PROJECT REPORT
ON TRAINING
AT
RELIANCE COMMUNICATIONS
Submitted by:
CHIRAG MOHANTY
Bhubaneshwar
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With the completion of the training my experience at the firm was excellent. The task of
undertaking the training travelled through a dynamic experience. With the constant
guidance, valuable suggestions, timely help and heart warming encouragement rendered to
me by Mr. Sarthak Dash along with all other members of the Installation and
Commissioning (I&C) team the firm served as an excellent learning platform.
During the course of the training I came through the working pattern of the office along with
professionalism. Also the basic practical experience at the site helped a lot. Theoretical
discussions, off-site situation handling and on-site experience are to name a few of the
environments to which I was exposed. Along with it I was given enough opportunities and
encouragement to think independently in various problem solving situations.
I would like to express my deepest sense of gratitude to the whole team of engineers of the
Installation and Commissioning (I&C) department – Mr. Sarthak Dash, Mr. Ajit Routray,
Mr. Bijay Panda, Mr. Biswajit Mishra, and Mr. Saroj Jena.
I would also like to thank Mr. Manoj Mishra, Mr. Santosh Moharana and Mr. Debasish
Mahapatra for the valuable help and support they have rendered throughout the training
process.
I would like to express my thanks to all those people who directly or indirectly supported me
throughout my term for the training.
Above all I want to thank Mr. Venkat Shastri, Head of Training & Placement Department,
KIIT UNIVERSITY, for recommending me to the practical training; and Mr. Jugal
Satapathy, HR, Orissa Circle, Reliance Communications for inducting me into the firm as
a trainee.
Chirag Mohanty
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that Mr. Chirag Mohanty, Roll no. 604045, of 3rd year,
Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, underwent Practical
Training from 1st May ’2009 to 15th June ‘2009 at our firm; for the course
requirement at Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, KIIT
UNIVERSITY, Bhubaneshwar.
Signature Signature
Reliance – ADA Group’s flagship company, Reliance Communications, is India's largest private
sector information and communications company, with over 77 million subscribers. It has been
listed on the National Stock Exchange and the Bombay Stock Exchange. It has established a pan-
India, high-capacity, integrated (wireless and wireline), convergent (voice, data and video) digital
network, to offer services spanning the entire infocomm value chain.
Other major group companies — Reliance Capital and Reliance Infrastructure — are widely
acknowledged as the market leaders in their respective areas of operation.
The Late Dhirubhai Ambani dreamt of a digital India - an India where the common man would
have access to affordable means of information and communication. Dhirubhai, who single-
handedly built India’s largest private sector company virtually from scratch, had stated as early as
1999: “Make the tools of information and communication available to people at an affordable
cost. They will overcome the handicaps of illiteracy and lack of mobility.”
It was one of Dhirubhai’s great dreams in life to see ordinary Indians enjoy the enormous
economic benefits of being able to access affordable yet world class telecommunications
infrastructure. He wanted Reliance to spearhead a communications revolution that would
dramatically cut down the cost of connectivity, and propel India into the digital age. His ultimate
ambition: To make the cost of a phone call cheaper than that of a post card. It was therefore
entirely logical for Reliance to enter the telecommunications space when the sector was opened
up for private participation in the 1990s.The rest, as they say, is history.
Today, Reliance Communications is India’s largest information and communications services
provider offering the full range of integrated telecom services—at prices that are, by far, the
lowest anywhere in the world.
It was with this belief in mind that Reliance Communications (formerly Reliance Infocomm)
started laying 60,000 route kilometres of a pan-India fibre optic backbone. This backbone was
commissioned on 28 December 2002, the auspicious occasion of Dhirubhai’s 70th birthday,
though sadly after his unexpected demise on 6 July 2002.
Our business encompasses a complete range of telecom services covering mobile and fixed line
telephony. It includes broadband, national and international long distance services and data
services along with an exhaustive range of value-added services and applications. Our constant
endeavour is to achieve customer delight by enhancing the productivity of the enterprises and
individuals we serve.
Reliance Mobile (formerly Reliance India Mobile), launched on 28 December 2002, coinciding
with the joyous occasion of the late Dhirubhai Ambani’s 70th birthday, was among the initial
initiatives of Reliance Communications. It marked the auspicious beginning of Dhirubhai’s dream
of ushering in a digital revolution in India. Today, we can proudly claim that we were
instrumental in harnessing the true power of information and communication, by bestowing it in
the hands of the common man at affordable rates.
