HOLOGRAPHY TECHNI QUE AND PRACTI CE

MATT LEHMANN
Abstract
A discussion of what a hologram is and how it is made is followed by a detailed
procedure describing how to determine whether a proposed holographic
system will be successful. Particular attention is given to the formation of the
fringe pattern as it is the delineation of the fringes which determine the
requirements and quality in holography. Several holographic systems are
discussed giving the advantages and disadvantages of each as well as a
description of the optical elements required.
Introduction
During its short life, the laser has probably had more misinformation
published about it than any other scientific discovery. A few years ago a
San Francisco newspaper published a full page advertisement, depicting.
a laser cannon shooting down missiles, entitled The Incredible Laser.
Dr Arthur Schawlow, one of the inventors of the laser, has this advertise-
ment posted on the door of his laboratory with the sub-caption, For
CREDIBLE Lasers, See Inside! The laser is, however, truly an
incredible tool in the field of optics. It has made possible the technique
of wave-front reconstruction, more popularly known as holography.
The dramatic realism achieved by holographic reconstruction has
captured the imagination of scientist, engineer and layman alike. As
with any new dramatic discovery, reports frequently have scant regard
for verisimilitude. However, an understanding of what holography is,
how it can be accomplished, and its limitations and advantages are essen-
tial to its utilization as a valuable tool for engineers and scientists in all
fields of endeavour.
Although holographic recordings are not limited to photographic
techniques alone, what applies to photographic methods are readily
adapted to any other recording systems.

1. What is a hologram?
What precisely is a hologram and how does it differ from a conventional
photograph? Since we are all familiar with conventional photography
the difference between holography and photography will be a good place

to start.




MATT LEHMANN HOLOGRAPHY-TECHNIQUE AND PRACTICE
The light reflected from each point on an object is scattered in all photographic, film can record only intensity (the square of the amplitude).
directions. If a photographic plate is illuminated by this scattered light,
it would be uniformly exposed and no image would be recorded. This
We can trick the film into recording phase and amplitude by removing
the lens or pinhole and provide a reference source of unmodulated light
can be readily seen as a ray of light from any point on the object and can energy (fig. Ic). The light intensity recorded by the photographic film
be traced to every point on the plate (fig. Ia). If we insert a pinhole is now a function of the amplitude of the wave from the object and of
Obj ect
Fi l m
(a)
Uni forml y
exposed
Object or Fi l m
Lens
(b)
Conventional
photograph
Hol ogram
fri nges
Ref erence
(c)
Fig. I Comparison of conventional photography and holography.
between the plate and the object only one ray can gel to the plate from
each point on the object (fig. I b). An image of each pbint is formed and
thus an image of the object. A lens will do a better light gathering job
than the pinhole but the principle is the same. The distribution of light
and dark areas on the object is imaged on the film and a conventional
photograph is the result.
the wave from the reference. When the two waves interact on the film
they provide maximum intensity when the crests of the waves meet and
a minimum when a crest and a valley meet. This interaction of the two
light waves forms lines of exposure on the photographic film. As each
point (resolution cell) on the object contributes its share of lines or
fringes, all the optical information about the object is stored on the plate.
Remembering that the fringes dictate the position of each object point
as it relates to the reference, illumination of the processed film with the
reference illumination will reconstruct the, original light waves and the
object appears as if by magic. Note that to produce a hologram we merely
substituted a reference source for the pinhole or lens, hence the designa-
tion lensless photography frequently applied to holography or pre-
ferably its generic title wave-front reconstruction.
A simple mathematical concept will shed additional light on the for-
mation of a hologram and reconstruction of the image. The intensity of a
light source I can be expressed as the amplitude a of the light wave times
its complex conjugate a*. That is
I = a.a*.
(1)
Letting R indicate the reference and 0 the object, the light intensity
exposing the film can be expressed
I f = (R+O)(R+O*)
(2)
Note that
= R.R*+O.O+R.O*+O.R+.
(3)
R.R? = 1, the intensity of light from the reference
and 0.0: = I, the intensity of light from the object so
I, = I,,+I,+R.~*+O.R.
(4)
Now if we play back the hologram with the reference R, the light trans-
mitted through the hologram film
Although light is a wave-form that has both amplitude and phase,
2
T = I,.R = RI,+RI,i-R.R.O*+R.R*.O.
(5)
RI, and RI0 are unmodulated illumination intensities but R. R*. O can
be written In.O, or the reference intensity modulated by the object
amplitude; clearly this is an optical rendition of the object.
3
MATT LEHMANN HOLOGRAPHY-TECHNIQUE AND PRACTOCE
The PI R. O* is the real or conjugate image coming into focus in front
of the holographic plate. The presence of both a real and virtual image is
characteristic of all holographic processes, but in pictorial holography
the recording geometry is usually arranged so that the real image does
not interfere with viewing the virtual image appearing to exist behind
the plate or film.
The reflected light from the object and the light from the reference
must originate from the same highly coherent source to form inter-
ference fringes on the film. Coherence means that there must be a
definite continuing relationship between the object and reference illu-
mination. This is accomplished if all the light originates from one point
and is all of the same wavelength (i.e. colour). Fortunately many kinds
of lasers melt this requirement as a source of illumination.
Reference
Emulsion
thickness
z.q Film
backing
Fringe spacing

