Hardware and software

Computing F451

o Hardware Physical components of a computer system o Software Programs which provide a platform between the user and the hardware, allowing the user to do something useful with the computer o Input Device A device which allows a user to tell the computer what to do, or input data into a system. Keyboard, Mouse, Microphone o Storage Device A device which stores user and data files, along with instructions for the computer. HDD, RAM, ROM, Flash drive, CD ROM, CDRW o Output Device A device which displays the result of computer commands in a form that the user can understand Monitor, Printer (Touch screen is both an input and output)

Software and systems development life cycle

o Problem Definition Must be defined accurately or analyst will not know what needs solving. Defined by client o Feasibility Study To ensure that the problem can actually be solved. Whether or not solution is possible Is it economic or a better alternative than the current system? o Information collection Variety of ways to do this: Questionnaire o + it gives a wide range of opinions o - it has limited questions available o - if there is a problem it cant be rectified easily Interview o + Like a conversation, difficult questions can be explained o + Clients views expressed in detail o - Does not give good idea of opinions of users Documentation o + Allows analyst to see exactly where the errors are in the old system o - Does not give any views from client or users.

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Allows analyst to know what errors need to be rectified in the new system Analysis A specification is drawn up from the results of the problem definition, feasibility study and information collection. Outlines what the designer must take into consideration, and what the aim of the system must be. Is as exact as possible to ensure designer knows exactly what needs to be done. Design New system is designed, IT IS NOT WRITTEN IN ANY CODE! Methods of design: DFD (Data Flow Diagram) to show all inputs, processes and outputs. Form/GUI Design Flow chart/Algorithms to show processes in detail Pseudo-code to give an idea of how the program will work. Kept strictly to the specification Implementation The program is created in an appropriate language such as: VB.net C++ Delphi JavaScript Evaluation The finished system is compared to the original specification, problem definition and information collection to ensure that the program does meet all of the aims for the client. Program is also tested using some of the following methods: Black box testing White box testing Trace tables Installation Program must be installed to the clients company in the correct way. There are three ways to do this: Run the two systems in parallel for a while Run a part of the new system for a while Switch off the old system and straight onto the new one Users must be trained to use the new system Maintenance How will the system last? Considerations must include Peripherals, are they up to date, do they still work?

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Updating the software so that it continues to run smoothly Ensuring that the client still finds the system to be working for his/her company. o Spiral and Waterfall Models for systems life cycle The above list of 9 stages works in a loop, once the new system is being maintained a new problem may arise and the lifecycle may begin again. However, if something goes horribly wrong, lets say at the design stage we cant go back to other stages to solve the problem. Spiral and waterfall models allow any stage of the cycle to go backwards to any other stage.

A basic waterfall model

A basic Spiral Model

o Use of computer programs in businesses Warehouses can use computer programs to keep track of stock Retail outlets use software to run till systems. Design companies use CAD and CAM systems to design and make products. (Computer Aided Design) (Computer Aided Manufacture) o Generic Applications Software Also known as Off the Shelf It is useful software which can be bought from retailers, and provides the user with a program which they can produce a wide range of useful outcomes. Examples include Word Processing, Desktop Publishing, and Spreadsheet software. NEVER INCLUDE BRAND NAMES!!! (Microsoft, adobe etc.) o Bespoke Applications Software Generally goes through the systems development lifecycle. Created for one business for a specific job, for example, controlling stock in a warehouse. o Operating systems Provide a platform between the user and the hardware. Allows the user to do something useful with the hardware and often provides an interface between the user and hardware.

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Types: Batch o Allows large amounts of information to be processed at once. Takes lots of inputs then processes them all at once, without user input during processes. o E.g., workers registering at the start of the day, or calculating the pay for workers, for their hours worked. Multi tasking, single user o Allows one user to use the system at any one time. o Allows multiple applications to run smoothly, supposedly at the same time as each other o E.g., A home PC. What you would use at home for regular tasks. Networked o Links several computers together so that they can share files and connections. o E.g., linking several multi tasking, single user computers together in a school or business. Multi user o Allows several users to all use the same data files and system files on multiple different input/output systems at the same time. System files and data stored in a central server. o E.g., Supermarket checkouts where every staff member needs access to the stock information and pricing. Real time o System processes information immediately so that each input can immediately affect the next input via an output. o i.e. input goes in, processed and output is displayed almost immediately o E.g., Systems in important situations, where decisions must be made immediately, e.g., aeroplanes and air traffic control towers. o User Interfaces These are what the user will see on display when they are using the software Types:

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GUI o Graphical user interface uses WIMP (windows, icons, menus, pointer) to allow user to visually see what they are doing with the system. Natural to humans due to point and click interface. Command-line o Requires user to type in commands which the system understands. User has access to entire system but needs specialist knowledge to be able to operate it properly. Natural Language o Computer understands human language. Commands either typed into computer or spoken to it are understood by the computer and allow it to run. Very flawed due to complexity of human language and very processor intensive. Useful for blind or disabled users Menu Based o User navigates through a series of menus, all divided down into other menus containing links to different menus, or programs. Not to be confused with GUI. This is solely menu based. Form Based o Users can type information or select from lists of choices in a form. Can be used to allow users to complete questionnaires or register with a company. Sections for different data allow validation to be very easy. o Utilities software A selection of software which the operating system uses to utilise the hardware E.g. Disk Defragmenter o Cleans up areas of the HDD which have been separated or fragmented, to allow the secondary storage to run faster. File Handlers o Allow the system to copy, move, organise and delete user/data files. Library files (.dll) o Operating system files which can be used by any other software. Each performs a specific task and is written by an experienced programmer.

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Data representation

o Denary What we use to count. i.e. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7.99,100,101 Column headings are: 1,10,100,1000,10000,100000 This is called base 10 because these numbers are the result of taking 10 and increasing the power by 1. i.e. 10^0 = 1, 10^1 = 10, 10^2 = 100 etc. o Binary Uses base 2 (1s and 0s) Because computers run on electrical signals which can either be on (1) or off (0) Bit = one 1/0 Nibble = 4 1/0s Byte = 8 1/0s Word can = 16 1/0s Column headings are in base 2: 128,64,32,16,8,4,2,1 Therefore the number 00000001 = 1 00000010 = 2 00000011 = 3 o Octal Uses base 8 Column headings: 64,8,1 Therefore the number 001 =1 004 = 4 020 = 16 Linked to binary in that the first three digits from the right of a binary number represent the number of 1s in an octal number, the next three digits from the binary number making up the number of 8s and so on. E.g. 001011110 converting to octal. 001 011 110 splitting the number into 3, 3 bit numbers 1 3 6 converting these numbers to denary 136 octal representation of 001011110 o Hexadecimal Uses base 16 Column headings: 256,16,1 Therefore we need numbers for the columns up to 15. To solve this we use letters so 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F becomes our way of counting to 15. Therefore 001 = 1 00E = 14 020 = 32 0AA = 1610 Converting between binary and hexadecimal is the same as between octal and binary, however uses nibbles (4 bits) rather than 3 bits E.g. 01011011 into hexadecimal 0101 1011 splitting the number into nibbles 5 11 converting into denary 05B Hexadecimal representation of 01011011 o Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) When numbers need to be stored which do not act like numbers such as phone numbers (you cant multiply phone numbers)

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Splits a denary number into each digit then represents each digit with a nibble. E.g. 6953 = 0110 1001 0101 0011 Binary Addition If we were to add two binary numbers we would get another, greater binary number. To add binary numbers we must remember these rules: 0+0=0 0+1 =1 1+1=0, carry1 1+1+1=1, carry1 E.g. 01001011 +10010011 =11011110 Run through the above calculation, checking each column for which of the 4 rules was used. Negative binary Negative numbers can be represented in two ways. One uses a sign of magnitude like our denary system. The column headings become: +/-64,32,16,8,4,2,1 So 10000001 = -1 The other method is preferable because every binary digit still corresponds to a denary number. It is called Twos Compliment and makes the column headings: -128,64,32,16,8,4,2,1 We start with a 1 in the -128 column then count upwards to the number we are representing. E.g. the number -100 can be represented by 10011100 because -128 + 16 + 8 + 4 = 100 Subtraction This has the same process as normal addition, but uses twos compliment numbers. Therefore 100-100 should equal 00000000. 01100100 - 10011100 = 00000000 The 1s are carried along the number as in addition, however if they exceed the bits in both numbers, they are not carried any further than the leftmost bit. i.e. an 8 bit number - an 8 bit number will still = 8 bit number Character sets A character set is the set of characters (letters, numbers, symbols, shapes and punctuation) that are recognised by the computer. Examples of character sets are ASCII, EBCDIC and UNICODE. We need to know about ASCII. EBCDIC and UNICODE are similar but use 16 bits and so represent more characters. ASCII uses 8 bits and so should be able to represent 256 different characters, however one bit is reserved for parity (later section) so really only 128 characters can be

