1.

Abstract:

Over time, automobiles have changed dramatically from their first inception. The focus
of this report was on the replacement of traditional metal parts with plastic parts. The reason for
this change can be attributed to the gas shortage of the 70’s. Engineers knew that a lighter
weight car was needed to gain more miles per gallon of gas. The bumper, for example, is a part
that has achieved weight reduction of 2.5 pounds while eliminating 13 metal parts. Another
example would be the engine manifold where 5 pounds are now saved as well as increasing the
horsepower by 33%8. There are many parts that have made the change but this paper will focus
only on the fuel tank, engine and interior/exterior of the automobile. In some cases plastic has
become more prevalent than metal. Plastic frees engineers from the design constraints imposed
by metal. There are environment benefits from the more fuel-efficient vehicle, due to plastics
lighter weight. However, there are no cars made completely of plastic so metal has it’sown
advantages. Therefore the sections to follow will discuss each materials characteristics in
manufacturing application, and how industry and consumer both benefit.

2. Introduction:
Through history, cars were typically made completely from steel. However, over time,
cars have evolved into a composite of materials. The reason for this evolution can be blamed on
the increase in the price of oil during the decade of the 70’s. Society looked for a more efficient
car in terms of mileage per gallon of gas. Engineers looked toward plastic due to its lightweight.
Plastic provides an average weight savings of 400 pounds. With 15 million cars manufactured
each year, this translates to energy savings of 5.25 million gallons of gas per year and 10.5
billion pounds less carbon dioxide in the air8. The question then arose “Why not make a car
completely out of plastic?” The answer is an easy one, toexpensive. Therefore a compromise
had to be made depending on the different characteristics of the materials. This leads to the fact
that the automobile is now a composite of materials. Better gas mileage helps us manage our
natural resources such as gasoline, while reducing emissions released into the atmosphere. Some
areas where the use of plastics has become more proficient are exterior/interior, electrical, fuel,
engine, chassis and power train. The first known use of plastic in an automobile, aside from
tires, was the bumper. Nowadays the majority of plastic bumpers are made of thermoplastic
olefins, polyesters, polypropylene or blends of these compounds with glass fibers to increase
strength.
3. Uses of plastic in an Automobile:

3.1 Fuel Tank:

As changes in weight and cost savings drive the performance criteria for automotive
materials, equipment manufacturers are taking a hard look at the historically terne-coated steel
used for gas tanks5. Thus, we will compare steel and plastic for gas tank uses according to
competitive analysis and performance attributes. Throughout history, terne-coated steel has been
used for automotive gas tanks. However, several issues must be met regarding the changing
performance criteria. This exploration proves to be a threat to the application of steel products.
Many characteristics can be taken into account for the material change such as permeability,
weight, packaging, safety, and cost. Even though the use of plastic fuel tanks has increased in
the marketplace, a comparative analysis of the various plastic and steel alternatives indicates that
steel remains a cost-effective material that meets all of the required performance criteria5.

3.1.1 Plastic Fuel Tanks

Plastic fuel tanks are made from high density polyethylene(HDPE), a strong, lightweight
material which has allowed manufacturers to substantially lower the net weight of the
automobile. Since the mid-1980s, automakers have been displacing coated-steel fuel tanks with
plastic ones. During the early 1990’s, approximately 2.7-3 million cars and trucks built in North
America used nonmetallic tanks. At this time it represented 22-25% of the market, compared to
16% in the late 1980’s. Experts dealing with automotive designs predict plastic tanks will
capture 60% of the North American market by the end of 2001. This can be considered as a
worst-case scenario for the steel industry if it fails to provide a cost-effective steel alternative that
meets all of the performance criteria.

3.1.2 Performance Attributes

3.1.2.a Manufacturability
Terne-plate holds a materials cost advantage over high-density polyethylene. The cost of
the material is not the only driving force. Consideration must also include the cost of the tank
and its reliability within the fuel system of the vehicle. This system is composed of the tank,
filler tube, and level control to name a few5. All of these components must function properly as
any unforeseen corrosion can easily contaminate the fuel delivery system and cause costly
repairs. Metal tanks cost structure indicate a lower cost per piece versus plastic ones3.

