Textbook Pengukuran Teknik

Indrawanto Prodi Teknik Mesin FTMD-ITB

Definitions of standard units

Physical quantity Length Mass Standard unit metre kilogram Definition The length of path travelled by light in an interval of 1/299 792 458 seconds The mass of a platinumiridium cylinder kept in the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, S`evres, Paris 9.192631770 109 cycles of radiation from vaporized caesium-133 (an accuracy of 1 in 1012 or 1 second in 36 000 years) The temperature difference between absolute zero and the triple point of water is defined as 273.16 kelvin One ampere is the current flowing through two infinitely long parallel conductors of negligible cross-section placed 1 metre apart in a vacuum and producing a force of 210-7 newtons per metre length of conductor

Measurement system applications

Time

second

Temperature

kelvin

Current

ampere

Luminous intensity

candela

One candela is the luminous intensity in a given direction from a source emitting monochromatic radiation at a frequency of 540 terahertz (Hz1012) and with a radiant density in that direction of 1.4641 mW/steradian. (1 steradian is the solid angle which, having its vertex at the centre of a sphere, cuts off an area of the sphere surface equal to that of a square with sides of length equal to the sphere radius)

Matter

mole

The number of atoms in a 0.012 kg mass of carbon-12

Elements of a measurement system

Instrument types and performance characteristics

Active and passive instruments

Passive pressure gauge.

Active petrol-tank level indicator.

Null-type and deflection-type instruments

Static characteristics of instruments

Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement uncertainty)
The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of the instrument is to the correct value. example, 1.0% f.s. ( 1% of full-scale reading),

Deadweight pressure gauge.

Example 1.1
A pressure gauge with a range of 1 1000kPa has a quoted accuracy of 1.0% f.s.. A measurement of pressure in a tank is taken using this instrument a it returns a reading of 100kPa. What is the uncertainty of this measurement in both absolute value and percentage? What is the physical meaning of this uncertainty in terms what the user can tell about the pressure in the tank? If it is required that the pressure be controlled at 100kPa 5kPa, is the gauge suitable for this application?

Example 1.2
Another gauge with a span of 0 200kPa0.5%f.s. is assessed for the same application as outlined in example 1.1. Is this sensor suitable?

Static characteristics of instruments

Precision/repeatability/reproducibility
Precision is a term that describes an instruments degree of freedom from random errors. Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied repetitively over a short period of time, with the same measurement conditions, same instrument and observer, same location and same conditions of use maintained throughout. Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions of use and time of measurement.

Static characteristics of instruments

Comparison of accuracy and precision.

Static characteristics of instruments

Range or span
The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is designed to measure.

Static characteristics of instruments

Linearity
The non-linearity is then defined as the maximum deviation of any of the output readings marked X from this straight line. Non-linearity is usually expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading.

Example 1.3
Temperature readings are taken using a resistance thermometer and the following data obtained. What is the sensitivity of the instrument in /C?

Example 1.4
A spring scale is calibrated at 20oC with the following characteristics: Load (kg) 0 1 2 3 Deflection (mm) 0 20 40 60 The temperature is increased to 30oC and the following characteristics obtained: Load (kg) Deflection (mm) 0 5 1 27 2 49 3 71

Resistance () 307 314 321 328

Temperature (oC) 200 230 260 290

Static characteristics of instruments

Sensitivity of measurement
The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in instrument output that occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a given amount.
Scale deflection value of measurand producing deflection

Static characteristics of instruments

Effects of disturbance:

(a) zero drift;

Static characteristics of instruments

Effects of disturbance:

Static characteristics of instruments

Effects of disturbance:

(b) sensitivity drift;

(c) zero drift plus sensitivity drift.

Static characteristics of instruments

Hysteresis effects

Dynamic characteristics of instruments

The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument describe its behaviour between the time a measured quantity changes value and the time when the instrument output attains a steady value in response. LTI measuring system,

an

d n qo d n 1q dq + an 1 n 1o + L + a1 0 + a0 qo n dt dt dt m m 1 d q d q dq = bm m i + bm 1 m 1i + L + b1 i + b0 qi dt dt dt

qi is the measured quantity, q0 is the output reading and a0 . . . an, b0 . . . bm are constants.

