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  • FHWA - Subsurface Investigation

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    FHWA - Subsurface Investigation

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    64 tayangan314 halaman

    FHWA - Subsurface Investigation

    Diunggah oleh

    George Christodoulidis
    FHWA - Subsurface Investigation

    Hak Cipta:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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    | TRAINING COURSE IN GEOTECHNICAL, AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING PUBLICATION No. FHWA HI-97-021 NHI Course No. 13231 - MODULE 1 NovemBer 1997 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATIONS PARTICIPANTS MANUAL Department | u (of Transportation Federal Highway ‘Administration Mi National Highway Institute ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of a number of professionals from Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade and Douglas, Inc.™, Woodward-Clyde Consultants and Golder Associates, Inc.° who have developed or reviewed specific sections of this manual. Many thanks to William Daly*, Kyle On* and Duncan Wyllie® for their contributions to the rock mechanics aspects of the manual; Philip Zaccheo™ and Joe Wang™ for their review of portions of the completed document; Steven Saye“ for readily sharing ‘Woodward-Clyde Consultants’ Subsurface Exploration Committee’s notes; and Jerry DiMaggio, Alan Killian, Andy Muioz and Peter Osborn of FHWA for their thorough reviews and recommendations. Special appreciation to Ke Fan™, Togan Alper* for their work in preparing figures, outlines and slides for presentation; Terry Coates, Everlee Wright™, Wendy Castro™, Alia Abbas™ for overall word processing and compiling, and Tony Silva® for preparation of graphics. NOTICE ‘The information in this document has been funded wholly or in part by the U.S. Department of ‘Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), under Contract No. DTFH 61-94-C-00104 to Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas, Inc. The document has been subjected to peer and administrative review by FHWA, and it has been approved for publication as a FHWA document. In this document, certain products have been identified by trade name. Also, photographs of these products have been included in the document for illustration purposes. Other products which are not identified in this document may be equally viable to those identified. The mention of any trade name or photograph of a particular product does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by either the authors or FHWA. ‘Technical Report Documentation Page 7 Report No. Z, Government Aezession No. %. Recipient's Catalog No. FHWA-HI97-021 Title and Subeile 3. Repor Date November 1997 GEOTECHNICAL AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING Performing Organtaaion Code MODULE 1 - SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATIONS 7. Author(s) ‘Performing Organization Report Principal Investigator: George Munfakh* ‘Authors: Ara Arman‘, Naresh Samtani*, Raymond Castelli* and George Munfakh* 9. Performing Organization Name and AGdrox 10. Work Unit No, (TRAITS) * Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas, Inc. ‘One Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10119 ae TI. Contract or Grant No. In association with * Woodward-Clyde Consultants DTFH61-94-C-00104 2822 O'Neal Lane, Baton Rouge, LA 70816 TS. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address TS. Type of Report and Period Federal Highway Administration National Highway Institute Ta. Sponsoring Agency Code 901 North Stuart Street, Suite 300 Arlington, Virginia 22203 15.. Supplementary Notes FHWA Technical Consultants - J.A. DiMaggio, A. Muiioz, A. Kilian, and P. Osborn; CO - J. Mowery III; COTR - L. Jones 16. Absiact ‘The planning, executing and interpreting the results of subsurface exploration of soil and rock for the design and construction of transportation facilities are presented. ‘The geotechnical engineer's role in subsurface investigation, exploration methodologies, equipment types and their suitability to explore for various subsurface conditions and design requirements are discussed. ‘The use of in situ testing and ‘geophysical surveys for subgrade characterization, proper handling, transportation and storage of soil and rock samples, as well as laboratory testing techniques to develop subsurface information is presented. Correlation of soil and rock properties, typical geotechnical reports, and subcontracting for soil and rock exploration also are discussed. Safety guidelines, health and safety procedures, and a list of equipment manufacturers are appended for further reference. 17, Key Words 18. Distribution Satement Subsurface, investigation, subgrade, exploration, | This document is available to the public through, drilling, coring, sampling, soil, rock, testing, in | the National Technical Information Service, situ, laboratory, geophysical, remote sensing, | Springfield, VA 22161; (703) 487-4650 groundwater, geotechnical report, transportation, highways, bridges. 