,
0.1,
_+M,/4.
10-49.
EIv= ka2x3/18
2(a + b) 2 -- a} 3
6
+
10-123.
10-125.
M^
3W/10.
= - WL/15,
/L 2.
R^
M
k-ft,
12-5. 12-7.
12-9.
12-11.
- kx'5/120 - 41ka4x/360
+ 6EI/
+ X/).
10-127.
10-129.
M^
-
=
7PL/66.
- 5PL/33,
- 14.33
k-ft.
12-13.
11PL/384EI.
ka(x-a}4/24 + k(x-a)S/120.
10-53. 10-55. 10-57. 10-59. 10-61. 10-63. 10-65. 10-67. 10-69. 10-71.
M^
=
=
- 8.67
- 0.391
in.
- kaS/15EI. 13PL/192EI.
6.48 8.13 2.03 531 47.1 96.8 kN. lb. k. N
N. F.
Chapter
l -l. 11-3.
11-5.
q
3k/2. k/a Pa
Pa
Pa
12-17. 12-19.
12-21.
12-15.
0 = 13 woL/648EI.
Co) 5PL/6EI.
A = MoL,(3L + 2L2)/6EI.
and
-
3k/a. k
Pa
Pa
k
k
12-23.
12-25. 12-27.
0 0 Pa k
A
= 2Pa3/EL
0 =
in
middle
bar.
Av
5P/EI.
= 92/EI. = 80P/3EI.
0.0437
in,
0.121
in,
0.0462
0 , 69.2%
10-73.
in,
0.653
86.2
in;
, 90 .
13
0 k Pa Pa
0 0
12-29.
12-31.
12-33.
0 = 66P/EI.
A^ =_l.97Pa3/EI, pa2(X/2 + 3)/2EI,
3Pa2/2EL
1.57 in.
O^ O =
1.28
in,
t3 = 78.8
center
front
of twist
center)
Shear
of variable
plastic
Abbreviations
and
cover
symbols,
inside
480
cross-section,
of, 314, 708
298,
of, of,
304,
classifications
Allowable stress, definition of, 34 design (ASD), 35, tables of, A-I, A-2 Angle-of-twist, of circular members, of noncircular solid
members,
built-in
cantilever,
(see
228
fixed-end)
229
analysis
A-11
section
modulus
315,
470,
189 bars,
608
215,
Angle
Anistropy,
Answers
properties
A-9,
for A-10
229 229
224
of curvature concrete,
282,499 318
A-
297 229
odd-numbered
composite
moduli of, 294, A-6, 8, A-9, A-10, A-12 in, 236 stress in, 357, 367
228 (see
strength) section
480 337
statically
506,
indeterminate,
517, 524, 686
23,
506
of,
supports unsymmetrical
for,
336
225,
bending
of,
319,
Area-moment Areas,
problems,
Moment-area
method
A-15
moments second
of moment
inertia of,
340
useful
Axes,
neutral,
properties
284
of, 319,341
A-4
of, 224, A-13 of, (see Deflection) of, (see Design) curve for, 261,499
section modulus of, 293
principal,
Axial force, loads definition deformation stresses
15,
235 see Columns), 16, 235 due to, 71, 94 to, 12, 16, 87
elastic
strain
531
energy
in,
299,
Axial
Axial
force
diagrams,
(also of,
74,
240
due
flexure formula for, 283,339 inelastic bending of, 311 deflection for, 534 lateral stability of, 623 limit analysis of, 534, 708 maximum bending stresses
286, 321
relations moment-curvature
warpage of, 373 Bearing stress, 21 Bending, of beams, 281,336 with axial loads, elastic, 324 inelastic, 333 deflections due inelastic, 311 pure, 280 unsymmetrical,
to,
498
319,
336
strain
energy
in,
299
in,
stresses due to 280, 339 Bending moment, and elastic curve, relation between, 285, 501 and shear, relation between,
250
596,
600
283,337, 499 diagrams for, 241,252 axis in, 284, 320 or more materials, 288,
Biaxial
of
238
301
sign
convention
stress, 10
for,
IN-2
Bifurcation Boundary for for
Buckling
Index
Body
forces,
point,
8
580 198
Concentration
