<Internals\\QJS\\1975 Theall AetheticTheoryMassCommTheory> - 17 references coded [4.68% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.

.21% Coverage THE ROLE OF AESTHETIC THEORY IN (MASS) COMMUNICATION THEORY Donald F. Theall F the usual description of the evolu- tion of Marx as a

Reference 2 - 0.22% Coverage down and in the pro- cess to redeem his more important in- sights for communication theory. The first and most important of these in- sights, even if it is never articulated

Reference 3 - 0.26% Coverage study of both human communication and mass com- munication through the traditionally developed body of theory in aesthetics. McLuhan's effective blitzkreig-like sur- prise on the fraternity of communica- tion study

Reference 4 - 0.22% Coverage as ExPerience (1934; rpt. New York: Capricorn, 1958), p. 105. 5 THE ROLE OF AESTHETIC THEORY by the work of Andy Warhol, whose Campbell's Soup Can created a dialectic between advertising

Reference 5 - 0.75% Coverage social reality which we are constructing. What has this, however, to do with 273 communication theory? First of all, it is more than idly interesting to note that many of the concepts of communication theory are by no means new in the dis- cussions of art and of aesthetic theory. If, for example, a system of symbols is seen as involving some kind of code, early rhetorical theory, as represented by such examples as Puttenham's Arte in English Poesie (1598), discussed figura- tive

Reference 6 - 0.24% Coverage code, a surprise of expectancy, to place it in more contemporary terminology. Also, a dramatistic theory of literature is found in Aristotle's Poetics where the dramatic becomes the quintessential form from

Reference 7 - 0.26% Coverage the narrative derives as a secondary and lesser possibility. The contemporary interest in dramatis- tic theories of social structure rising out of George Herbert Mead and Kenneth Burke has deep roots

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a fabric from the world of art and aesthe- tics and the world of communication theory. Already, the relevance of infor- mation theory to the musical arts has been illustrated by Leonard Meyer, to the visual arts by

Reference 9 - 0.22% Coverage terminology is not re- stricted to Bateson, or Burke and his followers. When developing the theory of the double-bind and the resulting paradoxes that may arise between com- munication and

Reference 10 - 0.24% Coverage Symbolic and Social Aspects of Indonesian Pro- letarian Drama (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1968). Theory (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1969), p. 256. 9 Ibid., p. 260. 8 Hugh Dalziel

Reference 11 - 0.22% Coverage and Social 10 Paul Watzlawick, J. H. Beavin, and D. D. THE ROLE OF AESTHETIC THEORY paradoxical is deeply rooted in the artistic sphere. McLuhan's paradoxical wit comes straight out

Reference 12 - 0.24% Coverage a peculiarly sensitive index? Presumably the intermeshing between artistic concepts and concepts in com- munication theory might easily be ex- tended by widening the range of analy- sis, but our interest

Reference 13 - 0.22% Coverage widening the range of analy- sis, but our interest is in the fact that any theory of mass communication must, of necessity, work through individuals and, therefore, be an extension of

Reference 14 - 0.25% Coverage the symbols by which we communicate. When William Stephenson suggested the importance of the play theory to an understanding of the mass media, 12 Herbert Marcuse, Eros and Civilization (Boston: Beacon

Reference 15 - 0.25% Coverage The Astonished Muse, and of Tom Wolfe's Kandy-Kolored Tangerine13 William Stephenson, The Play Theory of Mass Communication (Chicago: Univ. of Chi- cago Press, 1967). Flake Streamline Baby was to

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Radical Perspectives in the Arts (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin, 1972), Pl. 9. THE ROLE OF AESTHETIC THEORY indicating the oversimplification of the artificially posed and artificially touched- up Playgirls of the Month

Reference 17 - 0.30% Coverage that we outlined above in the Grinnell Nine situation, even though its importance for communication theory and more general social theory has tended to be understressed, partly because of the gen- uine power involved in the

<Internals\\QJS\\1976 QJS 1976 62.1.2> - 1 reference coded [0.16% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.16% Coverage this study and others like it, provide the descriptive materials from which to construct a theory of the place of speaking in cultures. Attention to at least the most salient and

<Internals\\QJS\\1976 QJS 1976 62.2.2> - 7 references coded [0.83% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.12% Coverage determine wheth- er the conduct of males and females in groups conforms to this role theory explanation of sex differences. INTERACTION PATTERNS Verbal Interaction Perhaps the most thoroughly investi- gated

Reference 2 - 0.11% Coverage in Interpersonal Encounters," Diss. In- diana Univ. 1971; J. Aiello, "A Test of Equi- librium Theory: Visual Interaction in RelaFunctions of Eye Contact in Interpersonal Re- lations," British Journal of

Reference 3 - 0.10% Coverage to be bolder and more will- ing to assume risks than females, sup- porting the theory that society encourages males to take risks while demand- ing conservatism and reticence from

Reference 4 - 0.12% Coverage still not investigated in this context. Studies of task performance generally conform to a role theory explanation of sex differences. Males are oriented to- ward objective tasks, females toward so- cial

Reference 5 - 0.12% Coverage of Age Level," Child Develop- ment, 37 (1966), 967-975; W. Nord, "Social Ex- change Theory: An Integrative Approach to Social Conformity," Psychological Bulletin, 71 (1969), 174-208. 31 V. Allen

