Coal

Introduction

Coal was one of man's earliest sources of heat and light. The Chinese were known to have dug it more than 3,000 years ago. The first recorded discovery of coal in this country was by French explorers on the Illinois River in 1679, and the earliest recorded commercial mining occurred near Richmond, Virginia, in 1750. In the 19th century, coal grew rapidly in importance, and from 1850 to 1950 it was our most important energy fuel.

 Coal is Black Diamond in more sense than one! Coal is the main source of energy not only in our country but also for most of the countries of the world. The energy requirement of India is increasing every year and to meet this demand the country has to depend to a large extent on coal. At present more than 60% of the total commercial energy requirement is met from the coal.

 The word coal is a very common term. It was formerly written as Cole and could be traced to the Sanskrit root Kala which means black. According to Stopes and Wheeler (1918), ordinary coal is a compact, stratified mass of mummified plants which have in part suffered arrested decay to varying degrees of completeness. Arber (1918) has defined coal, as a solid, stratified rock, composed mainly of hydrocarbons and capable of being used as a fuel to supply heat or light or both.

 Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining (surface mining). It is a readily combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock. It is composed primarily of carbon along with assorted other elements, including sulfur. Often associated with the Industrial Revolution, coal remains an enormously important fuel and is the largest single source of electricity worldwide.

Coal's Past, Although coal has always been an important and plentiful fuel source, many people may not realize just how long it has been used? or how much it is used today?. A look at past and present uses of coal can tell, what the future of coal might be. The Past Coal has been used for nearly as long as mankind has thrived. In fact, coal was used to provide heat in caveman times!

Coal's Past, In the 1300s in what is now the United States, Native Americans used coal for cooking, making clay pots, and heating. By the mid-1700s, the first U.S. coal mining operations opened in Virginia. Wood charcoal had long been used to provide fuel in England, but in the 18th century it was discovered that coal burned cleaner and hotter. Soon after, coal use skyrocketed during the Industrial Revolution, when demands for energy sources increased.

Coal's Past, In 19th-century, America, Coal was used to fuel the boilers on steam-powered trains, which became a popular mode of transportation. At the same time, coal was being used in the production of weapons during the American Civil War, and coke (a coal residue) took charcoal's place as the primary fuel for making steel. About one hundred years ago in the United States, coal's abundance led to its widespread use for heating homes, generating electricity, providing cooking heat, powering railroads and boats, and fueling factories.

Coal's Present,

Although coal may not be as visible today as it was around 1900, it is even more prevalent as a source of fuel. Coal production has increased by more than 70 % since 1970. If you use electricity, chances are that you are a coal consumer. Nine out of every 10 tons of coal mined in the United States today is used to generate electricity. About 56 % of the electricity used in this country is coal-generated electricity.

Coal's Present,

Electricity generation is just one use of coal in the United States. In addition, manufacturing plants and industries use coal to make chemicals, cement, paper, ceramics, and metal products, to name a few. Methanol and ethylene, which can be made from coal gas, are used to make products such as plastics, medicines, fertilizers, and tar.

Coal's Present,

Certain industries consume large amounts of coal. For example, concrete and paper companies burn coal, and the steel industry uses coke and coal by-products to make steel for bridges, buildings, and automobiles.

About 9% of U.S.-mined coal is exported to some 40 countries, including Canada, Japan, and western European nations.

Coal's Future

The United States has a 300-year supply of coal, if it continues to use it at the same rate as today. This is promising because, in addition to the many existing ways to use coal, the future holds new methods and potential for growth. Products from coal may soon be part of communications and transportation systems, computer networks, and even space expeditions.

Coal's Future Coal will likely continue to be an important source of electricity generation because it is more abundant and cost-effective than oil and natural gas. Compare these energy costs per million British thermal units (Btus): Coal$1.20 Oil$4.45 Natural gas$4.30 Although coal is widely used for electricity generation in the United States and in countries throughout Europe, there will likely be a significant increase in the use of coal for electricity generation in countries such as China and India.

Coal's Future In addition to these new and increased uses of coal, new technologies will continue to enhance our ability to identify the shape and composition of untapped coal reserves. Core samples and information about the layers of overburden (the topsoil, subsoil, and other layers of earth and rock covering the coal bed) can be analyzed before the expensive process of coal removal begins. New technologies will also continue to improve the effects of the production and use of coal on the environment.