Reliance Communications has a reliable, high-capacity, integrated (both wireless and wireline)
and convergent (voice, data and video) digital network. It is capable of delivering a range of
services spanning the entire infocomm (information and communication) value chain, including
infrastructure and services - for enterprises as well as individuals, applications, and consulting.
Today, Reliance Communications is revolutionizing the way India communicates and networks,
truly bringing about a new way of life.
History of Telecommunications
Radio has been around only for the last 100 years (out of ~6000 years of written human history).
Telegraphy:
Early electronic communication was carried only by wires and used only crude on-off signaling
to laboriously spell out the message.
In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented his telephone, a device for carrying actual voices over
wires. Initial telephone demonstrations sparked intense public interest and by the late 1890’s,
telephone service was available in most towns and cities across the USA.
Thus, the telecommunications industry, as we know it today, originated in 1876 when Alexander
Graham Bell developed the telephone in an attempt to communicate with his mother and wife,
who were both deaf. Bell filed his patent for the telephone on February 14, 1876, just four hours
before Elisha Grey applied for the same patent. But for that timing, we might have had the Grey
Telephone System instead of the Bell Telephone System. Through legal maneuvering Bell’s
patent was upheld and the Bell Telephone Company, which was formed in 1877, began to expand
across the United States of America and emerged as a near monopoly supplier of telephone
services. In 1880 the company was renamed American Bell.
Radio Milestones:
1888: Heinrich Hertz, German physicist, gives lab demo of existance of electromagnetic
waves at radio frequencies
1895: Guglielmo Marconi demonstrates a wireless radio telegraph over a 3-km path near
his home it Italy
1897: the British fund Marconi’s development of reliable radio telegraphy over ranges of
100 kM
1902: Marconi’s successful trans-Atlantic demonstration
1902: Nathan Stubblefield demonstrates voice over radio
1906: Lee De Forest invents “audion”, triode vacuum tube (feasible now to make steady
carriers, and to amplify signals)
1914: Radio became valuable military tool in World War I
1920s: Radio used for commercial broadcasting
1940s: first application of RADAR - English detection of incoming German planes
during WW-II
1950s: first public marriage of radio and telephony - MTS, Mobile Telephone System
1961: transistor developed: portable radio now practical
1961: IMTS - Improved Mobile Telephone Service
1970s: Integrated circuit progress: MSI, LSI, VLSI, ASICs
1979, 1983: AMPS cellular demo, commercial deployment
It provides the radio connection between mobile users and the switch.
One wireless system in a large metropolitan area may require hundreds of base stations to
deliver unbroken coverage and provide sufficient capacity to handle all potential users.
The Switch:
Each call involves joining a circuit leading to one customer (usually on the radio side of
the system) and a circuit leading to another person (usually out in the Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN)
The device that makes the actual physical connection is called the switch
The switch is also responsible for storing billing records, interpreting dialed phone
numbers, routing calls, and implementing all calling features
The Base Station Controller (BSC) interfaces the Switch and the base stations
Compresses speech signals for more efficient transmission over the scarce radio spectrum
Controls the base stations and implements the handoff of calls from one base station to
another as users drive across the system
As a mobile travels through the service area, it passes from the coverage zone of one base
station into the coverage of another
Signal strength measurements by the mobile or the base station trigger the BSC and
switch to “hand off” the call from base station to base station, avoiding dropped calls and
interference
Each wireless technology uses its own methods to implement the handoffs. CDMA can
even “simulcast” to the mobile from multiple base stations to reduce fading effects (this is
called “soft handoff”)
• A user’s channel is a specific frequency, but it only belongs to the user during certain time
slots in a repeating sequence
• Each user’s signal is a continuous unique code pattern buried within a shared signal, mingled
with other users’ code patterns. If a user’s code pattern is known, the presence or absence of their
signal can be detected, thus conveying information.
TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access
Each user has a specific frequency but only during an assigned time slot. The frequency
is used by other users during other time slots, like a condominium at a beach resort
IS-54: The original TDMA format, intended for use within existing AMPS systems
IS-136: Enhanced TDMA with special control channels to allow short message service,
battery life extension, other features
6 timeslots, three users occupy in rotation
INTERNATIONAL VERSION
Each user’s signal is a continuous unique code pattern buried within a shared signal,
mingled with other users’ code patterns. If a user’s code pattern is known, the presence or
absence of their signal can be detected, thus conveying information.