The formation on photographic film of a fringe pattern expressing the
position of every point or resolution cell on the object as it relates to the
reference is a hologram. A thorough understanding of how these fringes
are formed is necessary to evaluate the physical limitations in making the
hologram. The stability of the system, the film resolution required, and
even to some extent the degree of coherence required are all dependent
on how these fringes are formed.
F i l m
emulsion
???
In the formation of the hologram fringes the angle 0 between the
reference and object is all important (Fig. 2a). Each pofnt on the object
bears a distinct relationship to the point reference dictated by the angle
formed between the object ray and reference ray as they meet on the
surface of the film. The spacing of the fringes can be shown by simple
geometrical construction to follow the equation (fig. 2b).
-I-
@-Large
Fine fringes
(cl
Coarse fringes
where d is the spacing between fringes and is the wavelength of the
light used. It is apparent that a single wavelength source must be used,
for with multiple wavelengths, each wavelength would produce its own
set of fringes and make reconstruction impossible.
This equation that expresses the relationship between the fringe
spacing, illumination angle and wavelength is known as Braggs Law and
is fundamental to hologram reconstruction as well as recording.
Every point on the recording film and on the object will provide a
slight variation to the angular relationship and consequently a variation
in fringe spacing. Since it is the fringe spacing that delineates the object
4
R

%ik--

I
fringes
0
(e)
Fig. 2 Fringe spacing dependence on object/reference angle.
during reconstruction, all of the optical information about the object is
recoverable and the parallax and three-dimensionality of the reconstruc-
tion is assured.
5

MATT LEHMANN
Since the spacing of the fringes is inversely proportional to sin40
(assuming, of course, a single wavelength source), the larger the angle 0
the finer the fringes (fig. zc). Conversely, when the angle is small, the
fringes are far apart (fig. 2d). This is a relative matter, however, since
when 0 = 1 the fringe spacing is approximately 40 /on or &,- of a milli-
metre. This is coarse, however, when compared with the thickness of the
film emulsion which is less than 20 /fin. When the fringes are compara-
tively coarse the hologram acts as a diffraction grating and can be viewed

