([Q)
{ & Csh Bsk
wsh J a\
wsh J [S
wsh uzu \
u|mk
h PP
Pa \, \ & 600 006.
u|k A_
u v & 2005
UTl - 2006
Szu
.u.\Sn j
x{ A B [Q x,
A] PU P,
|u, \ & 600 035.
P
.Q.
h, xzu,
x{ A [Q x
D... A] PU P
va] & 620 020.
P. C[P
h, x{ A
B [Q x
A] PU P, |u,
\ & 600 035
. h]
h xzu,
[Q Ez u ~m x,
Q P, va] & 620 002
B]P
v. u. \P,
. [Qm u
xP [Q B],
xP [Q B],
.P. A] sP .{., ].G.I. \ mU .{.,
`k, \ & 600 094
Asn|P, \ & 600 040
v. }. S
xP [Q B],
G.GL.G.i. {
\Pmh, \ & 600 079
: .
h[P u : u|k A_UPP U P
CUPP, u|k
C 60 .G.G. u Aa]hmkx
CUS E x a] x.
A, u~mz xP Hmk [P
kzv E uP Ax P
P Qhzx. CUS | UPuP UP,
u En mP Ezv, _a` vP, \Uv
u AvPP, |P, E[P A G
]UPP Gv|UQ. Ca\P GvP
UQ o C E x AUS Ex. G
[Pzv u C uzu[Pa \ |x E\
U Pzu xPuS E xP ua]
u. Cu E x a] uhx ]h
Qx.
C E Ev \uUSz u
E x \u AihU PzxP umk. u
Eh\, zx, ~sq, |zuk, E
uP u ~m, _a `{, U, } E
, zx \uU Th u~m, P|h
u Bmk E xP nPUS
AP \x. CzxP uhP uk
\vP Cn u[P P Px U
P. nP u[Px [P EP UP o
wUP Euk P xP \x C
Ax. C umk u
~mU TP C P Cz
uPS.
u. \Sn j
Szu
E ([Q)
h] S
{ Cshsk E ([Q)
hzvmh & hSv
u Eh\ : Enmh & PimkP &
mjP & PP & mhP & u[P & } & \Qu En
& P AP & Sshu & Czu \UP AvP & Czu \UP
S.
I.
iv
V.
mk E : P|h Au & sn
& UQ mi[P & P[P & CEP C[P &
C[P & x P|h |P AP
Pmkkzu & P|h CUPzv Pk
u~m & u & U P[P &
snUS P & & u|mi En P &
zx \ua\ u~m[P & huP &
Umh & \Uhmh & ]} \UP B & GUm
PiQ & D.].. (PQRST) A & Pmhm hQL
uuu & GhP & \P UP & Bmh A\.
VI.
VII.
vi
\ hzvmh
E & [Q
S &
XII
1.
Pim, mj, P mP
Ah Pqu & 1 \u (JS)
2.
K mi ]} E Ah
Pqu.
3.
u E} E A |v \u
CUP Pzv Au.
4.
5.
6.
PP / x mP
1. hzuP
2. Umh
3. Pso \mk vk S (xh)
4. PsnU P k Q |]z v (Eye lotion)
5. y / QmhU Psni (Bifocal lens)
7.
2. \ Pn & sn Ax Psn
Ax sn.
3. \ Pn & } \P .
vii
hUP
UP
1.
Eh\
001
2.
~sq
114
3.
|z uhP
135
4.
uP
154
5.
_a` A
182
6.
mk E
217
7.
nU PmkP
255
viii
1. u Eh\
Eh EP \vP Au
Eh\S. Azx Eh\ {Pa]P EP
u{ Pzu, u, CUP \u G CUP[P
\kPS. u{ Pzu EP E
mPx u[P P kzvU PsUQ.
u{ Pzu, u[P CUPzu AvPzxU P
q Aih E[PUS uzu
Azxx. Eh }, E [P Ahzv, AkP
BQ xPzu u{ Pzu sS. Cs E
v \P P _ BQ HkQx.
n kP u Pmh EP
AP Jzu \ vP E uUS
BuQ. Czuzv Ev Kha \ Cu Ezv
Ena]P CUPkx {Pa]. G Eu
{Pa]UP, Czu {P BUh Cnu u J
] UTP A u P ] yskuP
P v [Pz ux |P, EnU
Phzxu v {z uh \k
kP, En Enzx PsP
\kP CP |UPzx AuU PskiPS.
sPU Phzxu G Pa]UP
\mi CUPa \P Ezv \u
|ha \x G Pz uk CUP Ez
uP AvP Hkx mk |hP. ,
EP CUP P \u, _a`
UQ uP Psix ]hx.
CP Azx Eh\ {Pa]P G zu
Psh ]UP \kPS. Aa\kP, A
{ uk kP C
umk. C UP P AvP A uPP Esk.
C u Su A C[S UPmkx.
1
CSvP P A v S
EP { Pu sk. Cu
Eh\P E A.
Enmh
EP E S P Enmh P
PnQ. Enmhx En Ezu, \zu,
EmQQzu, uUSu G {Phx.
FmhP EnP Sv mP k. C
Azx En PP xP Pmmk, mj,
P, mhP, uxEUP, } G v mP
B. C JUS Smh oP Esk. Azx
mP \ A Psh En EmPx
A a], , Eh|, Eh\P, _a`
uP BQa \ux.
Ja\UPP
C uzu UT B G PmmkP
C PP GsoUP Aih h,
i, hm, h, U\ G PPP
Ax.
i_P : (Trioses, C3H6O3) ]u zv Ch{
mPPz u. E UTP Ch \v
CS UQ [Ssk (E& Q\ik).
h_P : (Pentoses, C5H10O5) UQ ,
iU] . CP RNA, DNA UTP UQ
A[P[P.
U\_P : (Hexoses, C6H12O6) SUP, LUh
PUh G mPP En E.
PmmkP \P \Uv uuUS EuQ.
\Uv EzvUP ]u BUPn {Pa]Q ]mU
Aa _] Hk. EzvS \Uv ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
UTPPa \UPk. J Q Pmmk 4.1
P ASa \Uvz u.
2
Cmha\UPP
k | u [ V_ gk.
Ca\UPP , \UP E. P Cmha
\UPP Esk. A,
mh
(x> >VMB^)
Tmka\UPP
k u [ [V_ gk.
CP Tmka\UPP AvP A uQ.
C Eh Pmk mPQ Pmi, \ G
mPP E. AvP A \UvU Psk, \ EnP
ha Axx. Enz xPP ha\x Ui,
AUi UTPP Ex. [SP P
u\P QUP G Tmka\UP Axx.
mjP (hkP)
mj UTP P, m, BU, |m
BQU Psk. C PuP Esk. EP
\\, E[P, |P[P, u\Pz uv
CS (A u[P) UQ [Ssk. mjP
G\PPa \Q. ASa \u[P G .
mj UTP, A A[P B. Q],
A, ], , ], BQ 20
P A A[P E. C A], A]
A A[P G CPPP UPmk. A]
A A[P |x Eh Ezv \ ix. C
En P |iP u sk. A, ,
ii, I\], ], ], v, A,
v, ih A] A
A[PS. kEB\u tV t^ cs_ \]
kB VBt_. M_, ku \m c_ >BVm
V^ BKD.
A A[P hk CnP Cnu
K mj Ax hk ES. CP }sh \[Qz
uh AS mj u{ A G .
3
h : 1.2. SP
h : 1.1. _
P (kP)
C \P P UQ UTP. C \UvSu
UTP. Eh P UQ \ En mP. uUS
Ai E P EhUS AS \UQx. ]P jk
P Ezv \uUS Pz u. G P
Ax iQ\kP CP AvP Pnk P
PPS (>Vk F^). C [SP Ai_ v_UP
E. K iQ\hx Q\ P A[P
Bx.
P A[P Csk PPsk. A {,
{u P A[PS. {u P A[P
Gv BUPnh. G u Czu Azu |
EPUS A\a_mhm P A[P (PUFA) E
4
mhP
C Tmk A[PP UTP. En PUS A
E. C Eh a] Eh\ {Pa]PUS C
A]. mhP |iPa \Uv u Cx. B
\UvUS Eh\ [P |h C u.
mhP A, B, C, D, E, K G UPmk. C
mhP B, C } P. C Sx P, PP |UQ
} P } Px \k. mhP A, D, E,
K AUS AvPP EmPsh Eh u[Q mh]
G S mh |P Hk.
mh D Ax P]L |x uUPi E
GPi G x ` J ku uUTix.
G CuSa "` J mh' G .
mhP UQ P
1. Eh\ {Pa]P : Ps En
mh
mh SkP
mh A
1.
2.
h Gzw Ex ] {h (Xerosis). h
_[Suhx Pik (Xeropthalmia) . Pso P
Sv s (Bitots spot) u.
3.
hzv sP u | u Hk (Keratomalacia).
4.
U Ps | Hk (Nyctalopia).
mh D :
GP P] iu vUPk. SuPUS
UPm |, vPUS Bi] G | u.
mh E :
u CUSk | Pshh. \u
[SP mkzu Hk.
mh K :
1.
2.
u CzuU P] SkP u.
mh B 1 :
mh B1 PU Su " ' G |
Hh. Cu | Cu&_ sh[P vh.
]P Cv \ AvPUS.
mh B 2 :
] Hk. C & Sh SkP, Euk, ,
|US sP u.
mh |] :
Cu Smh U G | u. Cv v
u. u v, s Hk. |USa ]x Hk.
mh B 6 : (hU)
PsP, US, PxP BQ EPa _ u
vP Hk. Eumi K[P iP u.
6
mh B 12 :
Cu Smh Czua \P Hk. |US Ex
snS. uskh \u |P vP Hk.
mh C :
Cu Smh "P' G | u. Cv D
CzuU P], u, u\P CzuU P] Hh.
Cnzv_ u[P u vh.
u[P
A[PP En mPQ PmmkP,
mjP, P BQh |x EhUSz u[P,
mhP, } uk.
u[P ] P AvP A ukQ. A
\i, P], mh], U], , \L
S BS. u[P \ Su A u. A
C, \, xzu|P, Pm, [P, Ai, L BS.
C ] u[P AvP A Eh PmkzuUS
EuQ. SP G, Pz uUPz u (P],
U], ). ] ~s u[P BU Phzxu (C),
u (Ai) ]u [PUS
([P, \, xzu|P) u. ] u[P Eh vzv
SvPP (S, \i, mh]). ] u[P
(U], \i, mh]) |u\z yskuPUS
u. P] Czu EuUS Eu. mh]
P] Cu CUP[P xn \.
}
Azx miP Eh } K UQ A[P.
P Eh Gh (Eh Gh & P) u Emh
miP } A 71 &
78% GU
PnUQhmkx.
Eh E } A x, , Eh Gh
PoP k. u Su Eh Gh 85 & 90% }
SvUS. CbP Eh 55 & 60% } Esk.
Eh zu } 2/3 [Px \ E vP
\P (Intracellular fluid) 1/3 [S \P (Extra cellular
fluid) AvUS. \ E } 25% Czu
Ex.
7
Eh ~ }US, }USh E
\mh Eh } xPUPkQx. } Axu,
vmP Axu, Enh ~ } BQ P
Eh } ~Qx. EnmP ]u
{Pa]P } EzvS. Ah | } A 2500
BS. Cv 1400 |iP }P ~Qx. Eh }
|S P |k. A 1. ]} (1400 ), 2. a_\
(400 ), 3. u (600), 4. h (100 ).
} P
1.
Eh Azxa \P UQ A[PS.
2.
3.
v [P |huUP uhP A.
4.
5.
Eh zu xPUS.
6.
Eh v_UP A Ev \.
\Qu En
EhUSz u Azx En mP E
AP Psh En \Qu EnS. CP En,
C Eh a], \u v, |m \k, P
A BQ xPuP Au sk. JUSz
u \Qu Enz w \P Ax zuU
Pzu PnUQhmk Au En SvmP
uukUPk. xP zu P u 10 & 15%
u[Px 25 & 30% Px Gg] P P
mmix uPU PkQx.
P AP
Enmh En x K P Gx 1
Q.Q } 1 0 C EzxuSz u APU
PkQx. Cv zx BU P] (ICMR) En
]U S (Nutrition Expert Committee) (1968) uSvPh K
v Cv BqUS (Indian Reference Man - IRM), soS (Indian
Reference Woman - IRW) uk APU PnUQmkz uxx.
Cv v Bs (IRM) 25 x, Eh
Eh Gh 55 QQ ,| Eh |.
8
1.62 \.mh,
Au
\ u
Pi
460 PP
460 PP
460 PP
B) \u
Eh oP
(8 o|)
1220 PP
1220 PP
1220 PP
C) \u
Eh oP
(8 o|)
750 PP
1100 PP
2200 PP
zu
2430 PP
2780 PP
3880
A) Aih
]u
(8o|EUP)
PP
IRW (Cv v s)
A) Aih
]u
(8 o| EUP)
354 PP
354 PP
354 PP
B) \u
Eh oP
(8 o |)
826 PP
826 PP
826 PP
C) \u
Eh oP
(8 o|)
610 PP
900 PP
1800 PP
zu
1790 PP
2080 PP 2980 PP
JUP Enz w \P Ax Pz
u PnUQhk. CUPnURk v Bs/s u
Aih A. x, Gh, Eh |, uP
BQ Aih PnURkP UPk. Cv
J En P v PnUQ Psk
Enz u wUPk. Au w \P En
_, \u UP[P Pzv Pk. \ u
\ K \\ Cv BqUS, sqUS vu
uk \Qu En \K^ kl_ umkx.
9
Ena
\ EP : Ena \ EPP En
u ( u zx ) \a _P
Ax. CP En Eh A[PP
UTP, EUP, } Eh a \
EuQ. P ~ En SvP
UTP \UPkP mjP Ax.
C A{ Sh_ P EUP Cx. C
PUPmk ] UTPP Ehku sk. C{Pa]
\zu Gk. \zu, \a _P G\PEn
\zu Q FUQPP \hU Ti.
Ena \zu :
: \zu u \ Ena \zu Ax
u BS. Ca\ En Pa] xqUSPP Ak.
Cu ush En ]UP [P C. Ca\ P,
|US, uhP E} |h. , uh Gz
u\Ph Cnx \miU |P \zu Ax
10
11
C E_ C }a _P Esk.
HUS 40 ~so _P E. C Chief
cells Gk UQ \P G\P, _\P (Parietal
cells) Gk BUiU (Oxyntic) \ HCl Azu _x G\
\miS u Azu QhUQx.
C G\PP ], _UPkQx.
] \ { ] G Pa _UPk.
HCl CUPzu ]x ]P . ] }
Szu mjP Ehzx hPP .
Azu Ca\k Pa ]P AvUS.
mjP + ] hkP + hP
: G\ mjQ P] P
u Psh P] G P . P] AP
P]x Pu P] & P] Tmk S.
CuSz u G .
uh Sh A CUP[P C En
Qx. _ CUP Px ysh ^ CUPzv
zx A. CUP | P
Pmkkzuk. Cx R[S EnS C
S G . CS Smh ChP ] Sh
~.
]Sh : 5&7 mh }h ]Sh, SvPhx.
A ii (]Sh), G Cha ]Sh, C
G ]Sh BS.
C Sh A \ Enx ]
Sh ~. CUPzv U _USz u\P
Pmkkzx. ]Sh Sv zu}, Pn }, ]Sh
} G mP PmhkQ.
zu} : C} h a\ {hx. Cx Px
u PS. zu \PUPmk zu|zv
]Sh Ah. zu } }, P , EP,
Pm, zu {P, zu } EP . zu
} EP P mPa ] Pz vPP
Q.
12
Cu
P
P mh
]
USh
C
Eg_u
EnUS
En
}
En \zu
vhUP
_zu
]Sh
E}
_P
|P
[Sh
h : 1.3. \zu \
Pn } : Cx Pzux (pH 7 to 8) Pn }u
G\PP i], Pi ] E. C Csk
i], Pi] G { _UPk. C
GiP G ]Sh } E C[S
{ i], Pi]P Qx. Pn }
A, (i]) PU] ih, {U
G\P E.
AXv S vPof] UphPNL Tdm.
lu, LUlu, LoTdTlPv, GuNmLs,
WhuL[f Ndm WhVL[m. CY T-TlPL[
TlPuLs, V TlPLs, A] AXeL[Lf R\f
Nnu\].
XlTv, Llu WNWL[ Ll AXm,
NWXLl dm.
uPp o: GuNmLm NVpLm
1.
Ll
Ll AXm + NWp
2.
dWv
dLv + WdPv
3.
UphPv
4.
XdPv
5. TlPLs
6.
DNA, RNA
XlTv
dWv
UphPv
dLv + dLv
XdPv
dLv + LXdPv
Glu
A] AXeLs
dV
dVPLs, dVNLs
13
En
SkP
h : 1.4. \zu
C `k Ax Sa] Su En AvPS.
x| Hh.
]Qa\ : zxP \zu E Chzua ]
x (Drilling) \ uUS. _zu \x uu
\UP (Dental amalgam & K S EPU P) Ax ]sm
{ k. T S | u AvP
ASv Akzva _zu \x { Ax
k[Q Gkzxh.
P ]Qa\ (Root canal treatment) : k[Suz
uzx CP z uUPzxU P, Cv ]Qa\ Eu.
]Qa\ i{P :
1.
x ] x K x Chk.
Czx T S A. T mP Azx
~so PP kzv }UPk. Ca]Qa\
X Pv {hzv PsPoUPk.
2.
3.
|z u C AUP ]h (Gutta
- percha) xzu|P BUk, z BUk \u PU
Psk {k. S Sv K P
]smi ^ \k.
Shs
C, ]Sh SvP E_ v_zu A
Ahx P uu Sh s Gk. CP CSvP
Hcl Azv vx xPuP K P U
Psk. C AUPmh A[S v_UP UP
Hk. Eu vh. CsP, Shs, C
s G CPk. C Sh s AvP uQx.
25&45 xhPUS Cs AvP uQx. 50 vS
mhP C sn vUPh.
Pn[P : Sh sP UPUh
(Helicobacter pylori) G Uj[P uQ. B
] {n x mPz uUS AvPP
15
Sh xUP PP :
1. Pmh xUP (Inguinal hernia) : Sh J Sv
Ai Sv U S PnPU R[Q k.
2. uh xUP (Femoral hernia) : uh
\hzv xhzu ] Rx xhSvUS
C[S. C[S Sh xUP Hh. AvP Eh Gh Ax
SuP BQ Pn[P sPUS CUS
|h.
3. P Sh CUP (Umbilical hernia) : CUSk
] SuPUS Hk. | (Navel) a _ Sv z
u\P ua]hu CUP u.
Sh CUP \ \u : G A ]Qa\P \
\. kzumh Ax x En
(Anaesthesia) Cua \ \.
16
Sh A] (Appendicitis)
Sh UP HmkU Pk u.
[Sh x[S Chzv K ] SPU Sh Ex.
CUSh A] C zvh (Adolescents) xPz
u. | SP Ensq a]hu
|mih C| AvP. Sh UPzu uk (Blockage),
{ Hk. uk E Sv Akzukzx Ch[P
Uj[P |z u Hh.
xUPzv vj , vn
u. Pa\ u. ]Qa\ Puu |
Sh izx u |h. CP
u vS Eu A] (Peritonitis) G .
Aa ]Qa\ Sh }UP \.
zuU PP
zu u zuU PP AP A.
40 vS mh zv JUS (1/10) CUPP u.
CUPP zu} u. zu } Pi, {P
] EP E. zu } uP [P Hmh P
uu {P. CUPP Pm B. P
uuUP Pa \ Pn[P u. C
Eh AvP K PnPU PukQx En P
AvPu P uu Hh. Su v {
PP zu } |zv Ah Hmk g\ P u.
P A] (Hepatitis)
P A], Pn[P Hh. C| P
UP Hk. C{ P uUSu Hh. u
| P A] AvP A x Axu Hk. B
{P uSP uP Cv. xP C|
Eh\, vkzu, Pa\, x Sv
K \v En Hk. CuPU Smh
]Qa\ C. C{US | K u. x
Axuz uUP sk.
17
GP
mkP
J u u Eh 206 GP E.
GPh CnUPmh u\ |P _ 700 E. C
Csk | Eh 50% GhU Pskx. GP Eh
xPUS, Ehz u[P EuQ. Csk GP
Cn Chzv mk Ax BiS uQx. mkP
Eh CUPzvS Exn CUQ.
G : G Ehu Ax Ru G
Gk. zv G Ax GP P ku
C u a] | AvPzxU Psk
Qx. , EP[S zxUP EP {P
PQ. Q.. 14& si, Qm P, PP
G ]Qa\ UQ. Cv, C P
G Sa ]Qa\P E. G S |U
Pa ]Qa\ E. CP A \u, |zv
]Qa\PS.
vu
h : 1.5 G PP
18
G PP :
1. a\U P : CP G SuPUS
HkQx. Cv uP, PhUE[ Sv Jmi
{ Pnk.
2. i : CP Hk CzuU Pmk
Pnkv.
3. vu : CP , Hk CzuU Pmk,
vu Pzv P |S uPU Pnk. Cx
J P \ P. Cu PU Pk US QP
EhS ~ A Esk.
4. |{ (Pathology) : u GP Hk
J ] u, CSU PnQx. Cx
ui\zv HkQx.
5. Azu : uha]P, }sh PzvS, G
Khzv Hk Azu, CP SU PnS.
6. : Su US u, Su Eh
Hk , Gk.
G Hk u :
|iP Ax PP G x Hk
u G SU PnS. |i u, Gu Chzv
u |hQu Au Chzv G HkQx. P
u, Khzvx ChzvS, u Hmh
Azu Phzumk Chzv G HkQx.
_] Ax G vP: G x Hk _] \
(Oblique) G HkzxQx. G G Hmhx
Ch
h : 1.7 u GP Tku.
19
xP \u v_UP
P v_
Guz ux Px P A]. Au , G
Sv \P ukUP i. J u zvu
Ax E Pmihzvu R u GP
Hk. Cv Hk G |iP Hmhx. Cu UP
P xPz uh Hk G P
u uuS.
u GP Tku : Ca\ {P E.
A : 1. [Su {, 2. \\u { 3. sk
izu {.
1. [Su { : G Hmh Chzv E CzuU
SP izx hu Gz xskPUS Ch E
Ch Czu {Qx. Cu Czu Ex h
HkzxQx. Ca\ J Ax Csk |mP |hQx.
CSv E v_UP UPhQ.
2. \ \u { : C{ P v_ EQx. Czv_,
u GP P, CnUQx. Aux
u GP P xP \u v_UP `x PQ.
C{ 8 u 12 [PUS |hQx.
3. sk izu { : P v_ u ,
xP u C P JmkQ. CSv xP
Azuzuz u[Su u\|Ph Cnu \
DkkQx. CSv Hux Sk CUS, Ax
Aa_zu \ \kQx. C{ 1 h
}iUQx.
] ]Qa\ (Physiotherapy) :
]u (] ]Qa\) G x, Eh]
P, \u P, PP sk | \ha
\Qx. ]u Eh]P, Czx ]
Eu, G A ]Qa\ zx R
PkQ. mkP CUPhu u\P
C G ]Qa\ Cv u ]
a]PS.
C
a]P
u
Eh]P wUP.
mkP |u : mkP Cnx GP,
ASvx Ch u Ax |uUS mkP |u
G . \ { v GP u[Px {
kQ. CuS PoP, PnQ.
20
mk |u Pn[P: A: 1. Pmh,
(USk) 2. zx, 3. |, 4. UPu. Pmh Gx
Pa] x PoP G a] Sk
HkuS. CPUS hhU Ax hhU
SkP G .
zxUP GP x |iP u Hkv mk
|Qx. Cv mk |u, u, [PP
Ck Sv HkQx.
| Hk mk |u, P\| |P
HkQx. P\|, Ck GPa ]uha \ x,
A]mhzvx G |Qx.
UPuzv mk |u C uzv
u\P a] S Au u\P B SQx. Cx
mk |uUSU PnQx.
Bzmi : (mk ) mk Sv E EP
AP UPhu mk HkQx. CuS
\, Csk GP Cn Sv BmiS Sv,
P] BQ SvP PnQ.
mk US |U PoP Esk. A: | &
Eh| |U Po, |z uu, |P
]u U Sk.
mk PP :
1. u | EshS mk : hLPUP,
mhPUP, PPUP, miUPa\, TVmU ,
]L, Q UP uP mk HkQx.
CzuP mkPa ]uha \Q.
2. miU mk : Cx J x |. Cx |
Eh E G Cnz v_UP vUQx. C|
SP G u\P Ez uSP AvPPz
uUSQx. \ E UP C| UQ
ASS. u J v BiUS GvPz u
| uk, miU |USU PnS.
3. Bi Bzmi (Bi Bz) : Cx
mkSv, UP, mkP ]uu Hk mk
S. u mkP E SzuP vUPku,
21
UPm Bi ] :
C |P, GP x x P EP
\ EshQx. | Eh GP _ 98% P]
\zx UPmkx. BP P] ]u zv Hk
zv GP A a] v
HkQx.
u PP
h : 1.8. UPm
UPm | u uk P, PU Pzv
uUS Fmha\zx En [Su, Su uh mh
D Pu En AvP Pkzu u. Pm _
P Gsn, mh D Ah[Q En S.
Bi ] : x uP, mh D
Smi vUPk x, C| HkQx. GP
GP hu C| sPS.
Cu, GP P Gv x k uhQ.
G zx (Orthopaedics) : Czx, G \umh
AzxU SkP PQx. CUSkP u
Ax Ch uuP CUP. u
Pnk SkP Su Pa] x u.
Ch uUTi SkP, zv PnP Hh.
CUSkPa \\, u, P Pkzu,
EPn[P kzxu, \x zu (UPmk) B
Cnzu. UP x Pkzxa \
GPa ^zu, A ]Qa\ | B
P kzukQ.
u\P
u\P CP _[Q uh. zv |
Ex yshPUS H u\P C[SQ. u\a
\P E CvPa \mk v B CUS
BP Q. SP EP A\P,
Cua_UP, CzuU SP _UP CUPa
\Pa \Q. uP | Eh Gh 40%
u\PS. Cv 10% v_UP Cuzu\P
Ah[S.
J Gz u\ A :
J zu\ u\ |P PPP Ax.
u\|P SUS mh A 10 u 100 UP
kQx. u\ |P } 1 .. u 20 ..
PnkQx. J u\ |a _ \h
PnkQx. CuS \P G .
J u\ |, 4 u 20 CP
PnkQ. CS LP G .
CP JUP CnP Ax. Cu L
P mh A 1 u 3 U kQx.
23
u\P
> V
u\ |
\_oB
w
Z
h : 1.9. u\ | ~s A
24
u\a_UPa \ :
1. |P & C PzxU PP (Sliding - Filament hypothesis)
\ U BQ C (1955) CUPzxU PP
mh. CPx Pzvi, u\P _[S AQ,
CP CP E. A ] BUi BS. u\
A P
I P
25
|
yshP
|hQx. Ca\, x yshP K
|hQx. u\ |PUS u J ua\
\, CuU Su A _UPzvSU PnQx.
xS Ax Ck , \unPz u\i
Hk uS. Cx, |P \
AvUPmh Hk uS. Cu, }sh| J
{ Ax CUS x u\P CUPhQ.
C{x C\P J S usp GkuPP |
x Th u\i Hmk h.
_]zu
_]zu Eh ]u zvP BU \P
kzukQx. C{Pa] P PU P & h &
BUk kQx. CP _]zu UQ
ox Eh \PUS u \Uvz uzuS.
BU kzv SUP ]u zv ]uu
\P \Uv Q. \PUS uhx \Uv u. Eh
\PUS ~PUS Ch BU P&h
&BUh PhzxuPa ]u Czua _ EP E.
~ _\ :
_\zv {Pa]P Esk.
Pmh : BU Su P ~ kQx
(Em_\). Au P&h&BUkh k
(a_\).
ii. O2 : ~P a_a ]Px BU,
Czuz uxQP E Czuzv .
iii. O 2 Phzxu : ~ ]P BU Su Czu
CuzvSa \u.
iv. O 2 u : uP uxQ P
BU Eh \PUS k. v_UP
uxQPx BU (SUP En
mPk) Eh \PUS . v_UP, \Px
P&h&BUk k.
i.
30
v.