19. Security Cassf. (OF Wis repor) | 20. Security Classit. OF Wis page) | 21. No. of Pages| 22. Price UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED 305 : Form DOT F 1700.17) ‘Roproducton of Completed page authorized PREFACE ‘This module is the first in a series of twelve modules that constitute a comprehensive training course in geotechnical and foundation engineering. Sponsored by the National Highway Institute (NHI) of the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), the training course is given at different locations in the U.S. ‘The intended audience is civil engineers and engineering geologists involved in the design and construction of transportation facilites. This manual is designed to present the latest methodologies in the planning, execution and interpretation of the various subsurface investigation methods, and the development of appropriate soil and rock parameters for engineering applications. ‘The authors have made every effort to present the general state of the practice of subsurface exploration. Itis understood that the procedures discussed in the manual are subject to local variations. Itis important, therefore, for the reader to become thoroughly familiar with the local practices as well. This guide focuses on the scope and specific elements of typical geotechnical investigation programs for design and construction of highways and related transportation facilities. Considering the broad scope and fundamental importance of this subject, this manual on subsurface investigations is organized as follows: Chapters 1 through 6 discuss various aspects of field investigations, including borings, sampling, in situ testing and geophysical exploration methods. Chapters 7 and 8 discuss laboratory testing of soil and rock materials. Chapters 9 and 10 present correlations of soil and rock properties. Chapters 11 and 12 address issues related to data management and interpretation, including evaluation of the field and laboratory test data, development of soil and rock design parameters, and the presentation of investigation findings in geotechnical reports. Chapter 13 contains a list of references. ‘Appendix A contains information on health and safety. Appendix B lists names and addresses of soil and rock drilling and testing equipment manufacturers and suppliers. ‘This manual by no means is complete. A number of references are presented in Chapter 13. Itis highly recommended that these references be made part of the reader’s library, and be reviewed in detail. An important reference is the Manual on Subsurface Investigations by AASHTO (1988). Finally, this manual is developed to be used as a living document. After attending the training session, it is intended that the participant will use it as a manual of practice in everyday work. ‘Throughout the manual, attention is given to ensure the compatibility of its content with those of the participants manuals prepared for the other training modules. Special efforts are made to ensure that the included material is practical in nature and represents the latest developments in the field. ~Zaquisuiay pur Wpies yxOm O} WaIwaAuod st Tey) pareaso sf Jaquinu omeu papunos Mau E “UOISIoAUOD pie, © UT Ce ‘wayeatnbo oynut 19exa Sif 01 pouoAUOD AjTeaTEULAYyeUL st jHaUOMSvOUN YsHHUR We “UOISIOALOD 1 (qty N=eg) 1Wased pur (1y) uormaut *(s)puodas *(8y) uneIROLY *(w) tu pasn simun ( (a.jammesadway yoquoryes] Ze +(Os/6 | Qoemmmduer snisjap | (Oamieredua sustay | (ce -aw6/s aunyBs0dwO, Way a1gno od spuanod | Z90O FoyoW 1qnd sod suENBONY] ToroU qT Tad SUETONA | — G1OST Tooy a1qno Tod spunod Ausuag (3) Yur aienbs od spanod | ShT-0 STeOSEIOIDY SWOSETOI S089 Wout orenbs red spunod 100} axenbs 10d spunod | 120° sjeosea steosed 88°Lp 1004 a1enbs sad spunod ATONSEI JO SHINPOW “ssaNg “eINssaIq GY panod weEO WOWMON UOWWON arr punod EX) (ar 0002) suo HOGS ZOrT (auton) suTeTReou (Gino) suaesteRouT 7050 Tar 0002) SHOT HONS spunod sovz suresB0,4 suedo[%4 +st-0 spunod sa0uno Se0°0 sued sures Seee, saouno SsEW BCT sree qn Sreweur 31g 30 Spren o1qno ESE suoiout 21qn9 suoyou 91qno 8200 18ay a1qn9 970 sim S8L'e suoyted seouno ping E00 uu Ls'6z soauno ping auinIOA GD soynur arenbs wREO ‘ravaLUOHY arenbs SiaTaUlOyEy auenbs Ot sayfa arene sone We saxeyoay sareyooy sor'o sanoe 1995 azenbs v9L'01 sioiaur axenbs £60°0 1895 azenbs sovour arenbs 9100°0 sroreuntuu axenbs ws. soyout arenbs ar THISTHOPDT PLO TT ar pies sor Jour +160 peg 00} soo Jour soe‘o 100} yout, sara sorowy vSt yout ‘yisuay (e) Du OL, ROU TOK WM. Loo Ramen | ROU TOK TOTAL SHUR, 1g WO suOTSTAANIOD aMNVOIddy SIT. IS 0} SuorSraquOD aeMTNOIddy SYOLOVA NOISUTANOD MODULE 1 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES neppononbononscoooenss a: a viii LIST OF TABLES dppboobesocensoosoousscouccos xii LIST OF NOTATIONS ....... 20-00-2022 0e eee eee pbonnanhosnobe xiv 1.0 Introduction . . - 1.1 Scope of this Manual : : 1.2 Geotechnical Engineer's Role in Subsurface Exploration 2.0 Project Initiation . . 2.1 Project Type . 2.1.1 New Construction - 2.12 Rehabilitation Projects. 2.1.3 Contaminated Sites 2.2 Existing Data Sources . 2.3. Site Visit/plan-in-hand .... . 2.4 Communication with Designer Projet Manages 2.5. Subsurface Exploration Planning ...... 2.5.1 Types of Investigation Disturbed Sampling Undisturbed Sampling . In situ Investigation : Geophysical Investigation Remote Sensing ... . 2.5.2 Frequency and Depth of Borings . 2.5.3 Boring Locations and Elevations 2.5.4 Equipment .... 2°55 Personnel and Personal Behavior . 2.5.6 Plans and Specifications. 2.6 Standards and Guidelines . 3.0 Drilling and Sampling of Soil and Rock 3.1 ‘Soil Exploration Bae 3.1.1 Soil Drilling , Continuous Flight Augers Hollow-Stem Augers Bucket Auger Borings Rotary Wash Borings . Area Specific Methods . . Exploration Pit Excavation 3-12 32 40 3.2 33 34 35 Boring Log Preparation 41 42 43 44 45 46 Logging Procedures Photography 3.1.2. Soil Samples 7 Undisturbed Samples... Disturbed Samples 3.1.3 Soil Samplers Split Barrel Sampler Thin Wall Sampler Piston Sampler. . Pitcher Tube Sampler . . Denison Sampler . a0 Modified California Sampler... Continuous Soil Sampler Other Soil Samplers. Bulk Samples . .. 