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1 STEREOTYPING OF MUSLIM CONVERTS: A PRELIMINARY STUDY ON CHINESE

MUALLAF By Razaleigh Muhamat @ Kawangit


Abstract

This article set outs to look the situation of Muslim converts stereotyping in Malaysia which focusing on the Chinese Muslim converts. It was sure that their Muslim culture applying becomes dilemma when they convert from their own religion to Islm. It suggests that when these converts begin to practice Islm, their behavior changes in line with the identity of the Malays. This is because Islm equates to Malay in the Malaysian context. Whilst they are welcomed by their Malay counterparts, it is nevertheless hypothesised that they was influenced by the situation of ethnic stereotyping
1. CONCEPT OF CONVERT IN ISLAM: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The word Muslim converts means those who are changed their previous religions to Islm and become Muslim. In Islm, they are called Muallaf. The Encyclopedia of Islm explained that the word Muallaf took from Arabic language Al-Muallafa Qulbuhum which means those whose hearts are won over or those hearts that need softening1. The term applied to those former opponents of the rophet Muhammad s.a.w who are said to have been reconciled to the cause of Islm by presents of or camels from rophet Mu ammads share of the spoils of the battle of unayn, after Mu ammads forces had defeated the awzin confederation, and divided out at the Al-Dijrana. The list included the Meccan Leader Ab Sufyn and his sons Muawiyya and Yazd and various Bedouin chiefs from the tribes of western Arabia. On the other hand, the actual phrase is connected with Qurn in the Sra Al-Tauba: 60, which means: Zakt2 is for: the poor, the destitute, those who collect it, reconciling peoples hearts (Muallaf), frees slaves, spending in the way of Allah, and travellers. It is legal obligation from Allah. Allah is all knowing, all wise From the above phrase, Muallaf should be given Zakt in purposes to won and to soften their hearts to follow Islm as a way of life. To give better understanding about Muallaf especially their categories in Islamic view, the word should be discussed together with Zakt. This such two things determined in Islam as including in Fiqf3 section.

C.E Bosworth, E. Van Donzel, W.P Heinrichs and C.H Pellat. 1993. The Encyclopedia of Islm . New Edition. Volume VII. New York: Leiden. Page: 254
2

Zakt or known as Islamic religious tax, one of the five basic pillars of Islam. All adult Muslims of sound mind and body with a set level of income and assets are expected to pay Zakt. Zakt and will be paid yearly on certain types of property determined by religion (Islm). Zakt is payable, at different rates on basically five items of income and assets which are crops, harvests, herds, gold and silver, and merchandise.
3

Fiqh refers to the study of the law in Islam and was defined in the side of jurisprudence as the knowledge of the rights and duties whereas human beings are enabled to observe right conduct in this life and to prepare themselves