CO2 O2
Pmh (1)
CO2
O2
O2
CO2
(2)
O2
~ Czua _]
Phzu (3)
x Cu
A
Eh Sv Czua _]
Chx Cu
A
CO2
(4)
CO2
O2
\P
\P _\ (5)
h : 1.11. ~ v_UP
31
_\
Hk Azu [P Em_\
a_\ Hk. |x Azx SvP
AhUPmh, PP Cu A. Cu ,
xPz uh UP[P GP RP
Euu G AUPmkx. GPh ,
Em Ghz u\P E. Czu\P CUPzu
P AvPUP SUP C.
Ai Euu ix. _]zu {Pa]
ha \u SUSu |h.
Em_\ : C{Pa] v P, ~PUSP
GkzxU PkQx. Cx K \S {Pa]. C{Pa]
Ghz u\P, Euu [S Q.
C _\zv x Ghz u\P
_[Su GP zv \ |UQ EQ.
Ca\ UPmi xS & mi
uQx.
a_US
hu
Em\
P
P ~sn
GUTk
Euu
h : 1.12. Em_\
Euu
a\
P
_[Su
Euu
uhu
Euu
h : 1.13. a_\
a_a ] :
~PU P Ahuh {P. ~
u uxQP a_a ] _ Jmiu Gv
Hh.
CO2
O2 O2
P ~sn
Po2 = 100 mm Hg
CO2
] Czu
CO2
O2
O2
Po2 = 40 mm Hg
Pco2 = 46 mm Hg
u Czu
Po2 = 96 mm Hg
Pco2 = 40 mm Hg
h : 1.14. P ~sn
33
BU
|m P&h&BUk
Du
E %
21.00
79.00
0.04
15.7
74.5
3.6
Sv
_\U Pmkk :
Szv K _\U Pmkmk Ex. Cv
uzu Em_\, a_\ [P E. C[P
| \ BUP U |P (Phrenic nerves) P
EuuzvSa \Q. C|P E, Ghz
u\PUS Akzukzxz yskuPU PhzxQ. a_a
]P _ CS En SvP Esk. C _\a
]a _ \ EnUTi.
a_a ]P _P Em_\zv |S h.
Au Enu EnSvP Szv a_\ SvUS
P | yskuP AQ. Cu Em_\
{zuk. CPz uh {Pa]US [ & \ (Herring
Breuer reflex) G .
, Szv K a\[S Sv Esk. CSv
_\ zxh uh Pskx. CP ^
34
{ (Pneumonia) \UPa\ :
~P |z u [Q {hu
{ Gk. C|x _P Ax Uj[P
u. {x Ai , _\a
\n Ax PU\Q P Hk. Uj
{x {PUP { G Uj[P
Hk. UP G ~sqP {z
uUP. (UP Gx K UjzvS
S Chmh E)
uSP : g\, a\ {a \ ] P
Czu \ ku Hk. Pa\, |kUP,
a_zvn, C u.
]Qa\ : |shUQ ~sq zx x
]Qa\ A. xP iW (Antibiotic) Ax g\U
P (Antifungal) xP mi E. Pa\U SUP
B Ax ]mh k. BU Azu Ax
\P _\ ]P uh.
P\| (Tuberculosis) TB
C|x UPUj iS] G
Ujzu u u u|S. J Pzv EP
x AvP A u P |S. a.I..
v EP C| uU P.
Pn[P : C| uU P. |
J P uUPh. Em_\zv, ~
~ Uj[P CUPhx vQ. US
|zukz v |z uz ukzx h. C|z
u Sh, GP, ]}P[P EP vUP.
35
uSP : UQ AS C |g_S. ]
P Czu h. |g_, a_z vn, Pa\,
C zu, ], GhUSu Hk.
~US } u[P |h.
a\ |
(Bronchitis)
Sva
_]
Cua \P :
u
~ ]P
g]
Chx Hm
~ u
x Hm
a \v
Du
R g]
Chx mUQ
x mUQ
h : 1.15. Cua\P
Cu CUPzysh u u :
Cuzv \UP Cuz u\P Hk. Czu\P
_[Su hu K ^ CUPPU Smh i{P
|h. CzuP CUPzvP \&BUS Pq (SA node),
37
\ & BUS Pq
Hm & mS
Pq
] P
Q CP
h : 1.16. Cu CUPzysh u u
Cu CUPa _] :
K xUP Cuzxiz u iiP {Pa]P
sk Cuz xi xUP uu K Cu CUPa
_]S. Ca_] Cu _[Su ]h Gk. Cuz
ua]x hh BS. K Cuz xi Gx K ]h,
K hh EhUQx BS.
Hm ]h : , R g]P, Cuz u\, \
(Coronary sinus) SP uhx Czuzu x Hmzv
PmkQ. Au Chx Hm V[z ~ ]P
Czuzu Qx. Hmzvx iUQPUS 70% Czu
uP u { R[P. Gg] 30% mUQ
Hm A _[Su voUPk.
38
uSP :
1. PU Pk |g_ . C Pzx, Chx PUS
. 2. zu, 3. a_z vn, 4. U Smh, v.
5. n hh.
5& JUS C| |g_ uv. B
UP, zu, u |h. CuS
""Av Cuz u\ |]'' G . Czu \UP
vhP, P Czu Azu EP u.
| U PoP :
1.
PiPUS Cuzu\ |] | Au n
|kuP P AvP.
2.
3.
4.
5.
40
w (Angina Pectoris)
B G Azxx
Pk Hk. C Cuz u\PUS Czu Kmh
Sx BU Qhzu Sk Hku u. C
vjz u. CUPPz u x
Azukx A. 30 {h[P C }iUP.
Pn[P : 1. Sh Pn[P Cuz
u\PUS Czu Kmh Sku.
2. P \ Czua \P Czuzv BU yUQa
\ v Su.
3. \zw | Czua ] AqUP
GsoUP AvPUS. Cu Czuzv Ah AvPzx Cuz
u\PUS \ Czu Kmh P S.
4. uU] _ AvPzu, AuS uhU]P] G
. C| Cu CUP wh. Cua _ Czu Kmh
AuS Dk \x. Cu w u.
Cu P :
Cu APUQh, CzuU SP xP
Czuzua \zu Cu P k. P
EP. C Czu \si v\ Pa \u
Ev \Q. Cua \v P \a \xx.
Cu P vx ku Cu JPz u.
x SP (Stenisis) Cu PU PkP C[Q
Czuzua \zu siUS. \S Czu
. CUSkP Cu J qqP u.
Cu zxP Ah Ps.
Czu Azu
UQ uP Czu Kk x AzuP
_ u Azu Czu Azu Gk. Eh],
43
Cu Aa ]Qa\
Ca]Qa\ J uhu Cuzv }UQmk
Ch J Cuzv zu. [SP Cu
44
Cu Aa ]Qa\ PmkkP :
1.
CuU Ph E |zv
Ca]Qa\ P C.
Qhzu
mk
2.
zv Cuzv Eh UP zx mh (|
uhUP v) Cu zxx u
.
3.
Ph C mh Gz wx.
C Cuzxi {uS Cuzv
kzx | Eh zxu sk. Cu
Aih Ca]Qa\ AvUS.
C Hmhuz wzx E \u zx AUP
sk.
|izxi :
K ^ u _ _[Q x Czu \u
|izxi Gk.
Czxi Au P, ^ CUP xi \ BQ
Ax UP.
Smh P|zv (15&20 \PskP) Hk |izxi
GsoUPU PnUQmk Au J {hzvP
xiPPU PoUP. |iz xix xP Cuz xi
GsoUP vUS. GsoUP, K {, Eh\P
BQ zx k.
|izxiP CuU SmiU SUS. |iz
xi x PU SP C Cua \, Ava],
Ax Czua _] v Pn[P EnzxUS.
LpLp luU CWjR \ EPtZt \lTh SVp
Ru\Xm.
Cu & ~ \ ysh :
Cuzxi {mh JUS EhiP Sv
CuzvS Azv \x, zxa _\z
ysh \u Cu & ~ \ ysh GQ.
45
Czu :
Czu, v { Cnz v_S. Czuzv
G v Sv \P Esk. x
Czuzv 55%, \P 45% BS. xP sP Eh
4&5 mh Czu BsP 5&6 mh Czu Esk.
TP.
mP
oP
1. }
P, Czu mP u[Q
FhP (92%)
2. mjP
A, S
L
FkP J[Sk,
A&Pzu \k
4. En mP :
SUP, A
A[P, iQ\kP
Pm mhP
\Uvzu, Eh
Pmk mP.
|vP \P.
5. P mP :
U A, Qmi
A,
UiU A
]}Pzu
]qUP A
mP. AU _\
i mP
6. UP : BU
P & P & BdN
|m
HU _\ {PP
]u U
PP.
7. |hzxUS mP
P, G\P
Eh\P
Czua \P : P Czua \P
Esk. A;
46
L\m
\m
\L {mL
D]L
Csh {: x uu & C{
Px x G mj x G
G\Qx. C{Pa]US x G G\ u.
LpW-p WWmu RVlp YhPu K ER\.
x
x
x
++
Ca
{ : Px L G
mj P mjQ L G P .
C{Pa] x Hk.
x
L
L
L, | Ahx. C|P Eu K
Az uUQ.
G . C{Pa]
EhvP u.
Czu
Kmhzv
uh
Hmk
J[Qn EP uSP
(CO-ORDINATION SYSTEMS)
Azx EP Eh { \kPU
PsiUQ. `{ mh {zu u
UQ. CuS h G . Cx
J[Qn EP \k BS. [SP Eh E
J[Qn EP yshPUS H x[Su \x
EhPU Pmkkzva ^Pa \ha \Q.
49
J[Qn
{P \u A |z uS BS. WRV[^,
c cA^ - >|kD, J \uD BKD cA^ B
t[-k]B \VuV_ #|>_ > c>[. >V
W^ WRV[[ c^D Ax\V Na \uD K BM[
\Vu>V_ u|[. >uz VBD-VVEBD D [ B.
>B >Vt[-k]B WB c #_
[VD.
h : 1.18. | \ Cn
J | , | \P Cnt | \
Cn G . J | \- BU i E
S (T[hPu) Sv AjR SWm Np-u PuWhPu
RPo Lsm. CkR Cn | \ Cn BS. Cu
Cn J ] Ex. Au mh A 10&20 |mh.
Cu Cn Sv A]mhP G v
EnP (yshP) PhzukQ.
|z uS E BUP PPa _
E Ex. Cx s PU PukQx.
E Cu BUP PP \ { PU
PukQx.
50
zv |z uS E BUP s
S. C | uPP E. Cu BUP |
\ \v a \Q. \ {SvP zv
|z uS J[Qn a \Q.
oSv \ {P, zvSv s {SvP
PnkuS E Cu BUP E
E BUP Avu PnS. \
{zvmkP uSP PnkQ. CS {U
G .
: J u , K {PUS
AvPPU PnkQ. J PnUPki,
o mk _ 102783000 | \ CnP E. BP
J ]UP E.
A, \ ,
PP UP. A 1. 2. |k 3.
(\ \L) : & CSv
h\L EhUQx.
h\L, u u E.
u : & Cx h\L Sv. Cv
EmPUP uSP PnkQ. o
SvUSa \ En yshP u
\Q. J, En yshP Gkzxa
\ BUP, u J uh P
P { x Eh A\Pz
yskQ.
u :& CSv ] EmPUP, |
uP EhUQx. Cu EmPUPUS EP
(Mamillary bodies) G . C ~PuUP Aa\ \,
~Pa]UP Ena] S \mi \umh.
Cv E Ci, mmh _
{], uh CnUQx. BP
u mmh _P PmkkzxQx.
u En EPx En
Pz yshPP Qx. SP |US, US
CUP EP AQ. BP CSv {
51
Lj\u
RXVNLs
LiL[ AN
TWhPp
(EQo RPol T)
RNfNVp iPp
iRp \
BdhPp ToY
RPol T
RNfNVp
im T
u\m
Tm \u
u\m
ToY EQol T
WiPp Ll
Lof
NQo RPol T
PmTWp Ll
h : 1.19. o \ SvP
o :& o u En SvP
E. Cv _ Enu, PmhUP uha]
\Pa \kzx SvP E. ,
u uk EnUP Ena]P SvP, CSv
\kQx.
oSv u En SvUS Jmi SvUS
u En \[P Sv G . CSv Ah Pqu
\h Dkmkx. GkzxUPmhPU Pso E mi
AkUQ u En yshP | P
\[P SvUSa \Q. A[S Au En
yshP HP v \mk \vPh
Jk \mk J i GkUPkQx. BP \vP
52
xP wUPkQx. J {Pa], Ch
P C Gsn[Pz uUQx. G u K {Pa]
| zuP Au {Pa] P USQ.
o u CUPSv, Eh
CUP[PU PmkkzxQx. SPU PP ~so
CUP[P CSv PmkkzxQx. AvP |Ph
CnUPmk Pzu\P ~so A\P u
CUPSv PmkkzxQx. o Sv u
CUPSvPa \kQx.
o u CUPSv SvUS
CUPSv G . J \ \uS , CUP
Sv CUPz yshP uUPmk J[QnUPmh
CUP |P Pz u\|PUS Gkzxa \kQ.
GkzxUPmhP, P Ezu sk AuP \P
CUPSv uUPmk, J[QnUPkQx.
BP | Gu AUS, Gu Pzv P Ezu sk
Au AUS Ezu iQx. C Azx uP |
{nUPkQx.
Cu CUPSv S[Q[P (Primates) u
|S a] x. | Eh |h Ena] S \
P { \umh \P CSv Pmk
kzxQx. EjYLm, NVphPm YdL ERm.
|k Ax \ \L
|k T |S EmPUP E. Cu
EmPUPUS P Sm G . Cv 2
PSP 2 R PSP E. PUSP
\umh Aa\a \ DkkQ. A Ps
u A\PU PmkkzxQ. A\ mP
uz uh EuQ. R PSP Pmh
DkkQ.
Ax \L :
, ], S BQ
Ah[Q.
] : ] h[QP | uP
E. C P ], zv | shzv
SvPh CnUPmkx.
53
] Ah[Q EP ku[ P
EP
1. LUSk &
P
Eh \{
u\|P K {
(Muscle tone)
2. Sv &
CUP AP J[Qn
u\ |P K
{ (Muscle tone)
3. Sv
& ~so CUP AP
J[Qn u\ |P
K {
] zv S u\|P
\k, Eh \{ qu J[Qn BQ
vUPk.
: CSv x \vPa ]USU
PhzxQx. CSv EUPzvS _\zvS SvPU
PukQx. CSv Szxh Cnx _\zv x
|h A\PU PmkkzxQx.
S : Cx, zusi RSvS. , R \
| uP Phzx ChSvP CSv \kQ.
Szv E EmPUP Aa\a \P Pa
\kQx. SP Cuzxi u, CzuU SP _[Q
u, _\, [Su, v Gkzu, C x
Aa\ \P Dkmkx.
{ : { Gx J Smh
\U SUQx. { Gx ] {h[P Cx
BskP }iUS vS.
{ PP :
1. EnP { : En yshP H,
Azx {P {zv UPkQx. Cx
{ uhUPa \S.
2. u{ { : Cx Es |hu,
\P, GsP, GzxUP Ax \vP | {
zvzu BS. Ca\vP | {, EhiPU
QhUSi Axx. Ca\vPUPP }sh ]u
u.
54
UPu (Stroke)
UPu | \Pz xuP hUQ,
uhx C{ 24 o | }izu nzv iUTi
|S, (WHO). CzuUSP Czu Euz ukUP
PoP Pnmh, Czu E Hh. C WLp ALm
Ru m. CzuU SP Czu E Hmh AuS
v G . US Czuzua \zx z
u Czu E Hmh, UPu | EshQx. Cu
Czu E AUS Ah HkzxQx. Cu
E \P B[P[P CUQ. Cukzx \UQx.
Czu Kmhzv Hk Ah Csk PS. A
1. viU 2. GU. G P Czu EU
Pmi x Czu Kmhzv \ Cu UQ EPUSa
\ Czu Kmh uhku AUP v_UP ix
kQ.
CzuU P] : AvP Czu Azuzv
E CzuU SP i Hmk, CzuU P] HkQx.
CzuU S iS , CzuUSx [Q,
iUQx. UPu CzuU P] BQ CzuU
SP Hk vS.
UPu |, Eh h[Qa \UQ.
Cx EP J x |a]S. UPu Gu
v Hh. VV >B VF^, } |, Czuzv
AvPU PU Pnku, E Czu Azu, Eh , P
56
GUmG\LQL (EEG)
o {P Ah[Q
EP E. CPUQh ^ mh A
PnkQx. GUm G\LQL G P
GUmkP Euh Cu mh AP v
\. CUP Azx {P mhz vz
uP v \Qx. Cu h \U
Psh. SP P Dkk x,
EUPzv x, zvUS { h
\P A. CUP Eu uh
|P, |Pmi, sP |P,
Psh.
x, Chx P J[Qn :
Chx AUP o Eh x zu
En [Q EPh CnUPmkx. x zu\P
uskh
Pmh |
En |
`h zv
h : 1.20 Aa\ EP
58
uskhzv P :
uskh , Eh SvPh CnUS
\a \Qx. Ena] EPx k
EnP J Smh SvUS A z
uskh \Qx. Au \ EUPk CUP
AP x A \ EPUS A
Qx. CUPz yshPj Rtj
\Qx. Ca\ Aa\ \ Gk
59
Aa\a \ : En EP yskuP |
Ca\USmh | A P |h {Pa]
Aa\a \ Gk. (G.P) y] x PsP P
iU Pu, P mhh Eh CzxU P,
Aa\a \P, | Ca\USmh uP |h.
Ca\ Dkmk EP uS Aa\ Gk.
C En ES, \ ES Chmh uS
|a \[QP BS. Aa\ Ah[Q EP :
En EP En | uskhzv \
{Sv Chmk | CUP | \ EP.
uskh v
smQP uskh U
S { {, u v z uskhz
v BS. smQP E Pk U
_a \P z uskhz vzua _UQ. \\P,
J u E Czvzv A 150 mh. J |,
550 mhz v _UPkQx.
z uskhz vzv oP
1.
u A\ x, Ax zv | sh
Ava]USS x Czv Av u[QPa
\kQx.
2.
zv | shzv xP EP, u
C \\Qx.
3.
uskhzvS u P,
En mP Cx \zx UQx.
4.
v J[Qn
| _P uS, | Ez uS |
Eh J[Qn Hkzx C Ez uSPS.
| Ez uSP ES yshP | \
60
u :
u, zv | Ez uS, |
_P J[QnUQx. mmh ua _Pa
\mk _PU Pmkkzv, mmh
u Pmkmi \kQx. u
kUS, Po (Releasing factor) Ax uh\ Po
(Inhibitory factor) P mmh _U
PmkkzxQx. u |z v_ mmh
61
Sv,
{L] BS. Ai L]
SvPU Pshx. A ih, Cshi
i.
Pa]
x,
AiL] U Sx EQx. Cx
{L], h\L u Svx
EQx.
Ci P
{L]
AiL]
h : 1.21. mmh _
Sv mmh P :
AiL] B iU P Ax
iP _UQx. A a] Ax \mh
iU (GH / STH), um Ax uhz
ysik (TSH), Am PiPiU
(ACTH), LUQ \Pz ysik (FSH),
mi][ (LH), miiU
(LTH) Ax Ui.
62
1. a] ]u [P :
a] , xP ]u [PUS
QUQx. a]z ysk ]u [P,
Cu [S QUQx. PmmkP, mjP
P ]u [P Cx yskQx.
a] G Szu EUPzuz
yskQx. |m, mh], \i
ux EUP | Eh uUP zxU Pa \Qx. C
a]US EuQ.
Su zv a] Su, a]
uhkQx. G EP a] uhku
Szu HkQx. CUSk EhP 0.9 & 1.2 . E
mk P. CP va] Ahv.
Csh { sP v.
Su zv Cu a] AvP _US,
Cm\u u HkQx. CUSk EhP Eh
GP AvP A a] AhQx. CP 7&9 Ai Ezu
Ah. P Cu AvPPa _UPmh
Rzuh, P, P GP uizxU Pnk. C{US
AUP Gk.
k Po
uU]
mmh
uk
h : 1.22. Gv LmU \
63
3. Am PiPiU (ACTH)
Cx J u BS. Cu Gvz ysh
\mk, Am _ PhU (o) _UPU
PmkkzxQx. Cu ] \P. u
\mkPz ysi, u {P ux, C_ _z
yskx Ai v_UPx PP Chx
BS.
6. Ui Ax miiU (LTH)
mii, miiU , UhU
, i P Ui
AUPkQx. C mj B. Cx sP,
64
{] P :
Cx mmh _ SvS. CSv BUh]
G Csk Pa _UQx.
BUh], uha] A A[P EhUQx.
BUh] G \USz "xu ' G . Aux,
Cu , P u\P x \mk,
Aa _[Pa \x, Su GuUSQx. Cuh
Akzu UQ \, _z ysi _UPa \u BS.
BUh], _P E SP SPa _
Gwa \Pz yskQx. Gw Sv
_[Su, A[Qx x, S Ax \
Sv x AhQx. \ Svx ,
zukQx.
: Cu , BsihiU
G AUPkQx. Cx, ]}PU SP
\mk, }, | Eh {zvU PQx. Cx, |L
\ _sh S \PUS SP x \mk, ]}P
ivzvx } Eg_ v AvPUQx. Cx G
CzuU SP _[Pa \x Czu Azuzu AvPUPa
\Qx. Cx {zv UQx. Cu
S hj C]h G } | uQx.
C| PshP, AvP A ]} P
(). Cuz uhx AvP A uP Psk
usp AxP (i).
uk _ uU :
uk _ Csk PxPU Pshx. C Pzx
Sv S CUP[P Ax. Cu C
PxP Cz Gk SQ _zuh UPz
v_ CnUP miUQ. uk _ J Px
~s PxPU Pskx. Cu ~sPxP LUQ
P. Cu LUQP, A] GUPkQ.
J A] K P \x i Gw \PU Ps
kx. A] EmS Pk v
65
Px
Cx
S
h : 1.23. uk _
uU \kP :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Su US u, u u Ksk P[P
Su | Ez uSP a]US Cu
P A].
, CUP EP, EP, {n} ia_P,
sp ~ BQ EP u v_UP
]u zuz yskQx.
]Shx SUP Eg\kv Cu
UQ [S QUQx.
^ Pi AU SUQx.
u ]u zuz ysi, Eh a] FUSUQx.
Cx, Cuzxi u, Cua _UPzv P Czu |zv
Czu Azu \P AvPUPa \Qx.
Czuzv \ A uU { {zumh, Ax
u\ |P \Pa vh |h UQx.
Czuzv E uU \ A CUP
EP, vh \h EuQx.
66
ui : uU _zu US
ui BS. Ai Smi G Ph,
Qmi Ui Sk |P u. |
Esq En Ai SP Cu, (J |US 10
UQUS SP) uU Ezv S HkQx.
Cu Czuzv uU A Su, AvP A TSH
_UPkQx. Cx uk _ [Pa \Qx. C{US
G Ph G Esk. CuS GhU Ph G .
H C| so Ai SP Pnk Ch[P
PnkQx.
Qmi : SuP US u uU
US vUPmh C{ HkQx. Cu
ASP, | sh a] uhku, Eh a] S
SmhPU Pnku, |US uu, Sv
UP Pnku, Aih ]u u Su, Eh
{ Su, G EP a] Su
va] Ahu sP a] uhku BS.
Ui : uU US, PUS
Ui G | uQx. Su Aih ]u
u, u uizx, Ex \\Su, Ena]P E
P, u i Evu, S , x a_, x
]u, bP v Ui ASP BS.
C| SkP, Eh\, Su Czu Azu,
Czua \P, ^ Pm AvP .
ui Ax uhUP (Q |
Ax GU\LuU Ph)
uk _ _ AvPu, Q | HkQx.
C| ASP: P Aih ]u ,
P _\, x[Q PsP, P Cuzxi, | Qa],
Ena] \k x {zu Czu, Eh Gh Su,
Czuzv \UP A Rp, ^ Pm A Su,
EP \mi k Hku .
uk _ : u uk _, g\
& {zv, }mh izv, uk _ Sv
Ax _S. Ca_ C Pa _UQx. A,
1. u 2. P]h.
67
1. u
zu K hm \[Q BS. Cx E
\mi Su | \kQx. Cu Az
u Cx u x {h[P BS.
u | Eh mh Ch[P u
a \Qx. A, G EP, ]}P EnU
Sh BS. G EP Cu , Gz v_ x
\mk, BiQm \P \z yskQx.
(Ga ]uUS \P) Cu G x, P]
kUPmk Czuzxh PUQx. Ca\ GPUS
xi PkUQx.
]}P[P, u, mh z
yskQx. EnUShx m P] EP
Eg\z xnu mh D Ezv EzxQx.
Cu Pa _] Czuzv m P]zv A
AvPUQx. Cu ] Eh\ P
\Qx. A, 1. G EUS \P (Bim)
x J uh HkzxQx. 2. ]}x Pmh
sk Eg_u ]} pH (P&A {) AU
Szu BQ.
P]h : Cx P]zuU S\US . Cu
_ LUS \P _UPkQx. Cx
J uS. Cx LuUS GvPa \kQx.
]}P[P P], , \i, mh], U]
AP sk Eg\kuz ukUQx. CWlTp
_US HCI & AU SUQx. C_
SUPP _P AU SUQx.
ui\ : Cx, Czuzv AvP A
uk CuU SUQx. uk
AvPPa _UPmh GPx ux EP }UPkQ.
um_ Eg\kQx. Cu G \z u,
Czuzv P]zv A Ex kQx. ]}P, u, ,
~ BQ P]i HkQx.
ui\ : uk _ Ehx
}UPk x Czuzv P]zv A Sx hmh
Ax Qmiu G { EshQx. hmh, ^
P] A SQx. (P]), ]}P
68
P] mi AP SQ. |h Jmi
u\SvP AvPPz yshku u\ |P CUP
ASPPz uQ.
Pn : Pnz v_ Pnk ] P |
_ \PUS [P vmkP G . Ca\P,
Ezv \x, \Pzx, _US P, C_,
SUPP BS. Ca\P Csk PP PnkQ.
A BL mh \P BS. BL \P,
SUPP, mh \P C_ _UQ.
Cx TkuP hh \P Pnz v_UP
PnkQ. ] BP Pzxi, Ca\P BL
mh \PUS Ch uPP {.
1. C_ : Cx J u Ax hk. Cv 51
A A[P Ah[Q. u C_ UT Gh
5,734 hhP. Cx (A) (B) G Csk \[Qz uhU
Pshx. CzuhP h\k [P Csk
]hPUS Ch CnUPmk.
C_ Eh\ \P : C_ Czuzv
\UP P SUQx.
(A)
Cx SUP, QUPP U P
u\P \UPku AvPUPa \Qx.
(B)
v_UP SUP BUPn Ah uzu
AvPUPa \Qx.
(C)
SUP PP mk Ai v_UP
\UPku AvPUPa \Qx.
(D)
A
A[P
]u
}
h). } | J, AvP A ]}
, (), AvPP } Ax,
(i), Gx ] Hmk AvPP En EmP
(). C_ A S x Pa ]u
AvPzx SUPP kQx. Cu Czuzv
SUP A AvPQ, Au P Rmh mP
\Q. C{US Rmh G .
uP hmi (C_ \ {)
CP | [P vmkUP,
C_ P SvUS. ARLd LQlTm
CqYLp LQVju NpLs TlTPkdm.
Am _P
Am _ Ax ]}P a_
PhU Em k G CSvP Ehx.
C Am PhU SvS. uP,
PhU Sv, AkUSP Ehx. A
71
Am Ax G|L Eh\
E v oP R Pn.
1.
Am ]Sh, ]}P EP u
BQSa \ Czu |[Pa _[Pa \Qx.
Gz u\P, Cuz u\PUS \ Czu |[P
ha \Qx.
2.
3.
EnU S u\P ha \u
EnU S A CUPzu (hiU) {zv kQx.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
| & Am oP : xP Cx Am
\mh, CuzvS Czuzu Gkzxa \ SP u
CzuU SP _UPzu HkzxQx. Am
| Am BQ C P CuzvSa \ CzuU
SP ha \Q. Cx Cua _UPzv x
h x Pnk Czu Azuzu AvPUQx.