Stress)
of stress
47 47 50
(see
superposition
for for
beam-columns, columns,
bars beams
525
method
for
for
element
torsion in
equilibrium,
circular
11
197
Fatigue,
Fiber Finite
of columns,
method
584,
for,
642
force
644
Dilata{ion,
Dirac
members,
delta
152
stress, element
32
467
Indeterminate
definition method,
actions of, of 698
members
Statical,
systems)
(see indeterminate
function,
265 700
Conservation
energy
principle
of,
formula,
590
displacements by, 95, 215, 638 Constant strength beams, 480 Consistent deformations, method of, (see Force method) Constitutive relations, 68, 139,
146
of helical Deflection
Deformation,
springs, of beams,
loaded
84 of freedom,
73,470
Displacement
Doublet Dynamic
697
195,697,
method,
106,
533
108,
Inelastic
behavior,
202
311
A-14
of circular
torsion deflection,
534
members,
of axial y
thermal, Degrees
71
195,
or dipole, loads,
Flange, Flexibility,
Flexibility definition reciprocity Flexibility
definition
of,
299
Design,
Cantilever,
229 -666
665
Castigliano's
first,
second,
theorem,
of axial y
loaded
members,
480 475
34,
687
225
U.S.
of
Conventions
for
supports,
for
for
statically
systems,
indeterminate
670
Conversion
column
curve,
426,
design energy
472, 605
608 611
Center
Centroids
Centroids
of twist
and
of areas,
(see
A-4
moments
284,
Shear
of inertia
338
centet9
Couplings, Creep,
Critical Curvature, Curved deflection stresses
inside
customary
back
to SI units,
cover
concentrically aluminum
steel, wood,
610 616
608
for
axial y
66
587
337, 503
Inelastic
of Inertia, beams,
of torsion 194,
308 285
members,
of, 285,340
204
690
moment
Flexural
Flexure for
rigidity,
formula, curved
509
beams, beams,
634,
470
661
for
Force Fracture Frameworks,
energy, loaded
buckling, 299,
stress,
339
100, 441 194, 687
bars,
674
636
Internal
of areas,
sections,
designing,
84
properties
stress,
A-8
for expansion,
154
33, section,
bars,
shaft, 71
22,
201
470
radius
of,
in,
Curvature-area
of, method,
650
308
282,499
536
of thermal
mechanism,
plastic,
711
Cylindrical
thick-walled, thin-walled,
pressure
159 152
vessels,
eccentrically
stress
methbd,
482
members,
method,
47
617
of, 3
79,
85,
Internal
Invariant, of of strain, stress,
strain
299, 436 408,
energy,
635
94,
200,
636 665
Free-body,
635
426
Gage Gages,
length, 62,
state
60 438
of stress, 7
Isotropy,
definition
of,
146
Elastic
stress
analysis,
66
461
General
torsional
members,
deterministic, probabilistic,
load
and
resistance
31, 34 31, 38
45, 608
factor
principal
stress,
424
Kern,
332
of,
67
Kinematic
indeterminancy,
195,697
106,
of, limit,
32
dissipating
711
eccentrically loaded, 582 effective length for, 587 Euler formula for, 585
double-modulus
theory
for,
591
Deflection, of axial y
of
(LRFD),
Helical Hinge,
Hooke's
springs, plastic,
law,
389 710
stress
d'Alembert's
principle,
loaded Castigliano's
665
38