 For example, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Coalbed Methane Outreach Program seeks to work with coal companies to reduce methane gas emissions associated with coal mining. Since 1990, methane recovered and used productively at coal mines has increased from 13.8 Billion cubic feet to 37.2 Billion cubic feet.

Fast Facts about Coal

The United States produces about 20%, or 1.1 billion tons, of the world's coal supplysecond only to China. Coal generates about half of the electricity used in the United States. More than 2 million acres of mined land have been reclaimed over the past 25 yearsthat's an area larger than the state of Delaware. The United States has about a 245-year supply of coal, if it continues using coal at the same rate at which it uses coal today.

Fast Facts about Coal Montana is the state with the most coal reserves (119 billion tons). But Wyoming is the top coal-producing state it produced about 400 million tons in 2004.

Texas is the top coal-consuming state. It uses about 100 million tons each year.
The average coal miner is 50 years old and has 20 years of experience. Coal ash, a byproduct of coal combustion, is used as filler for tennis rackets, golf balls, and linoleum. U.S. coal deposits contain more energy than that of all the world's oil reserves. Each person in the United States uses 3.8 tons of coal each year.

Origin of Coal

Genetic aspects of coal

1. Accumulation of vegetable matter 2. Accumulation of plant debris 3. Transformation of vegetable matter into coal.

Accumulation of vegetable matter

The presence of various plant structures as seen under the microscope has proved beyond doubt that coals are formed from plant remains. Coal is formed from the remains of plant that once flourished in some areas of the earth where climate was favourable for the luxuriant growth of flora. The several kinds of coal represent different degree in the chemical decompostion and physical alteration of the original plant material.

 The change in chemical composition during the various stages in the formation of coal from the parent organic debris are: (TABLE-1)
Carbon % Wood Peat Lignite Bituminous coal Anthrocite 50.0 57.0 65.0 84.0 93.5 Hydrogen % 6.0 6.0 5.2 5.2 2.8 Oxygen % 43.0 35.5 28.3 9.3 2.8 Nitrogen % 1.0 1.7 1.5 1.5 0.9 Calorific value (Kilo Joule/kg) Range between 14,400 13,800 23,000 29,000 35,000 17,400 20,000 29,000 35,000 35,400

Accumulation of Plant debris

There are two existing theories on the accumulation of vegetable matters. in situ theory drift theory

in situ theory
Considered that old forests or marshes due to disturbances on the surface of the earth were buried at the place of their growth under a cover of sediments. In course of time due to overburden pressure and temperature it was transformed into coal. Upright fossil tree trunks or fossil roots found in coal seams suggest growth in the original position of the forest and support this theory.

 The coal seam frequently rests upon a bed of fireclay. The constituents (alkalies, lime and iron oxide) which act as flux in plants that grew on it, when it acted as soil. The occurrence of fireclay bed underlying a seam further supports the in situ theory providing evidence that the forest grew on it. Formed due to accumulation of plant materials in situ are fairly constant in composition over wide areas; the ash % is also low. There is also a general absence of detrital material, sand or clay in coal.

drift theory
Vegetable matters are shifted from the place of their origin by running water or glacier and accumulate in deep lake, estuary, river valleys and afterwards are covered with sediments like sands or clays. Seat earths are often absent in the coal seams produced by drifting of plant material and seams lie directly on sandstone, conglomerate or shale; upright tree trunks are absent.

 Because of the drifted nature of accumulation of vegetable matter the resultant coal seam shows wider variation in composition, particularly a high amount of detritus material such as sand or clay in the coal seams. As a result the ash contents are high in coals formed due to accumulation of drifted vegetable material. The growth of peat has been found to be highly variable which depends largely upon the climate of the region.

 It has been shown that the annual growth rate of swamp peat in the temperate zone is about 0.5 to 1 mm. In tropical areas it has been found to grow at a rate of 3-4 mm/year i.e. 1 m in 300-400 years (Stach et al, 1982). The rate of composition from peat to lignite to bituminous coal has been suggested to be in the proportion of 6:3:1. This point that 1 m of peat gives 20 cm of bituminous coal (Stach et al, 1982).

Transformation of vegetable matter into coal

It is a very complex process, which occurs in two distinct stages 1. Biochemical stage and 2. The geochemical (dynamochemical) stage, which is designated as coalification process.