EnUSh u\P x Cx \mk, AP
_UPhu K ukUQx. C, ~ ]SP
u\Pz uha \v. | Am, Pmm
]u zv BU Hv PU Su A
\kQx.
73
hhj oP :
1.
Bs
CUP
EP
P
hhj PnQx.
a]US
2.
h x, Csh { sP Eh a],
E a], BsS. BozxUP UP UP[P,
uh, hhj Cux.
AshP :
U S CkSv Pnk Cn mh
ih AP AshP[P BS. C Dm
i G Csk P _UQ.
1. Dm : Ai L] _UPk FSH
Euh Ash x, Q LUQP
`kQx. Q LUQk Cnu \P Dm
G jk Ezv \Qx. Cu Dm C&18
P jk Tmk S. Cx s CUP EP
, Csh { s sP EP Cux.
2. i : Q LUQx Ash
kmh , izu LUQ \P Pmi G
uPP | _P Q. CuU P mi
TkuP i Ezv \Qx. u \
Cnz v_, PU P[P Sv, ia
_UQx. Cu C &21 P jk TmkS.
i, PzuUPu so P uhUS
74
En
EP
Ps :
Pk
Qk
] u\
P
Ps
I
zv
h : 1.24. Ps ^mkz u
]
] _UP
] E
u[S u\P
h : 1.25. ] u\h
75
zv E P A, A, {,
Jzu CUP BQ |x Ez
uSv A iQx.
zv E {P |h J v
Pso Sa] \P (120 P) Sv
Pnk ]U Pu Fu {, h] Ax Fu
Gk. Cv u B] (Pmh]) Eh Aik \u
mh H& B, Sv mi1 Ax mi G
AUPkQx. Jx h] x x {
Qx. H C mi B]P EhUP
kv J Cu CP i CnQ.
76
Sa]
h : 1.26. T Sa] \P
Pso Sv P |P Ps
|P Q. C| Pzv \Qx. zv
| u CSv En \P Pnkv. G
CSv zv En ix. CSvU Psumk
(Optic disc) G Enu SvP Ev
Smk G AUPkQx.
PsP
SkP
Sh Pso, yzv E P Cx
Cn JUPvP, \P zv SUPkQ.
S u u 25.\.. AQ E mP uP
US P Sh H x. Ca\
Ja]u { Cm (Emmetropia) G. Cm
{x k Ahu Au Hm
(Ametropia) G. Hm UQ {P
(Myopia) m (Hyper Metropia) AiUmi\
(Astigmatism)
(Prespiopia)
BS.
HmP Pn, Ps P }Su Ax Pso
Ja]u u k HkuS.
\\u
CUP S _
h : 1.27. Qmh \\u
G Qmh Ps ] Sv
AvPv PsP }m]u HkQx. E \
JUPvP uUS AvPPa ]uh x, JUPv
zvUS SUPkQx. Cu uuP
EnkQx. C{ Qmh Gk, H Wjp
E mPx JUPvP \P zv
SUPh C. C{U S ] \ \.
G G S ] Sv P E \
JUPvP \ USu Ja]uhu k AhQx.
Czv {h Pso J \
zv SUPkQx.
78
(B) m & y
Pso _ Sv x Cuv
m { EshQx. Cu JUPvP x
\\u
Sk
CUP S _
h : 1.28. y \\u
A ]uhuu Jx zvUS Sv
SUPkQx. C{ y Gk. H AQ
E P Cx PvP, yzv E Px
PvP \PU SUPkv. C{
S] \ \. G S\x Pso
E JUPv J Szx kv
JUPvP zv \PU SUPkQx.
(C) AiUmi\:
CUSmi P Ax vhUQx.
Pso
JSv
Ja]u
AvPP
Ax
PUSP Pnk, Cu Hk [P \U
SUPkv. J Sv Cx JUPvP
zvUS Sv Cx
JUPvP zvUS m
SUP kQ. AiUmi\zuU PsqUS _ zxa
\\. Cu ] Sv Sv mkU
Pnku C Pso Smia \ \Qx.
(D) :
x va] Pso Piv,
zu Sv Hz u (Accomodation)
S HkQx. G Cx ]UP { HkzxQx.
CUSk 40 vx BUQx. ]v Hk
SmiU S ] \\, Pso Hu Sk
u Eh Ps _ \umh B\P AqPsk.
79
miv (A) zv |
zv Hk v miv Gk CuSU
Pn } | Ax E Czu Azu BP. Csk
P miv Pshmkx.
} \u miv :
CP v zv E uxQP (~so
Czu|[P) ] hU PnkQx. Czu
|[P Ehx zv Czu Qx. CzuU P]
m Hh. |zv_UP m
a]. \ PvP A ]Qa\ \v
C{z uh ukUP.
Ps (Cataract)
Ps ] JS u Smi Ps
HkQx. \unP Jx, ] P Fk
zv Ah, JS u Sv J zv
Ah iv G uPU Pn Cx. ] E
u CP Hk PnPU Ps HkQx.
Ps USmkz u Hhx B JS u
S. Cu zv u sP uha]PU
SQx. Ps P ] zv JPzu
sSuPU Pn.
80
{Uh / UPs |
mh A {P Ezv \ EuQx.
mh A Smi u AS U Ps Ax
{Uh BS. uha]P AvPU P mh A Sk
Hmh zv E Sa] T \P a]
Sx Psh \Qx. Cv HkuS mh
A EmPsk zv \mi xPUP.
zv \miS mhP B uSv
ukQx.
Ps |P :
1. PsPmi (Stye) : Ps CP K[P Ax
_P Hk w u h Gk. Cu UP, ,
Ga\ Ps C KSv ]Su HkQx.
uha]P Jzuh ]Qa\ AUP.
2. PUii (Ps) : PUi Hk
u PUii GQ. u Hkv,
PUi E PsqUS uu ~so Czu |[P
Q kQx. Cv Ps ]Su, Ps A],
vUPmh Psox u HkQx. xP
]PUS u P PUS J P
PUii HkQx.
2 (a) PUii u : PUi Uj
(E..h PUQ) u HkQx. C
PPx EshS. PsoS uku P Ax
uUSu \una \, ushs, umh,
PUii . Cx K u |S. C|
P TmhP Ph PP .
2(b) J PUii : Cv J Esk
sq P P AS \u P, PhUm
_P _zuUS v, Puz y P HkQx.
82
ASP : G P PUiiP, Ps
]Su, Ga\, Ezu, u J
(Photophobia) u PUii ^ zu
kQx. Cu P US x Ps CP
Jh JmiU PQ. J PUii Ps
CP [Q { zuQ.
]Qa\ : xx } EQzx Ps CPh
Jmi zu P }UP sk. |
uua \\ Ps \mk x Ax | Gv xP
kzu sk. J PUii |U
Snkzu Bu h Pu Ps \mk u kzu.
PsxP :
Ps J P UQ E, G Au xPzu P
A].
1.
2.
3.
4.
Px (Ear)
|x PxP C UQ, B mh P |US
AUQ. A Pmh \{kzxu BS. \P
Enk Jx |x _zuU Szu uPP |US
Auk mkx, | uh P kQ.
| R ui {u { {uSz u \{
EnU PxP |US AUQ.
83
J Gx a ` } Av Hk
EnS. J Px J AP a] zux.
ux A AvsP zux (AP
GsoUP / P AS). u PmPUTi J 20&20,000 cps
(cycles per second Ax Hertz) C v mk Cmi
PU PmP.
J Enu Gx P A AvsP
zux. u \ 50&5000 m J uzu En
i. | xPU PmPUTi Jx 500 & 5000 m
AS CUS. u PxP J AP Su A
kzx u Pshu, (| EnUTi PU Pzu
\zux, SU Pmi _ 1012 h[S AvPuS).
J Ah AuS h] (db) G AS kzukQx.
| PmS ux, Pv |h ]UP uh
{Pa]Pa \xx. P Pnk J AP
AP P AvPP H EP Ahu PmP
iQx. ` AvP Enmk yshPP
kQ. Cu yshPP |P US Gkzxa
\ A[S A SnkQ. A Snu
uPP JP | u kzv EniQx.
Pmh CUP :
a\ o : J AP a\ ,
a\ S Pa \ AhQx. Cu
\ AvQx.
|ka\ o :
|ka\ Gx h G Ax P {
S SvS. Cx \US USz ush
Sv vUQx. |x \zu, [Su Pmh
ku x \US vu, \ C
Azux \{ kzukQx.
|ka \ \U SzuP Ax.
C \h Cnxx; h
|ka_ Ax }mh Poh; CP C
GPh Cnxx.
84
}mh v
Px GP
P iL
P
i
P
i
mh iz
v
PU
h : 1.29. Pv Emz u
ushU
PxU S
C \ AvP }mh Po
AhQ. \ _ 90 \x .. , h
Aizumk 3.2 \x .. Psku, CuU
SzuP |P uSv Cu Azuzv 1.3 h[S
AvPUQx.
}mh Po AvP i S Ah[Q
vzv Azuzv EshUSQ. Cu Azu AP
|kUS Ahx ] \ Avha \Q.
}mh Po RP Ax mh ia \Q
mh Poh \ S CnUPmkx. Cu
A Azu AP \US (Cochlea) vzv
AhQ.
PU oP :
Em\ (z) PU i BQ
Bx. Em\ PU Sv 2.75 _P Psh S
Ahx. Au } x ] \
APP UPmkx. |k A (P i)
Ev, C AP (P i, P
i) _z v Ah[Qx.
Ph E: (Organ of Corti)
] \ P Env Psh Ph E
Axx. ] \x |S \ \P
uQ.
\P ysku :
h] Aizumi A\P P i
Pnk _z vzv uhP EsksqQ. Cu
85
E
\P
E
P i
hUh E
P iL
Ph E
P
iL
Pmh |
h : 1.30. Ph E S..u
] \
h : 1.31. Ph E
uha]P i \, P i
Ah[Q Evzv AvP HkQ. Cu AP
\ Hkzxuk, ] \
[P {Pu Ph E \P P
Q. Cu P Cuk uhh |P
EshS ysku \| PhzukQx.
Ph E EshS AvPm\ A\P J
AvsP zux. Su uh Ti Jx
PU AiSv P Eu AP, Su
ux ~Sv uUS. J Ca\
A zx Ph E HkQx.
Czysh EnP \o HkQ.
J En u
J AP & \ Avhu & Px GP
A\P & }mh Po Av & `v AP & Ev
AP & \ & ] \ Hk
& a \P & {P & \ |
Phzu.
PxP SkP :
PxP Hk SkP Px P Ax
\hS { Hk. Pv Hu J Ax AuS mh
P[P Hk SP Px P uhQx.
PxPz u PP :
Px Pzu& ] PP E. A :
Phzu P, Enu P, PU Phzu P, |U
PP BS.
86
Phzu Pzu :
Ax |ka\ P Hk, Czu
EshQx. Phzu Px Pzu vUPk SuP
]u PxP Av. B Cx uPPx; H
zx Cu Eu \.
Enu P Px Pzu :
PU Ax ] \P uhu
Ax AUPku CUSk HkQx. CUSmi
A zx, J \zu[PU PmS { (A
S { Cu) Ax ] \zu[P mk Ax
Gua \zu[P PmPu { CUP.
Enu P Px Pzu A|PP {ux.
xP _ u Cu vUPk.
| Px Pzu :
PUS US
a]P Cx HkQx.
uh
Hk
P Eu P : (Hearing Aid)
PU Snkzu iu { Phzu Px
Pzu Psh |PUS "P Eu P' k.
J A v
Jmi
JUQ
~s J [Q
h : 1.32. P EuP
J USP, J En Av PP, u zx
Lh Ti uUPm] miP, u umha_ Gv[P,
|hzx JP u.
Ca\ _u :
Ca\ (Noise) G \ 'Nausea' G Czw x
u zuS. Ax K Sa\ Hkzv v
GkUPa \ K EnS. zuPu, u Jx
Ca\ Gk. Ax _u K PS. |x Ah
UP FkUTi u Gvh Ti J
Ca\ _u Gk. Ax A|P uP P
HkzxQx. \U P[P P, } E `shzu
_a \ v _kzvP Ca\ K
_kzvPU Pshmkx. Ca\ uUSz w[S
uk, Au P sk \\ iu.
Ca\US A|P U Pn[P Esk. Az
u\u [P, u \ [P G Pkzu.
u\P Cv[P EQ s
voUPk Ca\ u \u [P Ah[S. |P
a] u Ca\; u, , C USzx;
JUQP; uUPm] {[P, Pmk
SvP, Ash mh xUQ G J A,
|P UP \kP BQ Ca\ A
AvPUPa \Q.
Jx A|PU Tmkz uSvP AUPkQx.
J AuS Pa]u AS h] BS. Cx \
BLm GU SUS. Cv u Ca\ Ami
PnUQi AvUPmh J A 81 dB u 120 dB BS.
Pzu \zux (130 dB US ) |kUPv u\PUS
{ \uzu, Px GP Evz u v,
PU \ Smh, Ax \
Q, Pmh u P Sha \Qx.
Ehu
Eh ux Eh ES. C
Eh zu Gh 8% BP Ex. Cu zu 1.1&2.2
\x mhS. Eh Azx `x Eh
ux EhUS _U `USh K ChP
Axx. Eh x[P \SvP Ps, Px
EP P u uha]S.
89
u ha \P kPP a _P,
Gsna _P, E u hP, |P[P
Ax. ^ G Gsn a _US Gsna
_P EUPPUPQ vx. a _P
C PPsk. A Sva _P (Merocrine glands),
a_P (Apocrine glands) Gk. Sva _P Eh x
. C uu }a _UQ. a_P
PUP[P, U P Pmk mh, _ (Pubis), u, zx
` SvP E. C EU PP vvUP.
u h Sv Cnz v_UP. C[S
Ax GiU P CP uUS
}u AUQ. CSv u
CzuU SP, {n} |[P, |P | ukP
\P . ukEn, u, Azu, ,
S, AvP AuP Ena] EP u E.
u Pa \ Czu Kmhzv En mP
Phzukuk Eh Qx.
u P :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
\P :
K Pu P {h {S. Cx
S . C{ E, u, Pso Pk
E, BQ SvP Ex. C G \P
] xPPPa \UPkQ. Ca\P u R h
Sv E. Ca\P h] G A Azvx
90
T. x { AvP :
A. Ai\ | x {vP {P. Jk
uP, E SvP { Hk.
B. Di , P P[P AvPu
P, BQ Ch[P { AvPUS.
C. B\U |a_ Eh x ] PP
{P A.
II. x {US :
A\ Gk sz u |, Skh
{P u uYRp HkQx. Cx J q Sk
|. uuP h] \ |h
v. CPUS s { u, U Sk,
J uP Hk. CPx u AvP A
` J | sP u sk.
III. B[P[S { Su :
A. UPh G su Smi B[P[S
sz vmkP u AvUS. Cx J U Sk.
B. miP G su Smi B[P[S
s SvP u.
C. k {USkP : ] G u|,
SnS P[P, PvUP, u |P u.
UV PvP ` J, UV USP, i[ P
BQ kQ. UV PvP u J ] mhP
mk ~UTi. G C v Gh Sv
mk AvUS. u u UV PvUPzu AkUS
Gzw P], R\ P] w uh
P u |P u. UV J
vz u ux Ahzv zxz
uUP. s {hPUS Ah SP
EPUS (Fair skinned) UV Pv vP u
Psk. zv P |kP, P {
o, \P BQ JUPvUP vUP.
u a ]Qa\ :
vhu u Sva ^\z u Aa
]Qa\ PkQx. Ca]Qa\ Eh J Sv |S
Ax u }UPmk v Sv zuk. A[S
v \P x vhu ua ^ \xh.
CmhP u JUP zu.
B Ax [Q u zu
Cx. zv Azu {PUPmk k. Eh u
AvP. G Cnzxz uUP Cx. Cnzu ]
P Eh A uk Eh A\P
vh.
hhmi (Dermatitis) \| :
C| Eh u UP Hk. C{,
J Ax Smh Pn Hh.
JPz u |US GU G . \U \|,
uh \|, Ja\| G u |Psk.
uh \| :
uh ] mP uh Pu u P]
(Rash) u. C| |iP A Ax
J Hh. xP ihm \P, {UP
(PUPiP mh, P , EhU PUQP)
\| u. ] u[P, \ mP, x
mP PnP. P zxz
u P] uUSu k. A, u Eu P
Hk.
92
Ja\| :
]USz u J vh. `
Jk Ch[P ]PmiP Ax ] ] hP u.
|US
P\
C E
h : 1.33. |UQ _ En SvP
|x _ mkUP Ax. C SP
| AvP. | RSv, a_US i
, ush BQ Ch[P E. J _ mhx
h ui AS AvUS. C zv
xPsk. uh _ mkUP AvPUS. a]
C GsoUPU SQx.
_ En _ \P : |S Aiha
_P | EnQ. A C, , P, P\ BS.
Pa_, EPa _ Th En.
Ca_ mkUP | Smh P E. P\
En mkUP | E C[PP Ax.
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Sv _P , P\ EnP |S A.
]u, C, P\a _P A C. ush,
a_US iSvP C, Pa _P A Cx.
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PP AP h U P } A
zx kQx.
h\ : u hzv Pnk E[P
uP h\ BS. Pa ]} EuSU
Su A } ukv AvP } Cz uUPkQx.
Ah JkP Su |a_u
Ehx. C P }UP EPUS Phzumk
}UPkuS Czuzv \ | PnkQx. Czuzv
A PU SPU Pnmh, ]} AvP
Ahh \Pzx UPkQx. u Czuzv 0.04 Q
/ 100 G Quzv ]} 0.2 Q / 100 QuzvPU
PnkQx.
ES E u
A + CO2 + ATP
Bu _]
P m
Bu
]m
AiU A
A
A&\U]U A
v ES UQ E PS.
\ v_UP A }UP |h x ES
A, P&h&BUk P Bu _]
Cnx P mhP EQx. C{Pa]P
hzv Pmhmhi {PQ. |a_ A,
J UTP EUP ATP UTP EQUPkQ.
|L : ]}Pzv A \ AS |L
BS. ]}Pzv J US AvP |LP
PnkQ.
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1. u ]u zv ES PP Qx.
94
2. H + Pm AP v P,
A {P J[SkzxQx.
3. ]}Pzv E _US P
} EP A J[SkzukQx.
4. Gzi _v Czu Azu
Czu ESu J[SkzukQx.
]} ES
J |L uha]Pa ]} EUSQx.
CUPzv |h {PP S iPmku,
SP sk Eg\ku, SP _zu BS.
S iPmku :
E Czuzu E Aih
iPmku Cu E iPmi GQ. S Sv
Qsn Cnu Sv E BS.
iPmku u :
Cuzvx zu Czuzv HUS 20&25%
A Czuzu ]}P UPQx. CvP A Czu
S uxQP P \v A[S Czu Azu
EPU PnkQx. C Czu Azu iPmkuUSU
PnQx. S] E E\ uxQP Pnk Czu
v Azu(Hydro static pressure) 75mm Hg. CuS GvP \k
Azu[P, \k Azu 30mm Hg, Chmk Azu
10mm Hg ]}P ~sS E Azu 10mm Hg BS. C
S iv iUPkv UQ [S BQ. ]}P
uxQP E u[P ES Cv Azu[P
E\ u
(75mm Hg)
a\ u
\k Azu 30mm Hg
Qsn
~sS E
Azu 10mm Hg
h : 1.34. S iPmku
95
SP sk Eg_u :
]} ESu Cx Csh {S. Q i
vzv, SUP, A A[P, ux EP
mhP BQ UQ P Av E } Px
PnkQ. sk Eg_u {P ]}P ~sSP
|hQx. hUTi P mh Ax uukzx
Eg_u P sk Eg] EUPkQ. SUP,
\i P] P Cu P, \S
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P]
Na
H2O
Na
I\hU
I\hU
H2O
H2O
Na
H2O
Na
H2O
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H2O
h : 1.35. ]}PU S sk Eg\ku
96
hU
hU
As _sh SP sk Eg_u :
As _sh S }, SUP, \i m
Pm Eg\kQ. CSv ]} Jzu
Ah uhuPU Pnk. Jzu Ah u Gx Csk
PPUS Ch E h } Phx \u
{S.
sk Eg_u :
R[S S ]}a \ x E
Ah { AvPUQx. H R[S Sv P
uP Eu \i GuP Fk E \Qx.
Ha \ S _ P Ev ]} xPa
\Qx. H Sx \i R[S SUS Chmk
v_UP Ch \v ]} Ah {
Sx Psk \Qx. Gu J P\ Cx } C
HkQu AUP\ AhS v Gk.
\ _sh S sk Eg_u :
\ _sh Sa ]} Ah x _
v_UPUS, \S Phzu \i, G Phzu
} Phzuku ]} Jzu Ahz u AhQx.
\PUS S sk Eg_u :
\PUS Sa ]} Ah x ADH
\ } Eg\kQx. G ]} i E Ah
u AhQx. \PUS S _
k \k Azuzv u E \k
EnSvP Enx ADH ha \Q. G
E ]} 96% } 2%, 2% ]u U PP
PnkQ.
24 o |zv iUPk Q i vzv
Pnk P A, Avx \
P A K JhP Amhn
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97
J| iUPk J| ]}
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vzv A
P A
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
180 mh
2 Q
580 Q
640 Q
30 Q
275 Q
180 Q
53 Q
8.5 Q
1.6 Q
}
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\i
Sk
mh]
Pm
SUP
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Qmi
1&2 mh
0.1 Q
5 Q
6 Q
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0
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1.6 Q
SP _zu :
iPmku Cu u EhUSU Pk US P
P S _ \S Phzu
kQ. Cx ]} ESu Ph]{ BS.
]}Pa \ C :
]}Px, Czuzv Cx P P iPmi
]}P v Hk Smi ]}Pa \ C
G. ]}Pa \ C Eh }a \{, ux EP
\{, Czu Azu BQ k HkQx.
Czu v_UP ( P P
ESu) { v P v HkQx.
Ca\ SkP ASP EQ.
]}P \ C Gx EhiPa \zu (Acute)
Ax PUQ xPa \zu (Chronic) CPk.
EhiP \zuUP PnzuU Pshx AuS E
zx \x Psh i \un { Ah i.
PUQ xPa \zu ]}Pzv o i
C {US v. C{USU Pn Su Czu
Kmh, | v, h Pn \u
|PS. C ]}Pzv v_UP \
vha \Q. PUQ xPa \a
]}P A ]Qa\ \ \.
98
FkS |h \P
]}P J |US HUS 180 mh Czu i
iPmkQx. Cvx UQ P \i,
mh], P], A A, SUP }
Pa ]}P i Eg]U PQx. ]}P
vhPUS C{Pa] Sk EhiP Ax
xP Hh. Cu PP Czuzv AvPzx w[S
. ]P EUS v HhUTi P
EshS. C PkP x \P
Fk Sa \kQx. Ck S \Pa ]}P G
AUPkQx.
]}P Cv :
u
]
FkP \
Cv K CUPU PS Cu E
vUPmh Czu \zukQx. vhu
Pzv ux Czu sk Au AQ E
] P Em\Qx. Cvzv EUS Fk Sz
v Ah[Q h[PUS Ch Ax P Czu
\Qx. Czvzv EUP Czuzv Ex {
AvUS. Czuzv E AvPi vs P
hzv P Fk FkS vzu AhQ. C
Eh AvPiPU Pnk PP
UPkQ. Czua \P u[P Czuzv u[Q
kQ. C{PSa Czu Fk S G .
99
]}PU PP (Calculas)
]}P
]}
]} P
h : 1.38. ]} P
h : 1.37. P }UP sh
]}P[P, ]} | ]} BQ Hk.
]} E P iu {PP ]}PU PP
EUSQ. ]} PP EuU Pmi ]}P
]} |[P AvP A uQ. C{PP
PhUPzv AvPP |h. H Ph AvP
US Eh v C HkQx. Cu ]}
Ahzu AvPUQx. CUPP Ev uhz
uP HkQ. ]}PU PP Eh } uhx
AvP |mP |hv HkQx.
Pm (Gout) i vUPkP ]}PU PP U
A AvPPU PnkQx.
mi m Su En EmPu
]} PP EQx. ]}P ]} |zv PP
Ev Pk Hk. ]} PP E
]} x u Hk. ]} ]}
|zv R Sv ES PP \mhP Ax
miP PP Ehzx . uu
]Qa\P, Av AP AUPP x \zv Pa
]uUPkQ. Ca]Qa\ zui] (Lithotripsy) Gk.
]}P ]Qa\ :
vUPmh ]}PzvS vP Ax \
Cuhx, | ]}Pzu A ]Qa\
100
} | :
Pnzv _UPk C_ US
Ax x C Hk Pmm ]u
Sk } | Gk. C_ UQ oP,
\PUS u \Uv AUP \P SUP\ Eg\
Eux P P \P SUP,
QPP \zx UP Eux BS. C_ SmiP
Pn[P : 1. Pnzv Sk, 2. Pnzv [PP
vmkP mh \P C_ _zu Sk, 3. mh
\P vhu, 4. U PP.
ASP :
1.
2.
&
AvP A ]} u
B. i] &
AvP uP Hku } Su
AvPzu.
C. &
] AvPv AvP A En
Esqu. B Eh GhUSx
Pnku.
3.
4.
5.
P a]u zv k.
6.
] Czu |[P PP Ax u.
} | PP :
1. C_ \ P 2. C_ \u P
1. C_ \ P : CP AvP u
C_ _ S HkQx.
101
2. C_ \u P : x A C_ EUP
Cuv C{ HkQx. Eh u K UQU
PnS. 40 vS mhPUS iiP CUSk
HkQx.
ux
C_
Gv
}
|
Pshmkx. CUSk ]vh PnkQx.
} |UP Pn[P :
1.
C_ \u } |US \x PnkQx.
2.
u PnP Pn vUPkv C_
Sk HkQx.
3.
C_ \ } |US UQU Pn Eh u
BS.
4.
5.
PiPik hiU
EmPx PnQx.
xP
CUP
Azx E[P u[Px Ez uP
CUPzv uPzxU PQ. G EPQ
Uj[P CUPzv Jzu qsh
\uvPz uUQ.
u Bs, s CUPa \P uUPmk,
AP Cn, CUP HkQx.
uqx PuUP Ash Aqh CnP C
(u Bs, s) P DNA UTP Cnx vP
E u. CUPnzu CUP Gsoh[P
PP EUP C Gx uQx.
Bo CUP EP \v :
Bo CUPa \ UQ o xa _P
{Q. C o uq Gk Bs CUPa
\Pz uzuS. K Bs, CUP va]huh
Ax xa _ uhx uqUP EzvQ.
Cu CUPa \mi sP h BsP }sh
|mP [Qh C. , xa _P xa \ uz
ysik Bs P (Androgens) _UQ. _UPmh
102
xa _P Ca\ Ezv
uq EzvU PoP : mmh _ FSH
xa\ Ezvz ysimkU Pmkkzx, ikP
xa \PP va] A a]U PoPQ
\mh \Pz ysik. FSH hhj
BiP Ezv ysik.
mmh _ LH G xa _ iU
\P x uUPzu Hkzv hhi Ezvz
ysk. xa _ \Pa \x uqUPz
uUP Au { 320C Czu u.
xa \
u
EmP
AU\
|kSv
mhPi
Aa_ C
h : 1.39. xa\
xa \P |P uh. K x
\ } mh iz uSvsk. Au EmP,
AU\ E AvUS. uz uhx SQ
Pzx, |kh, SvPsk. |kh Sv _ i
mhPi Ex. Ch \Uv uUP Eu. UQ
Sv iSvsk. uq Cha]UP \Uv ATP
UTP k.
hu (Puberty) EP a] K {S.
vh C xa _P uhx x \P
EzvQ. J |US 125 G A A
EzvP. 12&15 v xu Hk. C
mmh
P
Bs
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hhj Ezv ysi hk. Cu A AvPUS.
Cu a] Csh { s uP Hk.
103
\
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uP
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h : 1.40. Bs CUP EP uS
x\ |Pa] : CUPzvP x \P
so CUP E Ahu u. a]
x\P xa _ Akzx }sk, _sh SPQ
Ghi] Pa \Q. Ghi] \UPk
xa\P x |zvS Ax Evz ukQ.