Reference 6 - 0.13% Coverage emerge as group leaders. Superficially, the results of leadership studies reflect the principles of role theory, as the male tendencies toward aggressiveness, activity, and dominance make them more likely to emerge

Reference 7 - 0.12% Coverage maintenance. SUMMARY Investigations of sex differences in group communication seem to suport a sex-role theory of behavior. Males, en- couraged to be independent, aggressive, problem-oriented, and risk-taking gen

<Internals\\QJS\\1976 QJS 1976 62.4.7> - 24 references coded [2.94% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.12% Coverage studies is that of Kim Giffin, "The Contribution of Studies of Source Credibility to a Theory of Interpersonal Trust in the Communication Process," Psy- chological Bulletin, 68 (1967), 104-120. 19

Reference 2 - 0.11% Coverage semantic meaning to which it is im- plicitly wed, reflects a grounding more in psychometric theory and methods than in a theoretic explication of the credibility concept itself. In the develop

Reference 3 - 0.10% Coverage theoretical conceptions concerning the nature of meaning and followed instead the dic- tates of psychometric theory and pro- cedures. As Osgood, Suci, and Tannen- baum admit in The Measurement of Meaning

Reference 4 - 0.13% Coverage its own empirical validity, depend little, if at all, on . . . a tie-in with learning theory. "25 Although Osgood's theory implies that meaning should involve a broad range of dimensions which vary from in24

Reference 5 - 0.10% Coverage and inference from factor analytic method. It does not relate spe cifically to any systematic theory and in some major respects it contradicts the outline them which Osgood proposed as its

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ing that there is in our language and cul- ture a very general "implicit personality theory" reflecting our most universal as- sumptions concerning which traits go together in the character of

Reference 7 - 0.11% Coverage Assessment (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1973), pp. 328-363; and, David j. Schneider, "Implicit Personality Theory: A Review," Psychological Bulletin, 79 (1973), 294- 309. 366 THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SPEECH confusion

Reference 8 - 0.10% Coverage person or a group."33 Such a concep- tion, which is dictated by traditional measurement theory, takes the image as given, and in so doing has contributed to our failure to

Reference 9 - 0.15% Coverage label of "organicism" in Hayne W. Reese and Willis F. Overton, "Models of Development and Theories of Development," in Life-Span De- velopmental Psychology: Research and Theory, eds. L. R. Goulet and Paul B. Baltes (New York: Academic Press, 1970), pp. 115

Reference 10 - 0.20% Coverage particular approach to com- munication processes that can be sepa- rated from their particular psychological theories. However, in the present con- text, the more general statement of con- structivism as an approach to communi- cation theory is passed over so as to ad- vance only the framework necessary for an analysis

Reference 11 - 0.16% Coverage Univ. Press, 1971). 38 York: International Universities Press, 1957). 39 upon aspects of the psychological theories of Kelly and Werner and of the soiological theories of members of the Chicago School of symbolic This approach to communication draws iriteractionism as

Reference 12 - 0.11% Coverage Method (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969). Specific applications of this perspective to communication theory are presented in David L. Swanson and Jesse G. Delia, The Nature of Human Communication

Reference 13 - 0.13% Coverage Jesse G. Delia, Daniel I: O'Keefe, and Barbara J. O'Keefe, A PersPec- hoe on Communication Theory (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, forthcoming); Daniel J. O'Keefe, 'Constructivism and Communication Studies: Theoretical Essays," Diss

Reference 14 - 0.14% Coverage reality immediately; he cannot see it, as it were, face to face. . . ."41 The Constructivist Theory of Interpersonal Perception The constructivist theory of percep- tion rests on the assumption that percep- tion involves "an effort after meaning

Reference 15 - 0.13% Coverage instance, that to serve him in forming interpersonal impressions each person develops an "implicit personality theory" consisting of tacit rules concern- ing what qualities are relevant to under- standing the character

Reference 16 - 0.13% Coverage are representative of each un- derlying quality." Following Kelly, the elements of the implicit personality theory can best be conceptualized as interpersonal con- structs. Kelly contends that each indi- vidual anticipates

Reference 17 - 0.14% Coverage necessarily selective and interpre- tive. Kelly addresses this feature of percep- tion within personal construct theory when he notes that "just as a system or a theory has a focus and range of conven- ience, so a personal construct has a focus

Reference 18 - 0.12% Coverage more general discussion of the structural-developmental perspective in Albert Mehrabian, An Analysis of Personality Theories (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968), pp. 121-164. ANALYSIS OF CONCEPT OF CREDIBILITY

Reference 19 - 0.10% Coverage an under- standing of "rhetorical situations" as losophy and Sociology," in New Directions in Sociological Theory by Paul Filmer, et al. (Cam- bridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1972), p. 127

Reference 20 - 0.11% Coverage of credibility judgment. Brehm speaks directly to the special character of such situations in his theory of psycho- logical reactance. "Psychological react- ance is a motivational state that operates in opposition

Reference 21 - 0.11% Coverage that operates in opposition to inducing forces such as persuasive communications. In general terms, the theory asserts that when a per- son's freedom to engage in particular be- havior is eliminated

Reference 22 - 0.12% Coverage ob- jectivity, and the like. Within the framework of the rather simple assertion of reactance theory, con- siderable research from quite disparate areas can be synthesized. For example, the utilization of