Biochemical stage: During the initial stage of biochemical phase the decomposition and degradation of plant material take place due to atmospheric oxidation by fungi and also by aerobic bacteria. In nature, the accumulated plant material subsides under its own weight. At this stage anaerobic conditions prevail and anaerobic bacteria take part in decomposing and degrading the plant material at a slower rate. The accumulated vegetable matters are covered by clay or sands brought mainly by the running water.

 In the near shore environment the sea may be flooded in and a marine band may eventually form. The accumulated vegetable matters are subsequently transformed into coal by pressure (compression) and temperature. Depending on the pressure and temperature, wood is transformed into coal in various stages in a series:
Wood peat lignite bituminous coal anthracite

Coalification

The progressive change in the composition of organic material in the formation of coal (W-P-L-B-A) is called coalification. As it occurs the coal is said to increase in maturity or rank. Chemically, two substances-cellulose and lignin that predominate in plant structure and make up the entire composition of wood, contribute significantly in the formation of coal. Both cellulose and lignin are complex, high molecular weight compounds made essentially of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

 After peat is buried and compacted the % of oxygen is progressively decreased with coalification. The decrease in oxygen occurs due to loss of water and carbon dioxide. As oxygen content is decreased the % of carbon is increased, but the % of hydrogen does not vary greatly until coal attains 92% C. After about 92% C the ultimate lowering of hydrogen % results due to loss of methane.

 Generally, coal remains non-caking up to 75% carbon coal are medium caking (Gray-King Coke type varies from A to G). Between 75-85% C there is the maximum development of caking properties which characterizes coals as prime Coking (G5 to G11). Between 90-92% coals are considered as weakly caking (A to G5). Over 92% carbon the coals are simply noncaking. There are various theories to explain the physical and chemical changes during coalification and thereby different properties of coals. The leading theories are :

Mechanistic theories
Workers have contributed to explain the chemical change during coalification. Regnault (1905) based on analysis of mine gases postulated the following mechanism: (C6H10O5)4 C9H6O + 7 CH4 + 8 CO2 + 3 H2O Cellulose Bituminous coal Parr (1906), explained the mechanism of conversion to lignite and bituminous coal by the following equation (C6H10O5)5 C20H22O4 + 3 CH4 + 6 CO2 + CO + 8 H2O Cellulose (C6H10O5)5 C22H20O4 + 5 CH4 + 8 CO2 + CO + 10 H2O Cellulose Since bituminous coal is a further stage of the metamorphosis of lignocellulose, Parr (1909) proposed further the mechanism of formation of bituminous coal from ligno-cellulose as follow: 3 C12H18O9 C22H20O3 + 5 CH4 + 8 CO2 + CO + 7 H2O Bituminous coal

Cellulose and lignin theory

Bone (1918) explained the physical changes that occurred during heating of coals. According to him, coal contains about 7% cellulose and about 25% lignin.
(TABLE-2) Characteristic Properties of Cellulose and Lignin Property 1 Effect of Heating 2 Solubility in
alkalies

Cellulose
Chars and then burns directly to CO2 and H2O Insoluble Fibrous (C6H10O5)n Six Carbon atom straight chain structure with four OH groups

Lignin
Softens and melts and finally decomposes Soluble Waxy and resinous (C6H10O5)n Six Carbon atom phenolic ring structure with methoxy group and glycerol side chain.

3 Texture 4 Chemical
structure

 Bone (1918) utilized these differences in properties of cellulose and lignin to explain the variation in swelling and coking properties with rank of coal. According to Bone plant materials underwent geochemical changes due to the weight of the overlying burden pressure and temperature due to depth.

Coalification concept of Mazumdar (1972)

According to Mazumdar there are three broad but distinct phases in the coalification path marked off by two landmarks on transition points, e.g., one at about 83.5% and the other at about 92% carbon rank levels. This is evidence when atomic H/C ratios are plotted against the carbon content. The phases are: 1. The first phase: Evolution of low rank coals including lignites brown coals (C 62 83.5% d.m.f). 2. The first phase: Evolution of higher rank coals (C 83.5 92% d.m.f). 3. The first phase: Evolution of semi-anthracites / anthracites (C 92 96% d.m.f).

Classification of Coal

 Coals are classified or graded for various purposes. The objective of coal classification is to predict the behaviour of unknown coals. Mostly coals are bought and sold on the basis of coal classification or grading. Also classification is used for the selection of coals for utilization in different inustries. The coal classification varies from country to country. But for international trade, and international coal classification is used.

