Geological Forces That Shape the Earth Diastrophism To a casual observer, the crust of the earth is permanent &

fixed, but a great deal of evidence, both direct and indirect, shows that the earth is in constant motion. This is bec of the forces acting on its surface & within it Evidence of crustal movement comes in many forms and for all to see.

The dynamic internal forces, collectively known as DIASTROPHISM, generally tend to elevate the Earths surface. Types of Earth Movement 1. Uplift the movement of the earth wherein the crust rises 2. Subsidence a sinking or setting of a part of the earths crust with respect to the surrounding parts. 3. Thrust - horizontal movement of the earths crust. THEORIES OF DIASTROPHISM 1. Theory of Isotasy states that as rock fr higher region is removed by erosion & deposited on a lower region, the higher region slowly rises while the lower region becomes heavier & slowly sinks 2. Contraction Theory states that the earth is gradually shrinking. As the shrinkage occurs, the stronger & heavier blocks of the crust sink while the weaker strata are crowded & squeezed upward. 3. Convection Theory a theory which would account for the pushing & folding of rocks through convection current. 4. Continental Drift Theory a theory which accounts for diastrophic movement & for folding & faulting along the edges of the continents. 5. Expansion Theory a theory which states that the Earth is gradually expanding. Expansion of the Earth would change the continents position. Structural Features of Earths Movement a. Deformation of rocks effects of diastrophism is more clearly seen in rocks especially in sedimentary rocks. This is shown in tilts, bends, or break in the layer.

b. Folds a bend or flexure in a rock can be likened to waves on the ocean. Crust of the rock is called anticline Trough of the rock is called syncline.

c. Dip and Strike Dip the angle between the horizontal plane & a structural surface.

Strike the direction of a line along the edge of an inclined bed where it meets the horizontal plane. Always at the right of the dip

d. Pitching Fold Axes folds whose axes slant downward at each end of the imaginary line running along the top of an anticline or along the bottom of a syncline Pitch the angle between the axis and the horizontal e. Joints and Fissures Joints a fracture or little separation between the rock walls Fissures cracks or actual gaps between the rock walls f. Faulting the surface along which a rock body has been broken & has been displaced 2 Types 1. Vertical Faulting occurs when an entire block of rock is raised evenly so that the layers remain in their original horizontal position 2. Horizontal Faulting occurs when an entire block of rock is lowered evenly so that the laers remain in their original vertical position. Types of Faults 1. Thrust fault a low angle fault in which the hanging wall is moved upward in relation to the footwall

2. Normal Fault AKA gravity fault, a dip-slip fault in which the hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall.

3. Reverse Fault - the material above the fault plane that moves up in relation to the material below. EARTHQUAKES A ground displacement associated with the sudden release in the form of seismic waves, of built up stress in the lithosphere. Largest Earthquake can be felt more than 1, 600 km fr the source of shock

Seismograph a sensitive earthquake recording instrument Seismologist scientists who study earthquakes. CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES A. Crustal Plates The Earths surface crust is relatively thin and discontinuous that is, it is broken into a number of large fragments, called PLATES Plates are moving in slow continual motion with respect to each other. Currents within the hot, molten interior of the Earth, produced by thermal convection & the Earths rotation, are though to underlie plate movement In some areas, the plates are being driven apart as new molten material is forced upward between plates. In other regions, the plates slide past each other In a third kind of situation, plates push directly into each other, causing one plate to slide beneath the other.

The difference between plates, no matter in what direction, causes rocks to fracture along cracks (faults), creating earthquake. 95% of earthquakes occur on the edges on interacting plates Called Tectonic Earthquakes Most seismic region is located in a belt around the Pacific Ocean, known as the circumPacific belt & included within the zone are regions like Japan, Philippines, Chile.

5% - the next most seismic areas runs through the mountainous regions that flank the Mediterranean Sea & continues through Iran & on past the Himalayan complex. Only about 2% of quakes along the mid-ocean ridges. B. Man-Made Quakes Seismologist believe that both man-made reservoirs & deep wells lead to an increase in the pore-water pressure of underlying rocks, lessening their tensile strength. Also, an increase in water content may lubricate already existing fracture zones and may lead to active faulting

SEISMIC WAVES Sound waves travelling through & across the Earth that are produced by earthquakes Some waves travel down through the Earth & other waves travel over the surface ground

3 Major Types 1. Primary waves longitudinal wave; particles involved in these waves move forward & backward in the direction of wave travel causing relatively small displacements. 2. Shear Wave/Secondary Wave particle oscillate back & forth @right angles to the direction of wave travel S waves cause strong movements that can be recorded on seismographs.