bars, theorem, 499, method, 531 507
644
formulas formulas
long,
loaded,
for for
concentrically
608
beams,
74,
94
40
40
42
function,
Euler
intermediate
secant
loaded,
589 592
591
eccentrically
length,
616
by
592
582 formula
689
short,
formula
for,
tangent-modulus
slenderness
ratio
of,
589
due to governing
for,
equations
501,505
for
method
beams,
for,
probability of failure, 43 sample mean, 40 sample variance, 40 standard deviation, 40 of torsion members, 185,471 Deviation, tangential, 540 Diagrams for beams, axial-force, 240 bending moment, 240, 252
shear, 240, 250
for for
for
shear uniaxial
isotropic
materials,
stress,
and
66
strain,
146,
130
148
146,
186
154 and
Load
Load Loads,
623 708
326 608
factor
design
Factor
Factors
of safety,
of
34
stress-concentration,
Compatibility
641,659,
661
equations,
100,
145,
moment-area
537
Complementary
Concentrated
strain
moment,
diagrams,
energy,
effect on
258
92,
functions, method
integration for, 507,
for,
514
523
bars,
beams
501,504,
125
in
297
Identity matrix, 704 1-shape steel beams, crippling in, 478 properties for designing,
A-6
A-5,
376,
199,
of
shafts,
shearing
Impact, deflection factor, loading,
stresses
385,478 due 533 to,
in,
96,
381,
531
Localized
stress
stress-concentration)
154
(see
Factors
of
in torsion
Longitudinal
Lower Luders
stress
solutions, 20
in cylinder,
716
moment
successive
method
of equilibrium
Failure,
theories fi'acture
of (see criteria)
YieM
and
98, 96
bound lines,
Index
Lumber, sizes, properties for
Moment-curvature relation for
Index
beams, 499 of inertia of areas, 285, 289
340
IN-5
Strain Strain
Strain
designing,
A-13
Margin
of safety,
65 65,
35
Principal Principal
Probabilistic
strain, stress,
basis
436 409,424
for structural
theorem
axes A-4 for, through 341
for,
291,
Properties,
anisotropic,
66,
67 67
147,
of angles, of channels
design, for
of standard by,
of pipe,
plastic
through
A-12
Shaft Shape
coupling, factor,
center, deflection
beams,
for
A-
Shear Shear
709 382
201
of beams,
Statically indeterminate beams, analysis by, Castigliano's method, 670 displacement method, 697 force method, 687 flexibility method, 687 integration of dif erential equations, 507, 514
energy
energy)
(see
438
Elastic 69
strain
hardening,
rosettes,
Strength,
Stress,
ultimate,
A-2,
32
allowable,
bearing, biaxial, circumferential,
concentration
1, 32,
A-3
608,
610,
612,
bodies,
90,
isotropic, mechanical
orthotropic,
146' properties,
147
199,
forces
531
caused
standard,
section
Shear
beams,
A-12
Shear Shear
diagrams
flow, forces
in
wide-flange
A-11
steel
lumber, (WF)
61 284 284
Matrix
structural
657,
661,703
analysis,
444
Maximum
Maximum Maximum Maxwell's
Members Membrane,
Method definition
theory,
449
distortion
normal
energy
stress theory, 442
Necking,
65
of rectangular of wide-flange
beams,
definition
(see
Shear'
forces
moment-area,
551.