 Regnault Gruner-Brne classification (1874) scientific classification elementary composition and its oxygen content. Frasers Classification (1877) Fuel ratio into four groups. Seylers Classification (1900) elementary composition Carbon and Hydrogen. The North American (ASTM) classification volatile matter- fixed carbon and calorific value are the other parameters. British coal classification - dry, mineral matter free volatile matter and Gray-King Coke type. International classification of coal (1956) volatile matter (dry and mineral matter free basis) and caking properties. The different varieties of coals have been divided into Classes, groups and subgroups.

COAL CHARACTERIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION

Direct and indirect utilization of coals for production of energy and chemicals as well as for smelting of base metals is the foundation upon which our interest in classifying this resource is built. However, because of their complex, heterogeneous nature and the variety of coals used throughout the world, classification is a difficult task that is both time-consuming and expensive.

 Identification of the most advantageous raw material, whether by quality, cost, availability or some combination of these factors has always been one of the driving forces behind the development of classification systems. In fact, many of the systems in use today were derived specifically from a need to identify quality coals for coke making, and in that respect only classify a relatively narrow range of coals.

 Other systems that have been developed to address the scientific need to understand the origin, constitution and fundamental properties follow the approach that any sound classification will identify all coals for all potential industrial uses. Generally, coals are grouped according to particular properties as defined by their "rank" (degree of metamorphism), "type" (constituent plant materials) and "grade" (degree of impurities and calorific value). Of these, rank is a fundamental concept that involves a qualitative expression of the coalification sequence and is universal to all classification schemes.

 Coalification is a term that describes the maturation of plant tissues from peat through different stages of lignite/brown coal, subbituminous and bituminous coals to anthracites and meta-anthracites. As demonstrated in Figure 1, many chemical and physical properties change during this progression, but unfortunately there is no single property that changes uniformly over the complete range. Furthermore, a coal's type and grade influence many of the measured rank parameters.

 The types of analytical procedures needed to characterize and classify coals can roughly be divided into those that describe chemical composition/properties, petrographic composition and those that describe mechanical/physical properties. Some of these procedures are basic to the evaluation of all coal materials, whereas others are employed in the evaluation of their use in specific processes, like coke making.

 Classification of coals requires some methodology for measuring their chemical, physical and industrial properties. For this purpose, a variety of standard analytical procedures are available world wide from reputable standards organizations.

 Some of the more familiar ones include the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the British Standards Institution (BS), the Standards Association of Australia (AS), the Association Francaise de Normalisation (AFNOR), etc. Because these organizations may support different standards for the same test, the standard practice used always should be identified, but more importantly the procedures described in these standards should be followed to the letter.

The parameter or criteria used for classification varies in different countries. For example: In German and American Standard Testing Materials (ASTM) classification, VM is used as a main parameter. In the NCB (National Coal Board, Gt. Britain) classification, VM and Gray-King Coke Type have been used. In India Coal Classification, heat value, calorific value and moisture have been taken into consideration.

a) Rank
The classification system used in North America and that is fairly universal is maintained by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and designated D388. This approach uses standard methods of measuring and reporting the calorific value on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis and volatile matter and fixed carbon on a dry, mineralmatter-free basis to classify coal rank. Implicit in this characterization is the fact that the amount of moisture, yield of ash and total sulfur must be measured to obtain the correct basis of comparison.

Table 3 - Some of the Parameters Used by ASTM for the Classification of Coals by Rank

 Table 3 defines the rank classes and groups with regard to the appropriate ranges of calorific value, volatile matter and fixed carbon, whereas Figure 1 demonstrates how these values change with increasing metamorphism and compares them to other rank measuring parameters, such as moisture and maximum vitrinite reflectance.

Figure 1 also helps to explain why the ASTM method employs different parameters to classify coals. For example, calorific value varies linearly with increasing rank from sub-bituminous to medium volatile bituminous rank and then becomes unreliable. Volatile matter content on the other hand is quite variable until medium volatile rank and then changes sufficiently to become a good measure of the degree of coalification through anthracite coals.

 Another very important rank parameter that is useful in the characterization of coking coals is the measurement of the mean maximum vitrinite reflectance. As shown in Figure 1, this analytical technique is sensitive, persistently changing throughout coalification and is particularly important for accurately measuring minor differences in those coals used for coke making, i.e., high volatile A bituminous through low volatile bituminous. The technique measures the amount of incident light reflected from a polished surface of the main component of coal. Vitrinite is that component of coal principally derived from woody tissues and, at least in coals from North America, represents the dominant component.