C| x a_ |zxh uhhx. na] x x
| _[Q, x xa \Pa ]} | Evz u.
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_UPmh Ahzv v }va \. CzvzvS
xz v (A) \ G .
xz v s {U P P AvUS.
CUS \ G . C x,
hm _, P _, & zu _P
_UPk. C xa \PUS Enxh }va
\ FhPP [S. J k \
50 xa \P AvUP.
na] x Bs n E zx uS.
A AiSvx u u\ CUP[P xa
\P \h so PU P a\k.
Pmkk :
Bo CUPa
PmkkzukQ.
1.
\P
2.
xa_
xa
\P
P Ezv \.
3.
hhj
xa _a \ Pmkk
u, mmh, xa _
FSH
BQ
Cnx
\k.
mmh
uqUPzvz ysik. C{Pa] hhj
Hk. xa _ \h \P Ezv
\ ]P mjP hhj _U
Pmkkzuk. Ca\P Cmi G a
_UQ. Cx hhj EzvjRd\.
iU \P, hhj Ezv \Q. Cu
LH ysik. hhj \P x
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Pmkkzu. mmh, u] x C[Q LH
Ezv SUP.
so CUP EP \P :
s CUP EP UQ o Asha
_P {Q. C mPh Ash Aq
(A) mhPz uUQ.
Pu mhP Pa]dL] \]l Q.
Asha _P so CUP P Ezv
\Q. C uha _] |hzxUQ.
Asha _ P (s P)
Asha _P Di, i G s
CUP Pz uUQ. Czu mmh
FSH, LH Pmkmi Ex. s P x P
E a], uha _] BQU PmkkzxQ.
105
DiP
:
C
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P.
Asha_ wUP Ch, Q UQ, P mi, \h
C _UPkQ. C xn EP
a] Csh { sPUS PnP E.
uha _]U PmkkzxQ. Asha _ E
LUQP a]z ysi kQ. _P
a]US G { uzvS PnP E.
P mizu _UPk UQ US,
i G . Cx P _ Pmh
Jmi uP { Hkzvz uQx. \h G
u&\ Cnz v_ uuS P u {
{zu EuQx. Px PU Pzv P
_[S uz ukzx kQx. Cx v Ash Aq
kuz ukUS. P Pzv uha _] {zv US.
Ash Aq A :
u Ash Aq ]x. Av Pn C
(H]zu mh). Cq SUP 100 U Ahx.
Ash Aq zv x Aua _ UPkh
h Esk. CuS \ imh (Zona radiata) G .
C S x \ ]h (Zona pellncida) G
E u EuQx.
Asha \Pa _ LUQ \P
Ax. ] LUQ \P \ ]hS
P. AS P imh G .
Cx Ash |zv Asha \ C[S
UQ \
\ ]h
EmP
vP
P imh
h : 1.41. u Asha\
106
Ash Aq Ash Aq i :
Asha _x Ash Aq u "Ashq
' (Ovulation) Gk. C{Pa] Asha _
LUQ uQ Asha _ Kzv A.
QL LUQ _ i, wUP AkUSP
Ehx Ash Aq k. Ash |zv C[S
Pu {P. Pmh P C[Q Au _ vzx
UPk. Ash |zv Pu {P
12&24 o |zv Ash ixk.
P mi
Ash
QL UQ
h : 1.42. Ash kku
P mi :
Pa] (P US) Pzv P mi
UQzx Qx. C Ash Aq u,
P QL UQ hS. Ca _US
, i BS. Cx J jk .
Po\ AS Cu P mizvx,
u&\ Cnz v_x uQx.
uh _] :
a] so uha _]P P UQ
{PPS. C CUP EP \kP
uh. Ash Aq , P mi EUP
{Pa]P |h u P Em_
uh[P HkQ. C[P _] Hk.
Ca^ CUP[P 28 |mPU Psh Pa _]P A.
107
uh {
1 2 3
uh {
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 1 2 3 4 5
FSH
Dm
AvP
LH
Dm S
m AvP
US {
mi {
uh _]
h 1.43. uh _] {P
zuUP xUP {x sk A. QL
LUQP x va]h. C{ i FSH _
{k.
m i { (A) uh { (15&28 |mP)
C{ uha _] 14x | x[S.
mmhx LH Gk mi][
_UPkQx. Cu QL UQ Ehx Ash
Aq . Cu P UQ, P
mi G { |a _P u . P
mi xP A uQ i a
_x k. ]u Di Czuzv _x
hk. i P Ghm Em_
uUPzu Hkzx. Ash Aq US P
Ghm
u Ah. P so
P{ xPv P _[Q u u
{zv v i UQ [PQx. Pu
C P mi Az x[S. mi
{ Cv P Ax k.
uh { (A) k { (1 u 5 |mP)
i, Di P _ Suh
Ghm P Em_x Ex .
C{ AvP A CzuUS Hk. Cx \ Ax
uh BS. Ca\mi P Em_ u
AkUSP Azx Ex . Cu i P
mix K kP A. AS P AP
G .
Pu :
Ash Aq xa \ Jh JPU Pxk
{US Pu G . C{Pa] u ik
u E \, Pmh Gk.
Asha _ va]hu Ash Aq mk
P |zv Sv P ~. A|zv
B Sv uh. CSv Pu {P.
K uq Ash Aq EQ \ ]h (Zona
Pellucida) z xzxU Psk E~. C x
109
S
AshP
P
PU P
h : 1.44. s CUP E uSP
u & \ | qu
2.
u, SuP | uk \u.
3.
4.
Pzuha \u[P :
Ca\u[P CPU Pu |h ukUP
C.
(A) uk : C so PU P
uq ~u ukUPk.
h 1.46. sq
h 1.45 S E
111
(B) P :
P miP zvP, F] x
mP, P xP BQ PP QhUS. ]
x mP Ash Aq zuz ukUS.
i mk CUS. ] xUP
i, Di BQ Csk x mP
AvUS. mk P 99 \uQu zuU
Ti. AshqUP ukUPk.
Ash|zv Ash Aq C[Su {zuk.
C Ghm G P Em_z uiUPa \Q.
PU P P a _UPa \u uq
Ashzv ~x uh \k.
(D) Aa ]Qa\ :
Aa ]Qa\ P J CUPz uSv
CUPa \. Cu BsP (\Uh) sP
(iUh) \ C. \Uh (x | il) (Vasectomy)
112
P - T
h 1.47. P - T
h 1.48. iUh
h 1.49. \Uh
113
2. ~sq
:
~sqP EP Gx P UjUP, P
g\P mh\ JmksoP BQ
EhUQx. ~snUQ Pski, ~sqP
zukzxU PshuP ~m \P ~sq
G J v A uU PnQ. C
~sqP i, A, CUP, Eh\,
]u A Pmi, USQx.
~sq SvPP, A A\[P
~sqP CP {; AQh Cu
EPh E uh; A, u[P, [SP
uh u P, A \kP `{
h[P {, }, P BQ {ku
~sqP Ez u ~m |P BQP
[SQ.
zx ~sq :
zx ~sq BP 1888&B Bsk Puk.
Csi i { (Pausteur Institute), _ |mi ]
{ \mhx. Cm Pa (Robert Koch) Au u |P
x CUSP . i, Cm
Pa_ AUP I UPh zx
~sq UQzxzu AuP zu
FUPzu Hkzv. zx ~sq Gx |z
uP , uUP EUPoP, uu
|P AuS. |PUP i QU
PP, u UP uP vUS. Gsn u
|P U Psh Eux. |PUS
C xP, uk F]P Pshmk.
zx ~sq uz uQ ~sq
P, A G |z uUQ Gu
USQx. uUS Gv Eh \, Smh
~sq Gv ]Qa\ USQx.
114
h : 2.1. i
~sq, u |P [S |P
x Ax P Szux. i \P
UjUP DmkP v FhP uS.
mi (1857) |vzu P P
~sqPU Pshu. E.. BP |vzu
Esh i Dm \P Ezv UiU |vzu
] Uh ] Uj[P Ezv. CUPskiP
J Smh | J Smh ~sq uuP
i Azu.
Ah ]Pa \uP VB xV_ >|m>_
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A~sq | Gv vz ysk \Uv
FUSzu BQ UQuS. i A
PP P uk], BkP BuU_UP (Anthrax)
uk] u |UPiUP (Rabies)
uk] Pskizu.
115
A, , |P:
P uU QP BS. A Uj[P h
A Pa]. A A _ 20 u 300nm BS.
\P FhP[P P uP Q v APS.
A u Ax [S \P mk UTi. BP
u P Pmkkh \ E JmksoP G
[P \P C Cmihx CUP
AhQ. C UPzv SvP vP
EUPmk ASvP J[Qnu \ P
uUPkQ. P u[PUP \Uv Ezv
116
P A :
[S u P {UU A[P B
J Sv Aua `u P\ ASP BUPmh
P]m (Capsid) G ESv Pnk. P Smh
^PU Psk [SQ.
1. Esh i P \UP SvPU Psh
I\m i[P.
2. ]sh i P _ ^U Psh
] EvP P ]UP ^ uSvP
BS.
] [S P {U P]m Ah
\ J E Pnk. C
u[P Bx. C P \a^
UQx. EP Psh P P
PP
Du,
SL
BQ
PUTi. B E P AUPP
Pu. A | P, T & UjLP
]UP ^ AU Psh P BS. C
mh u[P, u[P PsiUS. \UPa
^ i P Ai P SV15,
}|US P Esh izxh, A UPn
ASP B \h AU PsiUS.
_ i ^U Psh u P \U
P (TMV), [S P A P
(Measles) mh (Mumps) Pa\ C\
(Flu or Influence) (Rabies) BQ
PnkQx. CP {U P]m Sv J G,
u Psh AS. i K[P
xn ASPP QUP u[P B. TMV {UU
Azu zv P]m E P |UPP AkUPmh
P\P B k P G AUPk. Tdv
117
E
E E
h : 2.2. A
h : 2.2 (A) UiL
:
P A uPP (DNA) j.G.H.
Ax B.G.H. (RNA) & PsiUS. J {UU
ASv C\ P 1% , ] LP
50% Pnk. ] P, P 3 u 4
P A Pnk. B P
A | P P UPnUQ
CUS. P {UU A[P JPU Pnk.
CS J vUS m P BS. C ik
P. C RNA P Cmh \[QPPU Pnk.
P {UU A } i, Ax mh
i Pnk. [S P i.G.H.
}UTPS. ] u P B.G.H. mh i
Pnk. B [S P B.G.H. Cmha \[Q
BUP }i Ax J \[Q UTP
Pnk.
[S P :
P E \P mk u Psh.
B As P \zvQx. P
G ]UP P, Gsn [S P
US \ ""PUP '' \
[SQx. Cv P PmhP A AhPUS
Pzv 5 |mP u 12 |mP , \USz
uukUPkQ. P i mhP Kmi
_zu Q {, Emvzu (Inoculum)' \kQx.
(F] ) Kmi x S Psk AhUPk. 360
C AhPUP mh mhP US HS.
118
I. |P
A. | P :
P\ (A) |US P J PoPU
Pshmkx. |z uUS P
BUPU P (Oncogenic Viruses) G AUPk. Ai
P, P, ] 40 (SV40) Gi
P (EBV) (J P) BQ i.G.H. P BP
PS. B.G.H. PP B.G.H. \UP
P BUP U PS. (E..) \UP
B. _ | :
h Skzua \uuS. Ax mk
[SP miP JmksoS.
u [S uU Piu uUS A]
119
u EshQx. |, , miP
_US [S [P BS.
u (| Pi) |US ASPP, Pk
u, AvPU Pa\ u{ [Su {,
ush SvP u\ |kUP[P, }
(mL) BQ u. C| AS
uUP _ 3 u 8 [P BS. CUP h Tk.
| C u 100% BS.
_US v uk] x 1980& PskiUPmkx.
Ax u ik \P FhPzv UPmh
\mhzu Cu P uUPmh uk] BS. Cx
P xP, ukz ysk uk]S.
C. A P :
G P A u \[P P
A P U P Cmh \[Q i.G.H,
uzu, P Psk. C SkSk
{Uh Aua `x Csk \kUSP Psh
A .
G AUPk. Cx
}zx |iP uUSz uQx. Ax
| u u EP (k) P
Qx. JUPmk mhx.
uk] _US |UP U]
uUPk. Czuk] uUS | uk, \
v BQ Csi uUQx. U
/ A P umh A P P
BS.
120
PP
E_ _D
h : 2.3. UjUP AP
UjUP Ezu[P :
1.
Esh i Ax E i Ax i
AP A kP
2.
3.
T P i\[P UjUP zu
E sP BS. CsP Uj C[PU Psh
Eu P, Pmi UQzx P BS.
Uj \P EP Psk.
CP ~sq \ Uj
E Gk.
Uj :
G UjUP a]US Fmh P u
kQ. A u a]US, US J Fmha\zxU Psh
FhPzu |. J ~sq FhP ] vU Tmk
P BUPmiUS. Ax J v FhP G
Ax
\P
FhP
G
AUPk.
Au
TmkP PmmkUP, u[P, {UU
A[P, PP, mhP Cu ]UP
mP hP, Ca] Psh v, Dm Psh
121
}u FhPzv J J Smh PA
} PUPh sk.
2.
3.
4.
5.
UjUP a] Fmha\zxUPh, C sP
{, {, (pH) Azu Pzu
Evz uPP Jh, }zu BQ ukQ.
[S
m
i.G.H.
Pg_P S
h : 2.4. Uj Pg_P
122
Uj :
Uja \P J J (DNA) i.G.H. \[QU
Psk. Pm S\P Pnkx , Cv
Cn u C. (Pnhx) Uj P Pm
P Cmizu, sP kzxu, vj
\UP BQ sPU PsiUQ.
UjUP \UP {Pa]P 1.
Cn, 2. ihU\ 3. E BQ {PQx.
Uj Cn J Uja \ ] i.G.H. SvP
Auh Cn Psk \ kQx.
zvS Cn \i Uj[P / Uj \P
Q. C, [Q Uj S\ Sv
Ax S\ hUTk.
Uj E Gx, z uP Psh \u
Ax \ }UPmh Uj DNA UP J
\Px \ P k {Pa]S.
C{Pa] 1928& C[Qx zx AvP Qz G
Pskizu. mh Ax s i.G.H.
Gu 1944& B Um UPzv GP
Pskizu.
ihU\ , UjL P H
FvPPa \mk J [Q Ujzv E i.G.H.
Sv H Ujzv Q. J Uj
\ Azx i.G.H. SvP H Fv (Uh) L
~UP ALx x P ihU\
Gk. AuS Pa ] P mk J [Q S\
Cx L ihU\ Ahu ALx ]
ihU\ P Gk.
Uj |P :
1. \ u |P :
\ Gk | u Q, ] Pa
\u Uj BS. Cx u P |Pz
uUQx. AP ; hk Ax hk,
Pm Gmimi \i^.
hk , \ h G Ujzu
EshQx. C| ASPPz uh Pa\, Sh
nu, s sp UP BQ u.
123
Pm Gmimi | \
P \ P] G Ujzu
EshQx. Uj Shu P Czu Kmhzu Ahx
A[S Ax UP AhQx. Cu E Pa\ vz v
Hk. Eh S, ], Eh Gh Su BQ
Hk. Czuzv Cx Uj Eh EPz uUS x
mi, {, EP s, |mi, Bmi
mi Ax GhP hmi BQ |P u.
2. P
u P |, P Ujzu
uQx. C| BvP umh u \
x[P, CP Hkzvx. CUP |
Uj[P A_zukzumh (umh) }
EnP Qx. ]Sh Sv Uj Gwz
v_ Jmi, UPhx, Gmi hU] |a_
Ezv \Qx. P | ASP : v, Pg]z usp
Pk US Au EshS Pk
}, uxEUP, Czuzv Azu AvP
Czuzv Ahzv AvP BS.
3. U
u U | G] i G Uj
u EshQx. Ax J |Pa] Q |Pmi ]
P Uj BS. Csk P U |P U U
{U U BS. U U | {n}a _P
nQ UP AhQ. () Au ASPP EhSu,
vn, vkzu x Eh BQ
u. ]Qa\UPu P U U. 58% C uzu
HkzuU Tk. {U U | {U Pa\
EshUS. Czuz vP Pu Ga] k. C|
]Qa\ { 100% Cz uUPU Tk.
4. ]
] G | |Pmh, P Pl
|, (STD) BS. C|, i h ] G
Ujzu uQx. u mk uUTix. u
|iP (Eh) Pu Pz uQx.
CPz u ] Gk. CUQ u
uhx SuUSz u \ Cnz v_ \h ,
u ], u & \ ] Gk.
124
] | Pmh[P, u {,
Csh { { Qx. {
Cu ASP P PkP CUS.
C{ Ps Czu, Px P, a\u,
yUP, u, m], uskha\u Eh A
i Ax ]u, Q mh n[P P
Gk C Eh SvP E,
u.
5. P
P Gx {\ P G
|S. BsP C| uUS Ch ]}
ES. sP C| \U Svz uUS. BsP
]} UQ x , g\ {zv ]} v
ku u. sP h Ti ]} US
C v ku u. Cu ASP
, Ai , mk mi BQ.
Microbiology)
( A) i :
|, u i G mh\
Jmkso Hk. C| P_UP .
Jmkso UPa _], u CUP
s A P_ CUP BQ Csk
CUP {PU Pshx. s A P_
Cmkso {u u BS.
125
( B ) A] :
u A] | \UPh Sa \u
mh\ E Jmkso Gsh hiUP
u EshQx. C| EP A U Pnmh
u |kP, S|kPU Pmi AvPP
C| u { PnkQx. C k
\mk |shUS uU (Pothogenic) {S.
126
(C) Cu mh\ | QP :
1. i\ P
&
BUP yUP v
2. h
&
P A\
3. iUP
&
u ].
IV. Jmkso
Jmkso, Jmkso UP uUS
EshS |P U TuS. [SPhx
uUSz u Jmkso, |P `miU u Ax
`] (Zoonoses) GUP. `] P uUS
Hk |P J zuPU Puk. u u
Jmkso Gu | Ahx, Au ua \[Q
uk ihQx. B, u vhQ.
"Bz\' (Anthroponoses) G zu JmksoP
uk u mk {kzu
JmksoP A |P SUS. "` Bz
\ (Zoo anthroponeses) ' G zu [SP Cx
uUSz u Jmkso |PS. Cv u Ch
u J {P uP mk Jmkso
UPa _] J UQ CnS Gx uQx. G.P.
k |hUP.
]h\P Ax zuUP :
s
\P
Bs
h : 2.5. CzuUP
127
~sqP | Ezvz u :
[SP u |z uUS ~sq
P v A | Ezvz u G AUPk. u
|P Au |US Q ~sqPUS
"u EPUS Ch {P J[Qn \P
P uQ.
VR[ >k\A^:
~sqP u | Ezv uUS A
{PP, uPP PnS.
1. |UQP uuS, P (KP)
EP u, Ps Ch BQ Ax
Em SvP _\, & Sh Ax CUP
uP Ax, Ph SvPz uukzx
A Jmiz uQ sU Psk.
2. A i Eh Ax v_ h SvP
E ~x Emz v_UPa \hQ.
3. ] ~sq uu, Qx Eh Gu Sv
~uu Au Sv { Psk Pnk.
4. ] ~sqU QP v_UP Ax EP
\ UQhUQ. CPz u x
uP Gk.
5. ]P ~sqU QP ua \P
a]hu u C Eh \
{Pa]PUS Pk v HkzxQ.
6. ]P ~sqP \PUS a]hx, ]
|a_Pa _v Eh v_UPUS \uzu
UQ.
~sqP |zvz u (v) ~sq
C[P mhU Pskx. ]P Uj[P PU
Pk Pi PP BS. i Pi PP J ]
Uja \P, u Eh |z uUP
xx BS. B ] PP Pk Ax S
Pks Psh. CP | Ezv \ AvP
GsoUP, A \P ukQx. ]P
QP w[P PP BS. Cu P ~sqa \P AvP
GsoUP u Eh \zumh A |
EshUSv. i w[P Pi PP |u / \u
128
PP G AUP. C Eh | Gvz
vU TmkuPP Ax Ezv \uPP, F] xPPa
\kQ.
~sq | Gv :
u [SP, uP |UQ
~sqP uu EshUPa \u PU
Psk. Cx u Eh, QUS Gv
Gsn P P Au BUQUS Gvz uzx,
Au |z uz uUP (A) ukUP Qx. i
| QPUPv u uk , CPP,
Smh QU PvuP, Ax xP Pnk.
CP uk BVm Czuk, \zuk
u| uk G PU Pskx.
v / x ]Qa\
u |P v mP Snkzu,
Pmkkzu v Ax x ]Qa\ G AUPk.
vmP xP v ]Qa\ PoP G
AUPk.
J ]u va ]Qa\ x sPU Pshx.
1. | EshUS Q uz v_UPUS Gu
v Ax ukUQx Ax ]uUQx.
2. uz v_UP \P Sx A[S
|U QP GvPQx. xP AP, Ax
\kQx.
3. u CP | uk P \
[P, Ax Bii Ezv BQ {Pa]PUS Gu
v C ux \kQx.
4. x uukzu |a_a \u Pskx. Aux
Ax | Q ~sqPU P Ax A
a]z ukzu \Qx. Cv u EUSU
Pk P Hx C Ax PU S vh,
x \Qx.
Gv ~sqU PP x ]Qa\ :
Gv ~sqP G ]u uzuU Psh
v ]Qa\ mP BS. C Uj Ax g\
EPhx kQ. ~sqv (Antibiotic) Gu
129
J ~sq ]u zv EzvS J
, Pa ] AP Cu ~sqPU PU Ti
Ax A a]z ukUPU Ti BU Pshx
GuS. EQ u u Pshmh Gv ~sq x
1929& AU\sh L[ G PskiUPmh
] BS. V^ MEoBD D lom >|
m. Avx UPnUP Gv ~sq mP
Pshmk.
Gv ~sqP Pk. AvP a_U P Gv
~sq xP P ~sq C[P AUP
Ax A a]z ukUP v . S
a_U P Gv ~sqP ] Ax Su |UQ
C[PU P v Psh.
Gv ~sqP \ Csk Pk.
1. UjUPU P P, 2. Uj a]z ukzx {
{zx P.
u P "Uj \h' G Csh P "Uj
hiU' G AUPk. Gv ~sq xP
RPsh P \Qx.
A. A \_ Ezvz ukUQx. Ax
B. \_a ]uUQx.
C. A \mh\a \a ]uUQx. Ax
D. A u Ezv {UU A Ezv
( h) ukUQx.
E. A ] Smh |vz uSvP \z
ukUQx Ax A ]u zua ] UQ
|vPUS miz uka \ \mk ukUQx.
] Shz uSu Gv ~sq xP : B]
(Ampicillin), mmh] (Streptomycin), hm\U (Tetracyclin),
Gz] (Erythromycin) . ] Gvg\, Gv
~sq xP P] L (Griseofulvin)
Ch\ (Imidazole) BQ.
] Bmi Gv ~sq xP Bmii
(Amantidin), \US] (Cycloguanosine) Bm. Pa]u
Ezvu AUS |PU Snkzx va ]Qa\
130
Gm (Ga.I.) Au Pmkk
mh | Gv u ]m Gk
AIDS Gm | 1981& Bsi (i\) Psk iUPmhx.
BP | u ASPUP BP Gm |,
| G, Bs & s na] P, Ax
Psh Czu Ax Au Sv P P
U Ti u| G Ev \mhx. 1983& U
hU (Luc Montagnier) G i {zv
B AUP NIH (USA) Gk. u]
Eh| {zv B V P (Gallo) G Gm
|US ] uzuPU Pshu. 1986&
Pmi S, C_US HIV Ga.I.. Ax u
| Gv u G mh. i x
BP P Cu ] AUS
]UPz uzx J [S \u.
Ga.I.. u m P mi G
xnUSkzua \u J v PS. m P
Gk B.G.H. P, J i Qh G
|v A B.G.H. j.G.H.P
UTi v .
Ga.I. E A :
gp 120
gp 41
iQh
B.G.H.
C
h : 2.11. Ga.I. A
131
| Eu :
Ga.I.. u P AvP A | uk S
HkzxQx. CUS Jzu qUP BmiiP
EUSQ CD4 T - Eu \P (Th) (
\mkP) BQ Ezv Su PnP HkQx.
Cu \ PP B - \mkP, UL
\P ]uv HIV u HkQx.
Ga.I.. u UL \P PUSz
uUQhP [Q Eh v_SvPUS \
UQ. Ga.I.. Czuzv mk, G Eh
v[P x, s C UP _, \U _,
u, zusk hzv, ] v, v,
132
P]m
{UU A
E
u E
vh
{UU A
iP
v P]m
EP
v P
h : 2.12. P UP
mh v, Pi v, BmiU v
BQ Pnk. Ga.I. a \PU Thz uUQ AUPU
Tk.
ASP :
EPa _Pu A (WHO - World Health Organisation) RPsh
Gm | ASP UQx.
1.
Eh Gh 10% SUTk.
2.
J uzvS Pz uh v Pnk.
3.
4.
5.
6.
mh ] uu Ax EshS.
7.
mi |a \u
8.
9.
P] \UP Gk | u. Cu P
SvP u P } sP
u.
133
Pshu :
1. Ga.I.. uU G\ (ELISA) G ~m x>_ W
zua \u, Au BmiiP Psh kQx.
2. Ga.I.. u Ev \ "mh m (Western
Blot)' G \u Eu. Cx Ga.I.US GU Shmh \u
BS. Ca\u Ga.I.. US Gv BmiiP
Czuzv Psh \u BS.
Pmkk s :
1.
zu zu mP Ga.I.. \uUSmkzxu.
2.
Gm v G u GuP n
UPh Hkzv AuP na] vP Szu.
3.
xP Eh EP |hzuP vP
vzu.
4.
5.
Ga.I.. u T x |hiUPP ,
\uz u |P |U Snkzxu
Bmi xP , | Gvz ysk P
P Bu ]Qa\P, B\P s
\ C.
134
3. |zuh P (IMMUNOLOGY)
|zuh P (Immunity)
Uj[P, P, g\P JmksoP
| EshUS PoP u [Q[P uhx
uUPkQ. ]P |Px sk u Au |
sk uUSv Gx }shPz ux K
Es BS. CzuPP HP uUPmh |PUS
GvPz uhP Gx uQx.
|UQP | BQx Eh xPUS
A |zuhP A G, Ca \u
AUS, |z uhP G . |zuhP
Ax | Gv A Aih SUPP,
ua_Pu mi A kP BQ
CSv P AP \x.
B[Qzv |z uhPUS ""C'' (Immunology)
G . "C' (Immunis) G zw zux
"C' ux. C GuS "JUSu' Ax
Gsna _P
Psp
\
E}
][P
S
Su
u
LZ
A
h : 3.1. CP |z uk
]} Pzu
}UP
135
Sh G\P
\
pH
1. Eha \u uhP :
|UQP Eh Sx CzuhP ukUPkQx.
[SP u, _\sh, Sh CUPU SPa
`vUS Ph | QPa ]UPUQx.
CUSP Em\ AvUS SP uh
A\, ]USsh QP kQ.
2. Eh\ \u uhUPoP :
Eh , P&Azu (pH) Eh_P
BQ | EshUS ~sQP a]z ukUQ.
GkzxUPmhP, Eh Pa\ Eshu |UQP
a] mkkQx. a _ iSU
Azv PnP Enk \x Eh S ~sqP
P kQ. Psp E} E \\
G\, Uj[P \_a \UPUTix. Czu
q ] \P, P uUPkx
CshLP (Interferons) G Gv u[P
_UPkQ. CshLP AP \P
uUSu Cx xPUPkQ. Cu
136
LP\m
h : 3.2. \ [Su
C |zuhP P LP\mh] (\
[Su) UQ J. Czu qUP (UP
\mkP) Cv DkkQ. |UQ uUPzv x
UP\mkP GsoUP AvPUQx. u Eh
P [S \P (LP\mkP) E.
P\mk P UQzx u ULP
{mLP mh EU Psh ULP,
Uj[P, P ]uhu \P BQ
[SQ. |UQ uUSQ EhSvP \mk
P Czu qUP SQ. S \mkP
ULPP vhQ. Ca\P Uj[Pa
\US |vP, v mP E. |UQP
C|vP v mP AUP.