3.1.2.b Design Features

Plastic tanks have the ability to meet packaging constraints with complex shapes, and
design engineers have greater flexibility in the car design and styling without having to worry
about fitting the gas tank. The average gas tank for a compact automobile can boast weight
savings of up to 30% versus a similar steel tank. However, the weight advantage of plastics has
diminished due to new permeability requirements5.
3.1.2.c Safety
One critical part of the performance criteria of the tank is its ability to meet crash
requirements. Generally, plastic tanks are considered safer in crashes because they are seamless
and, thus, not prone to failures in the seam areas. Also, plastic tanks deform and have some
ability to rebound back to shape. When steel tanks absorb energy and deform, the pressure within
the tank is inversely related to the volume. As the pressure in the tank increases the volume
decreases. This makes them vulnerable at welded or clamped areas where failure can potentially
occur. At the same time, the tank must withstand extreme in-tank temperatures in North
America. The high point (79°C) temperature exceeds the boiling point of the alcohol fuels while
the extreme cold introduces potential cracking problems12. Plastic, with its insulating properties,
slows heat transfer to the fuel when compared to a steel tank. Also, plastics cannot be considered
a source for sparks12. In the case of an under-car fire, plastic tanks will hold back the rise in fuel
temperature. However, this is not a permanent solution as the tank will soften, sag, and
eventually release the fuel. A steel tank does not sag in a fire; however, the fuel temperature may
rise rapidly, perhaps resulting in over pressurization and release of fuel through a mechanical
fitting.
3.1.2.d Corrosion
Corrosion is a well-known concern on both the inside and outside surfaces of tanks. The
outside surfaces and supporting structure are exposed to road chemicals, salt, mud, and gravel.
The corrosion issue is critical with zinc-coated products that replace terne-coated plates because
of their nature, which puts an even higher demand on the barrier film for both the inside and
outside surfaces. In contrast, the HDPE gas tanks are inert to the corrosive environments inside
and outside the tank.

3.1.2.e Recyclability
This is the hardest obstacle to overcome for a plastic part. Despite progress in recycling,
the propagation of plastics in automotive applications faces some problems, such as5:
1) 1) The absence of a plastics recycling infrastructure.
2) 2) A typical passenger cars steel and iron parts are recoverable.
3) 3) The molding process for plastic fuel tanks. This process results in 35% of plastic
material ending as waste.
4) 4) The lack of technology that dismantlers can use to quickly collect various
plastics.
5) 5) Cost. Recycled plastics are not cost competitive with newer plastics.
As a result, automotive-design engineers must not only meet customer, design, styling, cost,
weight, and regulatory needs but also environmental criteria. All material suppliers must show
that their product is not only lighter and cost effective but also recyclable.

3.1.3 Tank Materials and Manufacturers

3.1.3.a Manufacturers
Chrysler made the decision to outsource plastic tanks and they remain committed to this
decision. The listed advantages of plastic, according to Chrysler, are lack of corrosion, easier
packaging and lower weight.
Ford called for a switch in 1997 to zinc-nickel-coated steel from terne-coated steel tanks
in all models. In some models they will also switch from plastic to zinc-coated tanks. However,
they will continue to use plastic tanks in certain models.
General Motors at this time has an ongoing corrosion test program to see if Plastic would
be better than metal in fuel tanks5.

3.1.3.b Competitive Analysis

There are two aspects to compare between steel and plastic fuel tanks; production volume
and the ability to recycle the material. Plastic is much cheaper when it comes to production
volume while steel is cheaper to recycle. The difference in these characteristics will be the
driving influence in plastic versus metal fuel tanks.
3.2 Exterior
For the last several years there has been enormous expansion in the awareness and
attempt in the development of innovative polymers for automotive body exteriors. The
challenge, which confronts the automotive car companies of today, focuses around cost
reduction, improved durability and quality while concurrently providing a vehicle, which is
pleasurable to drive and stylishly in appearance.

Technologies for automobile exteriors comprise an extensive continuum. Thermoplastic

polymers, alloys and Reaction Injection Molded (RIM) thermosetsare primary candidates for
vertical panels. Thermoset and thermoplastic composites vie for horizontal components and uni-
body verticals that carry structural loads. Applicants for composite fabrication technology
includes SMC compression molding, Structural RIM for thermosets, and high-pressure flow
molding or stamping for thermoplastics2. Last but not least, coating systems establish a sizeable
portion of assembly plants and vehicular costs; nonetheless contribute significantly to style and
appearance.