by a point source of partially filtered white light, such as from the sun
or a flashlight through coloured gelatin. As the fringes become finer the
Bragg effect becomes apparent. This requires a fairly precise alignment of
the hologram with the illuminating beam to effect constructive refraction
by the fringe pattern. This angle corresponds to the conjugate of the
reference angle during recording (i.e. the angle the reference beammakes
with the surface of the hologram).
When the reference-object angle approaches 180 the fringes are
formed parallel (or nearly so) to the surface of the film emulsion (fig. ae).
The fringe spacing becomes +h or about o-3 ilrn. Holograms made with
this geometry are called Bragg-Lippman type, Denisyuk holograms, or
more descriptively, reflection holograms. These holograms are distinc-
tive in that they can be viewed in the reflection of a point source of white
light. Complying with the Bragg condition that constructive interference
is dependent on wavelength, illumination angle and fringe spacing, the
hologram acts as a colour filter and only the colour (i.e. wavelength) that
is a function of the illumination angle and fringe spacing reconstructs to
form the image.
2. Requirements for making a hologram
A hologram is a system of fringes recorded on photographic film or plate.
If the fringes move one-half fringe width during recording no fringes are
recorded and there is no hologram image. When the fringes move less
than one-half fringe width the hologram image may not be destroyed
but the brightness is adversely affected. Unlike conventional photo-
graphy, movement causes loss of image brightness rather than blurring.
It is apparent, therefore, that the finer the fringe spacing the greater the
restriction on movement during recording. This means movement of the
object being recorded as well as movement of the recording film, mirrors,
beam splitters or even the air through which the illuminating beam must
pass.
HOLOGRAPHY-TECHNIQUE AND PRACTICE
2.I. Stability requirement
The stability of the hologram recording system must be assured before
any attempt is niade to photograph the fringes. This can be accomplished
by setting up what corresponds to a long-legged Michelson interfero-
meter on the table intended for the system, and observing the fringe
stability. The bcnm splitter and first surface mirror no. I, which are to
be part of the system, are set up as shown in fig. 3~. The laser beam is
& Laser Beam
a. Stability
Laser Beam
b. Coherence
Fig. 3 Stability and coherence measurement.
directed through these elements and the two beams thus achieved re-
flected back on themselves by two additional first surface mirrors, nos. z
and 3. These mirrors are placed on the work surface down the beam
approximately where the object is to be located during recording. The
distancedshould be approximately equal to dr + &. Adjust the two mirrors
nos. 2 and 3 until the back reflections of each mirror are superimposed on
a wall or other matte surface. Placing a short focal length lens in the back
reflected beam near the splitter will then expand the superimposed
beams so that the interference fringes can be clearly seen. Observing the
movement of these fringes will indicate the stability of the proposed
system. If a fringe moves as much as one-quarter of its width during the
7

MATT LEHMANN
time that will be required to expose the hologram film the system stability
must be improved to ensure success.
If the lack of stability is indicated, check the following:
1. Floor vibration transferred through to the work surface.
2. Inadequate rigidity of splitter or mirror supports.
3. Air movement across the light path from air conditioning or venti-
lating system.

4. Temperature changes in any part of the system. (Handling of
mirrors or mirror supports can warm up these elements such that the
shrinkage as they return to the ambient room temperature is sufficient to
cause fringe movement.)
5. Accoustical disturbances such as loud talking or radios playing
which cause vibration of the optical elements.
2.2. Coherence measurement
This same set up for measuring stability can also be used to determine
the coherence length (i.e. axial coherence) of the laser. While it is true
that a laser, especially a HeNe gas laser, is highly coherent, its coherence
length is limited. The depth of an object of which a hologram can be
made is limited by the coherence length of the source. For this test the
two mirrors nos. 2 and 3 can be placed quite close to the splitter and
mirror no. I (fig. 3b). This will reduce the stability problems originating
from air movement and accoustical disturbances.. With the distance
from the splitter to the mirrors equal, that is, d = di + da, both paths are
identical and the fringes projected on the wall or screen will be of maxi-
mum contrast. When mirror no. 2 is moved back the fringe contrast will
be degraded. For most gas lasers axial coherence is a function of laser
cavity length. Note that d is actually a round trip path so that when d
equals one-half the laser cavity length this is a light path difference of
one cavity length. At one cavity length the fringe contrast will be a
minimum increasing again to almost full contrast at two cavity lengths
of path difference. For maximum fringe contrast in the hologram the
maximum path difference must be kept to a reasonable fraction of the
-
laser cavity length. A safe figure is one-quarter cavity length, but this can
be increased if the coherence length test indicates the axial coherence
is sufficient.
The real image of the transparency can be viewed with a CW laser. A
small diameter beam from the HeNe laser is passed through the pro-
cessed hologram. The real image can be detected on a matte surface.
Scanning the hologram with the small beam should produce an image in
which there are only minor changes in brightness over the image surface
Movement of bright areas in the reconstruction indicate lack of trans-
verse coherence.
Transverse coherence of the laser can be checked by observing the con-
figuration of a cross-section of the laser beam (see plate I a). To observe
Axial coherence measurement requires a more elaborate system. A
the beam it must be expanded with. a lens and spatially filtered with a
hologram is made as for transverse coherence except that the object in
this case is a Fabry-Perot interferometer with specially coated mirrors
HOLOGRAPHY-TECHNIQUE AND PRACTICE
pinhole filter. If the laser is operating in the TEAI, mode the output
from the filterwill beasmooth Gaussian spot (see plate I b). Other modes,
which will bc doughnut or double ovals in shape, indicate a deficiency
in transverse coherence (see plates I c and I d).
Filtering of the laser beam can be accomplished by placing a pinhole
at the focal point of the expanding lens. The size of this pinhole D can be
determined from the equation
where
D = 2(1*22);5
(7)
is the wavelength of the laser light,
d is the diameter of the laser beam incident on the lens, and
f is the focal length of the lens.
A I mil (o-001 in) pinhole will effectively filter the average laser when
a IO x microscope objective is used to expand the laser beam. It is well
to point out that a I mil pinhole is difficult to position without a three
axis micro-positioner.
Coherence measurements of a pulsed laser require a somewhat different
approach. The pulsed nature of the laser output makes it impossible to
observe the fringes visually so a photograph must be made. A hologram of
the laser output will give the necessary information about the coherence.
Transverse coherence can be determined by making a hologram of a
transparency of a letter or number on a diffusing background (fig. 4a).
Prisms arc used as splitters and for beam steering to avoid mirror
damage frequently encountered with high-peak energy lasers. A nega-
tive lens is used to expand the beam to avoid ionization of the air at the
focal point of a positive lens due to high-energy concentrations. Stability
is, of course, no problem with sub-microsecond pulses.
9