4. UP (Inflammation) Eshu Hk uh :
xP Ehv_UP |UQP uUPkx
Ax P Hkx ASv \{Q UP
EshQx. Eh AvPQU Pa\ uUTk.
v_UP Pnk "m' \P (\LP G Czu
q Ah) ]u x h,
\mh hQi v \Ub
P ku v_UP HkQx. UP EshS
Ch[P CzuU P] Hmk, Uj[Pa ]uUS ^u[P
Esk. vUPmh Ch[P
LP\mkPU Sa \x E |UQP AUPh
SUQx.
137
LP\mkP u, CP Pa \P
( NK \P) T &L\mkP, AUPhsi
\TPXe P L G |v xP
EshUSQ. CzxP P } EmSx \P
Ea\x, iUP UQx.
(B ) UPsh Ax Sk uh |z
uhP (Acquired Immunity)
Smh ~sqP C[Pnmk C P
AUPku, CuS ""uzuS uhP'' G ""Sk
uh uhP'' G Esk. CPP Au
xPz u U Psh |z uhP Cx
AvPUPa \Qx. E ~ |UQP uhP
AP GvP x Sku Eh |z
uk EshuP |hiUPP PkQ.
C
|zuh
|hiUPP
u
x,
Skuh uhPa \P kUQhkQ.
CP |z uhPa \ yshkuS |mP
BP.
u V >V[ EA A^
i. Sk u : umh A UTP
A B.
ii. Pz u : A UTP Ah
Pq v.
iii. _ A UTP kzxu :
A UTP (_ Au) C Pqu \kQx. Au
\, Eh UTPUS (_ BiP) Gv |hiUPP
uUPkQ.
iv. { : uhP sh uuP J Smh
APo (G.P. ~sq) GvP x AuPvP
uhP P Psk Au AUQx. C{Pa]
uhP sh |k|mPUS { zxU PQx.
Cshx , Au APo GvP x
w uhP |hiUP PQx.
Sk uh uhP |hiUPP Csk P
\P |hkzukQ. (1) L\mkP
(2) Bsi [S \P. BUQ J u Eh
PiU PnUQ L\mkP E. L\mkP
138
139
140
PzxUPq
u
AUS Pq
sp
Pq
PmhU Pq
G
h : 3.3. u Eh
{n} EUP
141
I. x>_ W WB cA
u :
Pa] Bx zv u uQx. Gmk
zvS S |UP v_ Ah Ti K Gw
EP u Qx. Pn, P P G
BQ EP Pnk \P uskXa\P
(Mesenchyme stem cells) L\mkP i \PS.
C u_US x, hhx u \u L\mkPP
(u \mkP) hhQ. P u a]h
x u, AuP E Ezu AhQx. [Q[P
uuPz u {n} E u BS. u, Su
US u a] Qx. 12x x
Ax Qx. hu S, u A ]Pa ]PU
SQx. G, u a] B {P mk u
|S \kQx G GsnkQx.
Cuzv Sv, \ uP u AvUQx.
| \P J E `mh CUS Csk
hP E. Ex Bzv\ E|UQ x
Pnk a _P v_UP u EmSv
xn SvPP UQ. J xnSvUS PhU
G AkUS, k G E AkUS E. PhU
Sv
P
UPh
{
]
L\mkP PnkQ. k Sv Gzw
\P, v L\mkP PnkQ.
CSv _ iP Au Gzwa \ Tmh[P
E. CS \ v_z uSP (Hassalls Corpuscles) G
.
E
\a \
a _
Gzwa \
Qa\
\ v_zuS
h : 3.4. u & A
142
u o G BUPzv \z
u. \zv u Cu \ & |z uhP Cu
[S PskiUPmhx. uU L\mkP (T - \P)
Ezv \u Cu UQo. Eh L\mkP
UPzvSz u P u Ex. G, Ezv
L\mk P J \uu mk u mk
Q. Ah] (apoptosis) G
UPmh \ C AUPkQ. u
CUS x, L\mkP u Bi (Thy antigen) G J
x Bsi Q. u EzvS
L\mkP, u (T) \u L\mkP Ax 'T'
\P G AkQ. A {n} EP
{Px A u \m Ezv Bsi
yskua \ Ex.
u E u[QUS L\mkPUS, A
uhPz v AUQx. u EUS L
\mkP
uhPz
v
v.
u
L\mkP, BsiPUPvP E uhP |hiUP
PuPP UPkQ. Co u
EshUPk u, u] umi BQ
PoP P {kQx. vuP u
_shP u APmka \mh \uP
L\mkP Sx () Pshmhx.
Cvx L\m UP \ |z uhP
EUPzv u [S z uux.
A {n} EP UPmh ]
SvP T - L\mkP vsk PnkQ. sp
ua` sT SvP {n} ia_P PhU
\u SvP T - L\mkP HP E.
II. Eh A {n} EP
(Peripheral lymphoid organs)
A. {n} ia_P (Lymph nodes)
C, {n}U SP mhiP, mh i
P, Ax ] ia_P. |a\P
E Cia_P `mk. Ex iUS
G uka _P v_AP E|UQ x.
{n} ia\x PhU G AkUS k G
143
{n}z u
{n}a ]
a\ S
h : 3.6. {n}U Pq & SUSmkz u
144
g. sp (Spleen)
sp P {n} ES. _ _
>| V[ B_AD EkA, k\ \ V^
Wm^. \o[ \VV^ VR cl
>>|m a c>[.
sp oP :
1.
2.
3.
III. VD W WB cA^
Pa\ \u {n}z v_UP (Mucosa associated
lymphoid tissue - MALT)
\ sh, CUPU P }UP sh, _\
sh, EhSP BQa `vUS. Pa\x
H BsiP \vUP six. Pa \P
AvP
{n}a
\P
PnkQ.
Ca\P
UPmh vmkPP (G.P : vmkP) P
AvUS {n} LUQPP CUS. C xP,
Pa\ \u {n}z v_UP (MALT) (Mucosa Associated Lymphoid
Tissues) GkQ. Sh Pa\ Ax Pnk
{n}z v_UP, GALT - (Gut associated lymphoid tissue) G,
a_USPa \u {n}z v_UP BALT (Bronchus associated
lymphoid tissue) G AUPkQ. MALT AP {n}a
\P LP\mkP E. B T G Csk P
L\mkP C PnkQ. Pa\ IgA
G _ C SP E. En _\
P |PUPv xPU Pa\
SvP [SQ.
BsiP (Antigens)
AP BsiP GkQ. CS
CP (Immunogens) G J Esk. G C
145
zuP, h. C Gx
uhP |hiUPz (Immune response / immunogenicity) ysk
UTS. P, Bsi Gx Bsiih, \
| uhP Dkk \Ph UTS.
Bi Gh
Bi
Bii
146
Gv mP / BsiiP / CSP
(Antibodies / Immunogloblins)
CSP (Igs) G QUP u[PS.
J CS UT, } zv\h Csk
Cn hk \[QPx. ] hk uhUS
C\ \[Q (Light chain - L - chain) G, hk
uhUSU P \[Q (Heavy chain - H chain) G .
L& \[QUS Hzu 25,000 hh UT Gh Ex. H & \[Q
HUS 50,000 hh UT Gh Pshx. J
L & \[Q. Au UPa \[Qh K Cmh \Lk
Pzua \[Q
A
CSa \[Q
Cnh
S-S Cn
COOH
h : 3.8. C S (IgG)
147
hk \[QP SvP
J P \[QUS C\ \[QUS Csk
SvP E. A :
k Sv (V) Ax Fab Sv : CS
UT N Ax A A A
\ AvPi u Hkx Pshmkx.
C P u Hk H L & \[Q SvPUS
""mmkP'' (Hotspots) Ax Sv mk SvP (Hyper
variable regions) G . BsiiP, Bsi Cn
P EUPzvS ""mmkP'' P UQ.
H \[Q L \[QP k SvP (VH VL
SvP) Sux ""P mk SvP'' Ax
""mmkP'' E. H L \[QP A A
\ [P, mhP Sk uhuP
CuS P xn Q. , Jk J mh
uh BsiiP PiUPnUQ Eh Ezv
\uP BUS k A A \ J
Pn.
{ Sv Ax Fc Sv : { Sv Gx
CS usk SvS. Cu Ai C
Ax COOH GkQx. { Sv
A A \ { uh PnkQx.
Fab - Bsi Cn Sv
Fc - { Sv Ax iPUP Sv
mh PUS x sn E BsiiP
"AUmiP' (Agglutinins) "]miP' (Precipitins) G
148
J u Eh J Svx, SvUSz v_
/ E \u, A (QLm) GuP HU
PkQx.
2.
Eh uP |[Q EPUQh E
\k (QLm) UPkQx.
3.
J {Pu, Au Phhx
E sk J | , P
P, wP QLm {PQx.
QLm Ax Ax U P Eh
]UPP Esk sqQx. CSU Pn, QLm k
u Pk uhP |hiUPP.
UPkQx Ax QLm
uPUQh Gv P EshUSQx. ] \
|P EshuS HxP Ex.
QLi PP
PPP UP.
QLkP |S UQ
149
3. J C EPUQh k E (AQLm)
Allograft
J ]zua \u EP A
miUS. mh Ahx, J ]zua
\uPUQh k QLm BS. G.P. J u
Cx US k ]}P.
4.
EPUQh
k
E
(\QLm) Xenograft
C[PP E EP mh
zua \u. CQh k E
\QLm. G.P. x uUS Ax
S[Qx uUS k E.
E zv Aih :
Gz v_UP v_zu BsiP E. E
\si |P (Ph / H) v_zu
BsiP JzxP six. v_zu BsiP
{nUS P u v_zu Tmh (Major Histocompatibility Complex MHC) GkQx. _shP Bx
S\ C E. u CS - d L N h
Bu_u Tmh G . (Human leukcocyte Antigen) HLA
P AP EU Pk, E HP
v_zuzu (Histocompatibility) {nUQ.
AQLm :
mh shx, J ]zua \u
|PhP E |h x,
(QLm) {PUPkQx. CuSU Pn QLi
BsiP, QLm H v_ BsiP Jh
JzxPuu BS. G, QLm Cx, AP Hmk,
kQx. QLm v_ (u) Eh,
RPsh P Hh.
(1) u A (2) sp }Pmku UPhu
(P) (3) Eh x u (C]\) (4)
USU P UP (mhP) (6) Czua
\P x |vz v Su, (7) zu |[P
uhu (8) AvPi Ezv & u. QLm
{P, \ |z uhP Czu |zuhP
P |h. E {P u uS,
150
2.
3.
Ez u \ E | BQ C
Czua \PU SUS Jk \u (Cross matching).
4.
\U jkP uhP
mkkzx xP zv_ HPUS Azu.
5.
A ]Qa\ x {P E {P
a]USz wPa \PP hx S[
Ex. uska\ (Stem cell) ~m S[
, EPa \ua \P UP i. C
v_UP Cu, A P{ \Pu UPk
EP {P a] Hx Au |US P
zu i.
151
1. \]mimi Ax J : \un
BsiPUPvP, uhP sh zux
x \P Dkk x J EshQx. y_,
g\P, Puz xPP, En mP, ]
xP JU PoPP AP \hUTk.
J Dkkx IgE P BsiiP,
hP BS. hPa _x m \P.
Bx |, J EshS | BS. ]\
AP, vUPmh u x wx
Pz uzx, CUPa \UTk. CUS
ALU] (Anaphylaxis) G .
152
2. Gm (AIDS) uhPU S Hk |,
Gm. Cx B.G.H BPU Psh m P
Bx. C B.G.H, i.G.H, vP P
UPhQ. Eu \ T \P SPz uUQ
AUQ. T \P S U Psh |
uhPx |, A C h.
B.G.H. Bx "" iQh'' G
|v (reverse transeriptase) \ i.G.H iP Qx. HIV
DNA i u S\ i.G.H. \UPmk,
\u x iPP EQx. Ci[Px
iQ\ H iP
EshQ. ikUPmh B.G.H. UTP
xPPP kQ. mh xPP
T \P AUQ.
153
4. uP
(MODERN GENETICS)
|UP
sP ku \kP
PmkP USQ A Gk. sh
PskiP EsP Au uzx[P,
S\P P A EsP
AuS AiP. shUS u Pzv |h
BP x v PmkP,
PPP Pshu. A PoP Ax P
J[Qn \, {n, nu, nu.
SUPv , \mh\ , Tmk AP
BQPS. 1952& m\ QU AP
Pski j.G.H Cmhz vS _ v i, P
\P EsP A zux. a]P
(Drosophila) G\a] P G Ujzv |hzumh
BP | UT uuP Szu.
| u J A[PS. Ax uh
UQzxzuz uz uUSQx. u u
S\PU Pshu, UQzx[P,
|P, ]Qa\, S[ P q mh EP
BQP Ah[S. Ax mk u uS,
EzuP mi U Ax ua \v
BQP B \Qx.
u
S\ uS h u : (Karyotyping)
S\ uS h u J \
E Azx S\P UPmk AP \P
AUPku BS. CUS\ \ AUS PQ
G . As PQ G zuUS vP
CiQ G zu S\P h UPzvS,
mi Ex.
S\ uSz u xPa \P
154
mh] x |hzukQx. S x
(]) S\ h uP Pz uPa \
C. B mh] Dkk \P GuPU
QhUP. P Cmihu
S\P uP k (\Pu SmiU SvP).
Pm \P E Cmh Gs uS S
\P J {zu iU Sn[P GsoUP, i,
BQU PsiUS. S\P Csh
{ dLm, Qu {UP A BQ Cu sP
Ah Pnk. T Azx sP
USQ S\P uS Ph[ G
AUPk.
13
19
14
10
15
11
16
17
12
18
G
20
21
22
h : 4.1. u S\ uS h
155
P :
1.
S\ uS h P Pzv B
\h\ uUPmk UPS
Su Pshk.
2.
C u EshS |P
Pshk. i | Pzv Pshk
x zx B\ i Sk Psh
PU Pa]u \x ukUP.
156
3.
J u C uS hzv
S\ a]P }UP, Cmizu, Chu, \
\i Au EshS Ai
SPU Psh.
u~m
Q G EP Smh a \vP
PnkQ. P Pa \kP UP[P,
A Hmh [P |USz u x.
P UT A \kP J x
Pmmiz uzx. Aui G Pm E
\P DNA UT u ikzu {Pa] RNA
UTPz uUQ. RNA, {Pa]
J uzu (hk \[Q) EUSQx.
i UT v \vP As Pshk
, |hk P Gk (i \P)
1965& UhU, Ah UPa\z u \uP
Azx.
uh |UP zvP
P AUS \kP USQx. J Smh
\h (uEzv) Au C Chzvx }UQ
[Q i.G.H
m E D.P
|v
m i.G.H.
|v
Uh i.G.H
\UP i.G.H
[Q i.G.H
xskP
B.i.G.H.
u \zumhx
m }UPmh
D.P
h : 4.2.
\UP i.G.H.
u~m
S[ \P
157
x vu mh \ Ax E `S
J zu Phzv Ax yUQ Psk . i yUQ,
J Ujzv m DNA P Ax J P
CUP. A mh , Au v ` Au \
Aux u Ezva \ C. G J Gu J v
`, E \ \hUTi u Pshx G
Es AihPU PkQx.
\u[P :
Gx J xshzu J \
Jmkzu Cx zukUQ, Au Gsn
vP EUSQ, Au \mh kzxQ
(A `) {Pa]PU Psku, AuS P E
\u[P uQ. AP ] RPshPS.
1. |vP : a. GU\ {UP b. Gh {UP
c. mU\ (UPmh) Gh {UP
d. K\a\[Q DNA P ^US SI |vP e. DNA
PP f. AP h g. Gv i Qh h. DNA
BQ.
2. A DNA / n DNA : Cx |v zukUP
kQ vkUPkQ DNA \[Q J Smh
xsh (A ) BS.
3. S[ UhP : UhP Ax Fv DNA Gx
A DNA xshzuz uh Cnzxa _UQ DNAUP BS.
C UjUP k DNA
UjL P BS.
kP : (Plasmids)
J m Gx _ 200 u 300 {Uhk P
UTP EhUQ J mh i DNA BS. Uja
\P u S\h, \mh \zv uzx,
i m DNA Pnk. ] \[P UjUP
Cn x J m Au Uja \x
CnU S (H) Uja \US
~x sP Au Ha \S Q. m
DNA J Uj \ ua\P, u S\h
Guz uh, Cmi AhQx. ]P
158
u DNA J Sv J m uh CnzxU
Psk Aua \ mk UTk. ]P J
m Au AQu u DNAh CnU Tk.
C hx J]u \ FvPa
\kQx. Cx u~mzvS CP
|US Azu _ GUT.
ukzxu
DNA \UP u~mzv, Gh
{U |vP, DNA Cmha _z xPz xsiUQ.
C|vP DNA E Smh P \P C[Psk
PQ. DNA Csk \[QP J Smh Chzv
xsiUQ. DNA E Smh P Au P\P
m (Palindrome) \P Gk. C|vP
A\PU PshQ. J m P \ Gx J
Smh P[P Ax, A DNA Csk \[QP
Gvvz v\ Pnk. EunP DNA J \[Q Au
P\ 'GAATTC' 5' & 3' v\, Au {a \[Q 3'
& 5' v\ 'CTTAAG' GvhPU Pnk.
A||
T | |
|vP :
|vP DNA UT J \a^
Auz xsiUQ. i m \PU Psk \a^
xsiUS |v G\] P Ujzv
zukUPmhx. Ax ECOR1 G AUPk. C|v DNA
\[QP Jmk P Psh xskPP UQ. Cu
J Smh Sv ukzuk.
\UP DNA :
J A DNA () xsh Gu Gsh {U
|v UPmhu Au |v m DNA
xsiUQx. A DNA xshx DNA P |v
m DNA ~UPmk JnUPk. C
159
UT S[ :
\UP DNA J ua \ ~UP
kQx. Au Ax ua\P Cmihx Q
SQx. G\] P Uj
uSuu ua \P kzukQx. uSu
FhPzv Uj CUPhx a]h x, r - DNA
P UPhQ. C UPhu r-DNA P UP
UT S[ (vP) P Gk. Cv, G\]
Px ] \i, mh \
\UP\ \] BQ EP kzukQ.
r DNA vP G. P ua \PUS
\zuk x ] B vP Aa\P ~Q.
Ca\P, \P Gk. J \ Au
Jzu v \PU Psh P EUS.
CUPP Pshmk uP UPk. C
a] Ahu PP Cx \UP DNA P, \Pa
]uzx, z ykzumk kzuk. P
a] x A AuS uzu Ezv \.
1973&B Bsk m
h P G AUP P Pnzv E
hLk PU PP AP, u u
S[ \x UQ.
\UP DNA u ~mzv \kzu P :
1. (\UP DNA u~m)
Pm P A A SvP Bx
Ax P HxPx.
2. EUPmh UjUP
] EPUS xP, P, Gv xP
(Antibiotics) BQ kQ. E.. Gv P\
Gv ChL u a] (HGH),
\mhhmi BQ.
3. \UP DNA u~m u[P
AP mk v mU u[P EUP
mk. C | Gvz v, (w[SP) a
\ua]PUS GvPz uzvS Gv PkUQx.
160
4. [SP u E SkP,
]Qa\ CUS }UPh C.
5. Uj[P "Super bugs" G AUPk.
i \UP Uj[P J |zv P m
PP ]uUP. CP Uj[P Ph Hk P
zxU PnPU Ph} PUS Gsn P
EhiPa ]uzx _ }UP \ kzu kQ. G
C _ }USu [PQ. u u ""` bugs''
AUP E Bz \UPzv G J Cv Ezv
\mhx. A `h G `U P Gsn
P]Pa _zu \ mk EUQ. Ah ""` bugs''
Uj Gsn E BUhP, \P, P
hP ]uUP v x.
DNA Szu xshUSu :
DNA Pmhz xshUP Gx
AUT SvPP zx Av P\P (A)
{Uhk \P B \u Ax A
h uzu SuS. Cua \uS v
|v \P E. Cu Pa \[Q E
u SvP Psh C.
u _ US mh |P
Pshmk. A AzxUS P [P
PnkQx. Hk vj [P, S\
Hk a]P C|PUS Pn GU Psh
mkx. |P Pmh
Gk, u |P BS.
161
& P
& s
& K Cmh
& SuP
& C Cmh
& Bv
& vUPmh
& E P
& i \P
& nu Jk[S _
h : 4.3. NkR YjRPo Ls
F1
F2
CVp
Ti
Bi
TdLlThP
Ti
aW NLv
h : 4.3. T - P d P - T i u N k R Y j R P o
162
z uhP Gu z uQx G Au u
Ax P. PxPP FQUP kQx. L]
Rmh |P \uv z uh
Es | h A.
|P (Genetic Diseases)
Pv A \P (Sickle cell anaemia) : Pv A
\P G AS uS |, J Eh S\
vj uQx. Cu Jk[S A Hbs BS.
Cu \P (Jzu Pmh){ (Hbs Hbs) J
C S S S&I Ezv \Qx.
C S HbA GUPk (HbA HbA). Pv A
\P |U Psh Cnzu AP PshP (Hbs
Hbs) J EUP zua]u \P |USmk. Cu
|P Cu uh, ]}P, sp
BQ EP uhu CUP |k. CP
A[S Czu |[P Ah uhQ.
Pv A HbA HbS G n i\P
{ PshP C|UP u[SPP Eh
.
2. u^ (Thalasemia)
SuPUS Csk Cnzu \P Jk[S
P \ mh JP zua ]Pq ]u \P
uQx. Cx u^ BS. Csk PP C|
Pnk. A, u^ u^ BS.
PU Pk \Px u^ BS. B u^
PkuPU PukQx. CuP Cn Jzu
\P { Psh SuP Cu Pk PUS
Au \ n AP Psh SuP Pk
PUS Emk. Pk u^ |UP zxU Th
ASPP (A) kPP 1. G \ Sk
2. zu Kmh zua]u 3. sp P UP
BQ u. u^ vUPmh SuP _
v v CUP |k.
3. GPS (Agammaglobulinemia) :
GPS G J Jk[S | | Gv
u PS Ezv |h Q. C|
163
4. A\ (Albinism) :
C| (P {) ]u U
P u k |S. u, i
PsP BQ C Pnku C|UP
sPS. zx ASPP s u {
JUTa\ u. A\ J ]u
|S. vj hu Jk[S { P ]u
{P [S P ] |vP Ezv \ u
C| uU Pn BS.
] A G A A J \[Q
]u {Pa] uhQx. Czuh [S P
|vP, Sk \ Ezv BPu x Ax
h x Eh\ A [P
uQx. P {, Cu x,
C| Psh A u AvkQ. C|
uP 1:5000 Ax 1: 25000 G Quzv {PuP
AUPmkx. A\z v Eh v A\,
Psq A BS A\ Ax u
iv Sv P A\ G k. u E
\m \P DOPA (3,4 - Dihydroxy Phenyl alanine) G
P u { u. CzvS h]
G G\ PnQx. A\zv G\ Ezvv.
G uv. CUSk 'aa' G |k[S
P Hk.
164
u [Q Ax \v \P
u [Q Ax \v \P Gkx
UPmh P \kzuU SUQx.
GvP miS i \kzxu \kQx.
\mh P Aih \vPP [SQ.
165
miU / ua \v BP (Proteomics) :
u u BP EhUQx BS. P
u[P B \u, AS \PU Pshu,
AS PU Pshu (miU) ua \v
A BS. u[P BuSa \P yx B.G.HUP
(m RNA) B \kQ. BP, P u
Cx _ 60000 mRNAUP Pshx. mRNAUP P
A EUQ P (A) DNA xsh[P uhkQ.
i Pshu DNAUP cDNA ({ DNAUP) Gk.
u vmhzv Smh S\P
Ax, |P Szu P h[P
uUPmk. Cu P S\ h ] |PUP
S\ GsoUP Avx Ah
BQz uUQx.
ua \v ~s SP :
u vmhzv, Eh a], \ {Pa]P
|a \ J[Skzxu, Gv \\mhPa
]UPPUP Skzua \u u[P
Pshmk.
u vmh |P ] EUP
|P | U Snkzx U
Psh EuQx.
2.
u u |P z uP A AuP
xPa EUP Czvmh EuQx.
3.
4.
| | \u AU PPUS
u vmh J PPa \ku Pzv
AP EhT ]x [S |P ua
\uzu EUP C.
5.
166
S[ (Cloning)
S[ Gx zu EP vPP Ezv \
\S. CuS P C BQ
xP A Eux. Cu \P mi
AhuP U Pmkmh \P
a] Ax Psk. CUS u
S[ EUP C G \zv T EshQx.
hhu :
\P a] Pz uUS a
\P Pmh [SQx. P mh mh]
Pz uhx |hu Gsn \P
EQ. Ca\P izv \ \
PPP hhQ. T \ uPP Ax
\PP u \ hhu G AUP.
1950& B Bsi B.U i.Q[ BQ Csk
PP EmP zxu G \
EUQ. CP uP PmhP E EmPUP
J ~so m Gkzx (EmP }UP) mk
Au uP P E \P EmPUP }UQ,
A EmP }[Q PmhP Jmhzu. EmP
PmhP C a]h \PPh
umhP EshUQ v u EP EUQ.
CP i \ Psk Gsn zu
u EP (SP) EUQ. P C
a] E \P EPz uUS
B u, A "zv' (Totipotent) \P G
AUPkQ.
B .Sh G vu P
umh E \P EmPUP, EmP }[Q
PmhP zukx A a]z v
vUS EQx Guz uUQ. va]
P EmP HQ PmhP C a]
Ah Q. Ah \uP va]
P E Pa \P EmPUP,
zuk x A a]z v ysh kuP
Azx.
Cu A, P \P Au u a]U
Pzv E EUS v Cx Ahx
167
\ BmkUSmi
(\ UP)
S[
hUh. A m G h G \
BmkUSmi S[ i EUQ. CuS EmP
zxu kzv. A s \ Bmi
i E Cmh S\ Gs (2n) Psh Eh \z
uukzu. Au Bmi (Ph) AiPjR
zukzu. AiPm J Gs S\U (n) Pshu,
Au v \ Bmi EUP Cx. Au i
E Eh\ (2n) CUPa \P Cuu Aa\
v \ Bmiz uUP Cx. G m
ia\ Cmh Gs (2n) Psh EmP }UQ. Au
AiPj E J Gs (n) Psh EmP }UQ.
ia\ EmP, EmP }[Q Pmh \zv.
ux Pmh 2n Cmh Gs Psh S\P
uSv EmP zu x x.
Cmh Gs (2n) EmP Psh Pmh, Au u \
Ash
EmP }UP
i \
2n
EmP }UP
2n
miU () u
2n
EmP
\z u
h : 4.4. \ Bk & S[ \
168
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
S[
i
[SP
Ezv
\u
JUPUS CP {vUS Ju u~mPa
] PukQx.
S[ u EUP G
]P w uP uUPU Tk.
S[ US SuP z uP
Jzvv. sP [P Hh sk.
S[ Eh \x EUPk EP
UP, | Gvz v BQ sP PU
SQ. S[ E [SP mk
|P u.
S[ \ Pmh \P niUPk. J
S[ EUP kzumh 57 Pmh
\P J P mk a]hx ux.
S[ E [SP Eh PPU
PsiUPUTk. AP C EP ha ^UQ
CUP |h. G Eh\ u S[ C
EP SQ | Pzu PsiUP sk.
u {{zu S[ EuQx. Cu
CQ Cx Ax mh [Q[P
Ax AUTi { E [Q[P sk
Ezx {kzu C.
u S[ JUPUS uPU
Pumh, Ca\ u Eh EUP,
A a\P UP, kzu. A
EP zu E zu u
ChP v_ J (u), w[S
US | Gv P BQPz uzx
u EPU P C.
169
iU EP Ax mh
EP (Transgenic organisms)
P K Ex
EUS , [SP u[P
EzvUS Szxx. Cu P EP iU EP
Gk. E u ~m Cx UQzx
uuPU PukQx.
P :
[SP \P A P HU P s
iLU\ Ax A u G AUP.
A u \P |hP mi
E. Aux,
1. v P zx P uuS
kQx. 2. P A, \ Ax
P EuQx. 3. v u
UQzx
u
mh
P|h
[SP, P Cu Ezv \ C.