The sections that follow concentrate on both, elementary and marketable issues of
materials implementation, and processing, therefore, all overall industrial progress in the
technologies listed above.

Plastic body panels have been considered cost acceptable with that of steel parts. The
fairly low tooling cost of plastics compared to steel offsets the elevated material cost of plastic.
This is only true in lower volume applications. One advantage for using plastics in exterior body
panels is its low capital investment for plastic tooling changes in comparison to steel. Exterior
plastic panels may be changed frequently to alter and update vehicle styling, while a
homogeneous vehicle stage is employed to minimize production fee. Changes in materials and
vehicle subsystem technologies and source represent the greatest cost reduction opportunities for
U.S. automakers. Materials and subassemblies currently account for over 50 percent of total
vehicle cost and further affect assembly costs that represent another 30 percent of production
cost4.

Steel does have performance deficiencies. U.S. produced steel has suffered from
wavering value that has resulted in inadequate vehicle fit and finish and the need for over
designed, and more expensive tools. Further, poor corrosion resistance has increased life cycle
costs for automobiles. On the other hand, companies are helping to improve consistency in sheet
production and the use of electrogalvanization and surface treatment technologies are improving
steel’s corrosion resistance.

SMC can withstand exposure in paint ovens designed for steel and have begun to meet
one-minute cycle targets, which match vehicle build rates, due to technology development on the
part of the SMC fabrication community.

Reaction injection molded polyurethane-type systems and injection-molded

thermoplastics have had smaller quantity of industrial applications, but offer the potential for
damage resistance in low-impact collision4. 3.2.1 Thermoplastic Composites:
 Techno polymers are a combination of GE Plastics own proficiency in resin technology,
and PPG’s venerable work with fiberglass and composite technology. Thus, after the
combination of these two technologies, a high-strength industrial thermoplastic composite is
produced. Thermoplastic composites represent two extremes. One, the high-end consist of
exotic polymer matrices with specialized reinforcement systems, usually found in the aerospace
industry. The second is sheet-molding compounds, used mainly in industrial applications. The
advantages of using thermoplastic as opposed to thermoset-based composites are as followed4:
1) 1) No hand cutting/weighing
2) 2) No controlled storage
3) 3) No hot molds
4) 4) Thermoplastic recyclability
5) 5) Greater than 50% reduction in cycle time
6) 6) Minimal deflashing
7) 7) No post-mold curing step
Not only do thermoplastics enjoy a high modulus, they additionally have exceptional collision
resistance. Currently this knowledge is used in a multiplicity of applications. The present day
consumer desires a safer and more fuel-efficient automobile, thus the automotive industry
demands lighter, stronger materials in which to make automobiles. Application of this
technology includes structural roofs whose load bearing eliminates the roof rack, subsequently
the creation of an aerodynamic storage compartment. Second application, is for the integrated
lighting housings and locking platforms for the hood or tailgate. Third application, totally
integrated dashboard platforms that incorporate knee-bar support beams, steering column and
pedal support, and heating and ventilation housing. A final application, are for back panels of
truck cabs.

The potential advantage of a composite consisting of chopped nature of glass,

approximately 60-70%, the glass will flow more effectively and fill bosses and ribs7. His
technology is applied in the development of a thermoplastic composite for horizontal automotive
panels.
Saturn trail blazed the use of thermoplastic systems in body panels with the introduction
of the industry’s foremost quality, high production thermoplastic door panel a decade ago.
Daimler/Chrysler also has a firm dedication to designing and building plastic-bodied cars. The
use of thermoplastics saves 20 to 50 percent in net weight and 50 to 70 percent in production
time.
Developing new material technologies continues to make thermoplastic systems trendy
and profitable. Molded in color panels, are extremely attractive quality, because of an effective
elimination of manufacturing time and cost.

Thermoplastic polyesters are one of the most recycled materials in the world. This
provides numerous advantages, both promoting recycled product to the consumer and the
savings that result from in-company recycling of needless material.

Still, most plastic-based body panels rely on sheet molding compounds (SMC), a thermo
set polyestersheet. Manufactures find production costs for SMC based panels are, for the most
part, lesser than production cost for steel and aluminum6.