MATT LEHMANN HOLOGRAPHY-TECHNIQUE AND PRACTICE
and with one mirror sloped slightly to obtain multiple, spaced, internal
reflections (fig, 4b). The mirrors are coated to be selectively reflective to
the wavelength being examined. For the ruby laser this is 694.3 nano-
meters. The multiple reflections in the Fabry-Perot are similar to the
multiple reflections in a barber shop mirror. A hologram made of the
output from the interferometer will reveal a number of equally spaced
Prism splitter
Prism

to set up the system and expose the film. However, some discussion of
film response is pertinent. There is always a trade-off between film

speed and resolution. The high resolution films are invariably very slow.

It is also essential that the film selected have adequate sensitivity in the
spectral range of the laser being used. Information on the relative spectral
sensitivity of a film is usually available from the manufacturer; however,
the information on film speed is generally not adequate for holography.
Transmission holograms are reconstructed by illumination of the
film or plate and observing the image by the light transmitted through

the emulsion. It is therefore desirable to have the film as transmissive as
possible consistent with enough density to carry the fringe information
essential for image reconstruction. The film curve which gives-the
incident energy requirements is called the T/E curve (i.e. Transmission-

Exposure curve). Film manufacturers customarily present their film
characteristics with the H and D curve (Hurter and Driffield), which
a. Transverse coherence
Prism splitter
Speci al l y coat ed
mirrors. adjustable
Hol ogram
film
b. Axial coherence
Fig. 4. Pulse laser coherence measurement.
is a plot of density against log ex osure and hence improper for holo-
graphy.
The ideal exposure for a hologram is that exposure required to pro-
vidc a transmitted intensity varying uniformly about the mid-point of
the straight-line portion of the T/E curve. Furthermore, the variations
in exposure should not extend beyond this straight-line segment of the
curve (fig. 5).
The fringe contrast formed by interference between the object and

the reference beams will produce exposure variations about the mean
~~
measured intensity. When these exposure variations stay within the
~.
straight line portion of the T/E curve the resulting transmission through
the processed film is an amplified replica of this exposing wave. The
resulting image in the hologram is actually brighter than would be anti-
cipated with conventional imaging on the same film. Actual amplification
of the imaging process has been accomplished by holographic recording.
It is also apparent that if the maximum or minimum esposure extends
beyond the straight line portion there will be some distortion of the
transmitted information. The result of such distortion in the hologram is
higher order images (ghost images) and cross-correlation. A study of the
T/E curve will also show that when the bias point is placed for low trans-
mission (higher densities), very large variations in the input result in
only small variations in the transmitted output. This means that the
hologram image will be of low brightness and weak contrast.
The ideal bias point for exposure is that which records fringes that
spots.- Dependent on the geometry of the system and spacing of Fabry-
Perot mirrors, the second or third spot will define a zero path-length
difference. The other spots will correspond to progressively increasing
path-length differences equal to twice the mirror spacing. Thus the
visibility of the spots in the hologram will indicate the coherence length
of the laser as a function of the Fabry-Perot mirror spacing.
2.3. Film exposure
Having ascertained that the stability of the system and the coherence
of the illuminating source are adequate for holography, it only remains
I0 II
MATT LEHMANN
Fig. 5. The transmission/exposure curve.
will reconstruct an image of maximum brightness and minimum distor-
tion. This means that the swings in exposure must stay within the
straight-line portion of the TE curve. The intensity contributing to