All CDMA users occupy the same frequency at the same time! Time and frequency are
not used as discriminators
CDMA interference comes mainly from nearby users
CDMA operates by using CODING to discriminate between users
Each user is a small voice in a roaring crowd - but with a uniquely recoverable code
Third Generation Wireless Systems
2G to 3G Migration Paths:
Overdimensioning
too much cost
insufficient resources to construct
traffic revenue is too low to support costs
very poor economic efficiency!
Underdimensioning
Blocking
Poor technical performance(interference)
Capacity for billable revenue is low
very poor economic efficiency!
revenue is low due to poor quality
users unhappy, cancel service
very poor economic efficiency
Historically, telephone systems were entirely analog circuits. When voice is converted to an
electrical signal through the microphone in a telephone, it provides a continuously varying
electrical wave. The wave matches the pressure pattern of the sound that created it and conveys
loudness which is measured as amplitude, and pitch which is measured as frequency. Because the
tone (pitch) and loudness (amplitude) of voice is unpredictable, the analog signal is also
unpredictable.
The basic shape of an electrical wave used to transmit telecommunications signals is represented
by the sine wave. The rate at which the electrical current alternates is measured in hertz, which
means cycles per second. A voice telephone circuit is designed to handle frequencies from 300 to
4,000 hertz (4 Khz).
As an analog signal travels through a wire, the signal loses strength over distance (attenuation)
and has to be amplified. Unfortunately, when the voice signal is amplified, any noise on the line
is also amplified. After much amplification the line noise component may be larger than the
actual voice signal. Circuit noise can make the conversion unintelligible.
DIGITAL:
Unlike the analog signal, a digital signal is predictable. A digital signal is a series of discrete,
discontinuous voltage pulses. The analog voice signal is sampled at the rate of 8,000 samples per
second, and each sample is transmitted as a binary code. The binary states of 0 and 1 are
represented as discrete levels of voltage.
Digital transmission has higher quality than analog. Like analog signals, digital signals lose
strength over distance. However, with digital transmission, regenerators detect the incoming bit
stream of 0s and 1s and create a new signal that is identical to the original signal.
Transmission systems, since they carry large data rates, must have
Microwave Link
Optical Fiber Cable (OFC) Link
Coaxial cable
VSAT
What is Microwave Radio?
Microwave radio is a point to point fixed link that operates in duplex mode I.e. each radio
frequency channel consists of a pair of frequencies for the transmit and receive directions
respectively. The base band signal which contains the user information occupies a limited
bandwidth depending upon the modulation scheme used. The signal is modulated over an RF
carrier and is transmitted over the air as an electromagnetic waveform. The Microwave Radio
links cover the frequency spectrum from 150 MHz to 60 GHz.
Microwave links are set up for connecting two distinctly located points for establishing
telecommunications circuits. This is similar to laying multi-core cables between the two points;
but in quality and overall economics this is far superior to the cable system. Various sub-activities
are briefly explained below:
1) Survey - The first job to be undertaken before establishing a microwave link is survey of
the terrain between the two locations intended to be connected. The survey consists of two
parts: theoretical survey using survey maps and actual survey by visiting various sites.
Survey of India publishes maps which clearly indicate the height of various points above mean
sea level (MSL) for theoretical survey. But in different terrain and in city areas it will be difficult
to complete the survey without actual visits to the sites. For this purpose a accurate device, GPS
(Global Positioning System) is extensively used by engineers for more accurate & reliable results.
2) Assessment of height - Once all the physical obstructions have been identified, distance
from one of the point to be connected is plotted against the obstruction height at that
point. However for assessment of the actual height of the obstruction it is not sufficient to
consider the height of physical structure above MSL alone. For this purpose air filled
balloons are used to estimate height.
Before you can determine if a link is feasible, you must first calculate the link’s free space
loss. Free Space Loss is the expected attenuation of a signal as it travels away from the
Transmitting device. When a signal radiates from the antenna, it spreads out over an
increasingly larger distance. As the area covered increases, the power density (or the amount
of power per unit area) decreases. The effectively weakens the radio signal.
The radio signal is more concentrated at point A than at Point B. This is similar in principal
to how objects appear in a car’s headlights at night.