3.14 Sampling Interval and Appropriate Type of ae 3.1.5 Sample Recovery . 3.1.6 Sample Identification 3.1.7 Relative Strength Tests 3.1.8 Care and Preservation of Undisturbed Soil Samples : Exploration of Rock 3.2.1 Rock Drilling and Sampling 3.2.2 Non-Core (Destructive) Drilling 3.2.3 Types of Core Drilling . . Coring Bits . Drilling Fluid 3.2.4 Observation During Core Drilling Drilling Rate/Time Core Photographs Rock Classification... . Recovery Rock Quality Designation (RQD) ‘Length Measurements of Core Pieces ‘Assessment of Soundness ....... Drilling Fluid Recovery Core Handling and Labeling . Care and Preservation of Rock Samples 3.2.5 Geologic Mapping . Boring Closure Safety Guidelines for Geotechnical Borings Common Errors by Drillers General . Project Information wees Boring Locations and Elevations Stratigraphy Identification Sample Information... .. . Soil Description/Soil Classification 3.12 3413 3-13 3413 3.13 313 3.14 3.14 3.19 3.19 + 3:24 3.25 3.29 3.29 3:32 13.35 3:35 = 335 - 338 3.38 - 338 3-40 - 340 341 3-41 = 34d 4-10 410 5.0 47 In Sita Testing . Sa 52 53 54 55 5.6 57 4.6.1. Consistency and Apparent Density ween eee eee 4.6.2 Water Content (Moisture) 0.2... oe 46.3. Color 4.6.4 Type of Soil. ; Coarse-Grained Soils (Gravel and Sand) Feel and Smear Test Sedimentation Test Visual Characteristics . Fine-Grained Soils Shaking (Dilataney) Test Dry Strength Test ‘Thread Test ‘Smear Test Highly Organic Soils, Minor Soil Type(s) . . . Inclusions Layered Soils Geological Name Logging Procedures for Core Drilling - 4.7.1 Description of Rock ..... 4.7.2 Rock Type 473 Color ..... 4.7.4 Grain Size and Shape. 4.7.5. Stratification/Foliation 4.7.6 Mineral Composition 4.7.7 Weathering and Alteration 4.7.8 Strength 4.7.9 Hardness .... 4.7.10 Rock Discontinuity . 4.7.11 Fracture Description Standard Penetration Test Cone Penetration Testing Field Vane Shear Test Pressuremeter Testing 5.4.1 Self Boring Pressuremeter Test Dilatometer Testing Plate-load Tests ...... Geophysical Methods 5.7.1 Electrical Resistivity/Conductvity 5.7.2. Wave Propagation Seismic Survey ......-.. 2... Cross-Hole Wave Propagation Method Up-hole or Down-hole Wave Propagation Method Parallel Seismic Test... . . . 5.7.3. Seismic Techniques. Sebedonbocosaoboue Seismic Refraction ..........-. cece eee Seismic Cone 1 425 429 429 429 431 431 6 431 431 431 431 431 433 = 434 5-2 57 5-4 5-18 5:22 +. 5:23 +. 5-26 - 5-28 5.28 5:30 530 5:32 5:32 5:32 5:32 - 535 5.7.4 Ground Penetrating Radar . 5.8 Remote Sensing .. . eogon0 foe e eens 5:37 5.8.1 Aerial Photographs... ee sec eeeee 587 5.8.2 Other Imagery Be anppaedsoeodesusooed 5-39 Groundwater Investigations rn cence GL 6.1 General... cece GL 62 Determination of Groundwater Levels and Pressures 61 6.2.1 Information on Existing Wells 6 6.2.2 Open Borings . oe ee 262 6.2.3 Observation Wells... Diet e nee ee een eee OD 6.2.4 Water Level Measurements... 0.6.6.5... vee OF Chalked Tape fees en 2 64 Tape with a Float... . . beet etree eee 64 Blectric Water-Level Indicator... podan 64 Dac Corres te 65 6.3. Determination of Field Permeability 65 6.3.1 Seepage Tests 0.0... e cece eee e ne ne et ec eee e renee en es 65 Falling Water Level Method . 66 Rising Water Level Method 66 Constant Water Level Method»... D6 6.3.2 Pressure (“Packer”) Test 7 66 6.3.3 Pumping Tests... 69 6.3.4 Slug Tests 613 Laboratory Testing for Soils ...... 2.50. ce ceseeeee Tl 7.1 General re v7 7.1.1 Weight-Volume Concepts orn Bencnoe “71 7.1.2 Load-Deformation Process in Soils .......... veeeeeeee TD 7.1.3 Principle of Effective Stress . 1738 7.1.4 Overburden Pressure... . 73 7.1.5 Selection and Assignment of Tests 14 7.1.6 Visual Identification of Soils 27d 7.1.7 Index Properties 78 Moisture Content p56e : cece ee eee TB Specific Gravity ...... bedon wi TD Unit Weight ce a oe 19 Sieve Analysis... .. Soosndoodseanqpqcc + 710 Hydrometer Analysis ...... 0262.00 Bosonad TAL Aterberg Limits a veeees TH Mossure-Densty (Compaction Relationship — =. TZ Corrosivity of Soils - Dicer eee e eee nee Td Resistivity... . oe ee wae Ted Organic Content of Soils... TAS Classification of Soils or a ~ TAS 7.1.8 Strength Tests... aren sees TG Choice of Total or Effective Stress Analysis... 0... - 76 Foundations cece oe cies THB Excavations . - 716 iv 8.0 9.0 Embankments 5059000 27 Natural Slopes. TAT Unconfined Compressive Stent of Sos : 718 Triaxial Strength... . Bee 7-20 Direct Shear... : 5 7:24 Direct Simple Shear (DSS) Test 724 Resilient Modulus bosodadoe 7:26 Resonant Column... 6... +++ sone 726 Miniature (Shear) Vane 721 California Baring Ratio (CBR) od 720 R-Value Test... 0.062 ee cece 5a065 ed 7:28 7.1.9. Permeability 7:29 7.1.10 Consolidation 732 Swell Potential of Clays 1:34 Collapse Potential of Soils . 7:34 7.2 Quality Assurance for Laboratory Testing 735 72.1 Storage 7:35 7.22 Sample Handling... .. 7.35 7.2.3. Specimen Selection 7:36 7.2.4 Equipment Calibration 7-36 725 Pitfalls . - 736 Laboratory Testing for Rocks . 8.1 Introduction 5 8.2 Laboratory Tests. . 