exposure of the film can be expressed by the equations:

IiT = 10 + In f q&J,) (8)
where
IE is the intensity incident on the film, and
I, and IR are the intensities of the object and reference incident on the
film separately.
Selection of the correct ratio of reference/object contribution to the
energy incident on the film can be determined by solving this equation.
To obtain the maximum brightness of the image it would appear that

a one to one ratio is desired. This would make I , = I n and


IE =
10 + 2 2 a0 101 10 (9)
2I OfZI O=. 1
0
= +ql,
00)
12
HOLOGRAPHY-TECHNIQUE AND PRACTICE
This-ratio would obviously cause the input fringes to extend beyond
the straight-line portion of the T/E curve with resultant distortion in the
holographic image.
A 911 reference/object ratio would result in an exposure intensity:
IE =
&I + 91, f 2 &IO 910) (11)
=IO&, + GI , =
+do
+ 161,
This ratio will probably maintain the exposure variation within the

linear portion of the T/ E curve. Each film has its characteristic T/ E
.
curve so that ideal reference/object ratios must be selected to accom-
modate the film characteristic. However, for the usual three-dimensional
object the ratio is not a critical factor. For most films used in holography,
a ratio of 411 to xo/r,will give satisfactory results.
--
2.4. Films for holography
Any photographic film or plate can be used to make a hologram. The
resolving power of the film will determine the limiting angle between
object and reference since the fringe spacing is a function of this angle.
This, of course, assumes that the film spectral range includes the wave-
length of the laser being used to make the hologram. Comparatively fast
films such as Eastman Kodak Plus X and Linograph Shellburst can
resolve up to about 50 lines per millimetre. The Bragg equation for
fringe spacing can be solved to determine the allowable reference/object ----
angle; i.e.
-
(1)d =

2 sin ge
so solving for 0
8
zsin; = h 5
(
d
)
(13)
for small angles O=h f
( )

(14)
where I / d = lines per millimetre,
h = wavelength of laser source,
and 0 = sin0 for small angles.
Solving for 8 when I / d equals 50 lines per millimetre and A is the wave-
length of HeNe laser (632.8 nanometers), the maximum allowable
reference/object angle is x.75.
MATT LEHMANN
1.0
0.8
0.6
il I
yrEastman 649F tia?e 1
I
- 0.4
3
tiIi!iE
/ ;
0.2 I
\ i
-1-I
t
\o
0
0 I
L-erJ-
txposure rpl I cm-1
I I I I I
I
20 40
.._ 3.
60
(4