Objects closer to the headlights appear brighter than objects further away.
pointA pointB
The loss between the transmitting and the receiving antenna with transmission medium as
vacuum is termed as free space loss. The antenna at each side is isotropic having a gain of 1 or 0
dB.
D = distance in miles
The Receiver Sensitivity Threshold (Rx) defines the minimum signal strength required in
order for a radio to successfully receive a signal. A radio can not receive or interpret a signal
that is weaker than the receiver sensitivity threshold.
The Receive Signal Level (RSL) is the expected strength of a signal when it reaches the
receiving radio. The following formula defines the Receive Signal Level:
Where,
Lctx is the cable loss between the transmitter and its antenna (in dB)
RSL > = Rx
If the Receive Signal Level is greater than or equal to the Receiver Sensitivity
Threshold, then the link may be feasible since the signal should be strong enough to be
successfully interpreted by the receiver.
The link is not feasible since RSL is less than Rx (-80.5 dB < − 77 dB).
Note: This formula is not a guarantee that a link is viable. It should be used for proof-of-
concept purpose only. The Receiver Signal Level does account for path fading phenomena
that may add addition loss to the radio signal and cause the strength of received signal to fall
below the receiver sensitivity threshold.
Fade margin is the difference between the unfaded received signal level and the receive
sensitivity threshold. Each link must have sufficient fade margin to protect against path
fading that weakens the radio signals. Fade margin is directly related to Link Availability,
which is the percentage of time that the link is functional. The percentage of time that link is
available increases as the fade margin increases. A link will experience fewer system outages
with greater Fade Margin. A link with little or no Fade Margin may experience periodic
outages due to path fading phenomena.
Path fading occurs more frequently in flat, humid environments (like south eastern
U.S.) than in rough, dry location (like Rocky Mountain States). Therefore link in flat and
humid area requires a greater Fade Margin to achieve the same level of Link Availability as a
link in a rocky and dry location.
Path profile
A path profile is a graphical representation of the path traveled by the radio waves between
the two ends of a link. The path profile determines the location and height of the antenna at
each end of the link, and it insures that the link is the link of obstructions, such as hills, and
not subject to propagation losses from radio phenomena, such as multipath reflections.
In addition to terrain elevation ,a Path Profile must consider the effects of several
radio phenomena , including multipath reflections and refraction, and provide adequate
Fresnel Zone clearance.
The endpoints of a radio link must have unobstructed radio line-of-sight. Radio line-of-sight
is not the same optical line-of- sight (that is, the ability to see one end of a link from the
other). Microwaves have a lower frequency than visible light and , therefore, behave
differently in response to environmental conditions. Radio line-of- sight requires more
clearance than optical line-of-sight to accommodate the characteristics of microwave signals.
Figure illustrates a case where a path has optical line-of- sight but not radio line-of-sight.
An electromagnetic wave does not travel in a straight line: the wave spreads out as it
propagates. Also, the individual waves that make up a radio signal do not travel at the same
phase velocity. A French physicist, Augustine Fresnel, defined the propagation of a radio
wave as a three-dimensional elliptical path between the transmitter and receiver.
Fresnel divide the path into several zones based on the phase and speed of the
propagating waves ,as shown in the figure.
The size of each Fresnel Zone varies based on the frequency of the radio signal and the
length of the path. As frequency decreases, the size of the Fresnel Zone increases. As the
length of the path increases, the size of the Fresnel Zone also increases. A Fresnel Zone’s
radius is greatest at the mid point of the path. Therefore, the midpoint requires the most
clearance of any point in the path.
Multipath Reflections
A reflected wave causes a phenomenon known as multipath. Multipath means that the radio
signal can travel multiple paths to reach the receiver. Typically, multipath occurs when a
reflected wave reaches the receiver at the same as the direct wave that travels in a straight
line from the transmitter. If the two signals reach the receiver in-phase (that is, both signals
are at the same point in the wave cycle when they reach the receiver), then the signal is
amplified. This is known as an “upfade.” If the two waves reach the receiver out-of-phase
(that is, the two signals are at opposite points in the wave cycle when they reach the
receiver), they weaken the overall received signal. If the two waves are 180° apart when
they reach the receiver, they can completely cancel each other out so that a radio does not
receive a signal at all. A location where a signal is canceled out by multipath is called a
“null” or “downfade”.