Reference 23 - 0.10% Coverage change from a per- suasive message that is overheard in com57 Jack Brehm, A Theory of Psychological Reactance (New York: Academic Press, 1966), 13- 10. the receiver,58 (2) less

Reference 24 - 0.11% Coverage and R. John Moyer, "Sim- ilarity, Credibility, and Attitude Change: A Re- view and a Theory," Psychological Bulletin, 73 61 373 available to the subjects. The attribu- tion of qualities to

<Internals\\QJS\\1977 QJS 1977.1> - 46 references coded [5.42% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.09% Coverage variable analytic tradition in communication research, and con- cludes with some general comments concerning theory development in the study of human communication. Mr. Delia is Associate Professor of Speech Com

Reference 2 - 0.11% Coverage Jesse G. Delia, Daniel J. O'Keefe, and Barbara J. O'Keefe, A Perspective on Com- munication Theory (Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley, forthcoming); Daniel J. O'Keefe, "Con- structivism and Communication Studies: Theo- retical

Reference 3 - 0.11% Coverage to Human Interaction," Diss. Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 1976. THE CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVE Scientific Theories and World Views The philosophy of science explicitly or implicitly accepted by communication theorists and

Reference 4 - 0.10% Coverage is the positiv- istic view holding that since the scientific enterprise involves the generation of theory-free "facts," scientific knowledge can be represented in a nomological- deductive system. The contemporary version

Reference 5 - 0.09% Coverage by O'Keefe: "Logical empiricism" (also sometimes called "logical positivism" or the "received view" of scientific theory) is thusly named because it stands at the confluence of two streams of philosophical work

Reference 6 - 0.30% Coverage statements (or terms or language). Observation statements are straightforward and uncontro- versial; they are factual, theory-free descriptions which form the foundations of scientific knowl- edge. All theories share a common observation language, which (by virtue of being theory-free) is neutral with respect to the claims of com- peting theories; because of this common "ob- servation base," all theories are ultimately com- parable by reference to observations (cbserva- tion statements).2 Now all would

Reference 7 - 0.10% Coverage 169-170. QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SPEECH, Volume 63, February 1977 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND STUDY OF COMMUNICATION theory has come under increasingly trenchant criticism in recent years. In fact, Suppe, in reviewing the

Reference 8 - 0.09% Coverage the place of a conception of scien- tific knowledge as constructed upon a bedrock of theory-free observations, sev- eral related alternatives have been ad- vanced which, taken together, may be

Reference 9 - 0.19% Coverage to as Weltanschauungen philos- ophies of science.5 Within these alterna- tive conceptions, any specific theory or Frederick Suppe, "The Search for Philo- sophic Understanding of Scientific Theories," in The Structure of Scientific Theories, ed. Fred3 The commonality of the Weltanschuungen alternatives is summarized by Suppe, pp. 125

Reference 10 - 0.09% Coverage Anarchistic Theo'-y of Knowledge," in Minnesota Studies in the Philsophy of Science, Vol. IV: Theories and Methods of Physics and Psychology, ed. Michael Radner and Stephen Winokur (Minne- apolis: Univ

Reference 11 - 0.18% Coverage is seen as presupposing a more general theoretic view or model within which the specific theory or concept is formulated. The most general "theories" or "models," which constitute the basic presuppositional ground of theory de- velopment, have been variously labeled as "world hypotheses," "root metaphors," "presupposi tons," "forms of

Reference 12 - 0.09% Coverage

metaphors," "presupposi tons," "forms of life," "para- digms," "ways of seeing the world," "world views." Theories within any spe- cific world view differ in their level of generality, but at the

Reference 13 - 0.08% Coverage To say that sensation or observation does not itself provide the ultimate measure of a theory's worth is not, of course, to sug- gest that experience is somehow irrele- vant to

Reference 14 - 0.08% Coverage of the Weltanschauungen stances is thus to lead to the recognition that observa- tions are theory-laden. And, as O'Keefe has observed, it is just this recognition that in large measure

Reference 15 - 0.09% Coverage of the logical empiricist philosophy of science. Given the recognition that observa- tions are not theory-free, as O'Keefe has forcefully argued, an important compo- nent of the scientific endeavor must

Reference 16 - 0.08% Coverage are expanded, shaped, and refined to fit par- ticular problems.8 While Pepper's root- metaphor theory is only one system with- in which the presuppositions of alterna- tive theoretic stances might

Reference 17 - 0.09% Coverage ysis of an aspect of the field of communication studies is B. L. Ware, Jr., "Theories of Rhe- torical Criticism as Argument," Diss. Univ. of Kansas 1974. The basic assumptions of

Reference 18 - 0.13% Coverage is sketched by Hayne W. Reese and Willis F. Overton, "Models of Develop- ment and Theories of Development," in Life- Span Developmental Psychology: Research and Theory, ed. L. R. Goulet and Paul B. Balms (New York: Academic Press, 1970), pp. 115

Reference 19 - 0.11% Coverage coherence to progressively broader and more refined constructions of experience. Constructivism's Orientation to Psycho- logical Theory. When applied to psychol- ogy the structuraldevelopmental model has necessitated an active organismic model

Reference 20 - 0.09% Coverage undergo progressive de- velopmental changes. For example, in the Piagetian version of structural-developmental theory, cognitive development is seen to occur as a consequence of the interaction between the individual's