1.0
c
.o
0. 6
*I!
$ 0. 4
t-
p 0.2
E"
a
0


ib)
0 .20 .40 .60
Exposure (pi/cm*)
.80
Fig. 6. Characteristic transmission/exposure curves for several films
availnble for holography.
A narrow angle hologram such as this is called a lensless Fourier-
transform hologram, or under certain conditions a Fraunhofcr or far
field hologram and is distinguished by the reconstruction of both the
image and its conjugate flanking the bright centre spot of the reference.
The larger film grain inherent in fast films is also a limiting factor, When
the film grain size is a large fraction of a wavelength of light it diffracts
the light passing through the film and causes a bright glow around the
I4
HOLOGRAPHY-TECHNIQUE AND PRACTICE
centre spot which may spread over and swamp the reconstruction of the
image. This is called film grain noise and although it varies considerably
over different films it is more prevalent in the faster emulsions.
The best films for holography are the very high-resolution, fine-grain
emulsions such as Eastman Kodak 649F, (a spectroscopic film), or
Agfa-Gcvacrt SE70 which was developed specifically for laser photo-
graphy (fig. 6~2). Both of these films are capable of resolving better than
3ooo lines per millimctre and can be used to make reflection holograms
which require the maximum in resolution capability. Both Eastman
Kodak and Agfa-Gevaert make somewhat faster high resolution films
with different characteristics curves (fig. 66).
All four films for which T/E curves are given were exposed by a
HeNe laser, processed for 5 min in Eastman HRP developer, then washed
and fixed for 3 min. Processing solutions and baths were maintained at
20" C (68 F).
2.5. Film processing
Processing of the film is a straight-forward procedure following the
manufacturers recommended practice. High resolution developers are
preferred. Maintaining precise temperature control is not essential but
would be desirable if consistent results are required. One word of warn-
ing: the Eastman Kodak HRP (High Resolution Process) Developer
will cause darkening of emulsion when the developer is old or nearly
exhausted.
Experimental studies of phase holography can be made by bleaching
the emulsion during or after processing. The potassium dichromate-
acid bleach works very well but will cause a brown stain if it is used after
the emulsion has been fixed. Information on processing and bleaching is
available through most film chemical manufacturers. The phase holo-
gram is interesting in that all the silver is removed from the emulsion
leaving a clear film or plate that still permits reconstruction of the
hologram image by diffraction of the transmitted light through the
plate.
Most photographic emulsions tend to shrink about 10% during
fixing apparently due to the removal of unexposed silver halide. This
becomes critical when reflection holograms are made as the fringes are
parallel to the surface of the emulsion so that shrinkage reduces fringe
spacing. As we have seen, the fringe spacing determines the colour with
which these reflection holograms reconstruct; thus a reduction in fringe
I5
MATT LEHMANN
spacing means a downward shift in wavelength. Holograms made with
the red illumination of the NeHe laser reconstruct in the green. To
correct this the film emulsion can be expanded back to its original
volume by soaking for 5 min in a 5% solution of triethanolamine. It is
possible, of course, to expand the emulsion to a greater than its original
thickness and produce a hologram that will only reconstruct in the infra-
red. Fortunately the triethanolamine is readily soluble in water and can
be removed by washing the film in a water-bath if it has remained too
long in the expanding solution. It also appears that film emulsions will
continue to shrink over a long time period and may have to be re-
expanded to reconstruct at the proper wavelength.
3. The elements of holographic systems
System layouts for holography range from the very simple system con-
sisting of only an expanding lens and film holder (fig. 7a) to a more
sophisticated layout with beam splitters and mirrors (fig. 8).
We have discussed methods and techniques of checking the facilities
for hologram making and the basic problems that may affect the quality :
of the product. The system layout for holographic photography is
HOLOGRAPY-TECHNIQUE AND PRACTICE
tant factor since with higher energy levels larger objects can be recorded
with shorter exposure times. The laser, however, need not be on the
same stable surface with the optical system.
3.2. Mirrors and splitters
Some sort of optical bench placed on the stable surface is desirable
but not essential. The optical bench permits precise location of the
various optical elements and will make it possible to repeat an experi-
ment or make accurate measurements if this is essential. The beam
splitter and mirror holders can be firmly supported on the bench. Clean,
best quality, first surface mirrors are necessary. Good first surface
mirrors on jj in plate glass are inexpensive and readily obtainable.
Mountings for mirrors need not be complicated or expensive. They
should be firm and rigid. Mirrors can be cemented to a brass or aluminum
frame or even held securely with edge clip mountings made for ordinary
plate mirrors. Care must be taken to use cements such as epoxy which
will not creep. If clips or similar holders are used they must be firm but
not clinched tight as the strains set up in a mirror will gradually relax and


cause creeping of the mirror with consequent fringe movement.