8.2.1 Strength Tests . .. Point-Load Strength Test Uniaxial Compression Test... Direct Shear Strength of Rock 8.2.2 Durability........... Slake Durability : Soundness of Riprap ..... - Durability Under Freezing and Thawing 8.2.3. Strength-Deformation Characteristics Elastic Moduli od Ultrasonic Testing .. . oo BHO 83 Quatiy Assurence for Latratory Tsing Se pduoEsso50500 811 8.3.1 Pitfalls .. . ar ee el Correlation of Soil Properties ot 9.1 Introduction 5 ao 9.2 Compositional Properties of Soil. Ot 9.2.1 Unit Weight : 91 9.2.2 Specific Gravity 291 9.2.3. Relative Density of Cohesionless Soils - 94 9.2.4 Consistency of Cohesive Soils 95 9.3 Compressiblity Relationships 95 9.3.1 Elastic Parameters . 5 beeen OS 9.3.2 Consolidation Parameters pedusgconuouade 97 ‘Compression Index, C, Recompression Index, C, : Coefficient of Vertical Consolidation, c, . Coefficient of Secondary Compresion, c 9.4 Permeability Relationships . 9.4.1 Typical Values . . 9.4.2 Relationships with Gradation 9.5 Strength Relationships . : 9.5.1 Undrained Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils Undisturbed Shear Strength ed Correlation with N-value . 9.5.2. Drained and Effective Shear Strength of Cohesive Clays. 9.5.3 Shear Strength of Granular Soils . . 9.5.4 Shear Strength of Compacted Soils. . 10.0 Correlation of Rock Properties 10.1 Introduction ‘ 10.2 Rock Properties . 10.2.1. Unit Weight 10.2.2 Compressive and Tensile Senet 10.2.3 Modulus of Elasticity 10.2.4 Shear Strength . 10.3 Correlations 10.3.1. Introduction : 10.3.2. Shale Rating System (SRS) 10.3.3 Rock Mass Rating System (RMR)... . « 10.3.4 Unified Rock Classification System (URCS) . 10.3.5. Slope Rock Mass Rating System (SMR) 10.3.6 Other Correlations . Correlations for Deformation Modulus 97 947 9-10 oul 9-12 912 9-12 9-15 9-15 - 9-15 9-16 = 918, 9:19 9.19 - 10-1 10-1 - 102 102 10-2 - 102 - 10-2 = 10-11 ~ 10-11 10-11 ++ 10-18 - 10-18 10-24 ~ 10-24 10-24 Correlation Between Point Load Test and Uniaxial Compressive Strength 10-24 11.0 I Reports cece a LLL Types ofRepors .....--.. 0.0.00 : 11.1.1 Geotechnical Investigation (Data) Reports 11.1.2 Geotechnical Design Reports : 11.1.3 Geo-Environmental Reports 11.2 Data Presentation sees 11.2.1 Borings Logs 11.2.2 Subsurface Profiles . . 11.3 Limitations 12.0 Contracting of Geotechnical Subsurface Exploration . 12.1 Drilling and Testing Specifications 13.0 References . ‘Appendix A Typical Safety Guidelines for Drilling into Soil and Rock and Health and Safety Procedures for Entry into Borings vi - Mel - Ml ul 2 +. MLZ US 115 MLS 7 2121 - 124 - 134 . Ad Appendix B Manufacturers and Distributors of Equipment for Sampling and Testing vii 32 38 3.9 3-10 3d 32 313 314 315 3-16 3417 3-18 3.19 3.20 3.21 321 41 42 43 4s LIST OF FIGURES Caption Embankment Slope Failure Fomm for Field Instructions Drill Bits Commonly Used in North American Practice (a) Fishtail Bit, (b) Hawthorne Replaceable-Blade Drag Bit, (c) Carbide Insert Drag Bit, and (e) Diamond Plug : cece ‘Typical Continuous Flight Auger Test Set-up (@) Hollow-Stem Auger, (b) Cuttings From a Saturated Soil During Hollow- Stem Augering . .. . (@) Bucket Auger, (b) Typical Set-up of Bucket Auger and Driling Rig (@) Schematic of a Drilling Rig for Rotary Wash Methods (b) Typical Equipment and Set-up of Rotary Wash Drilling (Note Mud Pit in 32 33 the Foreground) : 3:10 (@) Split Barrel Sampler, b) Split Barrel Sampler Opened Longitudinaly with a Soil Sample 315 Sample Retainers (a) Basket Shoe - the flexible fingers open to admit che sand and then close when the tube is withdrawn, (b) Spring Sample Retainer, (c) Trap Valve Retainers used to Recover Muds and Watery Samples wo... 316 (a Schematic of Thin-Walled (Shelby) Tube, () Phoograph of a Thin-Walled (Shelby) Tube) .... cee BIT Piston Sampler 3-20 Pitcher Sampler. Schematic Drawing Showing: (a) Sampler Being Lowered into Dri Hote, Sampler During Sampling of Sof Sols) Sampler During Sampling of Stiff or Dense Soils ... .. . seve B21 Denison Double-Tube Core Barrel Soil Sampler ........ : cone 323 Modified California Sampler... .. ee - 3-23 Torvane Device... .. ee 3-26 Shipping Container for 76 mm Thin-Walled Tubes ..-.- vee 327 Extracted Sample Transportation and Storage - 3:28 (@) Single Tube Core Barrel, (b) Rigid Type Double Tube Core Barrel (c) ‘Swivel Type Double Tube Core Barrel, Series “M” with Ball Bearings. ... . 3-31 Coring Bits (a) Diamond with Conventional Waterways, (b) Diamond with Bottom Discharge Waterways, (©) Carbide Inser-Pyrami Type, @ Carbide Insert-Blade Type, and (¢) Sawtooth... . 3:33 Modified Core Recovery as an Index of Rock Quality... . ree 336 Length Measurement of Core for RQD Determination ....... 337 Core Box and Labeling . oe) (@) Structural Mapping Coding Form for Discontinuity Survey Data 342 () Structural Mapping Coding Form for Slope Assessment eo ‘Typical Boring Log Form .. .. paeoadaone 42 Typical Core Boring Log bpsosone ee 43 Typical Exploration Pit Log... . eo 44 Proposed Key to Boring Log (Continued on Page 46)... 0... cee AS Proposed Key to Boring Log 46 Proposed Key to Core Boring Log (Continued on Page 4-8)... 47 viii 45 47 4-88 4-8b 49 s1 52 53 34 55a 56 57 59 5-10 Sl 5-12 513 Sold 5-15 5-16 517 5-18 5:19 5-21 5:22 5-23 524 5.258 5-25b 5-280 Proposed Key to Core Boring Log .. 2 48 Flow Chart to Determine the Grove Symbol and Group Name for Coarse- grained Soils, 415 Plasticity Chart . . - 419 Flow Chart to Determine the Group Symbol and Group Name for Fine- Grained Soils o oo 42 Flow Chart to Determine the Group Symbol and Group Name for Organic Soils ..... 422 Range of Liquid Limit and Plasicty Index for Soils in rows AD, Ad, AS, A-6 and A-7 5 428 (@ Schematic of SPT... 0.0. e eect eee eens 53 () Typical Equipment and Set up of SPT (¢) Anachng the = Safey Hammer Prior to Sampling and Cathead Setup 34 (@) SPT Safety Hammer, (b) SPT Donut Hammers... 