Reference 21 - 0.10% Coverage Kohlberg, "Stage and Sequence: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach to So- cialization," in Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research, ed. David A. Goslin (Chi- cago: Rand McNally, 1969), p. 348. As elabor

Reference 22 - 0.14% Coverage 348. As elabor- ated by my colleagues and me, the construc- tivist approach to communication theory actually relies much more on the similar cognitive- developmental theory of Heinz Werner, "The Concept of Development from a Comparative and Organismic Point of View

Reference 23 - 0.17% Coverage Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1957), pp. 125-148. Useful treatments of cognitive-developmental psychological theory drawing the similarity of the Piagetian and Wernerian theories are pre- sented by Jonas Langer, Theories of Develop- ment (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1969), pp. 87-158, and Albert

Reference 24 - 0.17% Coverage Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1969), pp. 87-158, and Albert Mehrabian, An Analysis of Personality Theories (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968), pp. 121-164. Such an orientation to psychological 16 theory makes the meanings individuals give to events a necessary part of under- standing their actions

Reference 25 - 0.10% Coverage explanation or understanding. The Constructivist Approach to Hu- man Communication. As an approach to communication theory, structural-devel- opmentalism leads to an emphasis upon the reciprocal and emergent creation of meaning

Reference 26 - 0.07% Coverage Some Theoretical and Methodological Consequences of Taking W. I. Thomas Serious- ly," Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 2 (1972), 62. 18 As will be dear from the following dis

Reference 27 - 0.09% Coverage dis- cussion constructivism's approach to communi- cation process relies upon aspects of the psychological theories of Werner and of George A. Kelly, The Psychology of Personal Constructs, 2 vols. (New

Reference 28 - 0.09% Coverage correct or modulate the intended behavior.19

Hence the primary task for a constructiv- ist theory of social communication is to provide an explication of behavior in terms of the shared

Reference 29 - 0.10% Coverage Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1969). 19 Melvin Feffer, "Developmental Analysis of of the sociological theory of the Chicago School of symbolic interactionism as exemplified in the 20 Ralph H. Turner

Reference 30 - 0.08% Coverage ues have largely concerned how research ought to be conducted and not what are preferable theories or research questions. During the past two decades the or- ganizational and heuristic function of

Reference 31 - 0.10% Coverage analysis, seeking discrete variables, is Perspec-tive 26 Delia, O'Keefe, and O'Keefe, A on Communication Theory. 73 necessarily insensitive to the complex re- lationship existing among the processes participating in human

Reference 32 - 0.09% Coverage In the first place, the constructivist stance suggests the need for a reunifica- tion of theory and method. Blumer makes the point with cogency: The method of empirical science obviously em

Reference 33 - 0.21% Coverage dimensional scaling procedures, in- teraction analysis categorization systems, semantic differential scales, or whatever are neutral, theory-free tools. That methods are, in fact, theory-laden is sug- gested by Phillipson: . . . the very methods themselves contain im- plicit theories and assumptions about the phe- nomena being studied which should be prob- lematic for the

Reference 34 - 0.10% Coverage the necessity of a theoretical orientation to research, in fact operate with implicit and unexplicated theory because of their reliance on research procedures which provide ordering principles for investigating the social

Reference 35 - 0.16% Coverage been," as Walsh emphasizes, "preselected and preinterpreted by its members in terms 34 Michael Phillipson, "Theory, Methodology, and Conceptualization," in Paul Filmer et al., New Directions in Sociological Theory (Cam- bridge, Masi.: MIT Press, 1973), P. 96. CONSTRUCTIVISM AND STUDY OF COMMUNICATION of a

Reference 36 - 0.09% Coverage be a qualified one of limited scope, for grouping persons or situations. The task of theory becomes one of pro- viding just such classifications. That is, from conceptual grounds the researcher

Reference 37 - 0.20% Coverage systems running the risk of making subjects dummy to the re- searcher's ventriloquism. RETROFLECTION: ON THEORY DEVELOPMENT In this final section an attempt is made to extract from the foregoing discussion some general conclusions concerning theory development and the conduct of research in communication studies. In this regard, O'Keefe has argued

Reference 38 - 0.14% Coverage O'Keefe's conclusions, while the final one extends his position upon this positive grounding. Any Specific Theory or Concept is Embedded Within a General World Theory Constituting its Assumptive Ground This is fundamental to the construc- tivist view within which the

Reference 39 - 0.12% Coverage reality and thus allowing intertheoretic reducGeorge A. Kelly, "A Brief Introduction to Personal Construct Theory," in Perspectives on Personal Construct Theory, ed. D. Bannister (New York: Academic Press, 1970), p. 2. 42 80 THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL

Reference 40 - 0.08% Coverage pp. 231-78; and "Second Thoughts on Paradigms," in Suppe, pp. 459-82. 45 The theory of changeone of simple growth or accumulationis a dierct reflection of the categories

Reference 41 - 0.10% Coverage this mandates a full and critical discussion and evaluation of the assumptive ground of our theories and concepts. The constructivist view as developed in this paper should make it evident that

Reference 42 - 0.11% Coverage scope and the refinement of the precision in encompassing experi- ence of a particular world theory and its corollary particular theories and con- cepts. Science is just as "empirical," just as committed to "objective," "reason- able

