CHAPTER 4 : REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH

4.1 Analysing gamete formation 1. Necessity to reproduce (a) To ensure the ________________ of the species (b) To ensure the passing down of an individuals _________ to future generation 2. Necessity for the formation of gametes (a) To ensure the _________________________ number is maintained from one generation to the next (b) The ________________________ in the offspring enable them to adapt to constantly changing environment (c) To ensure the survival of the species 3. Types of reproduction

Asexual Reproductive process in which new individuals are produced without the formation of gametes COMPARISON No formation of The process relies entirely on ... division Involves only individual (single parent) New individual get their genes from one parent without the .. of an egg and sperm Produces offspring that are genetically ... to the parent Ensure that the adaptation of the parent for survival are passed down unchanged to the offspring if the environment is stable 4. Male reproductive system Structure Function Produce male gametes (sperm) and male sex hormones Where sperms are stored and mature Transport sperms from epididymis to ejaculatory duct Secrete a thick, clear fluid containing nutrients for the sperms Secrete a milky white fluid that activates or increases the mobility of the sperm Exit route for sperm and urine

Sexual Production of offspring through the fusion of haploid gametes to formed a diploid zygote (fertilised egg)

Involved formation of Gamete are formed by . division Involve parents New individuals inherit genes from both parents through the . Produce offspring that are genetically from their parents Ensure the survival of the species if the environment condition undergo changes constantly

Head Large nucleus and acrosome (contain hydrolytic enzymes) Acrosome digest protective layer of ovum Middle piece Large number of mitochondria Provide energy for movement of the tail *Sperms are immotile when they are first formed. Sperms absorbed nutrients in the epididymis and become active and motile. Tail Locomotion and movement

Formation of sperm in humans

Spermatogenesis (spermatozoa formation) takes place in in seminiferous tubules The process takes 65 to 75 days in human male

Cross section of seminiferous tubule Sertoli cells provide nutrients to spermatids Leydig cells produce androgen and testosterone Spermatogenesis

5.

Female reproductive system

Formation of ovum in humans

Comparison between the formation of sperm and ova

Spermatogenesis Similarities
Both processes occur in the _______________________ Both involved the process of _________________ Both produce _____________ gametes

Oogenesis

Differences
Gametes produced Place of formation Size of gametes Number of gametes produced during meiosis Equal distribution of cytoplasm in all four sperm cell produced Has a head, midpiece and a tail Divide by mitosis throughout the adult life of men after puberty Occurs continuously and does not stop at any stage Cytokinesis Shape of gametes Germinal epithelial cells Unequal, with almost cytoplasm contained in the secondary oocyte and ovum while the small polar bodies degenerate Spherical Divide by mitosis during foetal stage. At birth, an ovary contains all the primary oocyte that will develop into ova Does not occur continuously, stop at Prophase I and Metaphase II Meiosis II completes only if secondary oocyte is fertilised by a sperm

Meiotic division

4.2 Analysing the role of hormones in menstrual cycle 1. Menstrual cycle the cyclic changes that occur in the endometrium of the uterus to prepare it for a fertilised ovum and its subsequent development. 2. Hormones involved in a menstrual cycle; Hormones that control the changes in the ovaries FSH LH The anterior lobe of The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland pituitary gland Stimulates the Stimulates ovulation development and Stimulates the growth of follicles development of Stimulates the corpus luteum follicles in ovary to Promotes secretion secrete oestrogen of progesterone Hormones that control the changes in the uterus Oestrogen Progesterone Follicle cells of the ovary Corpus luteum Stimulates further growth of follicle Promotes repair and growth of endometrium Low level inhibits FSH and LH (-ve) High level stimulates FSH and LH (+ve) Stimulates the endometrium to become thick, folded and highly vascular for the implantation of embryo High level inhibits the secretion of FSH and LH

Hormones Place of secretion

Function

Menstruation : the breakdown of the lining of the uterine wall and the discharge of blood, epithelial tissues and mucus through vagina
Days 0 to 7 Menstrual cycle divided into three main phase menstrual, proliferative and secretory phase First day of menstruation = first day of menstrual cycle Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle A day before menstruation, GnRH (hypothalamus) stimulates the release of FSH and LH FSH stimulates the ___________________________________ The cells of developing follicles secrete ___________________ _________ oestrogen level FSH and LH level __________ (-ve feedback) As the maturing follicle enlarge, more amount of oestrogen secreted. 12 day levels of oestrogen rise steeply and peak Increase of oestrogen exerts +ve feedback on hypothalamus and pituitary gland th Increase of GnRH stimulates a rise in the secretion of ________ and ________ (peak at 13 day) Level of progesterone still low
th

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

8 to 14 (proliferative and ovulation) 15 to 21

10. The corpus luteum secretes smaller amount of oestrogen but larger amount of ___________________ 11. Oestrogen and progesterone ____________ the secretion of FSH and LH (-ve) 12. Oestrogen and progesterone stimulates the ________________ to become thicker, more folded and highly vascular in preparation for the implantation of fertilised ovum.

22 to 28 (secretory)

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

If fertilisation not occurs, _______________________ start to disintegrate. Disintegration of ________________________ cause the level of oestrogen and progesterone to __________ Thus, endometrium breaks down and disintegrates (menstrual flow) Reduced level of _______________, no longer inhibit the hypothalamus and pituitary gland GnRH released, stimulates the release of FSH and LH New cycle starts with development of new follicle. If fertilisation occurs, corpus luteum will not ____________________ Level of oestrogen and progesterone continue to _____________ Endometrium continue to grow and nourish embryo 3 months after fertilisation, corpus luteum degenerates, production of oestrogen and progesterone is taken over by the placenta 23. Progesterone inhibits FSH and LH, no ovulation and menstrual cycle during pregnancy.

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

Physical and psychological symptoms which some women experience 5 to 10 days before menstruation The causes are not known but could be due to imbalance in oestrogen and progesterone level Symptoms : water retention, painful cramp in uterus, headaches, backaches, joint pains, changes in mood, depression, anxiety, irritability, sleepy and lethargy

Menopause
Cessation of monthly menstruation, end of a womans fertility period Occurs between 45 to 55 years old when ovaries are less stimulated by FSH and LH Inhibits development of follicles and ovulation, low level of progesterone and oestrogen Menstrual cycle stop, ovaries stop produce ova Low level of oestrogen contribute to decrease in bone density Symptoms : hot flushes, night sweats, migraine headache, mood swings, depression, lethargy, bodily changes and increased risk of osteoporosis.

4.3 Understanding the early development of zygote in humans 1. Fertilisation (a) A sperm penetrates the plasma membrane of a secondary oocyte (b) Once the sperm succeeds in entering the secondary oocyte, meiosis II is completed. (c) Ovum and second polar body are formed. (d) Fertilisation membrane forms on the surface of the oocyte to prevent other sperms entering the ovum. (e) The sperm discards its tail and its nucleus moves towards the ovums nucleus. (f) Fusion of sperm an ovum formed diploid nucleus (g) Fertilised ovum is called zygote.

2.

4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8

Appreciating the contribution of science and technology to human reproduction Synthesising the concept of sexual reproduction in flowering plant Understanding growth in multicellular organisms Understanding the growth curve Understanding primary and secondary growth in plants