0.2 sess eee 2 5S Definition of the Number of Rope Turns and the Angles for (a) Counterclockwise Rotation and (b) Clockwise Rotation of the Cathead . Typical Electric Cone Penetrometers : Mechanical (Dutch) Cone Modified to Measure Both Point Resistance @ and Skin Friction (q,) ee Cone Penetration Test Results. . Electric (Piezo) Friction Cone. Self-Contained CPT Truck Interior of CPT Truck .... Variation of q/N-Ratio With Mean Grain Size Field Shear Vanes . : Schematic View of Vane Shear Device ‘Vane Correction Factor... . ‘Components of Menard Pressuremeter - “Typical Pressuremeter and Creep Curves - Menard Type Pressuremeter 521 Self-Boring Pressuremeters (a) PAFSOR, (b) Camkometer wee . 5-22 Dilatometer and Read-Out Instruments ........ cece SOM Schematic View of Dilatometer... .. posonabacee we 52S ‘Typical Plate Load Test Set-Up 5-27 Electrical Resistivity Survey. (a) Wenner Method, (b) Empirical Mé Determination of Resistivity and Thickness of Each Layer ......- 5:29 Sketch Showing Cross-Hole Technique... . eee Sor Parallel Seismic Test. (a) Typical Set-up, (b) Typical Results ; 5:33 Schematic Representation of Refraction of Seismic Energy at a Horizontal Interfaces and the Resultant Time-Distance Graph 534 ‘Schematic of a Seismic Cone Penetrometer Probe... . . 5:36 Drainage Textures. (a) Fine Textured Drainage Pattern, b) Medium Textured Drainage Pattern, (c) Coarse Textured Drainage Pattern... . 5-38 Drainage Types. (a) Dendritic Drainage Patter, (b) Pinnate Drainage Pattern, (©) Rectangular Drainage Pattern, (4) Angulate Drainage Pattern . 5:39 Drainage Types. (c) Trelis Drainage Patter, (f) Barbed Drainage Pattern, (3) Deranged Drainage Pattern, (h) Parallel Drainage Pattern. . . - 5-40 Drainage Types. (i) Radial Drainage Pattern, Gj) Annular Drainage Pater, 6) Centripetal Drainage Pattern, (I) Thermokarst Drainage Pattern. - S41 5-26 61 16 7-10 TAL 7-12 &1 82 83 84 85 86 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 910 Gully Shapes ‘Typical Details of Observation Well Installations (a) Stand-Pipe Piezometer, (b) Driven Well Point Packer-Type Pressure-Test Apparatus for Determining the Permeability of Rock. (a) Schematic Diagram; (b) Detail of Packer Unit ........ Layout of Piezometers for a Pumping Test . - Drawdown in an Observation Well Versus Poming Time (Logarithmic Scale) . Typical Slug Test Procedure Typical Grain Size Curve ‘Typical Moisture-Density Relationship . Unconfined Compressive Strength Test. Mohr Diagram for Unconfined Compressive Test Triaxial Test Se-Up .. 0.0.0... e000e02 0 Mobr Diagram for Undrained Unconsolidated (UU) Triaxial Compression Test . Mohr Diagram (a) Consolidated Drained (CD) Triaxial Test, we Consolidated Undrained (CU) Triaxial Test .......... 7 Direct Shear Test (@) Schematic of a Direct Shear Test Set-up, (b) Typical Results, () Determination of Shear Strength Parameters (@) Schematic of a Constant Head Test, (b) Schematic of a Falling Head Test Flexible Wall Permeability Test : Schematic View of One-Dimensional Consolidation Test Set-Up Point Load Test Apparatus... 0.2... 0.005 . (@) Principle of an Uniaxial Compression Test on Rock, (b) Evaluation of Uniaxial Compressive Strength for Intact Rock (subscript IR) with Random Grain Fabric (2) Test Set-up for Direct Shear Strength Test, ®) ‘Generalized Shear Stress and Shear Displacement Curve . Dimensions of Slake Durability Equipment - : Methods for Calculating Young's Modulus from Axial Stress-Axial Strain Curve . fee Schematic Diagram of Typical Apparatus . Relative Density-N-Overburden Stress Relationship for Sands ........ Relationship to Correct SPT N-values for Overburden Pressure. Consolidation Test Relationships ......... cee Compression Ratio Versus Water Content Approximate Correlations Between cy and LL ...... Correlation Between C,, and Natural Water Content . . ‘The Permeability of Sands and Gravels ........ Relationship Between the Ratio of Undrained Shear Strength to Effective Overburden Pressure and Plasticity Index for Normally- Consolidated Clays Relationship Between the Natural Shear Strength of Undisturbed Clays and LI... . cece Plot of B Against Overconsolidation Ratio, OCR’. 542 63 68 2. 610 6-12 613 7:10 a= 713} 719 - 78 . 722 123 123 - 725 = 725 7230 -. 731 - 732 83 2. 9-10 ll 9-14 9-16 9-17 9.17 oll 912 9.13 9-14 9.15 10-1 10-1 (Contd) 40-1 (Contd) 10-1 (Contd) 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 et 12 13 Approximate Correlations Between Undrained Sheat Strength and Nevalues .... . coc eee eee «918 Relationship Between @ and PI... : wee 9D ‘Typical Values of and Density for Cohesionless Soils... ss. 9.20 Estimation of ¢ from N-value cece 920 Relationship Between & and Relative Density for Various Sands . - 921 (2) Engineering Classification For Intact Igneous Rocks... .. - 105 (b) Engineering Classification For Intact Sedimentary Rocks . . 10-6 (©) Engineering Classification For Intact Limestone and Dolomite 10-7 (@) Engineering Classification For Intact Metamorphic Rocks . . 10-8 Relationship Between In Sita Modulus and Rock Mass Rating 10-9 Peak and Residual Shear Strength. (a) Failure Envelope for Multiple Incline Surfaces, (b) An Example of a Discontinuity Mosraing First-and Second-order Irregularities, cee eeees 1010 Roughness Profiles and Corresponding JRC Values... . 10-13 Relationship Between J, in the Q System and JRC for 200 mm and. 1000 mm Samples... . . 10-14 (@) Shale Rating System, (b) Trends in Shear-Strength Parameters of Compacted Shale Fills as a Function of Shale Quality wees eee es IGT ‘Sample Table of Contents for a Geotechnical Investigation (Data) Report... . 11-3, ‘Sample Table of Contents for a Geotechnical 1 Design Repor . 4 ‘Typical Subsurface Profile . - 16 xi No. 21 22 23 24 25 3 32 33 34 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 4-7 (Contd) 438 49 4-10 aul 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 TH 72 73 7-3 (Contd) 74 &1 LIST OF TABLES Title General Guidelines for Geotechnical Field Inspectors Minimum Requirement for Boring Depths Guidelines for Boring Layout a List of Equipment for Field Explorations Frequently Used AASHTO and ASTM Standards for Field Investigations... 2-16 Dimensions of Typical Hollow-Stem Augers 34 Dimensions of Drill Rods... 0... 2+. 3 Dimensions of Flush-Joint Casings , : oe BH Dimensions of Coring Sizes... 0... +. 0.0005 eee soo) Evaluation of the Apparent Density of Coarse-Grained Soils Evaluation of the Consistency of Fine-Grained Soils Adjectives to Describe Water Content of Soils . Particle Size Definition for Gravels and Sands . . Group Symbols for Organic Soils Adjectives for Describing Size Distribution for Sands and Gravels - Soil Classification Chart (Laboratory Method) Soil Classification Chart (Laboratory Method) Soil Plasticity Descriptions Examples of Description of Fine-Grained Soils Field Methods to Describe Plasticity . Descriptive Terms for Layered Soils . AASHTO Soil Classification System Rock Groups and Types... . : Terms to Describe Grain Size of (Typically For) Sedimentary Rocks... ... 4-32 ‘Terms to Describe Grain Shape (For Sedimentary Rocks) 5 ‘Terms to Describe Stratum Thickness nn Terms to Describe Rock Hardness ‘Terms to Classify Discontinuities Based on Aperture Size Summary of Common In Situ Tests Methods of Borehole Preparation for Menard-Type Pressuremeter - Typical Menard Pressuremeter Values on Time Intervals for Reading During Pumping Test . . . 612 ‘Common Terms in Weight-Volume Relations ween TA Weight-Volume Relations .. . cee ee eens TR ‘AASHTO and ASTM Standards for Frequently Used Laboratory Testing of Soils es ‘AASHTO and ASTM Standards for Frequently Used Laboratory Testing of Soils . . 16 Some Common Errors During Laboratory Testing of Soils . . ad AASHTO and ASTM Standards for Laboratory Testing of Rock we 82 xii 8:2 1 92 93 94, 9-5 9-6 97 98, 99 9-10 ol 9.12 913 10-1 10-2 103 10-4 10-5 106 10-7 108 10-8 (Contd) 109 10-10 10-11 10-12 10-12 (Cond) Some Common Errors During Laboratory Testing of Rocks Sli ‘Typical Soil Unit Weights... 6... eee eee cece cece ee eee eres 92 Relative Density of Sand . .. . +. 93 Consistency of Clay - 95 Elastic Constants for Various Soils +. 96 Estimating Es from N-Value 0.2.0. eee eee - 96 Estimating E; from cy, ..... - soccer eeeees 96 Typical Values of Co... 0.0.2 eevee eee eset ee ee eens 1 99 Typical Values of Coefficient of Vertical Consolidation, ¢, = 910 Typical Values of Cye/Cy 2-0 e eves 9-1 Typical Permeability Values for Soils = 913 Typical Permeability Values for Highway Materials vies. 9d Estimating the Shear Strength of Clays mo 295 Average Effective Shear Strength of Compacted Soils - S922 Representative Range of Dry Unit Weights ........-. vee e eee 103 Mechanical Properties of Rock . oF - 103 Engineering Classification . 5 10-4 ‘Typical Shear Strength Parameters of Intact Rock. . Residual Frictional Shear Strength . = 10-12 Q System Joint Alteration Number and Residual Shear Strength 10-15 Mohr-Coulomb Shear Strength Parameters for Typical Rock Joints and Fillings . - 10-16 ‘The Rock Mass Rating System (Geomechanics Classification of Rock Masses) . 10-19 ‘The Rock Mass Rating System (Geomechanics Classification of Rock Masses). 10-20 Guidelines for Classification of Discontinuity Conditions . =. 10-21 Geomechanics Casifcuion for Rock Foundatlons: Shear Stength Data... 10-22 Unified Rock Classification .. . . Bee cee ee es 1023 Slope Rock Mass Rating System (SMR) 10-25 Slope Rock Mass Rating System (SMR) . . 10-26 xiii CHAPTER 2 AASHTO. ASTM Br Ly CHAPTER 3 AASHTO ADSC AQ Wireline ASTM AV AW AW ‘AWD3 AWD4 AWM AX AX BQ Wireline BQ BV BW BW BWC3 BWD3 BWD4 BX BX BX BXB Wireline CBR ce (CAXWL (OBXWL (CCPWL (CHCWL (CNXWL EW EW EWD3 EX EX EXM LIST OF NOTATIONS ‘American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials American Society for Testing and Materials Width of footing Length of footing American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Association of Drilled Shaft Contractors Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) American Society for Testing and Materials Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of flush-joint casing, see Table 3-3 (page 3-11) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Dimension of rock core size, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of flush-joint casing, see Table 3-3 (page 3-11) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Dimension of rock core size, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) California Bearing Ratio Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of flush-joint casing, see Table 3-3 (page 3-11) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) xiv HQ Wireline HQ HW HW HWD3 HWD4 HXB Wireline ISRM L LFC LT (L)AQWL (BQWL (HOWL ()NQWL (PQWL NQ NQ Wireline NV NW NW NWC3 NWD3 NWwD4 NX NK NK NXB Wireline PQ Wireline PQ Pw Revalue RQD RW RW SPT sw uw zw CHAPTER 4 AASHTO. ASTM Ala Alb A2 Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Dimension of rock core size, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of