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Kuhn as Scheffler and Lakatos mistakenly feel. Rather, the shift is away from understanding scientific theories as axiomatized calculi to understanding them within a historically developed ra- tionality defined within the

Reference 44 - 0.13% Coverage the world is possible? What are we to do when faced with a choice between theories? Kuhn's answer is instructive: . . . confronted with the problem of theory- choice, the structure of my response runs rough- ly as follows: take a group of

Reference 45 - 0.19% Coverage of Rational Argument and Public Evaluation Involving the Explication of Theoretic Assumptions, the Articulation of Theories and Concepts Consistent With Those Assumptions, and the Elaboration and Refinement of Those Theories and Concepts Through Empirical Research Employing Appropriate Methodologies If the world can only be "known

Reference 46 - 0.09% Coverage sciencesmust there- fore be employed .58 We saw that meth- ods, like concepts, are theory-laden. They imply differing assumptions about re- ality. Methods must be developed which both share

<Internals\\QJS\\1978 QJS 1978 .2> - 20 references coded [3.62% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.15% Coverage THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SpFrrn, 64 (1978), 427-38. ON THE FALSIFICATION OF RULES THEORIES Keith Adler URING the past few years, differ- ences among human communi- cation researchers have

Reference 2 - 0.18% Coverage scientists advocating laws explanations and those advocating rules explanations continue to force conflict over theory and methodology.' Un- fortunately, the acceptance of pluralistic methods of inquiry may be delayed most

Reference 3 - 0.15% Coverage purpose of this paper is to take one rules position, the Cushman and Pearce action theory position,5 and de- velop necessary procedures for falsifica- tion from that perspective. Since this

Reference 4 - 0.17% Coverage have argued that generality and necessity are neces- sary criteria for the evaluation of scientific theories. See Peter Achinstein, Law and Ex- planation (Oxford: Clarendon, 1971), Chs. 2 and 3; D

Reference 5 - 0.20% Coverage P. Cushman and W. Barnett Pearce, "Generality and Necessity in Three Types of Human Communication TheorySpecial Atten- tion to Rules Theory," in Communication Year- book I, ed. Brent D. Ruben (New Brunswick, N. J.: Transaction, 1977

Reference 6 - 0.13% Coverage not be verifiable. Hence, the syllogism would be worthless as a struc- ture for rules theories. On the other hand, if the problem can be resolved there will be suggestive impications

Reference 7 - 0.29% Coverage second part of the paper will address the specific require- ments for falsification of rules theories, or, alternatively, what procedures would constitute empirical support for such theories. VON WRIGHT'S VERIFICATION ARGUMENTS Before examining von Wright's verifi- cation arguments, a brief review of

Reference 8 - 0.17% Coverage set of propositions whose conclusion follows by necessity coincides with several definitions for a scientific theory.? The following ex- ample of von Wright's third-person syllogism (which accurately reflects the logic

Reference 9 - 0.16% Coverage 28 Donald P. Cushman and B. Thomas Flor- ence, "The Development of Interpersonal Communication Theory,' Today's Speech, 22, No. 4 (1974), 12-13. 434 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SPEECH From the

Reference 10 - 0.18% Coverage would require additional evidence for the, falsification of rules propositions. DEVELOPING FALSIFIABLE TESTS FOR RULES THEORIES If the verifiability of the practical syl- logism is tentatively accepted, tests could be developed

Reference 11 - 0.26% Coverage practical syl- logism is tentatively accepted, tests could be developed for the falsification of rules theories. Of course, the concern for falsification as negative empirical sup- port for rules theories has been derived from work by Popper, who observed that "only if we cannot falsify

Reference 12 - 0.16% Coverage hypothesis had been subjected to many severe tests. Before extending Popper's falsification principle to rules theories, an examination of the difference be- tween a law and rule relationship should be made

Reference 13 - 0.15% Coverage and the presence of rules. Therefore, in order to derive empirical support for a rules theory, the theorist must demon- strate that the relationship between (X) and (Y) meets two sets

Reference 14 - 0.14% Coverage would be satisfied by showing that the relationship falls with- in the domain of action theory, i.e., that the behavior was intentional and rule- governed. The second set of criteria

Reference 15 - 0.17% Coverage of practical necessity, called practical force. Therefore, from the Cushman and Pearce criteria for rules theories four necessary and falsifiable relationships could be tested: (I) The communication behavior could be shown

Reference 16 - 0.16% Coverage too generally to provide a basis for falsification of the intentionality re- quirement for rules theories. A more likely substitute would be the identifica- tion of less general coordination situa- tions

Reference 17 - 0.16% Coverage control. For the rules researcher, the explana- tion would be more problematic. Since the action theory rules model allowed two types of indeterminacy, the re- searcher would have to attempt to

Reference 18 - 0.31% Coverage practical syllogism, I have at- tempted to show four necessary falsifica- tion procedures for rules theories from an action perspective. Two of these procedures were derived from the action theoretic origins of these rules theories. The test for intentionality was conven- tional, since the researcher isolated the specific task coordination

Reference 19 - 0.16% Coverage meet the scientific criteria of generality and necessity. The requirements for verifica- tion of rules theories have been cast in terms of the falsification of rules proposi- tions. They are empirical

Reference 20 - 0.15% Coverage tions. They are empirical because the intent of the Cushman and Pearce criteria for rules theory was explanation. Had the purposes of inquiry been de- scription, as they were in studies

<Internals\\QJS\\1978 QJS 1978.1.7> - 27 references coded [3.43% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.13% Coverage

and Promise of Small Group Research,' " Speech Monographs, 37 (1970), 217. researcher to apply communication theory and research to the pursuit of making everyday interaction more ful- filling. Communication satisfaction, therefore

Reference 2 - 0.13% Coverage Second, it may be utilized to organize and evaluate classes of variables, thereby contributing to theory building. And, third, the study of communication satisfaction has direct and straightfor- ward applications to

Reference 3 - 0.13% Coverage pain principle of hedonism, the validation principle of cognitivism, the reward/cost principle of exchange theory, and the reinforce- ment principle of Skinnerian behav- iorism. Each paradigm logically deduces that an

Reference 4 - 0.14% Coverage Within each viewpoint, then, satisfaction is one of the core con- structs around which the theory is elaborated. To be sure, each theory has a different underlying assumptive base, which results in quite different world views, and consequently

Reference 5 - 0.11% Coverage Speech Journal, 27 (1976) 200-06; Judee K. Burgoon and Stephen B. Jones, "Toward a Theory of Personal Space Expectations and Their Viola- tions," Human Communication Research, 2 (1976), 131-46

Reference 6 - 0.13% Coverage Manual Workers," Journal of Applied Psychology, 54 (1970), 157-62; Martin G. Wolf, "Need Gratification Theory: A Theoretical Reformulation of Job Satisfaction/ Dissatisfaction and Job Motivation," Journal of Applied Psychology, 54

Reference 7 - 0.11% Coverage 54 (1970), 87-94; and James D. Neeley, Jr., "A Test of the Need Gratification Theory of Job Satisfaction," Journal of Applied Psychology, 57 (1973), 86-88. Stewart L. Tubbs and

Reference 8 - 0.12% Coverage is derived from the work of Maslow12 as elaborated by Wolf. Wolf's formulation, need gratification theory, was developed to explain job satisfaction but is grounded in the generalized notion of satisfaction

Reference 9 - 0.10% Coverage

generalized notion of satisfaction as the gratification of need states. The essential premise of this theory is that individuals seek to gratify active needs, i.e., those which have not as

Reference 10 - 0.10% Coverage L. Hulin, and Edwin A. Locke, "An Em- pirical Test of the Herzberg Two-Factor Theory," Journal of Applied Psychology, 50 (1966), 544-50; George B. Graen, "Addendum to `An Empirical

Reference 11 - 0.11% Coverage 544-50; George B. Graen, "Addendum to `An Empirical Test of the Herzberg Two-Factor Theory,'" Journal of Applied Psychology, 50 (1966), 551-55. 20 Foa, pp. 163-67. 21 Charles

Reference 12 - 0.13% Coverage lead to selfHECHT 53 doubt; too many compliments may cause embarrassment. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory The final conceptualization of satis- faction, developed by Herzberg and his associates,33 deals with

Reference 13 - 0.12% Coverage The Motivation to Work, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1959); Frederick Herzberg, "The Motivation-Hygiene Theory," in Management and Motivation: Se- lected Readings, ed. Victor H. Vroom and Ed- ward L

Reference 14 - 0.23% Coverage satisfaction is a central concept in a variety of major theoretical perspectives. Even though these theories disagree on basic assump- tions about causality and relationships, each is elaborated around a satisfaction- type concept. Further, each theory con- ceptualizes this affect in two stages: a link between the internal state and the

Reference 15 - 0.11% Coverage ground- work for consensus as to the causes of satisfaction. As a second stage, each theory must specify how an affect (satisfaction) be- comes associated with the link between the internal

Reference 16 - 0.12% Coverage that all causal factors produce satisfaction by gratifying needs. Work related to Herzberg's two-factor theory and to the issue of linear or curvilinear relationships between satisfaction and causal variables suggests

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however, heavy rewards and heavy costs produce conflict.35 Osgood and Tannenbaum's work in congruity theory lends support to the notion that conflict is not reduced by summation.36 A final

Reference 18 - 0.12% Coverage Description Index). Further, Neeley39 found no support for hypotheses derived from Wolf's40 formulation of the theory. Herzberg's conceptualization41 has been the subject of a great deal of em- pirical investigation. Much

Reference 19 - 0.12% Coverage a linear and curvilinear relationship be- tween satisfaction and causal variables. None of the present theories has made this adjustment. In the final analysis, the expectation fulfillment position comes closest to

Reference 20 - 0.11% Coverage and Carrie Wherry Waters, "An Em- pirical Test of Five Versions of the Two-Factor Theory of Job Satisfaction," Organizational Be- havior and Human Performance, 7 (1972), 18-24. FEBRUARY 1978

Reference 21 - 0.11% Coverage the develop- ment of science for it tries to insure that the necessary abstractness of theory does not move too far from empirical data. The conceptualization of communication satisfaction proposed here

Reference 22 - 0.12% Coverage of all human behavior. The described approach has other ad- vantages. As in all Skinnerian theory the determination of reinforcement is an em- pirical question examining the in- dividual. The assessment

Reference 23 - 0.28% Coverage that field of study. Copying the physicists, social scientists have de- veloped "push" and "pull" theories to explain the "energy" behind the move- ment of people. Push theories (e.g., Shelly's constraintreinforcement ap- proach51) see people propelled by the environment; pull theories (e.g., need gratification or expectation fulfillment perspectives) see people as being pulled by some

Reference 24 - 0.13% Coverage their strengths, the discrimination fulfill- ment approach is potentially superior. The strength of the "pull" theories (ex- pectation fulfillment and equivocality reduction) is their attention to environ- mental regularities. The discriminative

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to incorporate the pro- cess of adjusting to perceived regularities. The strength of the "push" theory (constraint-reinforcement) is its attention to environmental contingencies. This orien- tation is incorporated in

Reference 26 - 0.10% Coverage is Job Satisfaction?" 49 Thibaut and Kelley, pp. 82-89. 50 George A. Kelly, A Theory of Personal ConThe present discussion implies three areas of primary concern to the com

Reference 27 - 0.11% Coverage Kelly, pp. 289-91. 65 Donn Byrne and Paul D. Krivonos, "A Reinforcement Affect Theory of Interpersonal Com- munication," paper presented at the meeting of the Speech Communication Association, San

<Internals\\QJS\\1978 QJS 1978.2.1> - 4 references coded [0.99% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.19% Coverage and Communication Systems (Homewood, II.: Irwin, 1968), pp. 3-28; Brent D. Ruben, "General System Theory: An Approach to Human Communication," in Ap- proaches to Human Communication, ed. Richard W. Budd

Reference 2 - 0.20% Coverage tan, 1972), pp. 120-44; Brent D. Ruben and John Y. Kim, eds., General Systems Theory and Human Communication (Rochelle Park, N.J.: Hayden, 1975); Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jack- son, pp

Reference 3 - 0.42% Coverage initiated, grow, evolve, prosper, or deteriorate. 11 Delacorte, 1968); Roy R. Grinker, Toward a Unified Theory of Behavior (New York: Basic Books, 1956); James G. Miller, "Living Systems: Basic Concepts," Behavioral Science, 10 (1965), Theory (New York: Braziller, 1968); C. West Churchman, The Systems APProach (New York: Cf. Ludwig von

Reference 4 - 0.18% Coverage of Science," General Systems: Year book of the Society for the Advancement of General Systems Theory, 1 (1956), 15. 19 Cf. Anatol Rapoport, "ManThe Symbol- User," in Communication: Ethical and

<Internals\\QJS\\1978 QJS 1978.2.5> - 5 references coded [0.47% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.10% Coverage profitably supplement or even be substituted for reading, lecCommunication," in Foundations of Communi- cation Theory, ed. Kenneth K. Sereno and C. David Mortensen (New York: Harper & Row, 7 See Stewart

Reference 2 - 0.09% Coverage for example, James L. Bemis and Ger- ald M. Phillips, "A Phenomenological Approach to Communication Theory," Speech Teacher, 13 (1964), 262-69; Remo P. Fausti and Arno H. Luker, "A Phenomenological

Reference 3 - 0.10% Coverage communication works" but also develop- ing awareness of their own idiosyncratic 61 Raymond Anderson, "Kierkegaard's Theory of Communication," in Douglas, ed., p. 160. 62 Mary Rose Barral, Merleau-Ponty: The Role

Reference 4 - 0.09% Coverage relational communication"82 is not simply an outgrowth of postwar develop- ments in general systems theory, third force psychology, or Eastern mysticism; its roots can be traced to epistemological and ontological

Reference 5 - 0.10% Coverage Ques- tion Approach"; B. Aubrey Fisher, "Relation- ship Rules: Still Another Step Toward Communication Theory"; and Donald G. Ellis, "Re- lational Interaction in Decision-Making Groups" all papers presented at

<Internals\\QJS\\1978 QJS 1978.2.6> - 3 references coded [0.69% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.24% Coverage his discussion of the linguistic dimensions of socialization are im- portant elements in modern sociolinguistic theory. Also, see Basil Bernstein, "A Sociolin- guistic Approach to Socialization; with some Reference to Educability

Reference 2 - 0.21% Coverage the individual is in- volved is one important situational factor in determining code choice. Sociological theory suggests two basic types of groups, differing in both physical and social characteristics, which embody

Reference 3 - 0.24% Coverage mixes elements of both. The chart below sum- marizes these concepts. In essence, modern sociolinguistic theory broadens and deepens traditional concepts of stylistic variation. It suggests that each individual has a

<Internals\\QJS\\1979 QJS 1979.1.4> - 19 references coded [1.87% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.11% Coverage

Univ. Press, 1967), particularly Part II. Recent reviews by Dean E. Hewes, "Interpersonal Communication Theory and Research: A Metamethodo- logical Overview," in Communication Yearbook II, ed. Brent Ruben (New Brunswick

Reference 2 - 0.10% Coverage but inadequate process methodology at the cost of a series of compromises between methodology and theory, compromises which concern three crucial aspects of social interaction analyses: (1) the assumptions underlying coding

Reference 3 - 0.09% Coverage Holt, Rine- hart and Winston, 1976), pp. 22-32. 8 The effects of compromising between theory and methodology have been documented by a number of authors including Cappella; Jesse G. Delia

Reference 4 - 0.09% Coverage alternatives, I am merely proposing a set of options among which a theorist might choose. Theory construction is "a science of the probable." By having many method- ological alternatives available, a