PmhP Ax PUP P ku :
PmhP E EmP Ax Au Svz
xsh[P Ax Av E DNA Svz xsh[P ku
P {PzukQx.
A. EmP v, \P \mh \]
B G vUS Emkzumk EmP }UP
\kQ. EmP }UP \P z
uukUPk EmP, Gv QUP E
~UP { {zuk.
B. S\P \P uS, mh
(|k{) { E \P S Ahzv vzv
ChkQ. Cu S\P uzuP
UPkQ. CUS\P \Ph
Ax Pmhh CnUPkQ.
C. DNA SvP uS ~s F] \zxu
kzu kQx. Cv Pmh DNA xsh[P
|iP ~s F] \zumk CnUPkQ. DNA
xsh[P Cnu PmhP EPz
uUS.
D. a \ P : C (i)
a\P kzukQ. a\P G k
170
171
vkUPkQx. P \k UhPP
uP A ] P }UPkQ. Cu i
P w[PPP mk A |P P
~uP Ch[P uUPkQ. Eh \ ]Qa\
|P P Pi AS vkUPku
sk. Ax A HQ Uh P
GsoUP UP sk. \ AzuP
GsoUP uSz xn P kzukQ.
_h Cnu (vUP |P ) Eh \
]Qa\ kzukQx. Eh \ ]Qa\
[SP U Dmix.
E uP
(Bio informatics)
172
E uP (History) :
sh PzvS u uzx[P
(PPP) zu sP mi,
EP E vUSn[P mi
P P {nUQ G Es P
Enzv. Phu x BskP UT E
Pnmh [P, PoP Pski, A
\P Hmh, ~so a]P, "|' ASP
A Szumh \u[P kP BQ E
uP Hh Szx.
BU PmhU PskiP P|h C_ A
A \, 1950& Dm \ A i.B.G.H.
77 [P \, 1960& x Pv Psk Amh u
iP A, BQ AihPP, Es uzu[PP,
uvS, Pz uS mh.
Po mi Hmh [P,
uku APuP (Blast) A Pmh P,
E Pmh \vP (Input format) E uP G
A u Eu.
kP : (Application)
E uP Gx E u ~m, uP
u ~m Cnu J x BS. E u
~m ~sqP EP, kzumk
uUSz u |US P DmhkQ.
AsU P[P q E E
u~m K u u xP x.
q J E J x
E ~UPk. H E P Au
\P vUPh sn, u Ezv
\kQx.
\A VlBo[ xBmkD
1. E uP xP, EPUS mP
C_, a] P, ChLP (Interferons) ,
\mhPP (Cytokines), S BmiiP (Monoclonal
antibodies) Ezv \kQ.
173
2.
_a `, s } _u SUP kQx Ax
A }UPkQx.
3.
P _] Ezv UP Eu.
4.
u[P
CUPzv
u
P
~UP
Ezv
TmhkQx
(|m
{kzx P).
5.
s P w[SP uUPzvS Gv Hkzu
Eu.
6.
]Qa\P |PU Snkzu.
q E u~mP H
P , A Ph A \,
A u[P \ A six.
PoP vuPz uUPmh uSvP
i [P A EuQ. Cu J[Qnu A
(field) u E uP Gk.
E uP |UP : Scope
1.
J \ Ex \ EP A
P ua ^\PUP q u zu
EUP.
2.
3.
E, E v E C uP
BuP Pou Po P
CnUQ AP E uP [SQx.
4.
E uP Gk {UU A (DNA/RNA) u
\P A, \kP, uhP
J[Qn \P BQ B \x, \uP
\P Szxx.
5.
E uP Po P, u {
mk E A, Ax J ` sh
A \vPa \Pzx B \.
6.
E uP uP P Aih
C E P Ax P.
Smh P \mi Ax P Eu.
Au |U Psh v P xP
uUP US.
174
h : 4.5. DDBJ
xUPUP
175
Az u [P UTP A
u vPU SUS. {UU Az uP u{
Csh { u [P G UPk.
u{ u[P zvx GkUPmh Esz
uPP, (E..) [Q (NCBI / USA) u (Swiss - Prot)
(_m\x) u 3D A BQ.
Csh { u [P, vU Tmkz u[P
G AUPk. C AhUS S uP, uPPS.
(E..) OMIN - Eh {P (Online) sh & u
GDB u & u.
{UU A \zu [P :
I UT E \uU Th (EMBL) u]
E u~m uP (NCBI) u [Q
(DDBJ) G u {[P (CimmkP)
{Uhk \ u [PUP, E {[PPU
PukQ. C{[P Cn u[P :&
www.ebi.ac.uk/embl - (for EMBL)
www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gor / genbank (for NCBI)
www. ddbj.nig. ac.jp (DDBJ)
u \ u[P :
u \z u [P, E{ AhUSkP
ua \P UP, A A; A A \,
US {P [P, u UP BQU
Psk. SIB Gk E uP { (Swiss
Institute of Bio informatics - Swiss - PROT) EBI (European Bio informatics
Institute) Gk I E uP { BQ
uzvP \ u [P EUQ. Swiss - Prot C
Cnu.
http : / www.expasy.ch/sprot - top html.
\UP
J E A UTPP
GUm] Kmhu G \ UP C.
176
J E DNA Bx GUm] i
UPk x, Au UTP | |UQ
|PQ. H DNA Gv UT BS. DNA C ]
UTP UTP h AvPPzv |Pa]hQ.
i DNA UT SvP |Pa] yzuU Psk,
A Ah[Q [P GsoUP PnUQhk. DNA
SvP i [P \ v E
v \P P Ak. AsU Pzv
DNA UPnUP [P ]UPUTi u[Q \n
]UPmh Cv[P EQ. DNA \ uP
U Po Gv UTi i \UPkQ.
DNA P : DNA P Gx J EUS Azx
SvP \, EhUQ \PS.
cDNA
P : ({ DNA)
uUSkP :
A
E
I
A
Smhm
I\ \
B
F
M
Ahm / A
A
v
Smh
Smhm / Smh
Hux J
&
{zu
& G Ch
C
]h
Ahm
Q]
ii
177
Ai\
GTC
\mii
S]
P (S Ai)
ui
iP (ui \mh)
ACT
GCA
AGCT
GTC
GAT
Ch.
Ea uP ]u ua] , E uP
u~m BQ Csh Au sk. J E
| { \u, EPUP (SP), Pzx B BQ E
uP Pz ux P sk. E |P
UQ Po |P Au A]. E uP
EuQ PP C, C++ , , m, U, U
BQ [SQ. Ax u BUQ u u (Oracle database)
\ (Sybase) BQ ukQ. Pou Sv,
PnURmi (CALCULUS) \P uk.
CGI (Common gateway interphase) GzxUP Au A] BS.
i uP J E uP E
uP {UU A[P u[P \Pa
\PUP, { \, uh, B \ C.
E \v P :
1.
E \v A u Ezv Ax
P EuQx.
2.
|P Ax P EuQx.
3.
4.
zx E xP miS
SUQx.
178
5.
E BP E C E u~m
u A (Protein Structure)
u[P A A[P BUP } \[Q
UTP BS. A A[P uzv ASP BS.
_ Cx A A[P ua \[Q
EUSQ. A hk \[QP G AUPk.
H A US mh A A[P hk
CnP CnUPmiUS. J u
hk \[QPz xn ASPPU PsiUS.
EunP J S UT 4 xn AS hk
\[QP Bx. (2 BL 2 mh \[QP) J
hk \[Q J C Aq Psh UT
Ex.
ua\[Q A A[PUQh E hk
Cn CSz u Pshx. Cu BP hk
hk \[QP i P B A
Q. J Smh \a \uP P, J
u Smh i, u U
PsiUS. u A uP EUS Av
A A[P UPa \[QP BS. ] A A[P
zu (| Ax Gv) Psh. ] A
A[P x UTPP Ax |k{ UTPP
\mk GUmP Da \Q. P A
A[P x } z uSvPU Psk uzv
Emzv ux Pnk. x A Az
uSvP uzv zv Ax Pnk.
}mi J Smh \ A A[P A
179
PnUTi P B mh uPk A
Pnkx u Csh { AS. ua \[Q
n { Au { AS. B P mh
u v (Protein Model)
ua uP J uzv Aq UT
A \vP vP uxx. X Pv iP
h, J uzv AqUP [P USu, Ax
uzv \mhP v kzxQx. AqUP A uP
Psk, ux xP uzv UT A h
zu EshUP C. 1970& Cx Po u vz
uzu \UPkQx. Po E vP, J
uzv E A A[P sP USuk,
Auzv \mi, A EuQ. "Gun P'
'(Glowing coal) ' Gx u A US QU Po
vS.
180
P :
1.
u A \ v_UP Pmh A E
UT \ A kQx.
2.
u AP, u vP, Po h vP E
P A EuQ.
3.
Po h vP J uzv Gu J Sv zx
UQzx Pshx Gu Ax Au uk
F]P, xP EUP kQ.
4.
uz uP vz u\P xP,
vUTmk P |vP EzvUS
SUQx.
181
5. _a ` A
(ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES)
_a` GuS, J _ G
P. _a` Ax `{ Gu, E[PUS
`{US Ch E E Au G UP.
E, `{ Gx J UQ S. UPm
uP UP, _a` _k, u C k, a]PU
Pmkkzu CP [P xP ]UPPUS
wPn | `{ Ax Pv B Psk.
T ]UPPUP hP `{ uzx[P
AihPU Psh. G, u C miSa _a`
A A A]S.
EP UP uP
|/Bsk
UP uP
5000 Q..
50 P
800 Q..
100 P
200 Q..
200 P
1200 Q..
400 P
1700 Q..
800 P
1900 Q..
1600 P
1965 Q..
3200 P
1990 Q..
5300 P
1995 Q..
5700 P
2000 Q..
6100 P
182
h[P
h : 5.1. EP zu UPuP &
1950&2000
UPuPU P (Demography)
u_ UPuP UP
C[Qua \u u u 1798 B Bsi s Ezv
SP CUSx UPuP mk AvP A SuPU
Pv. 1800&P xUPzv g\ Hk GUT.
UPuP UPzuU Pmkkzui, EP ^
Gv|US G {zu. B, Ax PzxPUS nP, PP
Q UPuPUS DkPkUS uzv, u~m xP
\ Ezv Qx.
183
UPuP BUPU TP
J Smh Chzv x, uUS CUP
Dkk J S, UP uPS. UPuP Av Pnk
kP, \ { u BQ
Aih CsP vUS _a`
{PP Aih BkQx. BP J Smh
UP uP C, C u[P, x
, |hzu P, En , `{ sP
\ u BQ zxz wUPkQx.
CUP u[P, C C u[P UP
uP a] Pzuz wUP EuQ. K CUP B
Psh UPuP, { | Pzu AvPm\
UTi u PsiUS.
\a^ UPuP :
Phu 300 BskP SuP AvPP uu h,
Ca \uu Sx u UPuP UPzvS UQ
PnP Aux. UP uP UP |kP J
^P C. EQ J ] SvP UPuP P Q
{ ] Ch[P uP Cu `{
PnkQx. UP uP C
uU PoP vUP kQx. EPu um
s Psh EQ SvP uP uS
Eu Ch[PS. AvP, AvPU S, Su Du,
Su mP, Pkh , u Pk
US um {P { SvP uP EPu
Ch[P A.
UP uP UP BP : ] zu
UP[P
CUPzv
EUSx.
Gx
SuP
(\uvP)
u Gx J hzv J B UPm
uP {Pu SuP u
zu CUP u Gx J so CUP
| Pzv, AsoS US SuP \\
GsoUP.
184
UPuP UP u Gx Cx S
uPUS \P US uP GsoUP.
C u Gx J Smh Bsi B uPUS
G uP CUQP G u.
a] u[P : uzvx C uzuU Pzu
QhUS CP AvP.
zu a] u Gx Em, ,
C u[P EhUQx.
| A P : K C AvPm\ Gzu
BskP Gx | A BS. Gu J \uzv
u J Su \\ G BskP Gx |
Ax P Gk.
UP uP UP : Phu ] skP u
UPuP P PP AvPzxx. 1900 B Bsk 1.65
G A Cu UPuP 1960& 3.02 G
A Ahx, 2000 Bsi 6.1 A Gmix. BP
Phu 100 BskUP A UPuP A |S h[S
Qx. Cx \zvzv Pnhu UPS.
Cu AvP UPuP UP Ax UPuP
iSsk Ax UPuP G AUPkQx.
185
UP uP UPzvP Pn[P :
1800&B BskUS Su A ^ UPmuP
QuS , ush Ah, umh
]U Pa\ |P AvP Cux PnS.
vj u, G Ch[P |P hk
Pa\, P, U H EP [Q.
g\ AiUPi x x. E Aih |UQ,
1800&US , u CP GvP _a`
GvP UPuP J \{U Pmkmi zvu
G. AvP GsoUP , AvP GsoUP C
DkPmix.
19&B sk Bzu ,
*
s u~m P [P, En
PP [P
186
AvP
izu, Ph
EP
GsoUPU
Su.
BP siu,
C,
.
UP uP UP
[SP
mhh, u
x kzxu
\mh u
kP.
sn {[P ]
xskPP UPh,
Sk[P UP
xuP C.
|P[PUSa
\, H
|P.
GUQ |UP
BsmiiU PP,
, {,
|P.
v {[P
\zvS
kzu, Ph,
}\ v.
} Su
C.
Ch u,
_a ` APvP
Xm TVoRp WfN]Ls
[SP Au,
E P
Au,
um k
v \ snP Hkzu.
UPP |P[PUS \.
187
EP E &- Psni k
(GLOBAL WARMING - GREEN HOUSE EFFECT)
EP E Gx \\ A
Hk AvPU SUS. Cu z um {
uP Hk. Phu 4.65
BskP, AvPzxx. B u\
u \kP A QkQk E A
Hmkx. EQ uu \\ { 590F (150C). Phu
100 BskP \\ 10F AvPzux. 2100& BskUQ
u 10.4 0 F
AvPUS GU
{ 2.5 0 F
PnUQhmkx. Cu Avi [P Phmh
A E, P , u[P, [SP
uP P uUP [P BQ Hh.
Psni k UP PP
_zv (1) CPP Ax (2) u
\kP, Psni k UP PnkQ. P AvP
A Pnk Psni k P&h&BUk BS.
G izu, [SP _]zu, u[P P
mP Gzu A mQ ASu Pn[P
P&h&BUk mk shzu AhQx.
xP, u[P JfNodLu shzv E
188
P&h&BUk APk. B uP u
\P shzv P AvP A P&h&BUh
Q. {UP, m GmP, vhUPP,
P[P Kmku, \ uzu, mP
G \kP P&h&BUk AvPP
kQx. Au \ PkP AUPku PnP,
Ja\UP
[P
Eg]U
P
P&h&BUk A x Sx mhx.
shzv P&h&BUk A
CP P P&h&BUk
APk Pzu h, uP \P
shzv \UPk P&h&BUk A P AvP.
1750&B Bsi J P UTP (ppm) 281ppm
P&h&BUk UTP Pnmh. B C
368ppm P&h&BUk UTP E. Aux 31%
AvP.
zu, P&h&BUh h 20 h[S AvPP
zu GkzxU PQx. Cx {UP, CP
Gsn BQ Ezv \ku Ax K
Chzvx ChzvS Gkzxa \ku,
shzv kQx. SP Pnk P
PP AS x _kP En mPa \US
x, zu kQx. 1750& BsiS zu
A Cmizxx.
|m BUk, P&h&BUh h 300 h[S
AvP zu Eg_. ui GmP Gzu
sn sn Eu {PP C
kQx, CRu A[ 1750- k 17% ALjs[.
Azu EUSx k m Tmkm
P, ~zuP uUS x ES iPP,
S\u miP kzuk Smk mP
S PP UP EP
EUSU PnS. iu \ mhm
(Trifluoro methyl sulphur penta fluoride) G J v A
vkUQk AS shzv P AvPP Cx 2000&B
Bsi PskiUP mkx. Cu Au JP Cu,
189
Cx Psni k UP h P AvPP zu
Eg_Qx. Cv Pki \v G, GuP
u\x C kQx Gx C
PskiUPh Gxu.
EP E Hk P
1.
EP EU Pmkkzx ]P
EP EU Pmkkzu CP E.
J, P&h&BUh Ax P Sv
G[Px \zx zu. CuSU P ukzxu G .
Psni k UP EzvU Szu S.
190
P ukzu
CuP G, [P zu, vuP
[P,
u[P
x
u.
[P
P&h&BUh GkzxU Psk Ja\UP Au
Ehzx, P x SvP \UQ. BP
PkP UPhsk. P&h&BUh BPh
Ax GsnU QnP Ax ] }{P
|hPa \zv, Avx uUP h ukzu.
Psni k UP u GmP
Aq \Uv, ` \Uv, Pa \Uv m G
\P kzxu wkzu.
2. ` J CFC
Sh
4. K\
B
1. u\P, kPx
k CFC
h : 5.4. KNu
Tl
K\ K CP `zuh
`x Pumh Pnk
FuUPvP, E[PUS w[S US.
191
h : 5.5. K\ zu
192
K\ C Hk P
K\ h C AvP Fu PvP (SP Fu
Pv b - UVb) uhQ.
u[P Hk P : a\ vzxU
PkP Ezv vUS.
[SP Hk P : Sg_P ]
[SP vUS.
uUS Hk _PuU PkP : u {
|P, ` zu Hk Gv, PsU PP,
Ps |, |z uhP v uUP[P
Hkzx.
R E hzv K\ h C Hk x P
umk.
K\ h C Hk x P
K\ Cz ukzu (Hydro Chloro Fluro Carbons) (HCFC)
1.
S& PPUS vP
i. m S& PP kzuh
sk (AvPP kzumh Cx K\
hzu vUS.)
ii. m PP (Hydro fluro carbons) (HFC)
kzu.
193
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
iii. mh, L m PP
kzu (B C w A
|a_zu u)
iv. A kzu (Ga\UPh
Ph sk).
v. } } kzu.
K\ h CSU Pn CUS P Ezv,
k shzv BQ
SUPhsk.
Cv mP _] Dkkzu sk.
Sa \umiP Sa \u[P x v
P Hkzu sk.
SmiPU P sk kzu
sk.
` PvPx uPzxU P sk.
K\ h CU PsPozu
CFCs
EP
E
K\
Sku
mmhL
u
~sqP
{a`
v
FuUPv
AvP
` }
En
US
Eh|
\UPh UP,
|P, kP
K\ AvP
& iL
_\
|P
194
PP s (Waste Management)
u UP \vk Cnu \P
PP EzvQ. AzxU PP _P Gk.
A Hux J _mh EshUSQ. Aih
PP \ Phuu P, } { _kQ.
_k, _kzx mP
u \kP PoP P, }
{ CP [P zuPuuP \
_k Gk.
_mh EshUS Gu _ Gk.
195
PP PP
1. Ea ]uS ES PP (Bio-degradable Wastes)
CP ] PP ~sqP \kP
i]uS EQ. s PP, [SU PP
En ukzu, u uku, CP, u,
Ezv mPPU Pk x EshS PP
BQ Cv Ah[S.
Chk u PP s (Management of
hazardous Waste)
Chk u PP B BskP B Ai
Cx Bzu US. Pva_U PP, EPU Tmk
mP, PUPP, A Ah, P \kP,
| zxU PP, u yUQ
Gk zx EPn[P Chk u PP
BS. CU PU RUPsh P kzukQ.
1. {zv {u (Land fills) : Cq uh
ChkPz u PP Pva_U PP C
xPP US Ai \UPkQ. P B x[S
SP P AvP A Pv_ vPsh PP \UPk
Q. {zui E SPUS vmP
Jh J Px SUS Dkhh, A
uzu \UP kQ. CUSP P Piu
196
E
zxU
PP
C
AUPkQ.
5. Ez w (Bioremediation) : Cx ux P PP
J u~mS. ~sqP, u[P,
E mPU Psk _a `a _zu \x u
Ez w BS. CP Pnk Uj
~sqP, P EP[P PPa ]uUP Ax
Eg]U P Ax Au |a_zuU SUP
\Q. u[P _UP J GkzxU P
kzukQ (uzw).
yshk ~sqP (Genetically engineered micro organism (Gems)
H GsoUP EUPmk, AU Psk w[Su
AqUPvP, u\, S, Pm P
EP[P }UP kzukQ. \
(Gibberella fusarium) G uzv \kP ]uUPmkz
w[Pu kQ. "`U' (Super bug) G AUPk
197
`h (Pseudomonas) Uj w[S u
TmkmP GsnU PP ]uUQ.
Chh PPU Pu
vhU PP s (Solid Waste Management)
1. _Pu {US (Sanitary Land fills) : {USU PP
CPU SP Ax ushmh [P Szx,
AuS _zu n kQx. Cv P,
Gx vu SP PPU Su h . B
{zui } _k Hh, Gx C E J Sk
BS. C _Pu {USa \u, Ahzu AiUPi
\u \x G \P Eu Guz uUQU P
sk. C EUPmh _Pu {USP x [PUP,
mk u[P xUS A\[P EUP.
2. Gzxa \USu (Incineration) : |Pm]P Gzxa
\US EP (Incinerators) GUTi vhU PP Gzxa
\UPkQ. ]P Gu PP EUPkQ.
AvP, u|U QP Au, _PuU
Psnmhzv zu Cx J ]u S. C
vhUPP 80 u 90 \uu SUP.
3. sk kzu _] P :
PPx v u mP UP. \ Ezv
\. , Psni, u xsk EP[P
PPx u zukzx sk kzxuS _]
G .
Pz u (54% i kzu) sk TUQ
Au
_]
Dkkzv
AmhmiP
198
BU
HkQx.
C
xPzu
(E xP
Ph[P)
A_ A_\ {[P [S
E P G G?
EP Gx, {, Ph, | G Azxa
`{ sh[P E[P Pnk
A A[PzvPP E `{ sh[P
mh u G P. xP Cx
Pk. P, ] P `{
sh P.
EP SuP Pn[P
1. CPU Pn[P :
Cx u ][P 99% Ax mh
Gu ui BP ukzxQ. u Cu
EQS uS C[P Ax mh.
][P vj[P, CPz u uQ.
199
2. u Hk A :
CPU PkP snPP, kPP, PhPP,
xUS Ch[PP, u\PP kQ.
J
Pk
AUPmh,
Av
E
[P
mk
AUPkv. Aua `{ shzuz uPPP,
{uP, \x u Azxz u[P, [SP
vUPkQ Ax Ax kQ.
E P H xPUPh sk?
\, } E , [S , Pmk
E PmS E P xP
uS. v u a]P A xUP
PmS AihP E P u
A Qx. GvPzv xP En, xP
u uP E P u zv \
Qx.
Ax C[P, Kh { C[P (endemic)
Ph, E [P Ah Pnh sk.
J |mi E E P P Ch[PUS (hot
spots) xP UQzx AUP sk. A \u u
A E C[Px P i.
E P C Hk P
C[P HP Axmh. E[P Ax,
| G CUQ Gx |US Es uv. J
| J P UQ E Czu | CUP. J Smh C
Ek Cu u E[P Aa`{ shzv
Ek CUPi G { AuU Smh C A
|h. EunP, UPkP E [P Pua
\UPUS P A] BUQm uUP. A Au
Au uha] Aua `{ sh Axk. Cu
C, AUPkP C[P S, A
|k. xUS, Pn zuPv CP
uUP iuQ k.
200
E P xP
| uUS Akzx uPmS E
P xP, UP UPU Pmkk \PP
AQ. E P xPSU RUPsh
vmh[P sk.
1. EP xPz vmh[P
Azx uPUS x a \zuPU Pv
E P xPUPhsk. Azx C[P
uS E . x Pnk E
PP Ch[P xPx K AUPh
si UQ vmh BS. Ch[P AvP GsoUP Kh
{ C[P Psk, UPzvS uP PPP
h[P kP u Ch[PS. EP x
25 E PP Ch[P Ah Pnmk.
2. u] xPz vmh[P
\mh |hiUPP, h xP
h ExP ]P, E P SzxU QhUS
uPP xPzu, A u~m[P
kzxu |hiUPP Cv A\
Pmk Q.
EQ E 12 E PP sh[P
Cv J. 1994&B Bsk u Hkzumh
""EP E P Juzv'' (International Convention
on Biological Diversity - (ICBD) Cv K E |k. ""u] E
P \vmhzu'' (National Biodiversity Action Plan) EUQa
\kzua _a` PkPUP zv A_ Aa\P
]P Pskx. Cx A_ \u, A_&\u {[
P u uP EuP \kzuk.
3. E S [P (Biosphere) Hkzu
E S[P Gx J ] Pmk. Cv J
Ax AuS mh xPUPmh Ch[P, Aua `x
{[P {QUPmk, Au EP xP CP
[P uhu kP UPk. IUQ |kP
\ P, A P A (UNESCO) EP
A EUPmhx u E S Gx. Cx u
201
K E S zv sP :
*
CP {QUPk `{ sh[PU
PsPoUP, Av BP P, ]
EUPmh ] AP BS.
Cx A] PP iP GkP, A AbP,
{QP E UP J[Qnx {
} u uUS H kzu, Au \ CP
P, E [P xPUP, ""J v''
vmhzu EUSx BS.
Cv E S[P
u|k (1) Ph} S Sh E
S (2) E S }Q E S
G C S[P Psh ] x.
}Q E S (Nilgiri Bioreserve)
Cu zu 5,520 \x Qmh. Cx u E
P HPU Pskx. Cx ][P E
P xPUP, ]ux `{ shzu
CP {USU Psk Hkzumhx.
202
h[P
Pnk
Jx
Ph[P xPUS |UQ Hkzumhx. C,
CUTmhzu, Au _zu PzxU P,
23 Ph[P |k x UPmk Q.
E P xP Dkmk {[P
E P xPUP Hkzumk {[P
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
CP CP [P xPUS EP PP
& (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
- IUCN)
6.
7.
8.
9.
203
E P xPUP Cv E {[P
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
204
205
2. v B [P EUSu :
B |UPi PnP, v B [P,
EUPh six. C ui GUS |
P A.
i. P B : P B Cv zu
UQzx ux. H C[S Pnk }sh
PhSvP, P P, P
BP EUQ, P Ba ]u kzv
Ezv \. } \ i.
Px B
Px
B
x
P
G
u~m. P CUPP x PP _ P
v Aa _a \Qx. _ Cu Cv B
hPh CnUPk x \zu Ezv \
mhP CUS. BP EhiPU P B
Cx, ]Pa]P B . Cv xnU
Pshzv E AvPU P _ SvPx 20,000MW
\ uUP i GU PnUQhmkx. u|k,
Sz Bv u\zv HP { PP
{mkU P B kzukQx.
P B {P
1. PP EzvS \zvS BS
Ezva \ P S. J miS 40 P_P
G A \zu Ezv \.
2. _a`US Gu v C
3. j\ B uhx \
Ezvu, \k uk nv.
ii. B : Cv [Ph _U SvP
E w |kP, B kzx u~m
PPP Qx. CP Pnk }
206
FP Cx } BP kzxx
u Czu~m.
B EzvUS P : E
(HDR - Hot Dry Rock) u~m Cv AU
207
v. ` B : Cx B . J h
`hx US 5x1020 Q P B QhUQx. EQ
E Azx BPUS ` B J xUP
BS.
` B {P : 1.EP[S QhUPUTi,
_a ` _kzuu B Cx. 2. Ja\UP Psni
k BQ {PP mi `{ \mh
UP Cx EuQx. 3.i GmP {UP, Gsn
UP Hk _a` Pk Cv Hkv..
vi. AqUPv B
C | EQS EPu J B,
AqUPv B u. ui GmPUS vP Cu B
k.
AqUPv zu : J P Aq, {m uP
]] xPPP u, H A B kQx.
Cx {P Cu, AqUPvU PPU Pva_ A
G Px G a] J SS.
AqUPv Cn Gx GvPzv J ]u B P
CUS. AqUPv Cn, imj (2H) imi (3H)
CS Aq EmPUP Cnx J Pzu { Aq
EmPP . , AqUPv Cn Hk
mP, Pva_ A Gx CUPx. BP,
AqUPv zu Pva_ Azu GvP
a] C C. skPUS |US B
AUP HxP H CS I\hP E. B
xvh\P, Cu AqUPv Cn uhx B
u~m C \U PskiUPh.
vii. E Ax \n G B (Bio gas or Gobar gas)
EU PPU P mPa \u
C kQx. C mk \nzv Gv 20%
AvPUQx. C QhUS P E mk \nzu h 43%
]uuS. Cu E |u \u E[P uU Szx
kQx. 10m3 E B, 6.0m3 CP S, 3.6 mh
mhUS, 7.0 mh m Ax 6.1 mh j\US
\ GU PnUQhmkx.