singularity
solutions, stif ness
function
523 method, of, 23 indeterminate 702
21 10 154
factor,
steel
A-6
diagrams diagrams
sign
Shear Shear Shear load, convention modulus strain, stress,
superposition, three-moment of
141 definition Statically
527 equation,
systems,
559
members,
Proportional
shear stress,
limit,
66
with
of, 5
method,
670
100, 687
106,
bars,
displacements,
288,
209
shear theorem
stress
theory, of reciprocal
691
Radius,
members,
336
in axial y
17
loaded
286,
14,
of curvature,
282,499
of composite
301
in bending,
analogy
3
of sections, of,
Octohedral
448
shear
stress
theory,
for
for
axial y
beams,
16
loaded
234
members,
175
329
14,
590
formula, 69 230,
Reciprocity
Redundant
Reinforced
Relation
Relation Relation
690 23,551,672
definition of, 6 due to axial force, 14, 20 in beam flanges, 380 in beams, 357, 367 in circular shafts, 179 in non-circular shafts, 207 in rivets and bolts, 21, 48
in thin-walled tubular
energy force
methods, method,
method, method,
work
impact,
in curved
maximum
96
bars,
and
306
minimum
beams,
304,
members,
213
maximum,
410
for
Middle-third Mises' Modulus, bulk, of
torsion
yield
152
members,
rule, condition,
Parallel-axis
theorem,
291,340
among
between between
E,
shear
G, moment,
curvature
and
and
v, 250
and
150
on
perpendicular
369, 410
planes,
9, 16,
194 properties
16
Pipe,
Plane Plane
standard
strain, stress, 149 149,
steel,
467
A-11
designing,
A-11
A-5
of, 75 191,209, 702
principal,
409,424
bending bending
336, 501
448
of elasticity,
resilience,
66
93
Plagtic Plastic
of
hinge, limit
continuous
710 analysis,
315, mechanisms 534
moment,
71
285,
principal, 410 superposition of, 386 SI units, facing inside back Sign convention,
for for for moment shear stress, in beams, in beams, 7, 405 238 237
cover
141
of beams, collapse
Relaxation,
215
in,
beams and
Repeated
Residual Resilience, Restrained
loading,
stress, modulus beams, 19,
32
205,316 of, 93 551
reciprocity
Stif ness Strain, definition matrix,
of,
110,
703
702
in bending, in torsion,
314 204
535,
stress
435 414,
417,426
Moment Moment
Moment-area
generaI,
tnoment) beams,
240,
for
theorems,
indeterminate
538
beams,
551
Principal Principal
Primary
analysis, of inflection, ratio, moment total, vessels, axes, shear stress system,
469 262
82 of inertia, 674 thin-walled, of inertia, 179
509 of,
438 of,
141
204, 314
definition of, 228 functions, 263,523 bending (see Unsymmetrical bending) Slenderness ratio, 589 S-N diagrams, 32 Spherical pressure vessels, 155 Spring constant, 75
torsional, 191,209, 215
beams,
of,
extensional, h-rotational,
maximum, 436
61, 61 145
143
residual, t9, 205,316 shear, 19, 22 state of, 7, 405 tangential, 160 tensile, 5 tensor, 7, 446 three-dimensional, torsional, 179,208, transformation of,
424
triaxial,
true, 65
10,
424
319,
152 341
Safety Sandheap
index,
stress, circles,
101,688,
410 428
696
St.
St.
Venant's
Venant
44 analogy principle,
181,467
for
207
210 86,
torsion,
Springs, helical, 389 Stability of equilibrium, columns, 574, 674 criteria for, 578
Euler load,
circle 61 146,
435
Secant
formula
for
columns,
592
Statical
moment
583,585 of area,
362
two-dimensional, 407 uniaxial, 10 Stress-strain, diagram, 62 idealization, 67, 69 relationships, 62 for shear, 139 Stress trajectories, 470 430
of,
Stretching, Suddenly
143 applied
531
loads,
98,
199,
IN-6
Superposition, of deflection, of strain,
Index
113,525 statically
problems, noncircircular thin-walled
213
indeterminate
194 solid tubular
209, 215 stif ness,
Vertical
bars, members, 207
shear
(see
Shear)
333
Virtual
displacement
658
method,
640,
for
191,
static
Torsional 325,
spring
constant,
191
Virtual
101,
195,
319,
by,
Torsional
for
deflections, elastic
force
659
equilibrium,
642,653,
642
method,
659 systems,