Reference 5 - 0.10% Coverage relational coding has also proceeded under this assumption; see Malcolm R. Parks, "Relational Communi- cation: Theory and Research," Human Com- munication Research, 3 (Summer 1977), p. 374 and n. 2. 14

Reference 6 - 0.09% Coverage 12 B. Aubrey Fisher and Leonard C. Hawes, "An Interact System Model: Generating a Grounded Theory of Small Groups," Quarterly 11 If A, B, and C are acts in the sequence

Reference 7 - 0.10% Coverage section, I have argued that conventional assumptions concern- ing category schemes unnecessarily restrict the theory and methods of social tion, 25, No. 3 (1975), 140; and L. Edna Rogers and

Reference 8 - 0.10% Coverage Emergence: Phases in Group Decision-Making," Speech Monographs, 37 (1970), 53-66; A. Paul Hare, "Theories of Group Development and Categories for Inter- action Analysis," Small Group Behavior, 4 (1973), 259

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nonhomogeneity in decision- making interaction; elsewhere the author has demonstrated briefly how Berger and Calabrese's theory of initial interaction could be extended to predicting par- ticular forms of nonstationarity.91 These

Reference 10 - 0.09% Coverage incremental exogenous prediction are two. Incremental exogenous prediction is based on the presumption that all theories contain a set of estimated pa- rameters; the job of the theorist is to See

Reference 11 - 0.10% Coverage is to See Gustav Levine and C. J. Burke, Mathematical Model Techniques for Learning 93 Theories (New York: Academic, 1972). 94 For example, Gouran and Baird. HEWES explain deviations in the

Reference 12 - 0.10% Coverage a func- tion of the exogenous variable "ac- quainted/not acquainted" 00;98 even "rules theories" of social interaction suggest that the decision to employ one of several possible rule sequences

Reference 13 - 0.09% Coverage Conner, and Fisek's models of prestige development in small groups.102 The joint effects of theorybased parameter fixing and esti- mation of fit to the data can and have led

Reference 14 - 0.10% Coverage specific axioms and exogenous variables needed to ac- complish this must come from content- specific theories, the tactics will likely follow the guidelines specified here. CONCLUSION Throughout this paper I have

Reference 15 - 0.09% Coverage this paper I have tried 101 Frank Harary, "A Criterion for Una- nimity in French's Theory of Social Power," in Studies in Social Power, ed. Dorwin Cartwright (Ann Arbor: Univ. of

Reference 16 - 0.10% Coverage 168-82. 102 Joseph Berger, Thomas L. Conner, and M. Hamit Fisek, eds., Expectation States Theory: A Theoretical Research Program (Cambridge, Ma.: Winthrop, 1974), pp. 29-37. 103 Levine and Burke

Reference 17 - 0.10% Coverage approach. They also demonstrate the usefulness of this approach in the area of mathematical learning theory. 73 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF SPEECH to suggest that popular methodologies for sequential analysis have had

Reference 18 - 0.10% Coverage stultifying effect both upon the adequacy of current descriptions and upon the explanatory power of theories of social interaction. This need not be. Alterna- tives to, and modifications of, available technologies

Reference 19 - 0.11% Coverage the flexibility of a particular process methodHEWES ology in accommodating potential di- rections for theory building. Throughout this paper I have tried to avoid prejudging the choices that a theorist

<Internals\\QJS\\1980 QJS 1980.2.7> - 9 references coded [2.17% Coverage] Reference 1 - 0.24% Coverage example), we examine some processes of consensus formation about rules. C This extension of rules theories is based on data concerning communica- tion during problematic situations. We argue that when communicators

Reference 2 - 0.22% Coverage of Texas at Austin. 1 Donald Cushman and Gordon C. Whiting, "An Approach to Communication Theory: To- ward Consensus on Rules," Journal of Com- munication, 22 (1972), 227; D. P. Cushman

Reference 3 - 0.28% Coverage P. Cushman and W. Barnett Pearce, "Generality and Necessity in Three Types of Human Communication TheorySpecial Attention to Rules Theory," Communication Yearbook I, ed. Brent D. Ruben (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1977), pp

Reference 4 - 0.26% Coverage pp. 177-79; and W. Barnett Pearce, "The Coordinated Management of Meaning: A Rules-Based Theory of Interpersonal Communi- cation," in Explorations in Interpersonal Com- munication, ed. Gerald R. Miller (Beverly

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for com- municators' development of consensus about rules. CONSENSUS ABOUT RULES A commonplace of rules theories holds that social conduct is subject to situa- tional constraints.2 There exists, in other

Reference 6 - 0.21% Coverage includes prospective and retrospective reframings of situa- tions, including disclaimers, motive talk, accounts, and quasi-theories about why communication has worked the way it has.13 The contrast between the ritual

Reference 7 - 0.25% Coverage and C. Wright Mills, Situated Actions and Vocabularies of Motive," Problems, Problematic Situations, and Quasi- Theories," American Sociological Review, 38 3), 367-74; John P. Hewitt and Randall John P. Hewitt

Reference 8 - 0.23% Coverage other patterns. The above analysis has several im- plications for the developing body of rules theory and research. The prob- lematic situation appears to provide communicators with a focal point from

Reference 9 - 0.25% Coverage Our description of remedial and legislative discourse within problematic situations offers one additional benefit to theories about social order, in that it begins to account simultaneously for social stability and social