RIM is being used in production of automobile bumpers and fascias as well as body
panels. RIM technology is lighter than SMC, with slight compromises in structural rigidity.
 Transparent polycarbonate plastics have revolutionized lighting systems, for automobiles.
These plastics are designed to resist high temperatures, are also durable, and can be molded into
almost any desired shape. Thus, glass headlight lenses on automobiles have been, for the most
part, replaced by this improved technology. In the future, both head and tail light systems will
integrate this plastic light emitting diode brake-light systems1. Whereby an effortlessly
reachable, single light source is used to provide exterior lighting for the automobile by means of
acrylic fiber-optic wires. This amalgamation will eradicate the requirement for high-heat
resistant plastics in automobile lighting systems.

Nylons, polystyrene, polycarbonates, polypropylene, polyesters, and urethanes are the

most commonly used plastics for the visual components and trim of the automobile.
Using plastic instead of metal in the manufacturing of wheel covers, and then coating the plastic
with a metallic like polish, manufactures will spend a fraction of the cost, compared to real metal
production, while making the plastic appear like metal alloy.

Plastics represent one of the greatest challenges for coating manufactures. Plastic
substrates are unique in that they represent a multiplicity of surfaces each with its own adhesion
characteristics and physical properties. One characteristic property being the rigid
thermoplastics, for example, nylon, polycarbonate, and polyester, blends. The second
characteristic is, thermoplastic elastomers, urethane, styrenic, and polyolefin. The final plastic
physical characteristic is, thermosets, such as, polyester (SMC) and urethane (RIM). The cost
for painting during assembly can account for up 45% of the total cost of a new assembly plant4.
Plastic automobiles create a number of solutions to the problem of surface appearance. The first
being an in-mold coating system, which first primes the surface of the SMC part, and second
adds different pigments while the part is still in the process of molding. An alternate solution is
integral coloring, which is how most plastics are presently colored. This process is used
primarily for sport utility vehicles, where surface appearance is not a top priority. Traditional
surface coating techniques such as, spraying, dipping, or vapor permeation curing, are available
by companies familiar in painting plastics.
In conclusion, incentives for the application of plastics for the exterior use of automobiles are a
decrease in weight, thus improving fuel efficiency. Secondly, plastics are corrosion resistance.
Just look at the bodywork of a steel or aluminum automobile that is driven in an area where the
residents heavily salt their roads. Then, compare the metal body automobile with a plastic body
vehicle. The choice is obvious, plastic is superior for cold climate regions. Thirdly, lower cost
due to shorter runs, better styling latitude, parts consolidation. Finally, the ability of plastic
automobiles to first deforms and then recovers its original form11. Minor dents will not require
extensive and expensive time and money for repairs.
3.3 Interior
Consumers demand an automobile that is not only comfortable but also, noiseless, which
has aesthetic appeal and ergonomic arrangement. Plastic is pertinent towards all these concerns.

Urethane foam is the most frequent plastic for upholstery cushioning. Urethanes ability
to be recycled, as well as, its ability to fulfill design and economic requirements makes it the
material of choice. In recent years manufactures have been inserting carbon dioxide into the
foam cushioning, subsequently saving the quantity of urethane used in cushion production. This
process is done without sacrificing comfort, noise control, and vibration prevention. Urethane
foams are also used in the production of armrests, headrests, headliners and cushioned
instrument panels. To restate, urethane foams are cost-effective and can be recycled to make
carpeting for automobiles.

Instrument panels, traditionally, were made from several unique components that required
painting and, which were held together by steel supporting beam that were positioned behind the
instrument panel. Due to today’s plastics, instrument panels now consist of acrylonitrile-
butadiene-styrene (ABS), ABS/poycarbonate alloys, poycarbonates, poypropylene, modified
polyphenylene ether (PPE), and styrene maleic anhydride resins8. These technologies allow for
the production of design items such as: air bag lodging, center stacks, for instrument panels, and
integrated instrument panel items. Plastics eliminate the requirement for steel beam supports;
therefore manufactures dramatically cut cost for the instrument panel production while reducing
the automobiles net weight. Intact integrated single-piece units can be produced from all
urethane and all polypropylene resins. The single-piece unit outcome is a seamless instrument
panel, which will greatly reduce noise, vibration, and harshness levels. Plastic single-piece units
can be molded in particular color, resulting in a dramatic cut in time of production and cost of
painting.