There are several discussion among the Islamic scholars showed that the term Muallaf also includes non-Muslim, but only in the purpose of to get their hearts to Islm, for example, al -Qardw states that there is a group of infidels being courted in the hope that they accept Islam such as the case of afwn. During the opening (al-futh) of Mecca, afwn was given a period of four months by the rophet s.a.w to consider about accepting Islm. When the battle of unayn occurred, he took part in it. The rophet s.a.w then learnt afwn his sword and gave him a few camels, taken from a valley. Consequently, after that incident, afwn became a good Muslim.4 The adith ohh referring to the event appears in the Sunan al-Tirmdhi, which means: From afwn, son of Umayya, who said: On the day of Hunayn war, the Prophet had given me something. Truly, he was the person whom I hated most but he always gave me (something) until he really became the person that I love most The adith mentioned above explained that Raslullah s.aw had transformed afwn who hated him most at first, but through love, care and material showered on him by Raslullah s.a.w, his hatred changed to love. Similarly, there is another adith ohh collected by Shawkni and cited by Ahmad with the sanad from Anas:5 Truly, the Prophet never asks something except for the importance of Islm unless he was definitely able to fulfil it. Once, a man come and asked him something, he then was told to take a large part of the Zakt, (goats) which occupied between two mountains. So, the men went back to his people and said: My people, all of you should embrace Islm, for Muhammad (loves) gave something as though a person was afraid of hunger As a result, almost of the Islamic scholars agree the non-Muslim as a part of Muallaf as a way to persuade them to embrace Islm. Unfortunately, they do not verify the categories clearly. Only al-Qurub mentioned three of them, which are: 6 1. Those who just embraced Islm. They need support in order to build up their confidence towards Islm. al-Qurub quoted from al-Zuhri, who was of the opinion that those included in this group were the Jews and Christians who had newly accepted Islm, even though they were rich. 2. Leaders and public figures amongst them and had many friends who were non-Muslims. By giving them a part of the Zakt, it was hoped to be able to attract themselves and of their friends and got them to embrace Islm as was in the case of when Ab Bakar gave Zakt to Uday bin atm and Zabarqan bin Bdr. Both of them were of high social standings in their society. 3. The middlemans who can persuade other non-Muslim to embrace and accept Islam such as an act of war. In this matter, they received a part of the Zakt to become such a middleman.
for the world to come. See more meaning about fiqh at: Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. 1991. Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence. Cambridge, U.K.: Islamic Texts Society.
4

Understanding from what al-ardw defined about 'infidel'. See more at: Ysuf al-Qardw. 986. Fiqh alZakt. Volume I & II. Lebanon: Muassasat al-Risalah. Page: 595
5

Al-Shawkn, Mu ammad bin Ali. 1987. Nayl al-Awar (trns: Maammal Hamidy). Volume III. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka alAzhar. Pages: 120-121
6

al-Qurub. 9 4. Al-Jami i

km al-Quran. Volume 8. Misr: Dar al-Kutub Misriyya. Page: 180

After the death of rophet Mu ammad s.a.w, the companions put their attention on the rights in receiving Zakt to the Muallaf. They do not explain anymore the meaning of the group, and these were the reasons, categorizing the Muallaf. or example, during the time of rophet Mu ammad s.a.w, Uyayna bin isn, al-Aqra bin abs and Abbas bin Mirds were each given a guarantee (a letter) from the rophet and Ab Bakr that they were given portion of the Zakt collection. When the letter was brought to the notice of Umar, he immediately tore the letter. He said: The Prophet s.a.w gave you that portion to entice you to Islm. Now Allah has exalted Islm and there are no longer any bond between you and us. If you are still in Islm, then we accept you but if you are not, and then our tie is through the sword7. After that Umar read al-Qurn , Sra al-Kahf:29, say: It is the truth from your lord, so let whoever wishes have mn and whoever wishes be kfir. They went back to Ab Bakr and told him what had happened and thus asked: Are you the Caliph or Umar? Ab Bakr answered: Umar, Inshallah8. Ab Bakr did not refute the sayings and actions of Umar, nor did the other companions until that matter achieved the consensus of opinion (ijma) them all, according to some scholars. There were no comments from U thman and Ali about that portion hitherto meant for the Muallaf taken away from them. When Ab Bakr was caliph, he kept giving the part to Uday bin atm and the people on his area. After the companion era, there are a few differences of opinion among the Fiqh Scholars (Ahlu al-fiqh), for examples, Hanaf iqh scholar is one of the opinions that the portion for Muallaf being abrogated, they thus lost all rights after the death of rophet Mu ammad s.a.w. They based their opinion on the ijma of the companions of the rophet, since Ab Bakr and the other companions did not question the action and saying of Umar.9 However according to al-Qurub, the Malik scholars have two differences of views on this matter,10 which are the loss of Muallaf rights is due to the strength and the expansion of Islm and the rights of the Muallaf are permanent as long as their done their work in persuading other non-Islm to embrace Islm. According to Shfi, there are two opinions on the problem of giving Zakt to the Muallaf: 1. The new converts to Islm could be given part of Zakt because Allah has commanded Zakt taken from Muslims to be given back to Muslims and not to be given to people of other religion. 2. The polytheist (Mushrikn) should not receive any part of the Zakt even to attract them to Islm. Although the Prophet s.a.w had once given part of the Zakt to some polytheist in the Hunayn War but it was actually from the property of fai (fai is ghanma acquired without the use of force or struggle) and more specifically from the Prophet s.a.w own property.11