3. Surface Movements travel along the outer layer of the earth 2 kinds: R (Rayleigh) waves and L (love) wave The last to arrive since it travels relatively slow

Effects of Earthquakes Soil Reactions

In severe earthquakes, shaking of the ground can loosen soil & rocks & precipitate
disastrous LANDSLIDES

A phenomenon known as LIQUIFICATION is another earthquake hazard the vibration

of the soil transforms it fr a firm material into a quicksand like substance.

Compaction ground shaking compacts the soil particles so that the ground settles. A
depression results, the land tilts & fissures open up. Seiches

Standing bodies of water such as lakes & reservoirs experience long-period

oscillations of the water level due to the large & generally far distant earth tremors. Seismic Sea Waves or Tsunami

Along seacoasts throughout the world, especially around the pacific, these gigantic wave
sometimes 25 meters high when crash into an inlet, constitute an unimaginable terror. EARTHQUAKE PREDICTIONS 3 Kinds of Pieces of Evidence Used for Predicting Earthquakes 1. Statistical Data fr the frequency of earlier recorded quakes in a given region, general statistical statements about future probabilities can be made. 2. Seismic Gaps fr the amt of seismic activity registered at monitoring stations along plate boundaries, scientists can determine which regions have been slipping & therefore releasing built-up strains, & which regions have been quiet seismic gaps that point to deficits in motion & indicate that stresses are building up

The seismic gaps are thus the most likely places for earthquakes. 3. Earthquake Precursors Phenomena

 These are the things that happen or rock properties that change prior to an earthquake. From these, it may be possible to identify warning signs of an earthquake before it occurs.
Several Kinds of Precursor a. Seismicity - a swarm of small tremors called foreshocks frequently, but not always precede a major earthquake. b. Wave speeds - Russian seismologists have successfully predicted several major quakes shortly after a change in the ratio of P and S waves This method hold a lot of promise but may not be applicable to all earthquake prone areas. c. Subsidence and Lift a vertical movement of the surface of the land indicates a build up of strains in the crust. d. Water Levels in the Well underground water levels often rise or fall before earthquakes. Water levels in wells fell noticeably just before the successful prediction of the 1975 earthquake in China. e. Geomagnetism Changes in the earths magnetic field have been measured prior to earthquakes in several place. f. Geoelectricity as water content in rock changes, so does the electrical resistance. When rocks become strained & microscopic cracks appear, more wter can enter, lowering electrical resistance. g. Strains The build-up of strain along the fault lines can be measured by determining the relative displacement between two points. Changes in the rate of displacement could indicate a coming earthquake. h. Radon content of ground water Radon a slight radioactive gas, found naturally in ground &well water An initial build-up spanning 10 yrs, followed by a sudden drop in the radon content of ground water were observed in Russia shortly before a major quake. i. Animal behavior some animals have been claimed to show unusual & restless behavior just before an earthquake.

THE PHILIPPINES AS AN EARTHQUAKE COUNTRY

The Philippines is located in the PACIFIC RING OF FIRE. The Philippine Archipelago lies between two major tectonic plates of the world. a. The northwestward moving PACIFIC PLATE is presently pushing the Philippines Sea Plate beneath the eastern side of our archipelago at a rate of about 7 cm per year. b. The oceanic parts of the slower-moving EURASIAN PLATE are being suducted along the western side of Luzon and Mindoro at the rate of 3 cm per year.

The

plate interactions, displacements along the Philippine Fault Zone which decouple the northwestward motion of the Pacific with the southwestward motion of the Eurasian Plate, & movements along other active faults are responsible for the presentday high seismicity of the Philippine archipelago.

At least 5 earthquakes per day occur in the Philippines

Based on the distribution of earthquake epicenters , the most seismically active (with an

average of 16 perceptible earthquakes per year) part of the Philippines is its eastern section including: a. Eastern Mindanao b. Samar c. Leyte This is due to the active subduction process going on along the Philippine Trench Other relatively active parts are found at the eastern side of Northern Luzon & the area in the vicinity of Lubang island and Mindoro.

The identified EARTHQUAKE GENERATORS in the Philippine archipelago are the following: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. Philippine trench East Luzon Trench Manila Trench Collisional Zone between Palawan and Mindoro Negros Trench Collisional Zone between Zamboanga Peninsula and Western Mindanao Sulu Trench Cotobato trench Davao trench Philippines Fault Zone and its many branches Many active faults(e.g., Lubang, Tablas, Casiguran, and Mindanao Faults.