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represented. It can represent letters (upper/lowercase) numbers and punctuation. Each character has a binary representation which the computer recognises. o More inputs to a system OMR - Optical Mark Recognition allows a computer to recognise different marks, by shining a laser on the surface and detecting whether it bounces back or not. It can be used on lottery sheets. OCR - Optical Character Reader allows a computer to recognise text on paper, and convert it into ASCII characters in order to process them and then allow them to be edited as text characters. MICR - Magnetic Ink Character Recognition is another method of detecting ASCII characters. It works by detecting magnetic traces in the ink (it is printed using special magnetic ink) and interpreting the shape of the characters, once again converting them into ASCII. Barcodes are read by a laser scanner which senses the unique width and distances between black bars on a white background. These bars are able to represent a binary number, unique to a specific product. The system will have data stored about this product, and can recognise the matching binary data, returning information such as price of the item. o Validation and Verification of Data Validation is when data is checked to ensure the correct data is being entered. Checks can include: Length check - checks the correct length of data has been entered Format check - checks the data is in the correct format e.g. dates: 01/03/12 is a date, bob is not Character check - Checks for an expected character e.g. an @ sign in an email Data type check - checks for correct data type, e.g. integer. Verification of data is when a user is asked to enter information twice to ensure they have entered the correct data, e.g. passwords or emails.

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 Hardware
o ALU o CU The Arithmetic logic unit does all the logical addition/subtraction and number handling in the processor.

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The Control Unit controls all the commands which take place in the processor and manages the instructions and transfer of data. Memory unit The memory unit is where information about where data is being sent. It also acts as a temporary storage where small amounts of data can be stored so that processor speed is higher. MAR The Memory Address Register keeps a temporary storage of where data has come from and where it is going to. MDR The Memory Data Register is where temporary data can be stored to increase the speed of computer processes. PC The Program Counter keeps track of the next instructions and which order these should be carried out in. CIR The Current Instruction Register keeps track of the status of the process currently being carried out. Accumulator Is in the ALU and holds the result Data bus The data bus carries data around the computer Address bus Travels in parallel to the data bus, and tells the data bus where it needs to take the data to, and where the data has come from. Control bus Control busses are in the processor and carry information about instructions between the CU, ALU and registers. Physical connections Coaxial: simple pair of copper cables Twisted Pair: Pair of copper cables twisted around each-other These are both very reliable though they are also restrictive due to the need for a physical presence and that the width of the wire can directly affect the speed of TX Cables can be categorised by their speed, distance capability and cost. E.g. CAT1 - CAT7 Fibre optic cables are much, much quicker but are also more expensive.

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o Wireless Connections Security is much harder to achieve due to wireless connection. Anyone can intercept the data Popular because anyone can access data without cables at any time, anywhere Worries about links to poor health o Primary Memory ROM is read only memory. It is permanent (non-volatile) but generally very small. It is usually used to store the BIOS. (Basic Input Output System) RAM is random access memory. It is volatile (will be deleted if you turn the computer off. It is used to store data close to the processor while it is being used, as this is faster than using data from the HDD Processor registers (see above) o Secondary Storage Data that is not stored in the system memory is stored in secondary storage The HDD (Hard drive disk) is probably the main storage on a computer. It can be used to store large amounts of user files, however it is much slower to transfer data between it and the processor Other forms of secondary storage can include: CD-ROM, another form of read only memory that can be stored on a disk. It cannot be edited CD-RW, Like a CD-ROM but data can be written onto the disk as well as read off it. Flash Drive is used to store a fairly low number of user files (in comparison to the HDD) External Hard Drive can be used as a large backup for user files Magnetic tape is an old form of storage, where files are stored on a reel of magnetic tape. o Transfer of data between secondary storage and main memory The control bus fist instructs the data and address busses to go and fetch the data. The data bus cannot usually carry the entire block of data in one go. It takes what it can and places the rest in a buffer, where it is stored until the data has been transferred. Then the data bus takes the data in the buffer to the same location as the last transfer. If the data exceeds the available space in the buffer, then something needs to tell the data bus to refill the buffer. This is called a system interrupt, and stops the bus from doing anything else until it has refilled the buffer. NOTE: a user interrupt is an interrupt caused by the users input. It will always be processed before system interrupts.

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 Data Transmission o TX - Transmit/Transmitter/Transmitted o RX - Receive/Receiver/Receiving/Received

o LAN

o Remember information about inputs/outputs e.g. keyboard, monitor, OCR, OMR, MICR. You need to be able to state which is most appropriate for a given situation. This can include common hardware such as printers, scanners, microphones.

o WAN A wide area network is a network which encompasses many computers over a very large area such as an entire country. A good example is the internet, or a company network that has divisions all over a country. o Wiring A LAN can be wired easily using Ethernet cables. It can also be connected wirelessly using a router. A WAN can be wired using telephone cables, converting the analogue signals into digital using a router or modem. A WAN may also use coaxial or fibre optics cables. It cannot use Ethernet cables because the quality of the signal degrades over a distance. WAN can also use wireless connections, using microwaves or radio-waves to transmit over a long distance. o Serial Serial TX sends data one bit at a time. This is overall, slower than parallel, however it can access much greater distances. o Parallel Parallel TX sends an entire byte of data at time, making it faster than serial but cannot travel as far. A good example when parallel TX is used is for printers. Printers need to be able to print an entire document quickly, so the computer sends it via parallel TX. o Simplex Data can only be TX in one direction, ever o Half-Duplex Data can only be TX in one direction at any one time o Duplex Data can be sent in any direction at any time o Bit rate The number of bits that can be sent per unit of time o BAUD rate The number of bits that can be sent per second