Amiur Nuruddin. 1991. Al-Ijtihd Min Umar Ibn al-Khattab. Jakarta: PN Rajawali Press. Pages: 141-142 Ibid Ibid. Op.Cit, al-Qurub. age: 8 Op.Cit, Ysuf al-Qardw, age: 67

10

11

4 Al-Naww was in complete agreement with Shfis opinion that in order to attract the hearts of non-believers to Islm, fais property or any others, could be used, but not out of the Zakt collection.12 Meanwhile according to al-Qardw, the Muallaf includes both the infidels (Kfirn) and the Muslims, giving the portion of the Zakt to them would be in order if it could attract the infidels to Islm. He prohibition is concerning giving a part of Zakt specifically to them. New converts, however, should receive their as prescribed.13 There are two things not really clear from the above discussion. Firstly; the time period should somebody who are newly embrace Islm can be called Muallaf and secondly; related with the interaction and integration, or in other word, how the Muallaf interact and integrate with the Muslim?. If the time period referred to the stand of what Umar act on Uyaynah bin Hisn, al -Aqra bin abs and Abbas bin Mirds, the period only two years. These based on the term which Ab Bakr has been a caliph until the early term of Umar. Unfortunately, some of Islamic scholars after that followed basically on what Prophet Muhammad s.a.w was done during his life to gave Zakt to Muallaf (including those are nonMuslim) as long as they can enhancing Islm. It means, they will remain called as Muallaf and will receive Zakt collection. The way how Muallaf interact and integrate with ordinary Muslim probably can be seen through the way of Islamic education or sometime the discussion can be found in the dawa Islmia14 section. For example, according to al-Qurub the reason to giving attention and guidance to Muallaf in the way of Islm is part of dawa methodology since it is obligatory for Muslims to propagate Islm, to save them from the swords of the Muslims here on earth and the fire in the life after death. After that, al-Qurub given some impacts by giving them priority in guidance, briefly as follows:15 1. To prevent them from deeds that may spark social unrest. 2. To make them realize the wholesomeness (Shuml) of Islm as their constant guide on the right part. 3. To encourage them to hope for the blessing of Allah, so that their hearts are open to accept the teaching of Islm. 4. To show them how Islm always care and love the Muallaf and that the Prophet Muhammad s.a.w is the blessing for all and especially the new convert. Meanwhile, according to Ibn Hishm the purpose of providing guidance to the Muallaf in the basic knowledge of the Dn (religion) and instilling them with qualities of correct moral behaviour is to encourage them to willingly embrace Islm, and to avoid evil deeds. Ibn Hishm said, that the best

12

Ibid Ibid.

13

14

Dawa is an Arabic term meaning 'invite' or 'invitation'. It is considered to be an obligation on Muslims to invite others to understand and practice Islm as a way of life. Dawa is usually referred to as the act of 'preaching Islm'. It can apply to both Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, in the al-Qurn, Sra Al-Nahl 16:125 states: "Invite (all) to the Way of the Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching; and argue with them in ways that are best and most gracious: for the Lord know the best, who have strayed from His Path, and who receive guidance" . See more at: Hirschkind, Charles. 2004. Civic Virtue and Religious Reason: An Islamic Counter-Public. USA: Hall Publication. Pages: 8-30.
15

Op.Cit. al-Qurub,.