INTENSITY VS MAGNITUDE There are two general ways to describe the strength of an earthquake: 1. Intensity Based on how people, man-made structures, natural objects and land surfaces behave and react in the areas affected by the earthquake. In the Philippines, we use a modified Rossi-Forel Earthquake Intensity Scale Source: PHIVOLCS

Intensity Scale I II III

Description
Scarcely Perceptible - Perceptible to people under favorable circumstances. Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates slowly. Slightly Felt - Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects swing slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates noticeably. Weak - Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of buildings. Vibration is felt like one passing of a light truck. Dizziness and nausea are experienced by some people. Hanging objects swing moderately. Still water in containers oscillates moderately. Moderately Strong - Felt generally by people indoors and by some people outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like a passing of heavy truck. Hanging objects swing considerably. Dinner, plates, glasses, windows and doors rattle. Floors and walls of wood framed buildings creak. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in containers are slightly disturbed. Water in containers oscillate strongly. Rumbling sound may sometimes be heard. Strong - Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many sleeping people are awakened. Some are frightened, some run outdoors. Strong shaking and rocking felt throughout building. Hanging objects swing violently. Dining utensils clatter and clink; some are broken. Small, light and unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from filled open containers. Standing vehicles rock noticeably. Shaking of leaves and twigs of trees are noticeable. Very Strong - Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some people lose their balance. motorists feel like driving in flat tires. Heavy objects or furniture move or may be shifted. Small church bells may ring. Wall plaster may crack. Very old or poorly built houses and man-made structures are slightly damaged though well-built structures are not affected. Limited rockfalls and rolling boulders occur in hilly to mountainous areas and escarpments. Trees are noticeably shaken. Destructive - Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it difficult to stand in upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture overturn or topple. Big church bells may ring. Old or poorly-built structures suffer considerably damage. Some well-built structures are slightly damaged. Some cracks may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road surface, or concrete hollow block walls. Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides are observed. Trees are shaken strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by which loose saturated sand lose strength during an earthquake and behave like liquid). Very Destructive - People panicky. People find it difficult to stand even outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably damaged. Concrete dikes and foundation of bridges are destroyed by ground settling or toppling. Railway tracks are bent or broken. Tombstones may be displaced, twisted or overturned. Utility posts, towers and monuments mat tilt or topple. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or broken. Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man- made structure to sink, tilt or topple. Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas. Boulders are thrown out from their positions particularly near the epicenter. Fissures and faults rapture may be observed. Trees are violently shaken. Water splash or stop over dikes or banks of rivers.

IV

VI

VII

VIII

IX

Devastating - People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and shake with fear. Most buildings are totally damaged. bridges and elevated concrete structures are toppled or destroyed. Numerous utility posts, towers and monument are tilted, toppled or broken. Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and liquefaction with lateral spreadings and sandboils are widespread. the ground is distorted into undulations. Trees are shaken very violently with some toppled or broken. Boulders are commonly thrown out. River water splashes violently on slops over dikes and banks. Completely Devastating - Practically all man-made structures are destroyed. Massive landslides and liquefaction, large scale subsidence and uplifting of land forms and many ground fissures are observed. Changes in river courses and destructive seiches in large lakes occur. Many trees are toppled, broken and uprooted.

2. Magnitude calculated mathematically using the amt and duration of movements that ground vibration causes on the needle of a standard seismograph Charles F. Richter, an American seismologist, devised a scale for expressing the total energy released by an earthquake. RICHTER SCALE Magnitude Scale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Description Earthquake with M below 1 are only detectable when an ultra sensitive seismometer is operated under favorable conditions. Most earthquakes with M below 3 are the "hardly perceptible shocks" and are not felt. They are only recorded by seismographs of nearby stations. Earthquake with M 3 to 4 are the "very feeble shocks" and only felt near the epicenter. Earthquakes with M 4 to 5 are the "feeble shocks" where damages are not usually reported. Earthquakes with M 5 to 6 are the "earthquakes with moderate strength" and are felt over the wide areas; some of them cause small local damages near the epicenter. Earthquake with M 6 to 7 are the "strong earthquakes" and are accompanied by local damages near the epicenters. First class seismological stations can observe them wherever they occur within the earth. Earthquake with M 7 to 8 are the "major earthquakes" and can cause considerable damages near the epicenters. Shallow-seated or near-surface major earthquakes when they occur under the sea, may generate tsunamis. First class seismological stations can observe them wherever they occur within the earth. Earthquake with M 8 to 9 are the "great earthquakes" occurring once or twice a year. When they occur in land areas, damages affect wide areas. When they occur under the sea, considerable tsunamis are produced. Many aftershocks occur in areas approximately 100 to 1,000 kilometers in diameter. Earthquakes with M over 9 have never occurred since the data based on the seismographic observations became available.