Dynamic characteristics of instruments

Zero order instrument
a0 qo = b0 qi
or

Dynamic characteristics of instruments

First order instrument
a1 dqo + a0 qo = b0 qi dt
or

qo = b0 qi / a0 = Kqi
where K is a constant known as the instrument sensitivity

qo =

Kqi 1 + D

where K = b0/a0 as the static sensitivity and = a1/a0 as the time constant of the system and D is d/dt operator

Example 1.5
A weather balloon is equipped with temperature and attitude measuring devices which transmit their readings to the ground via radio. The balloon is released from the ground with the instrument readings in steady-state. Assume that the altitude meter is a zero order instrument and that the temperature meter is a first order instrument with a time constant () of 15sec. The temperature on the ground (T0) is 10C and the temperature Tx at altitude x is given by the relation Tx= T0 0.01x. a) If the balloon is released at t = 0 and rises at a velocity of 5m/s, construct a table showing the altitude and temperature readings transmitted by the device at 10sec. intervals for the first 50sec. of flight and show the error in the temperature readings. b) What reading does the balloon report at 5000m?

Example 1.5 - Solution

Definitions: Tt = temperatur at altitude t = 15 sec
Kqi Tx Tt = 1 + D 1 + 15 D To relate Tx to time t: x = v t = 5t and substituting into Tx
From our general equation: q0 =

Tx = 10 0.01(5t ) = 10 0.05t Tt = 15 10 0.05t 1 + 15D (15D + 1)Tt = 10 0.05t

1 1 (D + 15 ) = 15 (10 0.05t )

Example 1.5 Solution Contd

For a first order ordinary differential equation of the form:

Example 1.5 Solution Contd

Ttp = 1 1 15 1 1 0.05 (10 0.05t ) 1 15 15 15
(2)

(D a ) y = P( x )
And the particular solution is of the form:

ax The complementary solution is of the form: y c = c1e Ttc = c1e 15

(1)

1 P' (x ) P n (x ) y p = P(x ) + +L+ a a an 1 (10 0.05t ) P( x ) 15

1 ( 0.05) P' ( x ) 15

1 = 15 (10 0.05t ) + 0.05 15 = 10 0.05t + (15)(0.05) = 10 0.05(t 15)

For the present case: Tt = Ttc + Ttp

= c1e

t 15

+ 10 0.05(t 15)

(3)

P' ' ( x )K P n ( x ) 0

Example 1.5 Solution Contd

Using the boundary condition of Tt = 10oC at t = 0 in equation 3

Example 1.5 Solution Contd

(a) Using equation (4) for Tt, the following table can be constructed:

Time (sec) 0 10 20 (4) 30 40 50

Altitude (m) 0 50 100 150 200 250 10

Tt (oC) 9.86 9.55 9.15 8.70 8.22

Tactual (oC) 10 9.50 9.00 8.50 8.00 7.50 0

T (oC) 0.36 0.55 0.65 0.70 0.72

10 = c1e

0 15

+ 10 0.05(0 15)
t 15

0 = c1 + 0.75 c1 = 0.75 Tt = 0.75e + 10 0.05(t 15)

(b) For x = 5000m, t = 1000sec. and Tt= 39.25C, n.b.Tactual= 40C as T approaches 0.75C for large values of t)

Dynamic characteristics of instruments

Second order instrument
a2
or

Dynamic characteristics of instruments

Second order instrument

d qo dq + a1 o + a0 qo = b0 qi dt 2 dt

qo =

b0 qi a0 + a1D + a2 D 2

or

qo K = qi D 2 / 2 + 2D / + 1

K (static sensitivity), (undamped natural frequency) and (damping ratio), where K = b0/a0; = a0/a2; = a1/2a0a2