A local area network is a network of devices in a relatively small area such as a building. It generally contains a few computers sharing files. It can be wireless or hard wired using Ethernet cables

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o Time sensitivity of data When data needs to arrive at a specific speed, it is called time sensitive. A good example of this is when streaming a video online, it must arrive quickly enough or the video will appear jumpy o Parity Checking This is when the TX device checks whether there is an even or odd number of 1s in a byte. It then decides whether to use even or odd parity. If even parity is chosen the TX device adds a 1 or 0 to the byte to ensure an even number of 1s are present (vice versa for odd parity) it then tells the RX device whether odd or even parity has been used. The RX device can then check if there is still a matching odd or even number of 1s (even parity = even number of 1s) if there isnt then an error has occurred during TX. This method is not perfect though, as if two errors occur then an error will not register (there will still be even number of 1s if two change to a 0) o Echoing back The RX device sends back the data it received. The TX device RX the data and checks if it is the same as what was originally sent. If it isnt then an error has occurred. o Check sum The data is treated as numbers and added up by the TX computer. The result is sent to the RX computer, and then the RX computer also adds the data. If the answers match then no error has occurred. If they dont match then the TX computer sends the data again. o Packet Switching The TX device sends the data packets out in a random direction, with the instructions to go to the RX computer. The data then takes any paths to get to the RX device. They do not get received in the correct order, so must be re-ordered before assembly. o Circuit Switching The TX device closes down the network to other TX and sends the data in a direct path to the RX computer. It sends the data packets in the correct order o Protocols Protocols are a set of rules that two devices must decide upon before a transmission E.g. BAUD rate of transmission Error checking such as odd or even parity TX medium (cables, Wireless) Packet size

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o o

Protocols are important because if they were not in place before transmission then the RX device simply wouldnt understand what to do with what was being sent We need devices to be able to send data between each other because otherwise as a society we would not be able to share pictures, important documents, videos, emails The physical aspects of the protocol include whether it is wired/wireless, serial/parallel, radiowaves/microwaves The logical aspects of the protocol include the BAUD rate of transfer, error checking to be used, packet size Layering A protocol interface (connection protocols) can be layered so that the most basic aspects are covered first such as wireless/wired, followed by more complex protocols such as error checking This is important so that devices can communicate on a simple level; even If they cant understand what error checking is to take place. Also, should a part of the protocol need to be altered, the manufacture need just change the layer which is concerned, rather than the entire protocol MAN A metropolitan area network is a network which can cover larger areas than a LAN but not needing to be nationwide like a WAN. It can cover a city or several buildings VLAN A Virtual Local Area Network is one which allows several host devices to act as if they were physically connected to a LAN. It uses software to manage connection rather than a piece of hardware Wi-Fi Wireless means of connecting to the internet or other WANs/LANs Packets When a TX computer needs to send data which is too large for the connection medium/RX device to receive, the TX device splits the data into separate packets of the same size. These packets are assigned an order, and transmitted. The RX device can reassemble the packets in the correct order due to them being ordered by the TX device before being sent Network Design [O = device, X = central device, - = connection medium] Star topology The devices are connected to a central router. O | O----X-----O | O

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o UDP

Most likely used in a home network Bus Topology Devices are connected to a main bus wire (NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH SYSTEM BUSSES) _________________ | | | | | O O | | O O | |________|_____|_| Useful for connecting many devices, however if break occurs in bus wire, network breaks Ring topology The devices are connected in a ring, where they must wait to be able to transmit until they are passed the token by the previous device /\ O O ( ) O O \/ TX occurs without any connection being made between the TX device and RX device. i.e. data is sent by the TX device, and nothing more happens Much faster than TCP but far less secure, errors can occur and will go unchecked, also data could get misplaced or intercepted Mostly used for online gaming Connectionless TX/Asynchronous TX device makes a handshake with the RX device, where they establish protocols to be used, error correction, and so on. RX device then tells TX computer if all data has been sent as requested Slower than UDP but much more secure as RX device is almost guaranteed data will arrive and be correct Used for almost all data TX Connection orientated/Synchronous If you really need help on this part, youre going to fail. Just read it, most of it is common sense

o TCP

Implications of computer use

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