Steering wheels are made from either molded, pigmented, vinyl resins, or from RIM
pigmented urethane when a pliable material is necessary4. The use of coils and magnets in
modern steering columns require an injected material that separates magnetic areas off from the
other sections, while ensuring limited interference with the magnetic fields.

Modern heating, cooling conditioning air vents and control consoles provide temperature
adjustment to the front and rear passenger seats. The consoles are typically produced from ABS
resins, poylpropylene, and SMA resins1. Blow-molded and injection molded polypropylene is
used in the manufacturing of air vents, which feed the out-let consoles.

Again, like for the exterior, plastics can improve the automobile by reducing its net
weight, and increasing noise, vibration, harshness control, while improving overall comfort.
This is all accomplished while slashing manufacturing expenditures, thus lowering the price tag
for the automobile. Also products such as dual climate control consoles would not exist without
plastic technology application.

3.4 Polymers in Car Engine Manifolds and Power Trains:

 The last 5 years have seen, a major shift in the materials used in manifold manufacture.
This small period of time has seen over 80% of new cars switch from traditional aluminum
manifolds to more revolutionary nylon composites. So far, the transition has been a complete
success, indicating that future innovations are just around the corner.

The manifold of a car is responsible for providing air to the engine. The air is necessary
for combustion of the gasoline to take place. Although this sounds simplistic and trivial the
lifespan an efficiency of a car’s engine depend on the quality of the air provided to it. Dust and
foreign particles in the air intake, can harm moving engine parts, or hamper combustion. The air
intake counters this threat by filtering the intaken air. The manifold also has to allow air to enter
kg
m3
the engine at a high density if possible (4-8 )2. Since warm air will be of a lower density
1
T
then colder air, ideal gas law ~ , it is important to shield the incoming air from engine heat.

Most cars now are equipped with Air Intake manifolds made of high quality nylon 6, or
nylon 66 resins, under various trade names. Currently the primary producers of these materials
for power-train molding are BASF, Dow Chemical, and DuPont Chemical. Their chemicals are
UltramidTm for BASF, DuPont’s ZytelTm, and Dow’s QuestraTm. These are similar compounds of a
nylon 6 resin, with 33-35% glass reinforcement Manifolds using these composites are molded
using injection molding systems, to form the complex single piece engine air-intake pieces
necessary to boost engine performance. Injection molding takes advantage of the ability of
plastics to take a complex single-piece shape. This is where a large portion of the savings over
traditional aluminum intakes is realized. Aluminum manifolds require costly milling, and post
production work to make them as efficient as a single piece nylon system.

This knowledge allows a listing of desirable properties in the chosen polymer. The
polymer must be able to resist the heat in the environment it will be located in. The area around
a car engine is hot, and the nylon composites have melting points ranging from 220-300 oC. In
order to maintain the manifold it is also important that it is resistant to corrosion by car fuel, and
battery acid vapors which would threaten to eat through engine pieces. Water absorption is a
concern with nylon 6, which is why nylon 6,6 is often used instead, since it has a lower
concentration of water absorbing amide-group concentrations along the polymer backbone.
When nylons absorb too much water they lose tensile strength and become more flexible due to
the fact that the water acts like a plasticizer. This is not desirable since the manifold of an engine
is a carefully designed precision piece. Another concern is the tensile modulus of the polymer,
for those commonly used in engine manifolds they range from 11000 – 12500 MPa. Also
desirable but less important is a high electrical resistance. There are many electrical systems
under the hood of a car, and the nylon 6, and nylon 6,6 resins have resistances of approximately
1*10^13 ohms.