Smooth surfaces , such as a body of water, a flat stretch of earth, or a metal roof, reflect
radio signals. In figure below, the body of water reflects a wave that cancels out the direct
signals and brings down the radio link.
To avoid system failures, one should design a path so that the reflected signal is dispersed by
an uneven surface before it reaches the receiver and cancels out the direct wave. In other
words, one should design the path so its reflection point does not fall on a reflective surface.
An RF engineer is to be consulted or use a path profile software program to identify the
location of a path’s reflection point.
Transmitter Receiver
If necessary, one can adjust the height or change the position of one or both antennas to move the
reflection point so that it is blocked by an obstruction or strikes an uneven surface. In figure
above, the height of the transmitting antenna has been reduced so that the reflected signal is
dispersed by rocky terrain.
Refraction
Radio waves move slower through substances of greater densities. This causes a wave to
bend or refract as it travels through substances of different densities. For example, light
bends when it hits water. Since the density of the earth’s atmosphere decreases as
altitude increases, the bottom of a radio wave travels through a denser atmosphere
and moves more slowly than the top of the wave . This causes the radio signal to
refract or bend towards to earth’s surface following the curvature of the earth.
Refraction varies with environment conditions, such as humidity, temperature, barometric
pressure, and air density. For example, a radio signal bends closer to the earth at night than
during the day due to the increased moisture in the lower atmosphere that results
from condensation. In fact, most path fading caused by refraction occurs between midnight
and 7:00 am.
The refraction index, or K Factor, describes how a radio wave bends in relation to the
earth’s surface. In general, a Path Profile will use K = 4/3 to determine the effects of
refraction on a proposed radio link.
In microwave link there are mainly two types of transmission (Tx) technologies:
If two digital signals are Plesiochronous, their transitions occur at "almost" the same rate,
with any variation being constrained within tight limits. These limits are set down in ITU-
T recommendation G.811. For example, if two networks need to interwork, their clocks
may be derived from two different PRCs. Although these clocks are extremely accurate,
there's a small frequency difference between one clock and the other. This is known as a
plesiochronous difference.
In a set of Synchronous signals, the digital transitions in the signals occur at exactly the
same rate. There may however be a phase difference between the transitions of the two
signals, and this would lie within specified limits. These phase differences may be due to
propagation time delays, or low-frequency wander introduced in the transmission
network. In a synchronous network, all the clocks are traceable to one Stratum 1 Primary
Reference Clock (PRC).
USA Standards
Basic packet capacity - 1.5Mbps corresponding to 24 voice calls (also called T1)
Later extended to 6Mbps (96 channels) and 45Mbps(672 channels)
Japan’s Standards
Basic packet capacity - 1.5Mbps (like USA)
Later expanded to 32Mbps (480 channels), 100Mbps (1,440 channels) and 400Mbps
(5,760 channels) & 1.6Gbps (23,040 channels)
Comparison of Multiplexing Hierarchies
CEPT & USA Standards are most popular
This multiplexing hierarchy appears simple enough in principle but there are complications.
When multiplexing a number of 2 Mbit/s channels they are likely to have been created by
different pieces of equipment, each generating a slightly different bit rate. Thus, before these 2
Mbit/s channels can be bit interleaved they must all be brought up to the same bit rate adding
'dummy' information bits, or 'justification bits'. The justification bits are recognize as such when
demultiplexing occurs, and discarded, leaving the original signal. This process is known as
plesiochronous operation, from Greek, meaning "almost synchronous". The same problems with
synchronization, as described above, occur at every level of the multipexing hierarchy, so
justification bits are added at each stage. The use of plesiochronous operation throughout the
hierarchy has led to adoption of the term "plesiochronous digital hierarchy", or PDH.
There's no standardised definition of PDH bit rates greater than 140 Mbit/s
There are different hierarchies in use around the world. Specialized interface equipment is
required to interwork the two hierarchies
SDH stands for Synchronous Digital Hierarchy & is an international Standard for a high capacity
optical telecommunications network. It is a synchronous digital transport system aimed at
providing a more simple, economical and flexible telecommunication infrastructure.
Q. What led to SDH development ?
Before SDH, the first generations of fibre-optic systems in the public telephone network used
proprietary architectures, equipment line codes, multiplexing formats, and maintenance
procedures. The users of this equipment wanted standards so they could mix and match
equipment from different suppliers
The primary reason for the creation of SDH was to provide a long-term solution for an optical
mid-span meet between operators; that is, to allow equipment from different vendors to
communicate with each other. This ability is referred to as multi-vendor interworking and allows
one SDH-compatible network element to communicate with another, and to replace several
network elements, which may have previously existed solely for interface purposes.