641,658
386,
Toughness,
93
Supports
diagrammatic
simple,
225
conventions
226
for,
fixed,
226
Trajectories, stress, 470 Transformation, of moments of inertia, 341 of strain, 430 ' in two dimensions, 430 of stress, 403 for general state of stress, 424, 426
for
of compatibility,
644
644
Virtual
and
frames, systems,
657
645
650
Tables,
index
of,
A-1
in two
Transformed
302
Tensile Tensor,
Temperatur6
deviatoric dllatational
Tangential Tangent
deviation, modulus,
test, 31
or thermal
540 70, 59
dimensions, cross-sectional
444
407
area,
von
principle,
Mises
external, internal,
discrete
systems,
638
condition,
373
448
strain,
84
stress, stress,
446 446
distortion
spherical
strain, stress,
stress,
stress,
145 7, 446
446
446
8
Uniaxial
Ultimate
stress,
strength,
10
Thick-walled Thin-walled
Thrust,
cylinders, cylinders,
176
159 152
Unit,
beams) stress, conditions (see St. Venant's principle) dummy load, 644
strength Constant
Warpage
of beams,
of thin-walled
open
sections,
211
definition
of,
299
Welded
Wide
flange
joints
A-6
(WF) properties
(connections),
steel for
beams, designing,
work)
50
Wood,
Work, external, internal, principle Working
(see
(also
Lumber)
see Virtual 637 638 of least, 671 stress, 36, 607
Torque,
Torsion,
circular
internal,
members:
Unit
impulse
265 319
(or
step
function),
bending
solution,
of beams,
715
205
inelastic,
energy torsion
202
Tresca,
von
condition,
Mises,
criteria,
and point,
66
441
67
444
444
179
Variable
cross-section,
480
beams
of,
Yield
Young's
strength
modulus,
ENGINEERING
MECHANICS
OF SOLIDS
by
Egor
P. Popov
Noted Errata
Page
vi
x
in 1st Printing
Should read or be
Line 18 28
15
4 11
16 39
42 61 -
missing) missing)
Fig.
33
14
caption:
1-3fl
67 7O
Fig:
missing
curve
(see fig.)
Fig.
22
2-i4
missing
replace fOX.
curve
with
(sec fig.)
75,
79 85
Fig. 2-29Co)
98 103
107
Fig. 2-40
13
12
change 6 mm to 16
add fi3g. gl after An
remove i after at
110
Last paragraph
of the "leltas
In _2-42 to
112
Fig. 2-53
361
433
Fig. 7 .d
17
reverse
remove remove
arrow direction
approach
for Fa
casco
18
641
- iLLeXl,i
e on W
of t remove
last subscript
R, is to middle is positive:
A-4
TUBE
OF THIN
A-13
X=,, = v(0)
-.
BASE
SI
UNITS
* Derived
unit
(ks.naYs
2)
(Symbol) (m)
(kg) (N)* (s)
RCOMMENDED
MUL'riPLE
AND
SUBMUL'r!PLE
UNiI'S
inches (in) inches (in) foot (ft) square inches (in 2) cubic feet (ft 3)
G M
To Convert
To
(m) (m) meters meters
(mm)
Multiply
(m 2) (m 3)
2 (m/s 2)
By
400 800 645 317
Multiplication
1 000 000 1 000
Factor
1 000 0.001
Prefix
kilo mil i
SI Symbol
k m
000 000
giga mega
0.000
0.000
000
001
001
micro
nano
ix
with
for example,
mN
a newton-meter
stands
for
mil inewtons.
is writ en
SI unit.
units
and must
not be confused
together.
(lb) (lbf)
(psf)
except
Use of prefixes
for
For numbers
of
kg since
is to be avoided
kg is a base
in the denominator
of compound
having
37 638.246
units.
15 instead
by spaces instead of commas, counting both of the decimal point. Thus, for example, write of 37,638.24615 as writ en in the U.S. Customary
four or more
digits,
the digits
should
be placed
in
per square
inch (ksi)
square
per
meter
757
2 = N/mm
6.894
1.0
757
(N/m
2)
per
pascals newton-meter
newton-meter
(Pa) (N.m)
(N.m)
inch-pound
foot-pound
horsepower
ft-lbf/s)
force
force
(hp
(in.-lbf)
(ft-lbf)
= 550
0.112 1.355
985 818
newton-meter (N.m/s)
per
second
745.700
* For further details see Standard for Metric Practice, E380-86, ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, and Recommended Practice for the Use of Metric (SI) Units in Building Design and Construction, NBS Technical Note 938, U.S. Department
of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
Gravitational
lkgf= 9.81N
acceleration
U.S.
units:
g = 32.1740
g = 9.806
ft/sec"65 m/s 2
in SI units: