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    Infinite Sequences and Series
    Infinite Sequences and Series
    Infinite Sequences and Series
    Ebook276 pages2 hours

    Infinite Sequences and Series

    By Konrad Knopp

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    One of the finest expositors in the field of modern mathematics, Dr. Konrad Knopp here concentrates on a topic that is of particular interest to 20th-century mathematicians and students. He develops the theory of infinite sequences and series from its beginnings to a point where the reader will be in a position to investigate more advanced stages on his own. The foundations of the theory are therefore presented with special care, while the developmental aspects are limited by the scope and purpose of the book.
    All definitions are clearly stated; all theorems are proved with enough detail to make them readily comprehensible. The author begins with the construction of the system of real and complex numbers, covering such fundamental concepts as sets of numbers and functions of real and complex variables. In the treatment of sequences and series that follows, he covers arbitrary and null sequences; sequences and sets of numbers; convergence and divergence; Cauchy's limit theorem; main tests for sequences; and infinite series. Chapter three deals with main tests for infinite series and operating with convergent series. Chapters four and five explain power series and the development of the theory of convergence, while chapter six treats expansion of the elementary functions. The book concludes with a discussion of numerical and closed evaluation of series.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherDover Publications
    Release dateSep 14, 2012
    ISBN9780486152042
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      Book preview

      Infinite Sequences and Series - Konrad Knopp

      INFINITE

      SEQUENCES AND SERIES

      By

      DR. KONRAD KNOPP

      Emeritus Professor of Mathematics at the University of Tübingen

      TRANSLATED BY

      FREDERICK BAGEMIHL

      The Institute for Advanced Study

      NEW YORK

      DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.

      Copyright © 1956 by Dover Publications, Inc.

      All rights reserved under Pan American and International Copyright Conventions.

      Infinite Sequences and Series is a new work, first published by Dover Publications in 1956.

      Standard Book Number: 978-0-486-15204-2

      Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 56-3667

      Manufactured in the United States of America

      Dover Publications, Inc.

      31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y. 11501

      CONTENTS

      FOREWORD

      Chapter 1.   INTRODUCTION AND PREREQUISITES

      1.1.   Preliminary remarks concerning sequences and series

      1.2.   Real and complex numbers

      1.3.   Sets of numbers

      1.4.   Functions of a real and of a complex variable

      Chapter 2.   SEQUENCES AND SERIES

      2.1.   Arbitrary sequences. Null sequences

      2.2.   Sequences and sets of numbers

      2.3.   Convergence and divergence

      2.4.   Cauchy’s limit theorem and its generalizations

      2.5.   The main tests for sequences

      2.6.   Infinite series

      Chapter 3.   THE MAIN TESTS FOR INFINITE SERIES. OPERATING WITH CONVERGENT SERIES

      3.1.   Series of positive terms: The first main test and the comparison tests of the first and second kind

      3.2.   The radical test and the ratio test

      3.3.   Series of positive, monotonically decreasing terms

      3.4.   The second main test

      3.5.   Absolute convergence

      3.6.   Operating with convergent series

      3.7.   Infinite products

      Chapter 4.   POWER SERIES

      4.1.   The circle of convergence

      4.2.   The functions represented by power series

      4.3.   Operating with power series. Expansion of composite functions

      4.4.   The inversion of a power series

      Chapter 5.   DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY OF CONVERGENCE.

      5.1.   The theorems of Abel, Dini, and Pringsheim

      5.2.   Scales of convergence tests

      5.3.   Abel’s partial summation. Lemmas

      5.4.   Special comparison tests of the second kind

      5.5.   Abel’s and Dirichlet’s tests and their generalizations

      5.6.   Series transformations

      5.7.   Multiplication of series

      Chapter 6.   EXPANSION OF THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

      6.1.   List of the elementary functions

      6.2.   The rational functions

      6.3.   The exponential function and the circular functions

      6.4.   The logarithmic function

      6.5.   The general power and the binomial series

      6.6.   The cyclometric functions

      Chapter 7.   NUMERICAL AND CLOSED EVALUATION OF SERIES

      7.1.   Statement of the problem

      7.2.   Numerical evaluations and estimations of remainders

      7.3.   Closed evaluations

      BIBLIOGRAPHY

      INDEX

      FOREWORD

      The purpose of this little book in the Dover Series is to develop the theory of infinite sequences and series from its beginnings–the construction of the system of real and of complex numbers–so far, that the reader will be in a position to penetrate into the more advanced parts of the theory by himself. The foundations are therefore presented carefully, but the development has been carried out only to the extent permitted by this purpose and the narrow compass of the book. Thus, important topics had to be omitted, which could perhaps be presented in a second small volume for advanced students. The table of contents indicates in detail the subjects treated.

      Mr. Frederick Bagemihl has carried out the translation from my German manuscript with the same care and understanding as have already distinguished his translations of my previous little function-theoretical volumes. I take this opportunity to thank him heartily for all his trouble.

      KONRAD KNOPP

      Chapter 1

      INTRODUCTION AND PREREQUISITES

      1.1.   Preliminary remarks concerning sequences and series

      In manifold investigations in pure and applied mathematics, it often happens that a result is not obtained all at once, as in 7 · 13 = 91, but that one seeks to approximate the result in a definite way by steps. This is the case, for example, in calculating the area of a circle of radius 1, for which we obtain first perhaps 3, then 22/7, say, then 3.1415, etc., as approximate values or approximations. This also occurs in the elementary method of calculating the square root of 2, where we get first 1, then 1.4, then 1.41, etc, respectively. If we compute in such a manner, corresponding to each natural number 0, 1, 2, ...,¹ a number s0, s1, s2, ..., or if these are given or defined in some other way, we say that we have before us an infinite sequence of numbers, or briefly a sequence, with the terms sν, and we denote it by

      Such sequences may be given (generated, defined) in the most varied ways. Numerous examples will appear in the sequel. The following method occurs especially often: If a certain term of the sequence is already known, then the next term is given by means of the amount by which it differs from the former. E.g., if s3 is already known, then s4 is determined by indicating the difference s4 − s3 = a4, so that s4 = s3 + a4. Thus, a4 represents the amount that has to be added to s3 in order to obtain the next term s4.³ If, for the sake of uniformity, we set the initial term s0 equal to a0, and then, in general, write sν − sν−1 = aν, we have, for n = 0, 1, 2, ...,

      The nth term of the sequence {sν} is obtained by adding up the terms of another (infinite) sequence {aν}. To indicate this continued summation process, the sequence thus obtained is denoted by

      and is called an (infinite) seriesaccording to the elementary rules, we get a sequence beginning with s0 = 1, s1 = 1 + a, s2 = 1 + a + a² and yielding sn−1 = 1 + a + ... + an−1. The corresponding remainder now yields, at the next step, an, which must be added to sn−1 to produce sn. Since this continues without end, we obtain the infinite series

      which we started with, still requires, naturally, precise elucidation.

      An (infinite) series is a means, employed particularly often in what follows, of defining an (infinite) sequence: A certain sequence {aν} is directly computed, defined–in short: given. It is, however, not itself the main object of the investigation; a new sequence {sn} is derived from it, whose terms are formed according to the specification (2), and this sequence {sn} is the one which furnishes the real subject of the investigation. Thus, in the series

      , of this series, as in what we get if we sum them up without end, i.e., form the sums

      which approach the number 2 as the value of the infinite series. (For a precise definition, see 2.1.)

      Of the two concepts sequence and series, the former is the simpler and more primitive one. In the first place, a series can only be defined if one already possesses the notion of a sequence; for to be able to write down the series (3), one must know the sequence of its terms. Furthermore, to form the series (3) requires the operation of addition, which does not enter at all into the concept of the sequence (1). In a sequence, the individual terms are not connected, but are merely ordered in a definite way by their indices. Historically it was just the opposite. Infinite series appeared, especially during the 17th century, quite naturally, as in the example that led to (4), as well as in the computation of the values of the elementary functions (logarithms, etc.). It was more than a century later, however, before the meaning and significance of such expansions were clarified satisfactorily. Even in modern literature, sufficient distinction between the two concepts is, unfortunately, not always made. In the present exposition we shall, for the reasons which we have put forth, place the sequences, as the decisive new concept, in the forefront, and, as is proper, derive the series from them by annexing the operation of addition.

      For sums of the kind appearing in formulas (2) to (6) and in similar cases, where summands of the same kind are to be added, it is customary to use an abbreviated notation: For b1 + b2 + b3 + b(read: the sum of bν as ν runs from 1 to 4), and analogously for the sums in formulas (2) – (6),

      The corresponding expression for the familiar binomial expansion of (a + b)n (where is an integer) is

      In all these cases, ν is called the index of summation. It runs from 0 to n or from 0 to ∞, where the latter means that ν runs through all the natural numbers from 0 on without end.⁴ The index of summation ν may of course be replaced by any other letter. We shall often use n, μ, λ, ρ, ... .

      We merely mention the fact that we arrive at infinite products, as they are called, if we make use of multiplication instead of addition: From a sequence {aν}, which we suppose to be given directly, we derive the sequence {pn} of products which are formed in accordance with

      this sequence is then denoted, in analogy with (3), by

      These infinite products will be investigated, but only briefly, in 3.7.

      1.2.   Real and complex numbers

      We must assume that the reader is familiar with the construction of the system of real numbers and the system of complex numbers, and also, of course, with their use. Because of its fundamental importance, however, for all that follows, we shall nevertheless explain the most essential idea which is employed in that construction.

      Starting from the natural numbers (see 1.1), one introduces in the well-known manner first the negative integers, which together with the natural numbers are called briefly the integers, and then the fractions, which together with the integers are designated as the rational numbers, where p is an arbitrary integer and q is a natural number different from 0.

      In the domain of these rational numbers, the four fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division–the latter with the sole exception of division by 0–can always be carried out and yield a unique result, which is again a rational number. In this sense the totality of rational numbers forms a closed domain. Such a domain is called a field if the operations of addition and multiplication defined in it obey the associative, commutative, and distributive laws, as is the case for the rational numbers. The field of rational numbers is, moreover, ordered, i.e., between two rational numbers a and b, precisely one of the three relations

      holds.

      This order obeys the familiar simple fundamental laws of order. The numbers > 0 are called positive, those < 0 are called negative. If a = 0, we also say that a vanishes.

      We also assume that the reader is familiar with the fact that the rational numbers can be made to correspond to certain points of a straight line, the number axis, on which two points, 0 and 1, are fixed arbitrarily, as well as with how this is accomplished. We usually imagine this axis to be drawn horizontally, and choose 1 to the right of 0. The image points of the rational numbers are called for brevity the rational points of the number axis. These rational points are dense on the line, i.e., if a and b are any two such points, then there is at least another one, e.g, lying between them.

      All further rules of operation, some of which we shall list at the end of this section, can be derived rigorously in a purely formal manner (i.e., without having to consider the meaning of the symbols) from the foregoing fundamental laws. The fact that it is unnecessary in this derivation to make use of the meaning of the symbols has the following important consequence: If a, b, ... are any other entities whatsoever besides the rational numbers, but which obey the same fundamental laws, then it is possible to operate with these entities according to exactly the same rules as with the rational numbers. One is therefore justified in calling any system of such entities a number system, and the entities themselves, numbers.

      Such other entities, now, which obey all the fundamental laws valid for the rational numbers, are–and this leads us to the intimated single essentially new fundamental idea in the construction of the number systems–the real numbers, which we arrive at through the following consideration:

      and which is said to be a Dedekind cut in the domain of rational numbers, can be regarded as a substitute for the (still lacking) number whose square is equal to 2, and, in particular, whether it can be regarded as a number with which one can operate as with a rational number.

      This question can be answered in no other way than the following: One considers the totality of all conceivable Dedekind cuts in the domain of rational numbers, i.e, and calls these cuts numbers, then, with these stipulations, they obey without exception all the fundamental laws valid for the rational numbers. The entities obtained in this manner are therefore numbers (see above), and in their totality constitute the system or the field of real numbers. A part of the real numbers turns out to be equivalent (in the sense of the definition of the symbol =) to the hitherto existing rational numbers: The system of real numbers is a (proper) extension of the system of rational numbers. Those real numbers which are not rational are called irrational.

      Thus at the moment–we set this down as the result of the foregoing discussion–a real number is regarded as defined or given, only if it is either rational, and hence can be represented in the form p/q (see above), or if it is realized by some cut in the domain of rational numbers.

      With the construction of the system of real numbers, a certain closure is attained. It can be shown that no different system (distinct, in any essential

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