5 example of love and guidance can be appeared from Hijra. The companions were ever willing to sacrifice themselves, their nation, home wealth, friends and families to migrate to Yathrib (Medina). As an example, Ali bin Ab lib willingly took the place of rophet Muhammad s.a.w lying on his bed even though he knew the pagan uraish had already designed to kill the rophet s.a.w. Ab Bakr too constantly looked ahead to ensure that he had chosen the best way for the rophet Mu ammad s.a.w , and at the same time look back to see no danger coming from behind in order to protect the Prophet s.a.w whilst on their journey to Yathrib.16 2. CONCEPT OF CONVERT IN MALAYSIA: A COMPARISON In Malaysia, the concept of convert followed in what was discussed in Islamic view above. This was strongly reflected with the rule of Zakt. However, in certain area which not related with the rule of Zakt, there are several different practices concerned with the concept and concluded in two areas: 1. The Malay Muslims call the Muallaf as our brother (or Saudara Kita in Malay language) and new brother (known in Malay language as Saudara Baru). The word new brother (Saudara Baru), used in the Malay Muslims society in Malaysia, is to indicate and state that someone has embraced Islm. By referring to them as such, is a way to enhance Islamic brotherhood, care and love to the converts. However, this also may alienate the converts and make them separated from the main stream of the Muslim umma as the converts may feel that they are not one of the born Muslims. This can divide the Muslims into born Muslims and converts. This is not good for interaction and integration, that is, to socialize and mix freely as Muslim brothers. 2. In general, instead of the words Saudara Kita and Saudara Baru, Malay Muslims categorized all the converts in one category called Muallaf which referred to those who are not from Malays. It happen because as Malays, they do not know whether the Muallaf born as a Muslim or just embraced Islm. Then, it invited some problems as well. or example, the word seems like there are gap between them, and for sure it will be referred to the racism problem (further discussion regarding the problems will be presented later in sub-heading). On the other hand, the Muallaf feel in prior complex because they assume they are on themselves without any support from their surrounding. All this make the interaction and integration between Malays as a majority and the Muallaf as new comers to Islm become worst. The problem appeared not just a simply facts and it was faced not only by Muallaf but also by other minorities. The different are, what was happen to Muallaf considered as between Muslim, while the rest are between different races. However, the usage of different concept in Malaysia related with two things above connected with the definition and the existence of both Malays and Chinese in Malaysia and will be argued after this. In this research, the term convert will be used in the same meaning with Muallaf. The term utilize in bringing several denotations such as to differentiate between those who are born Chinese Muslim and those who are embrace Islm after born as a non-Muslim. It also applied in the constitution of Malaysia17 as a person who changed his religion and some regulations especially in distributing Zakt fund at state religious departments in Malaysia usually refer to such term.

16

See more at: Ibn Hishm, Abd al-Mlik al-imyar. Al-Sira al-Nabawiyya. Beirut: Dar al-Jil. Pages: 98-123.

17

The word Muallaf was used in the Administration of Islamic Law Enactment of Malaysia, 1992 and the Law Reform (Marriage and Divorce) Act, 1976. It also used in the same meaning of Muallaf (those who are embraced Islm and not from Malays) in Article ( ) and Article 2 (3) and (4), ederal Constitution of Malaysia.