Holders for splitters are of necessity a bit more complicated as they
must be edge mounted to permit the laser beam to pass through the
splitter. A metal yoke with the bottom and the two sides rabbeted to
accept the splitter which is held firmly by spring clips is quite satis-
factory. A splitter made with graded densities of Inconel is most useful
as this permits varying the reflected and transmitted beams without
extreme loss of energy. Inconel coated glass wedges are available from
several optics supply firms. These will permit rcflectivities of from 4%
(uncoated glass) to 99% with the unreflected portion passing through
the splitter. Since it is usually necessary to have a much more intense

object illuminating beam than a reference beam (particularly with low

reflection objects), the ability to vary the reflected percentage without
loss in the transmitted beam is most advantngeou
splitters also reflect from the second face of the splitter. This produces
two beams close together, and when they overlap fringes are formed.
which adversely affect the uniformity of the illumination. A thick glass
substrate (p in) for the splitter will separate the two reflections, and elim-
inate this annoyance. In the event that Inconel splitters are not available
and one of the beams is excessively bright is can be attenuated with glass
neutral density filters readily available at all photographic supply houses.
I7
limited only by the imagination of the holographer. As we have seen the

hologram is very sensitive to vibration or movement of any kind so the
fewer optical elements that are incorporated the less
them
beam
chance that one of

will produce undesirable fringe movement. Furthermore, after the
has been spatially filtered, each additional optical element adds


unwanted spatial intensity variations.
3.1. Stable support
The first consideration in any set up to make holograms is a stable
surface to support the optical elements. The degree of stability required
is dependent on the laser power available and the elaborateness of the
holography contemplated. A simple Fourier-transform hologram (fig.
7c), where the reference, object, and film holder are contained in the
same support, can be made on an ordinary workbench! However, a more
general approach is usually desirable. A massive granite slab supported
on efficient vibration dampeners such as air cushioned supports makes
an ideal work surface.
A I in thick marble slab resting on 4 in of foam rubber or even on a
thick stack of newspapers will frequently provide adequate stability for
fairly sophisticated holographic experiments, Laser power is an impor-
I6
MATT LEHMANN HOLOGRAPHY-TECHNIQUE AND PRACTICE
3.3. Lenses and spatial filters
4. Types of holography
Since the output beam from the laser is from z to 5 mm in diameter
it must be expanded to fully illuminate the object, or in the case of the
- -
reference beam, it must cover the film surface. Inexpensive microscope

objectives are eminently successful for this purpose The reference
beam is spatially filtered after passing through the splitter and lens so that
high quality lenses are not necessary.
The spatial filter placed at the
focal point of the reference beam expanding lens must be a high quality
pinhole 0.001 in or less in diameter.
Such small precise pinholes are
best made by electroplating processes. Several manufacturers stock
these pinholes, formed in nickel, from o*ooo$ in diameter upwards.
3.4. Film plate holders
The basic hologram set up (fig. 7a), which is the simplest possible
arrangement to produce a hologram, will not, however, produce the
simplest hologram. The angle between the object and reference is
Laser
n.J-
Lens v I
Pi nhol e
filter
BASIC HOLOGRAM
SETUP (a)
Film and plate holders are also available for purchase. These, like the
mirrors, must be firmly supported but not stressed. When reflection
holograms are made both faces of the plate must be exposed. Therefore
conventional holders are not usable. A forked structure supporting the
plate on three sides similar to that described for the beam splitter will
provide the rigidity required. The plate must be held firmly by a spring-
loaded clip but like the other optical elements must not be stressed. It
must be remembered that handling any of the optical elements or their
supporting structures raises their temperature. They must be allowed to
dissipate their heat and return to the ambient temperature of the surround-
ing air. This is particularly true of the photographic plate as it is handled
preparatory to placing it in the film holder, For reflection type holograms,
with their severe fringe stability requirement, a period of 3-5 min may be
required to insure that the film has relaxed to room temperature.
object wi th
diffusing
back
LENSLESS FOURIER TRANSFORM
HOLOGRAM (b)
Collimating
Lens
Pri sm
Lens
3.5. Baffles
A somewhat neglected essential to successful holography is actually.
not an optical element; this is the baffle. It can be any kind of an opaque
curtain, preferably non-reflecting black. When all the optical elements
for a holographic experiment are in place the system must be checked to
insure that there is only one source of reference illumination. Sighting
through the film holder the relative positions of the object and reference
can be seen. If any other point of light is visible other than the one point .
of reference it must be blocked bysome sort of a baffle. Multiple re-
ferences, if not prevented, will cause ghost images. in-reconstruction.
I8
Transparency
I I
object wi th
diffusing back
f f -I
FOURI ER TRANSFORM HOLOGRAM (c)
Fig. 7. Some simple holographic set-ups.
necessarily fairly large with consequent fine fringe spacing and sensitivity
to movement or vibration. Probably the best arrangement for the first
hologram is the lensless Fourier-transform hologram (fig. 7b). This set-
up is also called Fraunhofer or far-field holography. The separation
between the reference and the object should be quite small compared
rPinhole
I
Film
/
/ I
LTransforming
Lens
I9
MATT LEHMANN
with the distance to the film plane so that the reference/object angle is
small and the fringe spacing is large, reducing the sensitivity of the system
to vibration. This set up is distinguished by the fact that the film plane
is in the far field of the diffuser placed behind the object. The Fourier-
transform set-up uses a transforming lens to produce identical results
(fig. 7c). A prism is used to steer a portion of the beam and provide the
reference. The film and transparency are placed at the focal point of the
lens so that a prism must be selected that will deflect the beam to accom-
modate the lens geometry. The Fourier-transform arrangement using a
lens is therefore not as flexible as the lensless system which permits
placing the film plane at any distance which will provide the desired
fringe spacing. The geometry can thus be adapted to the resolution
capability of a particular film.
The geometry shown for making a Fourier-transform hologram with a
lens (fig. 7c) can also be used for reconstruction of a hologram. The
reference is omitted and the hologram-is placed in the position of the
transparency and diffuser. The Fourier-transform hologram will recon-
struct on a matte surface at the focal point of the lens. The image and its
conjugate will appear flanking the bright centre spot. Only if the refer-
ence and object both originated in the same plane when the hologram
was made will both images be in focus.
A typical set up for making three-dimensional object holograms is


