13.

Integral Domains and Fields

Integral Domains While the set of integers is one of our prototypical examples of a ring, there are too many important properties of Z unaccounted for in the definition of ring; besides being commutative and having a unity element, the most important arithmetical property of Z not captured by satisfying the definition of a ring is that while only 1 and 1 are units, there is still a cancellation property: ab = ac b = c . This leads to the following definitions. The element a in a ring is called a zero divisor if there exists a nonzero b in the ring so that ab = 0. A commutative ring with unity is called an integral domain if it contains no zero divisors. Examples: Z is an integral domain (of course!) Zn is an integral domain only when n is a prime, for if n = ab is a nontrivial factorization of n, then ab = 0 in this ring Z[x] is an integral domain

13. Integral Domains and Fields

Theorem If a, b, and c are elements of an integral domain D and a 0, then ab = ac b = c . Proof ab = ac a(b c) = 0 b c = 0 since b c cannot be a zero divisor. // In much the same way that the structure of an integral domain is more descriptive of the integers than the basic structure of a ring, the rings Q, R, and C all share a basic property not identified by the fact that they are rings: in each example, every nonzero element is a unit. Any ring in which all nonzero elements are units is called a field. There are other rings that have the additional structure of a field. Theorem Any finite integral domain is a field. Proof Let D be a finite integral domain and suppose that a is any nonzero element. If a = 1, then a is its own inverse. If not, the list of powers of a must eventually repeat: there are positive integers i > j so that a i = a j . By cancellation, we get a i j = 1. But a 1, so i j > 1 and the inverse of a is a i j 1. //

13. Integral Domains and Fields

Corollary If p is a prime, then Z p is a field. Proof All we need to show is that Z p contains no zero divisors. So suppose ab mod p = 0. Then there is some integer k so that ab = pk, whence p divdes the product ab. It follows that either p divides a (b mod p = 0). So (a mod p = 0) or p divides b neither a nor b is a zero divisor. // More examples of fields: Z3 [i], the set of all polynomial expressions in powers of i = 1 with coefficients from the field Z3 (the Gaussian integers mod 3); any element of this ring has the form a + bi with a, b Z3 since i 2 = 1 Z3 , and every nonzero element is a unit (see the multiplication table on p. 251) Q[ 2], the set of polynomial expressions in powers of 2 with rational coefficients; again, any element of this ring has the form a + b 2 for rational a and b, and all nonzero elements are units because 1 a+b 2 = 1 a +b 2 a b 2 a b 2 = b 2 2 2 2 2 a 2b a 2b a

13. Integral Domains and Fields

The characteristic of a ring R, denoted char R, is the smallest positive integer n such that nx = 0 for all x in the ring; if no such integer exists, we say that the ring has characteristic 0. Theorem A ring R with unity 1 has positive characteristic n if and only if the order of 1 within the additive group that defines R equals n. The ring has characteristic 0 if and only if 1 has infinite order under addition. Proof 1 has additive order n > 0 n 1 = 0 nx = x + x2 +L + x = (1 +4 12 +L + 1)x = (n 1) x = 0 1 4 4 4 4 3 1 4 3 char R = n. Further, if 1 has infinite order then char R must be 0; the converse is clear. //
n terms n terms

13. Integral Domains and Fields

Theorem If D is an integral domain, then char D is either 0 or a prime number. Proof If 1 has infinite order in D, then char D = 0. Otherwise, char D equals the finite order n of 1 under addition. But if n is composite, it factors as n = rs with 0 < r, s < n. So 0 = n 1 = (rs) 1 = r (s 1) = ( r 1)(s 1), and since there are no zero divisors, either r 1 = 0 or s 1 = 0, in violation of the fact that n is the smallest positive integer so that n 1 = 0. Thus n must be prime. //