flush-joint casing, see Table 3-3 (page 3-11) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) International Society for Rock Mechanics Length of rock core piece measured from center to center Length of fully cylindrical rock core piece Length of rock core piece measured from tip to tip Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Dimension of rock core size, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, sec Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of flush-joint casing, see Table 3-3 (page 3-11) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Dimension of rock core size, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of rock core barrel, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Dimension of rock core size, see Table 3-4 (page 3-30) Designation of flush-joint casing, see Table 3-3 (page 3-11) Value of resistance of the soil to lateral deformation when a vertical load acts on it Rock Quality Designation Designation of drill rod, see Table 3-2 (page 3-11) Designation of flush-joint casing, see Table 3-3 (page 3-11) Standard Penetration Test Designation of flush-joint casing, see Table 3-3 (page 3-11) Designation of flush-joint casing, see Table 3-3 (page 3-11) Designation of flush-joint casing, see Table 3-3 (page 3-11) Code for Auger sample to be entered in the “Samples Type” column of boring log American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials American Society for Testing and Materials Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Group symbol in the AASHTO soil classification system Bedding (used to describe type of discontinuity in rock core log) Code for Borehole shear test to be entered in the “Other Tests” column of boring log Code for Bulk sample to be entered in the “Samples Type” column of boring log Rock cored with BX core barrel, which obtains a 41 mm-diameter core Code for Denison or pitcher-type core barrel sample to be entered in the “Samples Type” column of boring log Close (used to describe discontinuity spacing in rock core log) Code for consolidation test to be entered in the “Samples Type” column of boring log Calcite (used to describe type of infilling in rock core log) Coefficient of curvature; = Dj, / (Do X Dg.) (used for laboratory claissification of soils, as per Unified Soil Classifications System) Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) Chiorite (used to describe type of infilling in rock core log) Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty clays, lean clays (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) Code for California liner sample to be entered in the “Samples Type” column of boring log (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) Clay (used to describe type of infilling in rock core log) Uniformity coefficient; = Dy / Dyp (used for laboratory claissification of soils as per Unified Soil Classifications System) Code for maximum and minimum density test to be entered in the “Samples Type” column of boring log Grain size than which 10% of the sample is smaller Grain size than which 30% of the sample is smaller Grain size than which 60% of the sample is smaller Code for dilatometer test to be entered in the “Other Tests” column of boring log Code for direct shear test to be entered in the “Other Tests” column of boring log Extremely wide (used to describe discontinuity spacing in rock core log) Friable (term to describe rock hardness) Percent soil passing No. 200 sieve Fault (used to describe type of discontinuity in rock core log) Iron oxide (used to describe type of infilling in rock core log) Filled (used to describe amount of infilling in rock core log) Foliation (used to describe type of discontinuity in rock core log) Code for field vane shear test to be entered in the boring log Code for Specific gravity test to be entered in the “Samples Type” column of boring log Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications xvi GI o™ GP ZEEERCOR EEO 5 aregner ger genes System) Group index in the AASHTO soil classification system Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) Poorly-graded gravels, gravel-sand mixtures, little or no fines (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) ‘Well-graded gravels, gravel-sand mixtures, litte or no fines (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) Gypsum/Tale (used to describe type of infilling in rock core log) Healed (used to describe type of infilling in rock core log) Hard (term to describe rock hardness) Irregular (used to describe surface shape of joint in rock core log) Point-load index Joint (used to describe type of discontinuity in rock core log) Code for permeability test to be entered in the “Other Tests” column of boring log Low hardness (term to describe rock hardness) Liquid Limit Moderate (used to describe discontinuity spacing in rock core log) Mechanical (sieve or hydrometer) analysis Moderately Hard (term to describe rock hardness) Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous fine sandy or silty soils, elastic silts (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) Inorganic silts and very fine sands, rock flour, silty or clayey fine sands or clayey silts (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) Moderately wide (used to describe discontinuity width in rock core log) SPT blow count Narrow (used to describe discontinuity width in rock core log) None (used to describe amount or type of inflling in rock core log) No recovery of sample Rock cored with NX core barrel, which obtains a 53 