Traditionally, digital transmission systems and hierarchies have been based on multiplexing
signals which are plesiochronous (running at almost the same speed). Also, various parts of the
world use different hierarchies which lead to problems of international interworking; for example,
between those countries using 1.544 Mbit/s systems (U.S.A. and Japan) and those using the 2.048
Mbit/s system.
The increased configuration flexibility and bandwidth availability of SDH provides significant
advantages over the older telecommunications system.
These advantages include:
The provision of overhead and payload bytes - the overhead bytes permitting management
of the payload bytes on an individual basis and facilitating centralized Fault
sectionalisation, nearly 5% of signal structure allocated for this purpose.
The multiplexing principles of SDH follow, using these terms and definitions:
Mapping:
A process used when tributaries are adapted into Virtual Containers (VCs) by adding justification
bits and Path Overhead (POH) information.
Aligning:
This process takes place when a pointer is included in a Tributary Unit (TU) or an Administrative
Unit (AU), to allow the first byte of the Virtual Container to be located.
Multiplexing:
This process is used when multiple lower-order path layer signals are adapted into a higher-order
path signal, or when the higher-order path signals are adapted into a Multiplex Section.
Stuffing:
As the tributary signals are multiplexed and aligned, some spare capacity has been designed into
the SDH frame to provide enough space for all the various tributary rates. Therefore, at certain
points in the multiplexing hierarchy, this space capacity is filled with "fixed stuffing" bits that
carry no information, but are required to fill up the particular frame.
1+1 protection:
In 1+1 protection switching, there is a protection facility (backup line) for each working facility
At the near end the optical signal is bridged permanently (split into two signals) and sent over
both the working and the protection facilities simultaneously, producing a working signal and a
protection signal that are identical. At the Far End of the section, both signals are monitored
independently for failures. The receiving equipment selects either the working or the protection
signal. This selection is based on the switch initiation criteria which are either a signal fail (hard
failure such as the loss of frame (LOF) within an optical signal), or a signal degrade (soft failure
caused by the error rate exceeding some pre-defined value).
1:N protection:
In 1:N protection switching, there is one protection facility for several working facilities (the
range is from 1 to 14). In 1:N protection architecture, all communication from the Near End to the
Far End is carried out over the APS channel, using the K1 and K2 bytes. All switching is
revertive; that is, the traffic reverts to the working facility as soon as the failure has been
corrected. In 1:N protection switching, optical signals are normally sent only over the working
facilities, with the protection facility being kept free until a working facility fails.
Standard Network Topologies
Star
Advantages:
Optimised cost of paths
Simple NMS
Disadvantages:
o No Protection Path
o Centre determines the performance of the whole NW
o No optimised BW
Tree
Advantages:
Clear Hierarchies
Simple NMS
Disadvantages:
o No Protection Path
o Failure of one branch separates whole NW parts
Ring
Advantages:
High Availability
Simple NMS
Disadvantages:
o No. of elements depends on ring capacity and traffic relations
o Connected rings increase complexity
Mesh
Advantages:
High Availability
High Flexibility
Optimised paths
Optimised BW
Diadvantages:
o Complex NMS
Provide connections, either on permanent basis or temporary basis for the transfer of
information in a cost effective, reliable and speedy manner
Routing – which way to send the information
Transport – how the information is carried
From MCN’s on the NBB, we get Metro Access Rings - like state highways emerging from the
national highways. These MAR carry the traffic to over 1100 cities and town of the country.
Bandwidth of these MAR are in the range of 625 Mbps – 2.5 GBps and upgradeable further with
little change in the infrastructure. Nodes on MAR are known as MAN (e.g. SRM (Parel), Andheri
MIDC, Chembur). From MAN (Metro Access Nodes) on Metro Access Rings, we get Building
Access Rings (like Main Roads inside a City or Town.) These BAR connect various Building
Access Nodes. At the BAN, we have the Central Terminals (CT’s) or the Base Transceiver
Station (BTS). The CT’s connect several (14 as of today) Remote Terminal Units (RTU’s) which
in turn provide Fixed Access. The BTS covers all the Mobile Stations (MS) within it’s radius of
coverage, thus providing Wireless Access. Connection right up to the RTU is - through OFC (this
is therefore called Fiber To The Building), thus providing enormous bandwidth. These networks
are capable of providing both Narrow Band & Broadband services.