208
_a` uUP :
B [P _a` P R
umk.
1. B : _a` n Hmk mh
Ca\uzv, B BP Cx ~s
\, CO2, SO2, NO2 Hk P, } n
_kP HU PzuUPu.
2. } B : } \u BP Hkzuk x,
Ah UP Ch[PUS Ch a \x,
Sizu six. Cu PnP uPmS Hk H
a]P u Czvmhzu {v uu, AuPS
\ AvPQx. vuPU Pmhk AnP Ahzv
`sh vUPkQx.
3. AqUPv B : Aq EPx
Pva_ }sh PzvS ChkP Hkzv k. Pv}
EP Hkzxu } }shP ]u Pnk
AqUPvP u[Qa \UPk A Esk. Aq EPx
U P} HP }a` sh
vUPmk mhuPa _a` BP TQ.
AP AqUPP, { } vUP sn
US Ai uUP ix. (Eun) HP Hmkmh
209
210
_a` a]P
] PnPa _a` ]uhQx G,
] _a` ]u u US Cmka \Qx G
vUQ. Ch[P UPuP, CP
[P x, _a` x uUPzu EshUQ.
EQ P[P _a` ^Pk (sh, } {P,
s PkP CP _a`P ^PkP)
UP J UQ PoP AQx. _a`
a]x En US, _zu }, Eh[P
Azv] mP US iQx. PkP,
{, P, } BQ Ch[P ^Pk Ahu,
C[P | UP Cu x vUPkQ.
EP _a` ^PkP PoP HkQ.
UQ Po UP uP UP, {[P
[P AP AvPm\ kzxx BS.
AvPm\a _a` ^Pmi HkQx.
a \\ P
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
211
| [P
QhUS } 3 \uu u |.
1.
, UPmi, s : QhUS
\uu }, |Q J [S P, UPmiP,
s Ahx QhUQx. A. AvP E
Ch[P Ax {|kUPmkUS hSvP u
PnkQ.
2.
3.
4.
| USUP Pn[P
1. CPU Pn[P : Su A ,
UP, UP UP BP Cv
Ah[S.
2. uU Pn[P : UPuP UP,
|PUP, BkkP AvP a\, k P, u
212
\UPh vmh[P, A] Ea \x
uuS {vUS Cv Ah[S.
3. {zui }U Su : |kP
sUS, mk EPzvS Qmhzumh 40 \uu k
usp {zui } BS. Q[P UP 95 \uuzv
ux Si} uPmS {zui } |. Cu P
AvPP kzx x QnP, } FP sk
kQ. HP, BP, \x {[P sk
kQ.
213
| s
QhUS } A J Smh A u. AvP
} EUP | Gx \ Cx. C Smh
Ch[P } QhuS P E.
1. Pzv (vP) yu : E Ax
mh] Ahk xPP }Pzu P[P x y
] \ Hk.
2. E}U Si}UP : | A AvPUP
[Ph } Ezu }USx J ]u u ~mS.
E} AP P AvPP kzxx
iPmh (BUQ sk Szu) Ax uR \k
(v Phzx J hzv Ph} PPa
\zxx Ahzv ~sxP } mk ,
EUP, uxUP ukzx {zvk) BS.
E}U Si}US vmh P \ Hkzx vmh G,
x, K |US Cu
|kP HUPmk |S \kQx.
3. AnP, }zuUP[P, PP, }USP : AnP
}zuUP[P AvPPU QhUS }a\zx, G[P[S
}z u, A[P PP, _[P[P, uiUSP
usp Ax x |hS.
4. }Pk (Water shed) s : \P Ax
]] AnP Ax H |v}U QP BQ usp
P Q nP uUQ US. Cv AnP
EshS S[P }z uUQxh [S Ph[PP
A. ] AnP E BmP kzvU Su
214
\ Pmih, Cu AnP uz
uUP i.
5. }a \P
i
k
} P]U S
Qn
h : 5.9. }a \P
6. mh s P
]u s P PkP }, Kinuz
ukUS. Ah iux Gg] n P Ai
{zv mk x } Ki nuz ukUS. \
{SvP EuU Szu, PkP Azu
|hP } PkP xPUPk. \x {[P
xPu {zui } u, CPP }a
\x AvPS.
215
7. kP \zu :
kP | ux kzx } A | UP
] uPU Psk u \UP. \
Cv, zv[PU P Cv[P, Su }
kzx S Aa\u[P } nuU
SUP.
8. u\P \zu :
u\P kzuk usp HUS
v, \u[P, u\ Cv[P
SUP kQx. EU SUS P kzxu
CP } nuz ukUP. u\U P}a
_zvPzx, _] Dkkzv sk kzu.
}a\v J uu [S
RUPsh P , u J u }a \UP
i.
SUP EPkzx } AU SUP sk.
PP, C\UP P[P AiUPi PUThx.
PPU Pu, zv[P Pu, xUS
u u uspU SPz vx UPU Thx.
mkz umhzv AvP } uh Ea \iP,
a \iP |mk ASkzu.
Su } kzx SUS \u[P Pa
\u[P kzu.
umh[P, mkz u[P BQUS, PPU P
_] \mh } kzu.
JQU PsiUS SPa \ \.
216
6. mk E
P|h Au (Livestock and its Management)
ua\uzv k CP zxh |hz
uhhx. u[P, [Q, {, } uxmP
BQ CP [P SvP BS. P|h ,
sn Czx Qa `{ AihPUPsk
A[S Q UPUS Hkzv zu
Dmiz uS. P|h a] Au BQ
miPP Cv s BUS (Indian Council for
Agricultural Research - ICAR), { s PUPP[P
u B {[P , w BP
Psk. P|h a] w CUPz vmh
Pshu P AvP PkUS P kP Ezv
Qx.
sn
sn a] ]u P|h , \P,
\u mP ukzxu BQ Ah[S.
sn a]x Ezv, \u mPa
\uku BS.
19 B si v snz u~m
AvP a] Ahux. CuU PPmhzv PuP
v P |a \u[P QhUP. _UP
u v AvPkzxuPP Fmha\zx {u \Pz
w[P uUPkQ. CUPz u~m
Ezu ~m BQ uPzv a] PnP AvP
A PUS v CU P|hP Ezv \ mkx.
J UQ u EnP Cu, Cv UP
u[PUSz u Tku uzvS a \vUQP.
UQ mi[P A sP
miP P|hP (Bos) G zua \u.
Cuzv CiP (Bos indicus - v Ex), h
(Bos taurus - -v Ax) (Bos bubalis -G)
G ][P E.
Cv x Smka\U TiuP 26 P mi[
217
P, 6 P G[P PnkQ. mi
Aih P|hP PP Pkzumk.
AP P mi, C EP C mi
Ax CUS mi.
mi[P
P kP
C EP kP
C kP
}sh |mPUS
US, CUS
PP |P
AvP u
_UP
k Cmk
P kP.
CUS. Su
P _UP
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
K[P
uUP
P[
UP
Az
P[P
\
]v
Q
Ea\
P _
h : 6.2. ]v P
h : 6.1. ]v _
u : Cu C Pa], uzu
\ux.
uzu sP : |kzu E A Eh
Psh. PP uizx, UPmi zx [Q
218
219
h : 6.3. K[P
220
h : 6.4. P[P
2. UP C
u : |x |mi xPz u {[P
Cu C kP Q. SP P|hPzv \, kT
SvP C[P hS.
uzuU Sn[P : C \ {P ]
|[P | P {P CUS. kP |kzu EhU
PshP CUS. uSv \ }P, |k Sh
Ti hzu | PsiUS. ] PxPU Psh A
P \ }P CUS. }sh PPhuP CUS.
A }sh PP \ APP UQ x Au
~Sv |UQ x TP CUS. A
vx u a]U PshuP CUS. C kP ]
PPh u iU Psh. UP PP C
US EPu. A {zu EuS, si CuS
PUS kQ.
Ezvzv : C _UP Su U PkUPU
TiS.
A C kP : AvP PkUS kP A{
|kPx zx Cv UPkQ. C
zu kP | |mk Czxh Cnzx k u
Pzu PP EUQ. | |mi u uP
90 BskPUS I C kPz uzu. A
UQ C[P SmhU Ph A kP(Ayreshire) ,
] C kP (Jersey), _ (Brown swiss) C kP,
j & L (Holstein - Friesean) BS.
221
3. ] C : ] kP Pzv P Smh.
C kP xP {zvx Ahzv \
{ {[P PnkQx. ] kP }sh
PPh Ti iU Psh. PUP Dq
v, 5% Pa \Uv Psh 4950 Q BS. Pmi \zx
{xu PnP \ g\ {PU PnkQx.
CkP h CU PP \ mkzu EuP
CUS. ] CkPa ]v, C kPh P
\x v P kP EUS x, E P
kP {u U PkUQ. CkP J PU Pzv
2000 Q Gh z uQ v .
h : 6.5. ]
x P|h |P AP Pmkkzu :
P|hP |z uUSuPUS EmmhPS.
BUQ P|hP, h, __P,
u Psk Pnk. APhzv \un ], |
EUP Pnkxsk. u BUQzuU Psh K
{, J { Eh zvUPu {, BQh
Su PUS v ASP P|hP
BUQ {UP ASP.
u |P (Contagious diseases) : Gv P
UTi |PUS u |P G . CzuP |P
Uj uUPkQ. BzU
(Anthrax), U \i^ (Haemorrhagic septicemia), imj
(Mastitis) P\| P Uj Hk
|PS. P U Tix mh, P |
(Foot and mouth disease), hm (Rinderpest) |PS.
1. BzU (Anthrax) : C|x, Bz] G
Uj Hmk, vj E CSU PnQx.
| ASP : AvP Eh { (41 & 41.50C), Pzx,
, UP SvP Ck SvP Pnk UP
222
:
vUPmh
[Qz
ukzxu, [SuS, \zvS H P
Su En Azu, QP }USQ x P\h Ti
Jzuh[Pkzu, Eh v uzu ]} UQ
AvPzu, P[PU Snkzx Q|] PP
kzxu ]Qa\ P C|z ukUP.
Azxh mk PmhPPa _zuP zvzu sk.
3. Jmkso |P : (External Parasite diseases) : DUP,
EsoP, ] a]P, u a]P P P
JmksoPS. CmksoP |hPU P|h
Px Czuzu Eg] APUS Ga\ HkzxQ.
Azxh, CmksoP PP, Uj,
J \ EP ~s EP | PP
\kQ.
4. APJmkso |P : (Internal parasitic diseases) : PUQ
UP, E UP, |h UP umh UP
AP JmksoP v, v ] Eh EuP
HkzxQ.
|P : (Non - contagious diseases)
223
224
z u : (Poultry)
kP UPk C[P PP, zx,
P ^UP u zx CUP
\u Gk. P|h P En
Jkx, P P En u Pa ]u [S uP
hU TiuS. P P \unP
AvP A zvPP UPU Tix P PP u.
zu P , PP mk 90 UPk Chzu
Q.
U P C[P : (Breeds)
P US mh P C[P Pn
kQ. uUS UPU Tiv Aih, PP
Pk \mk. AP Ca] C (Meat type),
mh (Egg type) D P (Dual type), mk P (Games
type), A[P P (Ornamental type) BS. PP Cz
u (Origin) Aih, |S A |mk P (Exotic)
C[P PnkQ. AP, AUP CP, B]
225
h : 6.6. z U P
h : 6.7. z U \
226
h : 6.8. P
h : 6.9. \
227
h : 6.11. U \
h : 6.10. U P
228
229
sn AUS P :
P ux |S Au JS.
CzuP P UP Hkzx gb
Aih J uS. CzuP Q u
a] UQ [Q QUQ. P US
EhiP Dmh sk. mhP, Ca]
Pkxh, P ]SP E[P
QhUQ. P miSU RUPsh PoP
Pzv PkQx. 1. ] B u, 2. | u Psh
PP Qhzu, 3. SQ u Ch E C[P,
4. P|hP JkP P Gvzu
]u Azu, 5. ] mP
Qhx, 6. hu gb En
Fmhzv Avzu, 7. zu _PuU Pmkk.
{P : mhPz uukzu,
mhP AhPzx UPa \u, zu Sg_P
zu, sn Azu, U PPUS En Azu
P P UQ ] {PS.
, mhPz
uukzu
:
Sg_
UPa
\uP mhP, PU Pzxh uukUP sk.
mhPz uukUS x RUPq ] SP |
Pzv P sk. 1. mhP \P CUPsk.
2. P Ax Pa] mhPz uzx uSu
Ah mhP uukzu sk. 3.
{ Kkh mhP h Ah { Kkh
mhP uP UQ. 4. vuP Chmh
mhP, x kxsk.
g, AhPzu, Sg_ zu : (Incubation and hatching)
P mhU P mhP AhUPzu x,
zu x, P a] AhQ.
EUPhu PU Sg\x 21&22 |mP AhPzuUS S,
mhx x Qx. CUPzv x mhP
Au a]US EPu , D | Pmh
BQ sk. T EPu `{U PoPh
vuP Chmh mhPU Sg_P US zx
zu AhPzu (Incubation) GuS.
AhPzu CP AhP (Natural incubation)
\P AhP (Artificial Incubation) G CP Esk. CP
230
(Brooding)
zu C PUSg_P |S u B
zx {Qzu oPzu GuS. AhPzu ,
Sg_P oUPzu, CP \P P Esk.
CP oUPzu K |mP xh Sg_P (Day Old - chicken) uP CUS \P
oUPzu, { Pmkkzumh Sg_
mi (Brooder) zx xPUPk.
231
2. US P Enmh :
P Enmhx, P J
UQ A[PS. PPUS AUPk Enx v A
}, Pmm, u P, PP, mhP
u[P UP sk. UPa\, ,
\, Px, Gsn snUS, A] EnP
J vmh A AUP.
232
(PISCICULTURE)
zu :
zu Gx \u Ax zvPP
P snP x BS. A UPk Chzu
zx A | , PP} , E }
Ax Ph} (Mariculture) G Pkzu.
S kzuk P sP :
S kzx Pz uukUS ,
RPsh sP A Psk GU Psh sk.
1. P : Su Pzv AS
P EPu. (G.P.) PP.
233
P[Pzv
zv (A) \
Pzv
h : 6.12. u|mi QhUS En P
234
2. um {US H uP : snP E
um {USz uz uPzxU P v Pshu
P CUP sk.
3. u[Su : C, v sP } BU,
Ezu, P Hk H CUP[Pz u[QU
P C PsiUP sk.
4. \P En HU Pu : Su Chzv
AvP GsoUP UP |kx \PPz umh
En PUSz usix . Av En
Eh HU P C PUS sk.
5. Gv : x Hk |P, JmksoP
uUSu GvUS Gv PsiUP sk.
6. Ps[S Jzv : P
P J Szv US x, A J J uUP,
JP C Psizu sk.
7. zv : Smh A En GkzxU Psk,
Au AvPm\ \ v Psh P
zuUP.
8. ~P : u u ChzvS Ch
kQx. BP | US P Ah[P uP
u CUP sk, Ax Smh ~PUPP
UPh sk.
Cv UPk C[P :
PP, P, P, v,
UQ PS.
Cv P :
Cv PP :
PP (Psh)
Pm Pm (Pm) (Catla Catla)
Qmh (S) (Labeo rohita)
] P (P) (Cirrhina mirgala)
|mk (^) PP (Exotic Carp)
] P (x P) (Cyprinus carpio)
] PP :
mh (mh) (Labeo bata)
235
P : (Pzv)
P Bmk (| _ : )
h K (Pzv )
Q mUP (S) (Clarius batrachus)
P Ax zu\P ()
\ mmh (PkP Psh zu) (Channa
Striatus)
mk P (S} P) :
1. mmkP (\ : \)
\ Pm ( mm)
Ph} P :
mh PP ( Ax PUA; Pk) (Lates
Calcarifer)
S[P PP :
snU S[P AP Pnk.
|[P S, U S, EzvUS, zuS
CUPU S A. J sn RPsh
\uu Ch[P A BUQzxU PsiUS.
|[P S
&
3%
US
&
11%
EzvUS
&
60%
US
&
1%
CUPUS &
25%
|[P S B Sx, S[P K
Bzxh Pnk. Ezv S[P } A 2 u
236
Szu Bzu \u :
US Szu AuP Bzu[P Dkkzu
sk.
1. uUP ` zu : (Conditionings)
C[PmSU Szv u KkUSa _snU
(P] mUk) sk. Cx so Az
u }UQ, zuUP v _]P EshUQ,
u s EPU P k.
C [PmS xPz usp E mkz
u BzvS {sk. , BU A, P
Azu (pH), P[P u, Pizu, Pzu
u EP a] uUPmkmk AkP (Parameters)
\vUPmk A uk A E GuU
Pshu Szv P hsk.
2, Eh :
_sn Cmh 15 |mPUS , En EPz
u u EP ~s [S u EP)
uPP Eh sk. Ax P EP Ax v
EP CUP. P E[P ]}P Ax |m {u
\UPh }P, mk\n, \n, P \n, _u
E, Pm, snUS uP CUP. P P
S Cu, J UhUS 2&3 h mka\n Szv
Chsk. J UhUS 5000 Q Pa\n Cmh [S
u EP Ezv H CUS. v E[P
kzxu, so Pnk |m
zx k.
| S[PUS xPa ]_ \k. |m
mh] (NPK) A 18:10:4 BS. K s
Psh SzvS 200 Q//h G A 450Q/
/h G A A \mh P EzvS
Akzukzx Ch.
sn s \u :
U S[P PUPh si P UQ
En, } u BS. , hk Sg_P u,
237
Ca \ A s |hiUPP
Ezv \k Az wUS.
} uzu J[Skzxu Gx A 25&350CUS
zvzu, } Px BU, pH (6.5 - 9.0) Pizu,
P[P u u E a \
A zvzu BS.
Enmh :
CP Enz u, P
\P En GkzxU P. xP, \P
En 30&40% u, 5&10% P, 50&60% Pmm, 5%US
S \, 10% usp, mhP ux mP
Pnk. En P[P EUS x u [S
mP kzu. P, CP, \ En,
mk , Px, U Q[S, [SP
mhku QhUS PP, A]zuk, usp
PP, snUS ]u En mPS.
UP Cv \P Psh PUS
A]zumh, snUP EnPU Pk. ,
Pzv P \Eso (Carnivours) PUS, hu
P P EnPz u. PUS Au Eh Gh
2% I v xn { EnPz usk.
UP |h s, |P :
} AUP Bu, } u, P, ^
Enmh, CU Pzu, | ASPU Pshu
J } E U Szv Ph si
UP
|hPS.
|P
P,
UjUP, Jmkso Ax AP JmksoP
Hh.
u|mi En P
(Edible fishes of Tamilnadu)
I. | P :
| P, ] \a \u PP,
AnUPmk SvP, BP U S[P Pnk
uSvS. CYtt Yp TtLs CpX. RiPl
TtLs Ei.
238
1. Cv PP (Psh )
A. Pm Pm (Pm) : AP Eh, u, |UQ
uzxz uz u En CP A EukP, 14 u 16
xkP Psh AP xSUPz xk BQ Pm
Ah Pn Eu sP BS. , \ xUPzu
kzvU Szv [S u EP C
EsqQ. G ] P (15 & 20 ..) [S u
u EP Esq. Cx AvPm\ 1.8 (45 Q) }
. Cv PshP Cx P P
BS. UPk x u h 35&45 \.., Qmhzumh
1.5 & 2.0 Q Gh PsiUS. Cshx h CUP
\ uSv .
h : 6.15. Pm
h : 6.16. Qmh
239
h : 6.17. ] P
240
G P :
(i) LmP () (ii) Cv UP (P Pzv)
(iii) (g] Ax |) (iv) l (v) uUPh a,
(vi) P[QmP () (vii) P (viii) P (Pzv)
(ix) umh P (|US ) (x) \hP (zv)
241
1. huP (Stethescope)
J huP Cuzv JP, (\u[P) P
EUS x, k x ~ _\uP
Hkzx JP, Sv CUP (Movements)
JP PmuS Eu EPn BS. Eh SP Gu
Chzv ]UPP E Guz ux Psk |PU
Psh Cx P EP \u BS. huP
U mhh \zx kzu. 1855&B Bsk
u C \ (Binaural) huP PskiUPmhx. |
q \u huPP P x \u[P BS.
Eh EhP Aovu, _ P Ca\h
Pnmh Th, J | Cu ~P
JPz uPU PmP C Eu. u US P
Cu JU Th Cu q huPP PmP C.
P :
1.
h : 6.18. huP
242
2.
{, ~ Gj (Edema) vP EshS
x, ~P E v[PU Psh Eu. [Qi,
mi _\ u |PU Psh Eu.
3. \unU Sh uP CUPzu AvPa \k
ShuP
CUPzxh,
SPa
\k
ShuP CUPzxh JmkU Psh C Eu.
2. U mh (Sphygmomanometer)
Czu AzuzuU Psh Eu EPn U
mh. Cx, U (Sphygmus) G QUP zu (CuSz
xi' G ) A (C) zu mh
Gu Cnzx EUPmhx.
u Czu Azu Gx, Cu CzuU SPUS Kk
Czu, CzuU SP _P Hkzx AzuS. Cua
_]US (Cardiac cycle) H, u Hk Czu Azu k.
Cu J uh _[S x, h x |h
{Pa]P uS Cua _] G UP. _[Su
Gx "]h' (Systole) G, hu "hh' (Diastole)
G AUPkQx. smUQ _[S x Chx,
smUQ Czuzuz uUS P a_. Ax
Azu J Ea\zu Ah. CuS "]hU' Azu G
. Cu h x Azu PU Sx, J PU
Su { Gmk. CuS "hhU' Azu G .
Czu Azu Gx, \ Cu a_ Czuzv P
A, \ ~suP (Arterioles) _P E
u\P _[S {P \xx. Eh], P, B,
Ena] \h, yUP \[P Czu Azu .
C, uhx Ax AiUPi Czu Azu AvPzu
( h) J uUS h, mU, ]}P v
u Eh |USkP EshUS. J u
KP E { u Gx Czu Azuzu AUP
sk.
\un Czu Azu A 120/80mm Hg BS. Cv "120' Gx
]hU Azuzu "80' Gx hhU Azuzu
SUS.
CP U mhP E. 1. mh P
2. imh (|) P.
243
P :
1. Czu Kmhz u, Cu \ku Psh
U mh Eu.
2. h G AvP Czu Azu {,
h G S Czu Azu { Psh
U mh Eu.
3. \mhmh
uSu }zuUS , Czua \P Gsqx
\mhm G, Czua \P Gsn Eu EPn
\mhmh G AUPk. \mhm
kzv ]qUP, mmkP, D\P
GsnkQ. uPzv Uj, Dm Ax ]P,
Gsn C kQ.
\mhmh & P UP :
J \mh mh, Gsq AP, Au
kuP Psni i (Coverglass), }US mkP
PsiUS. P Gsq AP QhUQ.
mh {, LUu BQ Csk \ua
\P x kzuU Ti Gsq APS.
Czuzv Czu YlTqUP (RBC), qUP
(WBC) Ai Gsn ix. \ A (Jzu) AP Psh
v[P (Isotonic solutions) Psk u Czu }UPh sk.
RBC }US v (Hayemis) v Gk.
WBC UP }UP hU (TURKS) v Ax h vzu
kzu.
280
300
260
AP
220
mh
240
200
180
120
180
140
80
100
40
120
P S
C S
mi
100
80
150
100
80
0
EPU PUQ
\kzx vS
Ph
h : 6.19. U mh
244
uP RBC UP \ A R :
Bs
:
s
:
US x :
4.5
4.1
4.0
&
&
&
5.9
5.1
5.6
/ P .
/ P .
/ P ..
uP WBCUP \ A R :
P
]P
:
:
4,500 &
10,000 &
11,000 / P ..
25,000 / P ..
zx UQzx :
1.
2.
Czua ]q m
{ A
h : 6.21. Gsq A
UP A
q m
h : 6.22. Czu ]
qUP Gsq mkP
q
]q AP
h : 6.23. Gsq AP
245
3.
4.
]} :
1. ]}P ]}P u uPU Psh,
2. ]u U PP Eh EU PP
BQz ux P Eu.
hj : (\UP v) g\ P (Jaundice)
PPU Psh SUP, Rmh mP,
Pa \ua
\sk.
\UP B :
u (Copper) P EP[Pa \UP Eu
BUPn {x Su {USU SUS v
u, A xU SUS (Reducing) mP
Gk. EunPa \UP }sn SU \mh (u
\m) ] S \mhP SUS. ]} Pnk
SUS mP SUP, Uh, Uh, PUh,
sh_P _U PS. ]} H SUS
mP Pnmh SUP Ah P UQx.
H A Q^U (AvPa \UP A) {U
SUS.
SP UQzx :
\una ]} ]u SUP Pnk.
]}P[P S Sv ]} iPmkQx. ~s SP
246
247
EUP 1
EUP 2
EUP 3
248
AS. S A Gx ] Gv A. R S AP
smUQ v\ |h v\ zuU
SUS. QRS Tmi PA 0.08 i; Ax 0.1
iUS CUS. R A \\ a_ Qmhzumh 1 m
BS. QRS Tmi kPx H |P Szu
uPP i.
T A :
S Az uhx J \ Ch Pnk.
Cu T A x[S. Cx smUQ |h
U (Repolarization) SUS. Cx J AP A, Cu P
A 0.27 i; a_ 0.15 u 0.5 m BS.
h : 6.26. K { D.]..
{ (Imaging) u ~m Ax Cv zx
EQ m]a \xx. Cu zxP, UQ
EP UP AhP (Blocks) Ah Pn,
v_UP u a]U Psh, | ASP
A ]Qa\U Psh iQx.
249
{ u~m[P Jk x CT
kP :
{ u ~m[P Jk x CT
u~m, v_, G CzuU SP
Cnzx { u uzuU Pshx.
EunP UP k u GkUPk GU
{, Pzv Ahu G AP zv
Pni. u \k GU Bg]Q u
Pzx mk Pmhk! zv_ ux.
Pu Av UP (Magnetic Resonance - MR) {,
v_, CzuU SP Pmk Pa]
oa \; B, Cu G AP u
[Pz u Cx. u k CT {UP zv
v_UP, SP E AP,
\ s A (Matter)
zxP B EuQx.
CT P :
1.
|U Psh US CT J v \u.
Cx ~, P Pn |PU Psh
AiUPi kzukQx.
2.
3.
Bi] G G \u |P
GP E ux mP AhU Psh
EuQx.
4.
250
5.
6.
Su A Fk |h ]Qa\ PmP
CT u AihS. | ]Qa\UP PvUP
zxzuz vmhhUS CT {UP AihP
251
GhP PP :
1.
[PP
a_US, ~P QP
\x.
2.
PP
[Sh Sh |hx.
3.
PP
n, s C EP
\x.
4.
]hP
]}, ]}U SP P
~, BsP hm
_ BQ Ch[P |hx.
5.
PmP
EnUS, C Sh
\x
6.
[PP
S \x
7.
UhP
8.
uPP
(Pleura), Ch
P, ~ Chu (Mediastrinum)
Pizv \x.
9.
10.
BzP
C, P, EP,
S s
CUP EP BQ
\x.
mk (Knee) SvP
\x.
8. \P UP (Artificial Pacemaker)
Cu ^P, \ A xiUP EuuPPz uUS Ai
~zx UPmh J ] mh C[PUTi q \u
\P UP BS. Cuzv CP UP xua
\mk Cuzuz ysi h CUS u Ax Cuzv
Phzu A uhP Pnmk, CP
UPx smUQPmS ysh x ukUPk
u, \P UP Cuzuz ysk.
252
Cuzv CP UP
Cuzysh x[S Ch x BUQ x _
Ax \Px (\ Hm Px) (1.5 \.. },
3 .. AP Psh u\) u miP Cuzv CP
UP BS.