shown in fig. 8a. Looking through the film holder at the illuminated

object will indicate how the virtual image will appear on reconstruction.
An iris is shown in the object beam. This can he used in place of a baffle
to control the spread of the beam and cut of light that would fall on the
back of the film or reference beam mirror.
Reflection holograms, which reconstruct with a point source of white
light, require a set-up where the film can be placed between the object
and reference (fig. 8b). To view the reconstructed hologram through the
glass side of the photographic plate, the emulsion side must be placed
toward the object during exposure. The reference illumination is
arranged to be incident on the plate at an angle of I0 to 20 degrees from
the perpendicular. Baffles must be used to control the light. A piece of
glass placed in the film holder will reflect the object showing how it will
appear on reconstruction. As this type of holographic recording has the
finest fringe spacing it is the most sensitive to movement or vibration.
Only films of the highest resolution can be used and every precaution
must be taken to insure stability.
20

HOLOGRAPHY-TECHNIQUE AND PRACTICE
Making high quality holograms is not difficult but it does require a
knowledge of how a hologram is formed in order that the limitations can
be appreciated. It is discouraging to attempt a holographic experiment
and not know why it failed. Checking the stability of the system and

knowing the resolution and exposure limitations on the film will


c
Spl i tter
l-
Pi nhol e
FRESNEL HOLOGRAM (a)
vSplitter /-Pinhole
Mirror
Obj ect
REFLECTION HOLOGRAM
W
Fig. 8. Typical holographic set-ups.
assist materially in assuring a successful experiment. It is always advis-
.
able to start with a simple format not overly demanding in fringe
requirements.
The encouragement implicit in initial success is an essential ingredient
for confidence in continuing research. Application of the procedures
described in this paper will provide a sound basis for the development of
holographic techniques applicable to diverse fields of engineering
research.
Acknowledgments
Specific references to prior publications of holographic methods have
been omitted from this paper as all successful researchers in this field
21

have experienced and solved these problems. Much of this paper is the
result of experimentation in the Stanford University Electronic Labora-
tories. However, the author wishes to acknowledge the work of Emmett
Lcith and Juris Upatnieks of the University of Michigan, Robert Collier,
Keith Pennington and Lawrence Lin of Bell Laboratories, J. W. Good-
man, D. W. Jackson,
and W. H. Huntley of Stanford University
Electronic Laboratories.

MATT LEHMANN




(4
LEHMANN
22
Plate I (a-d). Examples of mode patterns in a CW laser. (a) Typical CW laser beam.
(b) Same beam with 0001 spatial filter. (c) Multi-mode pattern. (d) TE& mode
pattern.