Transport element on MAN & BAN is known as ADM.
The extremely low losses of modern telecom grade fiber enable distances of 50-100Km between
repeaters to be routinely achieved.
Capacity/Bandwidth:
The information carrying capacity of optical fiber can be enormous. G-652 has capacity
2.5Gbps/fiber/wave length. It can provide the equivalent of 30,000 individual telephone signals of
64kbit/sec and G-655 has capacity 10Gbps/fiber/wavelength (1000GB/sec is now very close to
being achieved).
Security:
Optical fiber systems do not radiate any signal, and hence have almost total immunity to ‘wire
tapping’. It can be done but is very difficult unless access to splices or connectors is possible.
Immunity to Noise:
The glass optical fiber is a dielectric rather than a metal and thus does not act as an antenna in the
way metal conducting elements do. The fiber will not, therefore suffer from inductive interference
such as Radio Interference (RFI), Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), Electromagnetic Pulse
(EMP). This effective immunity to interference makes it possible to use fibers alongside or even
on power lines.
Long Life:
Light Weight:
Optical fiber is remarkably light in weight. A 10Km stand of telecom grade fiber on a shipping
spool weighs less than 2kg whereas a 500m reel of co-ax copper cable weighs 30kg.
Environmentally Friendly:
Manufactured from the most abundant material in the earths crust. Comparatively small amounts
of raw material are required therefore energy, transport and process costs are reduced. By using
fiber for communications the world’s copper reserves are saved for other purposes.
Future Proof:
Maybe yes - maybe no. It is impossible to know, however the signs are encouraging. It lasts a
long time –we only use a small amount of its theoretical capacity—as a result it is probably fair to
say that fiber provides our most future proof transmission medium.
Disadvantages:
1. OFC is costlier than Cu-wire.
2. OFC is fragile.
3. OFC are difficult to join.
4. OFC has its own set of losses – dispersion, absorption, etc.
Fiber Geometry
Core:
The core of an optical fiber is a glass rod - denotes the central part of the fiber where the majority
of the light propagates.
Cladding:
The cladding of an optical fiber surrounds the core and has a Refractive Index lower than that of
core. This difference in refractive index allows total internal reflection to occur within the fiber
core and avoids the entry into the Cladding. Total internal reflection is the phenomenon by which
light propagates in optical fiber.
If we get an optical tunnel where once a light pulse enters at one end can only come out at the
other end, would serve our purpose. An OFC is just that. Transmission through an OFC is like a
light ball traveling down a tunnel. It reflects several times on the “wall” before reaching the end
of the tunnel.
Where
• n is the refractive index and A the corresponding angles as shown.
• The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a
given medium.
• n1 = C / V
• C = Velocity of light in Vacuum i.e. 3 x 108 metres per second.
• V = Velocity of light in a given medium
So, if the top part of the diagram is CORE & n1 is Refractive Index of the Core material and if
the bottom part is Cladding, n2 is Refractive Index of the Cladding material. When light passes
from one medium to another, the angles & refractive indexes of the media determined the path
that light took. The relationship is a function of the sine of the angles, also known as the “Law of
Sines” (by Descartes).
The phenomenon of total internal reflection was discovered by John Tendel in 1854, when he
filled a can with water, which had a hole at the lowest level. Obviously water started flowing out
of the hole forming a curved projectile path. As Tendell lit a torch at the top of the Can, a portion
of that light would come out of the hole at the bottom. These light rays then experience total
internal reflection because Refractive Index (n) of water is greater than air. Thus these rays would
bend along with the watery projectile path giving rise to the idea that light could travel in a
curved path if the phenomenon of TIR is repeated many times.
Ultra Violet:
That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in which the longest wavelength is just below the
visible spectrum, extending from approximately 4 nm to 400 nm.
Visible Light:
Infrared (IR):
The region of the electromagnetic spectrum bounded by the long wavelength, extreme of the
visible spectrum (about 0.7 μm) and the shortest microwaves (about 0.1 μm).
Attenuation
Attenuation is the measure of the reduction in signal magnitude, or loss, along a length of
fiber.
Attenuation is one factor which determines the power loss.