 Rank is the most fundamental concept relating both coalification history and utilization potential of a coal. Volatile matter and maximum vitrinite reflectance are important values used to determine the worth of coking coals. However, because volatile matter is dependent on both rank and composition, coals of different composition may be assigned to the same rank value even though their levels of maturity may differ.

b) Type As discussed previously, coal is composed of the sum of all the organic vegetable matter preserved and buried as peat. Changes in the chemical and physical properties of whole coal are the summation of changes to the coal constituents. There are three main groups of materials that constitute coals and that are used to define coal type.

 These material groups identified under an optical microscope in reflected white light are referred to as vitrinite, liptinite and inertinite and are composed of individual constituents called macerals. The three maceral groups are characterized by materials that belong together because of their similar origin or mode of preservation as well as by their gross chemical composition.

 In general, vitrinite group macerals are derived from the humification of woody tissues and can possess remnant cell structures or may appear structureless. Typically, this material contains relatively more oxygen than the other macerals at any given rank level. The vitrinite group macerals are usually the most abundant maceral group occurring in higher rank coals. Liptinite group macerals are derived from plant resins, spores, cuticles and algal remains that are fairly resistant to bacterial and fungal decay. They are characterized as having higher hydrogen content than the other macerals, particularly at lower rank.

 However, at the boundary between subbituminous and bituminous coal there is a marked decrease in their volatile content and increase in carbon. By medium volatile rank a further decrease in hydrogen and volatile content occurs which makes them nearly indistinguishable from vitrinite. The inertinite group macerals are derived mostly from woody tissues, plant degradation products or fungal remains, and are characterized by a high carbon content resulting from thermal or biological oxidation. Inertinite group macerals are found in variable abundance in coals, but are characteristically higher in those from the Southern Hemisphere.

 With regard to coke making, vitrinite macerals constitute the principal reactive components of a coking coal. That is, during heating in a reducing atmosphere, vitrinite will become plastic, devolatilize and then solidify to form the porous, carbonaceous matrix of a metallurgical coke. Liptinite macerals are also highly reactive during coke making, but owing to their higher volatile content they contribute more to the by-products than to the coke product. Inertinite macerals are basically inert during the carbonization process, as they do not possess or have only limited thermoplastic properties and volatile contents.

 However, they do serve a very important function as a filler phase for the other reactive macerals of coal. Small-size inertinite particles thicken the walls between vacuoles in coke thus improving the overall strength of the coke. Consequently, an understanding of the composition or type of coal can be very important to evaluating the quality and value of a coking coal.

c) Grade Coal grade is a term used to indicate the value of coal material as determined by the amount and nature of ash yield and the sulfur content following the complete oxidation of the organic fraction. Calorific value is one of the principal measures of a coal's value as a fuel and is directly influenced by mineral impurities.

 Coal mineralogy is not only important to combustion characteristics, but also as materials that can be passed on to secondary products such as metallurgical coke. Alkalis-containing compounds derived from coal minerals can contribute to excessive gasification of coke in the blast furnace and attack of blast furnace refractories, whereas phosphorus and sulfur from coal minerals can be passed on to the hot metal, thus reducing its quality for steelmaking.

 Mineral matter may occur finely dispersed or in discrete partings in coal and is generally grouped according to origin. A certain amount of inorganic matter and trace elements are derived from the original plants. However, the majority is implaced either during the initial stage of coalification (being introduced by wind or water to the peat swamp) or during the second stage of coalification, after consolidation of the coal by movement of solutions in cracks, fissures and cavities.

 Mineral components of plant origin are not easily recognized in coals because they tend to be disseminated on a submicron level. The primary mineral components incorporated during plant deposition tend to be layered with and intimately intergrown with the organic fraction, whereas the secondary mineral matter tends to be coarsely intergrown and associated with cleat, fractures and cavities. Therefore, secondary minerals may be more readily separated (cleaned or washed) from the organic matrix to improve the value of the material.

d) Industrial Properties Most of the ancillary mechanical and physical tests used to characterize coals and often included in classification schemes, were developed in support of efforts to identify coals for coke making. As stated earlier, the unique property that sets coking coals apart from other coals, is caking ability.