mm-diameter core Organic clays of medium to high plasticity, organic salts (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) Organic silts and organic silty clays of low plasticity (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) ‘Code for thin-wall tube sample to be entered in the “Samples Type” column of boring log Partially filled (used to describe amount of infiling in rock core log) = LL- PL ; Plasticity index Planar (used to describe surface shape of joint in rock core log) Code for pressuremeter test to be entered in the “Other Tests” column of boring log Code for piston sample to be entered in the “Samples Type” column of boring log Peat and other highly organic soils (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) Pyrite (used to describe type of infilling in rock core log) Unconfined compressive strength of clay Quartz (used to describe type of infilling in rock core log) Rough (used to describe roughness of surface in rock core log) Rock Quality Designation Soft (term to describe rock hardness) Smooth (used to describe roughness of surface in rock core log) Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) xvii Sh sik SM SP Sp SR ss st Su sw uscs Wa CHAPTER 5 AASHTO. ASTM ‘Sand (used to describe type of infilling in rock core log) Shear (used to describe type of discontinuity in rock core log) Slickensided (used to describe roughness of surface in rock core log) Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) Poorly-graded sands, gravelly sands, little or no fines (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) Spotty (used to describe amount of infilling in rock core log) Slightly rough (used to describe roughness of surface in rock core log) Code for standard spoon sample to be entered in the “Samples Type” column of boring log ‘Stepped (used to describe surface shape of joint in rock core log) Surface stain (used to describe amount of infilling in rock core log) Well-graded sands, gravelly sands, little or no fines (Group symbol in Unified Soil Classifications System) Code for triaxial compression test to be entered in the “Other Tests” column of boring log ‘Tight (used to describe discontinuity width in rock core log) Code for torvane shear test to be entered in the “Other Tests” column of boring log Code for unconfined compression test to be entered in the “Other Tests” column of boring, og Unified Soil Classification System Vein (used to describe type of discontinuity in rock core log) Very close (used to describe discontinuity spacing in rock core log) Very hard (term to describe rock hardness) Very narrow (used to describe discontinuity width in rock core log) Very rough (used to describe roughness of surface in rock core log) Wide (used to describe discontinuity width in rock core log) Code for unit weight and natural moisture content to be entered in the “Other Tests” column of boring log ‘Wavy (used to describe surface shape of joint in rock core log) Code for special tests performed to be entered in the “Other Tests” column of boring log Pressure required to cause Dilatometer diaphragm to just lift-off American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ‘American Society for Testing and Materials Designation of drill rod (see Chapter 3, Table 3-2, page 3-11 for dimensions) Pressure required to cause 1.1 mm deflection of the diaphragm at its center Pressure required to seal the diaphragm again Cone Penetration Test Distance between electrodes Outside diameter of the samples used for SPT Dilatometer Test Dilatometer Modulus ‘Menard modulus Earth Resources Observations Systems Field Vane Shear Test Ground Penetrating Radar Height of free fall of hammer during SPT xviii Nyox-staxoano Nerr NW oc PB Be PI B PMT Ps Po % a 4 SLAR SPT t vs CHAPTER 6 AASHTO. ASTM wor Material or deposit index Lateral stress index Coefficient of at-rest lateral earth pressure Depth of penetration of samples during SPT Standard Penetration Test N-value Normally Consolidated Actual blow count measured in the field using non-standard equipment or procedure Standard Penetration Test N-value standardized for W, .H, .D, .and L, Designation of drill rod (see Chapter 3, Table 3-2, page 3-11 for dimensions) Overconsolidated Pressure B corrected for diaphragm stiffness Creep pressure during Menard’s pressuremeter test Plasticity Index Limit pressure during Menard’s pressuremeter test Pressuremeter Test Pressure A corrected for diaphragm stiffness Pressure corresponding to volume v, during Menard's pressuremeter test Cone tip resistance during CPT Cone sleeve friction during CPT Total cone resistance (= q,+q, ) during CPT Side Looking Airborne Radar ‘Standard Penetration Test Time In situ pore water pressure Potential drop Initial volume of probe during Menard’s pressuremeter test ‘volume corresponding to creep pressure p, during Menard’s pressuremeter test (v. + v) during Menard’s pressuremeter test Difference between the volume of the hole and v. Weight of hammer used for SPT Distance Depth Effective overburden pressure Corrected vane shear strength Vane shear strength measured in the field Correction factor to convert(t,)eay 10 (t,), related to PI of soil Poisson's ratio Resistivity; = 2ndV/I ‘The sum of the apparent resistivities American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials American Society for Testing and Materials Differential head of pressure on the test section. Apparent permeability Length of test section Piezometer xix CHAPTER 7 AASHTO. ASTM

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