Attenuation in fiber optic cabling is usually expressed in decibels per unit length of cable
(i.e. dB/km) at a specified wavelength.
Attenuation describes how energy is lost or dissipated.
Loss is the cost of moving something, like charges or particles or light pulses.
Attenuation in fiber optic cabling is usually expressed in decibels per unit length of cable (i.e.
dB/km) at a specified wavelength.
Where,
Iout = outgoing intensity (intensity is measured in Watt/m-2)
Iin = incoming intensity (Watt/m-2)
Absorption (proportional to 1 / λ)
Caused by impurities in the glass, and any atomic defects in the glass increases dramatically
above 1700 nm. The peak absorption occurs at approximately 1400nmλ.
Scattering is caused by small variations in the density of glass. Loss of optical energy due to
imperfections / in homogeneities (localized density variations). And therefore act as scattering
objects.
Bending losses increases with increase in wavelength. Effects of 2 cm radius bend at three
wavelengths.
Scattering and Absorption decides suitability of optical fiber for transmission at specific
frequencies only. If a graph of Loss in dB/km is plotted against the wavelength then we observe
that, ‘Attenuation varies with the wave length of light.’ The fiber exhibits minimum attenuation at
wavelength slots, 1310nm, and 1550nm. These are called, second window and third window.
The second and the third windows are in practical use today, i.e. we don't use the 850 nm any
more except for some restricted applications. The 850 nm was in use in the past when the Laser
Diodes available were of 850 nm only.
Bending Losses
Wavelength Multiplexing
Large increase in Bandwidth can be achieved by using a technique called Dense Wave Division
Multiplexing (DWDM). Suppose we had a one lane HW, only one vehicle can run at a time. If we
needed more vehicles to run simultaneously we will have to add more lanes, say 4 or 6 lane or we
can construct multistory Highway.
In the above sketch, each lane is equated with different colour of light (violet, blue, green, yellow,
orange, red, etc.) .When seven colours are passed through a triangular prism ,it becomes one
(Multiplexer theory) and when it will come out it becomes 7 colours again. DWDM uses the
above phenomenon, but uses Laser and IR light instead of visible light. The result is the same,
only that we can multiplex many more wavelengths and demultiplex them at the receiving end.
Normally we can achieve BW 10 GBps with one wavelength, As per DWDM technology, we can
go up to 800 GBps by using 80 Wave length, that too in a single fiber of OFC. And we have 48
cores in one cable and 6 such cables that can be laid in our NBB.
G 652
G 655
FLAG Europe-Asia is the world's longest privately funded undersea fibre-optic cable system
stretching more than 28,000km from the UK to Japan with landing sites in 13 countries.
FLAG Atlantic-1 is the world's first multi-terabit transoceanic dual cable system providing a fully
protected city-to-city service between London, Paris and New York.
FLAG North Asian Loop has been designed to support the strong growth in intra-Asia internet
traffic and provides intra-regional, city-to-city connectivity between Hong Kong, Seoul, Tokyo
and Taipei.
Intra - city
Switching
Switch not only reduces transmission cost but also reduces the complexity of connecting
subscribers. Here subscribers have complete control on information flow to a subscriber. Similar
concept is further extended to route subscribers traffic to long distance exchanges by taking calls
through exchanges arranged in tandem. R2MFC – Registered & Registered Multi Frequency
Channel.
Switching technology has three principal advantages: scalable bandwidth, flexibility, and high
performance. For all these reasons, switches have emerged as the industry’s hottest solution for
increasing network bandwidth, providing higher levels of performance, and reducing overall cost
of ownership. The common force driving the need for switching is network growth in clients,
servers, and applications.
There are no hard and fast rules on where to switch and what technologies to use, but there are
some generally accepted guidelines to consider. Switched Ethernet and Token Ring, since they
are 10, 4, and 16 Mbps technologies respectively, are best suited for workgroup and departmental
deployment. They are also the easiest to implement and most cost effective. Fast Ethernet, which
is 100 Mbps, is ideal for connecting servers in workgroups and linking departments to building
backbones. Gigabit Ethernet, with its 1000 Mbps speed, will provide even faster connectivity at
this level and support super-user workgroups. Fast Ethernet is relatively easy to install and is
cost-effective, since it’s based on existing technology and cabling.
However, Fast Ethernet does have distance limitations and lower utilization rates, so it’s not ideal
for backbone implementation. This backbone is for relatively shorter distances.