 There has been much effort to characterize the swelling, contracting and thermoplastic properties of coals using techniques that allow for the comparison of different coals and how these properties influence coke production and quality. Laboratory tests such as the crucible or free swelling index, Gray-King coke type, Roga Index, Audibert-Arnu Dilatometer and Gieseler Plastometer, provide some means of evaluating the relative strength of swelling, degree of contraction and how fluid a coal will become under heating conditions similar to those encountered during coke making.

 Another important mechanical test designed to provide a measure of the ease of pulverization of a coal in comparison with other standard reference coals is the Hardgrove grindability index, (HGI). Ease of grinding is an important economic consideration for all industrial processes. Grindability changes with coal rank, i.e., coals of very low and very high rank are more difficult to grind than middle-rank coking coals.

 Other factors that influence HGI include the presence of different maceral components, the presence of even small proportions of hard minerals (like quartz) and variations in moisture content. Of these factors, changes in inherent moisture content cause the most variation in the HGI index, particularly for lower rank coals.

Indian Coal Grading

 Different grading systems for coking and non-coking coals of India have been adopted. Coking coals are:
Nomenclature Steel Grade I Steel Grade II Washery Grade I Washery Grade II Washery Grade III Washery Grade IV Ash Ranges Not exceeding 15% Above 15% but not exceeding 18% Above 18% but not exceeding 21% Above 21% but not exceeding 24% Above 24% but not exceeding 28% Above 28% but not exceeding 38%

Table. 4 Showing Grading of Indian Coking Coals

 Non-coking coals are graded according to moisture, ash and useful heat value (UHV). UHV can be calculated from moisture and ash percentage as follows:UHV = 8900-138 (ash and moisture %) Kcal/kg.

The grading of non-coking coals as per Government of India notification No. 280112/9/92 CA, dated 16th February, 1993 and subsequent revision with effect from 17th June 1993 is given in Table - 5

Table 5: Grading of Non-coking coal

Type Grade A B C D Useful Heat Value (K.Cal./kg.) Exceeding 6200. Exceeding 5600 but not exceeding 6200. Exceeding 4940 but not exceeding 5600. Exceeding 4200 but not exceeding 4940.

Long flame coal produced in collieries in all the states except in Assam, Arunachala Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Singareni collieries in the state of Andhra Pradesh

A B C

Exceeding 6200. Exceeding 5600 but not exceeding 6200. Exceeding 4940 but not exceeding 5600. Exceeding 4200 but not exceeding 4940. Exceeding 3360 but not exceeding 4200. Exceeding 2400 but not exceeding 3360. Exceeding 1300 but not exceeding 2400.

Coal ( other than long flame) produced in all states except in the state of Assam, Arunachala Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland

D E F G

C D E F G

Exceeding 4940 but not exceeding 5600. Exceeding 4200 but not exceeding 4940. Exceeding 3360 but not exceeding 4200. Exceeding 2400 but not exceeding 3360. Exceeding 1300 but not exceeding 2400.

TYPES OF COAL

Depending on the origin, coals have been grouped in to (a) Sapropelic coal, and (b) Humic coals. (c) Unusual coal types:

(a) Sapropelic Coal:

Sapropelic coals are formed by putrefaction process. These coals are essentially non-banded in character and are rich in resins, waxes or fats and therefore richer in hydrogen than the humic coals. They are usually lenticular in shape, local in extent and occur at the top of a coal bed. Two types of Sapropelic coals have been recognized: (i) Boghead (Torbanite) (ii) Cannel.

(b) Humic Coal:

Unlike Sapropelic coals the humic coals are banded in character and the constituent bands are distinct in their physical appearance. Humic coals have a series of rank starting from wood-peat-lignite-bituminous coal to anthracite. In humic coals, the remains of wood and bark predominate. Over the time, geological processes apply pressure to peat , which is transformed successively into the following ranks:

 Lignite - also referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for steam-electric power generation. Jet is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Iron Age . Sub-bituminous coal - whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal and are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation.

 Bituminous coal - a dense coal, usually black, sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steamelectric power generation, with substantial quantities also used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke . Anthracite - the highest rank, used primarily for residential and commercial space heating.

(c) Unusual coal types:

These coal types include paper coal and colored coal. Paper coal look like accumulated sheets of soiled light brown semitransparent papers. These coals consist almost entirely of cuticles (outerskins of plants). The coals being carboniferous in age are of lignite rank. Humic coals may show bright variegated colors like peacock, a mixture of blue, green yellow or red. Miners call this as Peacock coal.