J \P UP P[P :
J UP mh P BQ CSvP
Pnk. mh u mh Czxi J[Skzx
uPP \zx UPmiUS. P mhx
Qa ] \ Cuzv \Q UPmk. P
\ ysh Cuzuz xiUPa \.
UPP zv mhP B. mhP 7 u 8
h[P \k C zxP AiUPi \vzx, u
x P. mhP xUPU P[P
izxh Pnmh. B ux Pa ]u 30 Q
Ghh E.
Bmh A\ P :
1.
PP \k Jk x x AvP.
2.
3.
J \ Csk Ax P \u \Pa
\.
4.
PnURkP uTPpX.
253
Bmh A\ SkP :
A. ] GsoUP vPmS EPux A.
B. Gux Bmh A\ EPn[P x Hh.
C. EPnzu C[P zu. zu x}UP
PmPP oPmS ] AUP sk.
D.
A Eu.
Bmh A\ Sk :
SUP, u, A, Qi, Czu , |m
(BUN) \i, mh], S, i A, UiU
im, , P m, P], Pm,
U A, hP, Pm Bmh
A\ Eu S \x A AU Psk iUP.
254
7. nU PmkP
:
E[P ux uhP PzxUP Esk.
E[P Azx A, sP
JPh E. C Pmh E[P
Phu
P[P
vuuP
Bu[P
E.
[Pzv [Q GsoUP GP uP
{P Gu K FP \ C. E JP,
Phu P E[P, [P uP Azu
US P nU PmkP Ax.
CUPmkP ] UPuPz ""uPzv TmkU Pmk''
Axx. CUPmk E xP AihU
PzxUP EhUQx.
UQ :
n PmkP mhP vx
U (1744- &1829) UQ. 1809 Bsi C ""[Q
uzx'' (philosophie zoologigue) G mh. n
{Pa]P Cx UP[P C E. Cx
PzxUP P HU Ph. G n
Gsn[P C UQ Ch .
"" s su'' G Pzv Aih
UQ nU Pmk Axx. CUPmkP, K
[S ux | kQ sP CP z
uhxk G Pzv {{zx P. Cu
|S vP U zu.
1. u v : PUQ n [P E[P
A EhP A uS.
Cv USuSU SvP n a]
U EunPU Pmi. DS (Eqvus) G uPzv
Sv C[P Pzv vu, ] Ehh
255
256
3. x v : Eh k v
Cviz uhx k Ea ]h.
hu EU PUQ ux ]x, ]uP
k. U, CUPzv zu Cz u
Dkmk Pzu\P Kmhu P Pu\P
]hxu EunPU Smh. Cun[P \uP
C Czu\a ]S sS u C
Cv n UQzxzv Cxx.
4. |P v "" s su''
""K E ux | Eh Ax v s
Akzu uUS Phzumkk''.
Cv mh U, CuPU Smh
Eun[PU T. k Ea ]h, hu
Ea ^ G | U AsP Akzukzu
uPUS Phzuk G Pv.
UQ Cv vUPmkx. Cv
{UP BP Pmk.
1890 Bsk BPk G A
GP BP Psh. C Eh |h Bs, s
GP CnPPz uukzxU Psh. A Pz
uhx HUS 20 uPUS mi. Ca\u
u s sP u Hu K
u GP u! GUTx |UQ. Cs
sP u . Ci A K Pzv
mh. AUPzvi EhSvP (\mh\) Hk
[P CUPa \P (\) uP {Px
Gz uUPmhx. , Cu u P
257
v UQ (Neo-Lamarckism)
UQ "" su Pmk'' AbP
B \x. UQ Gsn[PUS mk APx
PzxUP v UQQx.
v UQzv ""uPP'' CP xs
PPU PkQ. A, \ vP, _a` BQ
u uh uPQx. _a`
kP K Ezv UP[P P u
Q. Cu EP xP v AP Q.
Cu k sP iiP s {
GmikQ. CzuP Gsn[P u[P UQzv
v UP[PQ kQ. CUP[P EP
_a` UQzxzv zxQ.
| UQzv {{zx uzv BP
Pmh.
1. ""Pu sP'' Gu U lP (1938) GP
Psh K ] B {{zu . CuP C
K "T" iz umi {. Czumi Csk
P Cu. J a\ux. A i \
uUS P AUPmiux. Akzu Cmh uS.
Au i K hU Pmi SvP UPmiux.
UlP, GP Azumi KhmkU Tx Pzu. Khz
uh[Q GP a\u uz uukzuu i
uUSu . Cmh uz uukzu J ] GP
h UPsh. GP umi hmk
Cu \ QU Psh. CP PUQ
CUP \x Akzu u uzu.
258
h
\ Cm h, 1859 mh CPz u
Pmh h GkQx. n {Px u
uh \ UPzv h Pmk mkuPU
PukQx. hx {mh U Pmk
Ij _UPPUS Cn JPU PukQx.
h ux US ""CPz u ][P
u'' Ax ""UP mhzv uSu C[P {k''
Gz umh. C n uh \PU
Smk.
259
h : 7.2. \ Cm h
CPz uU Pmk
B \u , \ h ux Tu P
EsP Ah PskPsh. AsP
Aih ] iP Psh. AiP ""h''
Ax ""CPz uU Pmk'' GkQx. CUPmk
TP EhUQx.
260
1. ug] CUP (A zu v)
u[P \uv EUS En Azx
[SPUS Esk. Cu A u[Px \uv v
Quzv UPha \ u PsiUS.
Czu vUQ Azx E[P Pn.
EunP J s \ CUPU Pzv 28,000,000
mhP Ezv \ v Pskx. AmsiU Sv
K ] E J U Pzv 80 mhPz
uzx . CUPU P[P Ph P
Asha _P 10 mhP u sk.
GPz uh CPP CUP |h C
KnU SP 10 BskP 275 SPz uUP
C. PU S zu vh P h
Eun PmkQ. P xPz u[Px 30 x v
va]hx CUP ] Dkk. CP A 90
x CUP \. ux | K s
x 6 Smih. CzuPh Kn
P, 750 BskP, PnURkPi 19 Pz
uUP C. CP Azx [SPUS ug]
CUPz vP Esk G Ax.
2. UP mh
h Pzxi Ez uPx v Quzv
UPh C. G, AuS CnP En Ezv P
Cx G Ax. Cu E Azx EP K
mha `a \vUP six G. CzuP mh
J C \u EPh Ax C mh
C[Ph Hk. J C \u EPh Hk
mh \ Pkx. H, AP Azx J
v uPU Psh. CPU PoP mh
{P. , S, g\, , CPa ^[P
E[P mh uUS Cmka \.
3. kP
kP Psix Azx E[P Aih
sS. CzuP kP A, E,
261
4. uSu uzu
Azx E[P UP mhzua \vUQ.
A, E kP Psh mk uzx C.
AzuP kP kPx uQ.
Cu EPu kP K [S Ax uzu UP
a\Qx G. AzuP EP ` Pz
uSuPU Pumk . AsP ` uPUP
uP .
5. CPz u
h Pzxi ""Pa ]ux'' GUPuk EP
""CPz u'' uukUPmk uSv Q
G. (CPz u Gx v EQzxU Psh EPz
u[S CPa `S).
u uUP uP kPU Psh
E[P mk CPz u \UvP uS FUSUS.
AP h ""Pa ]u'' G Pkzv.
sPU Psh EP EzuPx CPzu
\UvP UPoUPmk Axk. kPh uukUP
mh E[P n u Akzukzu {PUS |Pz
x[S.
""CPzu'' Pzx kzv AzxP n
{PP UQh C G h |. JmhPa
][Q Pzx }huu UP U kzv
Pzxx h mh. h UPzvi
JmhPa][QP Tmhzv P Pzx }[Ph A
262
hU SkP
h kzv EU PzxUPQ A zu
v, kPh, UP mh, uSu uzu
HUPU TiP. C
Ah AihU Pmmi ] SP Esk.
1.
UQ
n
uP
kP
UQzxzv UQ h AkP Gu
u GUT C.
2.
3.
4.
Av P PP AUPvPPa ]u
A[P Auu. Cu h UP
C.
v h
hzv mh hP v h
Axx. h U PzxUP HUPsk CPz
uS v UP Eun[PU Pmku CUPmk
263
1. q (Gene mutations)
E[P sPz w \ mjPUS
Eh P oP Esk. AoP mj A
Aih AvUS. K mi \P AUPmh
A Aa \[Qzuh Au Aih AS. Cx
mj u{ A. C mj n
264
AS AihP A. n
Amj \ vUS Pnx.
A,
mj A A AkUS q Smh
(Genetic code) wUPk. CUSkh q u vj
Aq uUPk mj A
vUS. Cu u mh mj huP
Ax w[QuP [P. K mj
Amj uuUSU Pn q Au
EUS si JQx. PUQ, \uvP AzuP
qUPU Psh EP GsoUP EzuP
AvPUS. w[QUS mjPUP qPsh EP
CUP va]huS ixh. Cu CP
qUP Akzu u \ C.
q [P n |h Aih {PPQ.
C v kP qkUSP HkzuU
Pn[PQ. K CzuS (Population) Ax P
"" S'' (Gene pool) G. CUS[P miS q
[P u. CzuP [P K Szv AvP
n [P u P Esk.
2. S\ a] (Chromosomal aberrations)
] \ux S\P x xshu
{P. Au Ehu xoUPP {P .
1.
K ] xoUP Pn x h (Ju).
2.
K xoUP S\ ~ Cn
(Ch).
3.
K xoUP v { S\h Cn
(uRu).
4.
xoUP P E S\ Ch
~u (Cmiu).
Smh
hh.
Azx
{P
265
] P Kn Jzu S\P ]
\u xhvUP. Cu ] PmkP J
S\ AvPP ] SP A { Hk.
CP Ca\P u \uv S\
(Polysomics) Gk. C{ S\P GsoUP
Su Ti A.
] P CnUS\P P
UPh PmkP (uq, Ashq) A. Cu
PmkP, ik (Diploid) G Cmh { [S. J
ik Pmk C k (Haploid) Pmkh
Cnu h[SP S\P Eh { Hk.
CuS i (Polyploidy) G . Czu u[P
uQx. Czu v C[P u.
xP E kP kUPzu |k. vj
[P kP ]h. S\ a],
i P [P Hmk v C u
US.
3. kUP (Recombination)
] \u Sim SUP HkQx.
A Smi SvP Ch Q. Cu
P kUP HkQx. C{Pa] Ca\ EUPzv
{P x S. Czu v A Cn
Pu v P E uu {P.
4. iU \k (EzuP )
Jh Cx \ EP K Tmh
Ez uP (population) Gk. CUPz
uhh AUTmh Ez uP Ax i
Ez uP GUPk. Cx ""K Smh SQ Chzv
Smh Pzv vx u[PUS CUP \
Tmh G UPmkx. CUTmhzv E Azx
EP qUP JmkzuP S (gene pool)
GUPk. K Szv P kPh Ax
P A AkUSP Esk. CzuP P
PP K Ez uP uu QuzuU Pou
266
h. K q uh uu (gene frequency)
Szv K Smh Chzv (locus) E PUS A
APUS E GsoUPz uhU SuS. CuU
Smh ChzvP zu P GsoUPx uh
uu PnUQ P GsoUPU Pzx ku
PnUQh.
K Smh "A" uh uu Qu "P" G
"a" Qu "q" G Psh \mi P
zuz uu "1" GUP.
G p+q = 1
Ax p = 1 - q
q = 1 - p
Cu K EzuP P uU PnUQ
USu B. H. (C[Qx), ] m (AUP)
BQ uzu. Ez uP K v P
Ax P Aih .G.i (C[Qx), h.
U BQ Hkzv (1908). G Cv APx
iU v Gx. Cv EzuP US,
| nU PmkPUS AihQx. Cvx ""K
, u CUP E EzuP P
P \ uh u Gs (Relative frequency) Akzukzu
uP vj, u, v P BQ
C vUS'' GuS.
Cvx n Cu Ez uP
Pzv vmhQx (theoretical). C h uh uu
(Frequency) Smh PoP C mk Hk
Gx Cv uQx. AUPoP \mh q
uhuu u . Cu kP u.
kP n |h SUS.
267
AvUS. K ] Tmhzv u ] kP
uhu UQzx . G |P G u
wP Ez uP PP n uP
Hkzu C. E Cn AP Gv Axk
P C[S Esk. Cu kP AvP
Hkv. ] Tmhzv {P uhu CUPzu
n S\P AvPUS. ] ukzumh
Tmhzv sP AQ Tmhzv sPx
h. CkP v C[P u C.
|P uP ] Tmh, v Ez
uP {Qx. CuS ""{ uzx'' (Founder principle)
G . CzuP q uh uu, Ez
uPx k.
]P u\P, CPa ^[P umh
Tmhzv [P u Psk. Cu
CUTmh Ez uPx h. G
Ca] Tmhzv EP [Tmh EPh
CUP \ C Cxh. ] Tmh v CP
n US CP |PS ""^\ Pzx
'' (Bottleneck effect) G .
268
7. (Polymorphism)
""q vj ] Pn[P UP iu,
CskUS mh AP K CP Ez
uP Pnku BS''.
CP Psh K Ez uP K
q AP {Pz uk. CP,
P uukUPmk Ez uP {kzxQ.
"Pv A ia ]qa\ Czua \P' (Sickle
cell anaemia) CuS EunPU T. C| Czuzv BU
yUQa \ v S. EhP Czu Kmh vh.
Cs h Akzukzu uP u. Cx
K Jk[S s. AUP |mi }U C UP Cs AvP
Ex. Cs w[S US u Psi
269
8. ukzu P
""CUP P EPx ukzu
mh K Ez uP C Gk''. CPi
Pz ukzu P K C uUS uP
[S G A. ukzu P Esk.
A
1. uu C CP AvP
PnkQx. Ez uSPUS Ch A P,
|vP, Ph, PkP Ax { PoP uu
Hh. CP ukP CTmh[PUQh CUP
|huU uzxkQ. Cu J Tmhzv u
vj[P A[S v C u. |[Q Cz
uhh u C[P uv C[Pz w
u CuS EunPU T. C | [SP.
CzuP Sh ukzumk.
}shP C uzu C[PP nzx.
270
]u
K ] Gx CP, E APS.
E[P Pmk ASP ] mk
u Hkzumhu. Ax CP K Es AS.
nx
][P
mhzv
|h.
CUPnzv h ""][P u'' G US
UQzx umkx. C[P PPsk.
h ][P
C mh P
. Cv, C[P uP CuS EunPU
T. C {[P Sh UPmk.
Kha ][P P |[Q Csk ][P E
J Psizu BS. E.m: W]adNPdPX, W.Pd],
W.NV]-dv - CY JW [jp Ym.
CP P ] AP nzv u.
271
]U
PP
Eh\
Sv & 1
\ hz uuk :&
1. En uU Smi Hk |
(A)
(B) UPm
(C) Czua \P
(D) SUP.
2. J Q i ES PP A
(A) 9.3 PP
(C) 7.1 PP
(B) 8.2 PP
(D) 6 PP
3. mh D S EshS |
(A) {Uh
(B) ]u
(C) Bi]
(D) U.
4. Piz u \ IRM & u \ x uk
PP A G?
(A) 1100 PP
(B) 750 PP
(C) 2200 PP
(D) 460 PP
5. vP Eh{ Gso A G?
(A) 10&15
(B) 12&24
(C) 15&20
(D) 19&25
272
273
12. ] hzv Hk v
(A) u mk
(B) [P mk
(C) miU mk
(D) UPUP mk
13. u\P _[S x G.i.. (ATP) UTP Cn Ch
(A) ] C
(B) P
(C) |
(D) BUi CP
14. u\ _UPzvSz u P] AP kx
(A) Czu
(B) mh\
(C) ] h
(D) \P U
15. P i] x u\P E uzu AUS
(A) i iU |vP
(B) mhPsi |vP
(C) \\ |vP
(D) Gm\
16. |x Eh zuz u
(A) 1&2.2 2
(B) 2.2 & 3.3 2
(C) 1&2 2
(D) 0.5 & 1.5 2
17. ^ G Gsn a _x
(A) a _
(B) \] _
(C) uk _
(D) Pspa _
274
18. A\ Gx
(A) AvP A {P
(B) Su A {P
(C) { EUPzv Sk
(D) {P
19. S A\ EshPU Pn
(A) UPh
(B) miP
(C)
(D) hmi
20. AvP A FuUPvP uUPzv Eshx
(A) v
(B) PsP ]Su
(C) {
(D) u |
21. "U m' (Rag weed) uzv J Hkzx
(A) J u s
(B) P u v
(C) u v
(D) GU Pn[P
22. Czuzv A
(A) 0.02 Q / 100
(B) 0.06 Q/100
(C) 0.08 Q/100
(D) 0.01 Q/100
23. EUS Ch
(A) Czu
(B) P
(C) zuskhz v
(D) ]}P
275
(B) 17 Q
(D) 20 Q
276
277
7. PUFA G G?
8. mh PP P GxP?
9. IRM IRW BQ UP A sP
GxP.
10. Eh G G?
11. BMI & .
12. Q] ASP ?
13. PUP G G?
14. ]u ]Qa\US EPkzx G?
15. S ]Qa\ P ?
16. C s G G?
17. zu P v x?
18. Sh _] ASP ?
19. i G G?
20. P ]] EPU Pn[P ?
21. Azu G G G?
22. u .
23. G ]Qa\ & .
24. Pso AP Pnk v[P ?
25. Ps J[Skzx E G?
26. Qmh G G?
27. mi Ax zv Hk SkP G
T.
28. Ps UP Hu Csk Pn[P uP.
29. CLR G G?
30. {Uh G G?
278
31. Cg]U Ps G G?
32. ] h G G?
33. GuSv J EnQx?
34. Px PUP Csk Pn[P uP
35. G Phzv P EuU P G G?
36. u\x J _UP ?
37. {nUPmh J A G G?
38. ~ Pmhzv x {Px x?
39. _\zv x \k u\P ?
40. Em_\, a_\ P A mP Jk.
41. [& Aa\ G G?
42. { |US Pn ~sqP P ?
43. ] G G?
44. |izxi A G G?
45. Bg\Q \v Hk P ?
46. P Bi G G?
47. GUP PiQ \k x G {PQx?
48. > zw_ A VF [V_ [?
49. |izxi G Ah?
50. Cu, ~ Ezu G G?
51. Czuzv \mkP PP ? A UQ
oP SkP.
52. Czu Eu PoP G G?
53. G v k uP.
54. uh _] G G?
55. P AP Gx G?
56. Eh U Pu \u (invitro) h Uv
kzukQx?
279
Sv & III
1. Pmmi PP, A UQzxzu uP.
2. u G G? ] UP uP
3. } uUS Cux. H?
4. ux EUP UQzxzu ]Sz uP.
5. Ax \, x \, Pi
\PQ IRM IRW BQ PzuP
AmhnkzxP.
6. Eh UP PoP ?
7. iizv |h \zu .
8. Shg] ]S Au UQzxzu
GxP.
9. Sh CUPzv PP USP.
10. &S ]Qa\ UP uP.
11. G P .
12. G SnSu |h {P .
13. G Cn Ch uUP PoP USP.
14. mkP PP USP.
15. \P A .
16. _\ \u Eh] \v Hk |P ?
17. { USP.
18. ""yUP J u u {'' & E Pzuz uP.
19. Pso \u G G?
20. PUii G G?
21. Psn xPuP P ?
22. J J u & .
280
281
2 & ~sq
\ hz uuk
1. u |US u uk] Pshu ?
(A) Cm Pa
(C) h
(B) \ h
(D) h
2. | ~sq EPU Pn UQ {P
(A) uk]P EUSu
(B) v P Psh P EUSu
(C) v P Pshu
(D) FhP P EUSu
3. A Aih R PkUPmk UQ[P
Gx \x A.
(A){UU mPa _U Pnk uzv B
E P]m Gk.
(B) P]m E P\P B.
(C) ] [S P TkuP E E.
(D) Tku E QUP uzv B.
282
4. J J {UU A mk Pnku Ax
C AUPkQx.
(A) P
(B) k P
(C) i P
(D) P
5. U Pmi (A) P\ EUP ysk P
(A) | u P
(B) BPU P
(C) P
(D) P
6. R EP mh\ Jmkso EshS
| Gx?
(A) BUP yUP v
(B) n A
(C) P
(D) j]
7. i CUP UP _] G[S
|h.
(A) P \P
(B) Czua ] \P
(C) u
(D) P_ Eh
8. | EshUS Gh hiP { x?
(A) EPsh P
(B) Eh i[P (A) k\mP
(C) \mP
(D) \\skP
9. R EP ihh P Gx?
(A) ]h\P
(C) i
(B) Ea\
(D) BP
283
(B) B]
(D) Bz]
Sv & II
1. ~sq &
2. y FhP Ezv \ P ?
3. Cmh Gs \P G G?
4. PP T.
5. A G G?
6. ""` Av]'' G u GuU SUQx.
7. UQ Gv E P Gu.
8. Gm |U Psh P UP.
9. Smh CP Gvzu uP Gu.
10. `] G G?
Sv & III
1. A UP
2. u Pnk |P ]S uP.
3. ]h mhzv UPa _] ]S
uP.
4. HIV A AuU Pshu {P
GxP.
5. ~sq |UQP uPP ?
6. EP _Pu A (WHO) i, UPmh Gm |
ASP ?
7. Gm | uk Pmkkzxu S GxP.
284
Sv & IV
1. [S P FhP a] \
GxP.
2. | K P \u _Pu a] Gu
UP.
3. ~sqP uUSu u UP.
3. |zuhUP
\ hz uuk
1. RPkUPmkP ukz ysk
G?
(A) Uj
(B)
(C) JmksoP
(D) Azx
2. u \ku GuP \u uk
(A) E A uk
(B) Eh\ uk
(C) \ [Su uk
(D) Cn P uk
3. R Gx Uj & Gv
(A) ChL
(B) \\
(C)
(D) u
4. R EP Gx Gv
(A) \\
(B) ChL
(C) u
(D)
285
(B) Csk
(D) B
286
287
17. C S v
(A)QUP
(C) QUP m
(B) QUP u
(D) u
(B) AQm
(D) Qm
(B) AQm
(D) I\Qm
Sv & II
1. |z uhUP G G?
2. | |S P PoP ?
3. CP uk & .
4. \\ G G?
5. \ [Su G G?
6. mh uk G G?
7. \ v |zuk kzxP.
8. \S uk mh uk kzxP.
9. C S G G?
10. Gv P UQ oP ?
11. sp oP ?
288
12. C G G?
13. Bmi G G?
14. hP G G?
15. h Gh kzxP.
16. C S Ix PP ?
17. IG UT E { mh SvP
kzxP.
18. BmhQm AQm P kzxP.
19. Qm I\Qmix G kQx.
20. C & JkUQ xP ?
Sv & III
1. uP uk Smh uk PP sP
UP.
2. C S A h P.
3. C S A \P UP.
4. v_ Ax E zv Aih USP.
5. Jmk UP ASP ?
6. |zuk S|P USP.
7. u {z uk [S E
Eh\ ukP USP.
Sv & IV
1. k EP A \P Pmk
P.
2. E |z uhUP K BU Pmk
GxP.
3. CP | uk K Pmk P.
4. |z uk \P USP.
289
4. uP
Sv & I
\ hz uuk
1. Gu Pmi AvP A \uP
Pmkx.
(A) TMV
(B) L
(C) G\] P
(D) P Uj
2. DNA Csk CP (\[QP) E GU Pshu
(A) H.G. P
(B) sh
(C) T.H. P
(D) m\ QU
3. u Gzu U Smk |P Pshmk.
(A) 300US AvP
(B) 300US S
(C) HUS 400
(D) HUS 100
4. u sP A Eux
(A) E v \u
(B) P \u
(C) \uv z uh
(D) KU Pa \u
5. ]UQ \ (Pv A) Czua \P Gu HkQx?
(A) EhS\ E
(B) S\ E
(C) mhP Sk
(D) P A k
290
6. A\zvP Pn
(A) C
(C) Cv
(B) mh C
(D) P C
(B) u^
(D) Asi[mh P
8. CiQ G
(A) P SUS h
(B) S\PU SUS h
(C) Cuzv SmiU Pq h
(D) GU Pi Q.
9. S\P 4 5 (Ph[) S\
uS Guz uSv Ax.
(A) A
(C) C
(B) B
(D) D
(B)
(D) i\P
Sv & II
1. \uv zuh B G G?
2. u^ zxa ]Qa\ P ?
3. Ph Hu Csk P GxP.
4. A DNA Gx x?
5. S[ UhP G G?
6. kzuk Uj Czv G?
7. DNA xshUSu G G?
291
8. k Ahu G G?
9. (qa ]Qa\) ]Qa\ G G? Csk P
]Qa\P ?
10. E \v u u G G?
Sv & III Sv & III
1. A\ SCID I UP uP
2. u Pnk H uSv S\P ? J
uSv Ah[Q S\P ?
3. DNA \UP u~m P ?
4. S[ \ JUP P ?
Sv & IV
1. DNA \UP u~m Pmk GxP.
2. S[ |h Eun Psk UP?
3. u vmh UP.
4. E \v J Pmk P.
5. u A, v Au P U Pmk GxP.
5. _a`
Sv & I
1. UPuP UP a] u G?
A) BskUS 10
B) BskUS 90
C) BskUS 1
D) BskUS 80
292
A) NO2
C)O3
B) BQm uUP
D) k P
293
B) m
D) ` B
B) 3%
D) 50%
294
295
6. mk E
\ hz uuk
1. uxU Pnh mi[P GsoUP
(A) 29 C[P
(B) 30 C[P
(C) 26 C[P
(D) 20 C[P
2. R EP Gx C Czua \ux A
(A) P[P
(B) R
(C) P[
(D) UP
3. ]v Czv G?
(A) P[S
(B) |
(C) ] Pa]
(D) hUP
4. P[P C u Ch
(A) g\
(B) Pzy
(C) P|hP
(D) Pzv
5. R PkUPmhP Gu C A Czua \ux
(A) ]
(B) R
(C) _
(D) A\
6. R PkUPmhP u | Eun Gx?
(A) a]UP
(B) Pa\
(C) _ A
(D) Gx C
296
P|h P ?
P|hP G PkzukQ?
]v_ P[P _ i Jk.
C k Psh P C[P u CzvS
GP EuQ?
5. P[P P|h Czv u
6. J | | P|h G Pshx.
297
7. P|hP Uj |P A ASP
USP.
8. _ A |z ukUS P x.
9. P|hPUPk a]UPUP uu ]Qa\ x?
10. P|hP |P GxP.
11. C C[P G G?
12. \P ymhzv |P ?
13. \P ymh G G?
14. AP G G?
15. SUS P G G?
16. ]v, K[P, P[P P kP JkP.
17. P C G G?
Sv & III
1. UP uP UPzv Au Hk `{z
uUPzu ]S P.
2. u PU TP.
3. K\ h K CP ` Jzuk ,
4. PP PP UP.
5. P } s AuP P ]S
uP.
6. Sx uP Pn[P UP.
7. | [P GxP.
Sv & IV
1. Psni k UP A _ vP
Pmk P.
2. w US PP G s \kQx?
uP {P .
3. B |UPi G G? C|UPia \\
G P PkQ.
4. USP.
5. | xP Ax s ?
298
7 . nU Pmk
Sv & I
\ hz uukUP
1. [Q uzx G
mh
A) \ h
C) U kP
B) BPm
D) x U
B) zu
D) P i
B) . G. h
D) P i
6. S miS PoP
A) vj
C) S\P S
299
B) Eh s [P
D) \mh\ AvP
Sv & II
1. UQ Pmmh TP.
2. Eh k vU T.
3. { UQzv PzxUP ?
4. \U PP .
5. UkP PzuU T.
6. uSu u zu G G?
7. hzv SkP Hu Csk TP.
8. { h\zv UQzx x.
9. uPzv CPz uU Pmk G G?
10. S G G?
11. nzv AihU Pzv Csk PU
TP.
12. S\ a] G G?
13. |PU PPU TP.
14. ] G G?
Sv & III
1. { UQzv ] S P.
2. uP CPz uU Pmk UP.
3. mh C[PUQh P G ukUPkQx & .
4. ]m UP.
5. ][P UP.
Sv & IV
1. UQzv PmkP n Aih USP.
2. i U \k Gu `{ \kQx Gu
USP.
3. CPz u Pmk Pmk P.
300