These requirements lead to resins from DuPont and BASF being used by such industry
leading companies as Ford Motors, and Dodge Motor Car. Representative of DuPont’s offerings
is its Zytel HTN 51G35HSLR BK420, a high quality Nylon 6,6 with 35% glass reinforcement 2.
Additives to ZytelHTN 51G allow for additional heat stabilization and lubrication, and additional
resistance to hydrolysis. Zytel HTN 51G35 also has very small mold shrinkage of 0.2%, and a
high density of 1.47 g/cm3. BASF offers compounds like its UltramidB3WG7 a 35% glass
reinforced nylon 6 resin. Ultramid has a slightly lower melting temperature, but benefits from
having a lower mold temperature (80-90oC verses 150oC), as well as roughly half the drying
time. These factors allow for quicker and cheaper production costs3.
Radical advances using these compounds only hint at what top chemical companies are
conducting research on at the moment. As the properties of thermosetplastics continue to
improve can an engine made entirely of polymers be more then 10 years away? The drive to
increase efficiency by reducing weight, and decreasing metal requirements in automotive
construction will ultimately answer the question.
4. Conclusion:
From bumpers to fuel tanks, lightweight plastic gives cars better gas mileage and allows
engineers more freedom in their designs. Traditionally, metal alloys were used in manufacturing
automobile components, however, plastic has several advantages that allows it to outperform
metal. Plastic offers a variety of practical, cost effective alternatives as well as advantages over
traditional automotive production materials. There are many characteristics in which plastic parts
are superior to steel, and this paper has touched on a few of these areas. The 4 major
characteristics can be summarized as follows3:
1) 1) Weight – Because plastic can weigh 6 to 8 times less than certain metal parts, using
it to reduce the weight of the car helped to make it more fuel efficient.
2) 2) Easier to Produce – Plastic is generally more expensive but easier to mold and
produce/re-fabricate.
3) 3) Design Flexibility – Allows engineers to have greater freedom in styling, building
and placing components.
4) 4) Parts Consolidation - One plastic part usually replaces the function of several metal
pieces.

Competitive Materials Advantage Disadvantage

Analysis for Gas Tanks5
Steel:
Terne-Coated Steel 1) 1) Low Cost at high 1) 1) Shape flexibility
volumes 2) 2) Ineffective corrosion
2) 2) recyclable protection

Electrocoated Zn-Ni 1) 1) Low cost at high 1) 1) Weldability

volumes 2) 2) Shape flexibility
2) 2) Recyclable
3) 3) Effective against
corrosion
4) 4) Permeability
Hot-Dipped Tin 1) 1) Low cost at high 1) 1) Shape Flexibility
volumes
2) 2) Recyclable
3) 3) Effective against
corrosion
4) 4) Permeability
5) 5) Weldability
Stainless Steel 1) 1) Corrosion 1) 1) Cost at all volumes
2) 2) Recyclable 2) 2) Formability/Jointability
 3) 3) Permeability
Plastics:
HDPE 1) 1) Shape flexibility 1) 1) High tooling costs at high
2) 2) Low tooling costs at volumes
low volumes 2) 2) High material cost
3) 3) Weight 3) 3) Permeability
4) 4) Corrosion resistance 4) 4) Recyclability
Multilayer and Barrier 1) 1) Shape flexibility 1) 1) Higher material cost
HDPE 2) 2) Weight 2) 2) Harder to recycle
3) 3) Corrosion resistance
4) 4) Permeability

The major disadvantage of a plastic is Recycling. Recycling has now become a mainstay in
society due to tighter environmental measures. New processes enable manufacturers to reuse
scrap plastic and recycle used plastic cost-effectively. In a sense, this paper has been a
discussion of how plastic is better than metal.
References Cited:
1. 1. www.aiag.org
2. 2. www.Dupont.com
3. 3. www.plastcs-car.com
4. 4. Schmeal & Purcell, New Polymer Technology For Auto Body Exteriors, 260 volume
84, 1988, AICHE, New York, New York, 1988
5. 5. www.tms.org /journals/
6. 6. Plastic processing for the automotive engineer, Society of Automotive Engineers,
1967, 29p
7. 7. Automotive engineering, Society of Automotive Engineers, v80, no.11-v 105; Nov.
1972-Dec. 1997
8. 8. http://www.plastics-car.com/spotlight/auto_slideshow.html
9. 9. Timothy T. Maxwell and Jesse C. Jones, Alternative Fuels: Emissions, Economics
and Performance (Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1995), pp. 29-42.
10. 10. Robert Q. Riley, Alternative Cars in the 21st Century (Warrendale, PA: Society of
Automotive Engineers, 1994), pp. 173-176.
11. 11. Bundy International, "Fuel Supply Systems for a Healthier Environment", ed.
Michael Scarlett, Automotive Technology International '94, pp. 37-40.
12. 12. "Plastic Bounces Back in Fuel Tanks," Automotive News (January 30, 1995).
13. 13. Delphi VII Forecast and Analysis of the North American Automotive Industry (Ann
Arbor, MI: Office for the Study of Automotive Transportation, University of Michigan