3. STEREOTYPING OF MUSLIM CONVERTS Generally, in Malaysia, cultural differences do not prevent the various ethnic groups from interacting and integrating across ethnic boundaries. However, certain religious values do have implications for interethnic interaction and integration. For example, it is hard to find a Muslim who would go to a temple. Similarly most of the Chinese (non-Muslim Chinese) would seldom go to a mosque and participate in its activities as the Malay value system different from the Chinese. Isl m is monotheistic and exclusive whereas the Chinese religious beliefs are polytheistic and rather tolerant of others. While the Muslims are forbidden to worship idols, the Chinese do not believe so. The principles and rules stated in the al-Qurn are uncompromising with regards to the worshipping of idols. However, the Chinese worship idols and also their ancestors as a way for showing filial piety. Food is another hindrance for social interaction and integration. Pork is forbidden to Muslims and all Muslims adhere to this strongly. Some Muslims also restrict themselves to eating animals slaughtered in the name of Allah. On the other hand, the Chinese consume pork as a traditional food item. They do not have much restriction for their food except that a small number of them are vegetarians and some do not take beef.18 Because of this, Muslims do not go to the Chinese restaurants where pork is served. This has therefore reduced the frequency of social interaction and integration between the Muslim Malays and non-Muslim Chinese. Currently, there seems to be greater awareness among the ethnic groups sensitiveness towards one another. The Chinese understand that pork is not eaten by the Malays. Because of it, most of the organizers of social functions will prepare food which is religiously all for the Malays. Chinese friends inviting Malays for meals will generally take them to the all food restaurants. Ten years ago, most of big hotels in Malaysia served pork as a main item on their menus. Now, as many Malays have become successful corporate figures and the number Malay professionals residing in the town is quits big, most of the big hotels in Malaysia have ceased to served pork as it is costly to have two separate cold storage areas for meat, one to cater for the Muslims and another for the non-Muslims. As a result, there are more opportunities for interethnic interaction and integration in the big hotels amongst the wealthy Malays and Chinese. Moreover, in school, children of the Chinese, Malays, Indians and others have plenty of opportunities to mingle at a young age except in independent Chinese schools, where most of the students are Chinese and in religious school where most of the students are Muslims. 19 In conclusion, the interaction and integration between the races in Malaysia had a rose up indicators. Currently, there are also more exchanges of invitations and choices of friends from other ethnic groups. One of the stereotyping of a Chinese who embraces Islm is known in Malay language as Masuk Melayu, which is known in Chinese language as jip huan or become Malay. In the Chinese Hokkien20 dialect, this means to enter the way of an uncivilized race. As one of the identity makers of the Malays in Islm, inevitably when a convert embraces Islm, he or she will surely learn some of the Islamic norms. Not taking pork or taking pork is a maker of identity for the Malays and Chinese respectively.
18

The culture and practices of Malaysian Chinese can be found at: Asmah Hj. Omar. 2004. Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Languages and Literature. Kuala Lumpur: Edition of Dedier Millet. Pages: 52-53
19

Ibid.

20

Malaysian Chinese used several dialects in their language. The Cantonese and Hokkien are the largest dialect used by them. Other dialects are Teochew, Hainanese, Hockchiu and Highwa. Ibid.

7 Circumcision is to the Chinese a Malay identity. This is usually taken as proof of masuk Melayu by the Chinese21. Even though Islm is universal and even in China, many Chinese are Muslims. In Malaysia, Islm is identified with the Malays. Similarly, the non-Muslim Chinese and Malays have different customs not only regarding food, clothing, decorations of the houses, but also funeral rites. It is the religious obligation of the Muslims to wash the corpse, dress it properly, pray to Allah and bury it, usually without a coffin and with the face looking westward. For the Chinese, the corpse is usually kept in the coffin; paper money known as heaven money is usually burnt and the corpse will face the sky. Thus, it can be seen that in the colonial era and a few years after independence, there was very little interaction and integration among the ethnic groups. As discussed before, the colonial policy was the main factor. Besides those differences in religions, food, culture and value systems further separated the Malays and the Chinese. The number of Chinese in Malaya who before independence intended to return to China was high. A big number of them had dual citizenship even after independence. The national status of a Chinese living in Malaya was a matter of considerable uncertainty during the colonial period. All persons born in British territory of Singapore, Penang and Malacca (during the colonial period, Singapore, Penang and Malacca put directly under colonial government and the people automatically have British citizenship, meanwhile the remain states considered as Malaya) held British citizenship but Chinese born in the Malay states (other than Singapore, Penang and Malacca) were not British subjects nor were they subjects of the Sul n (head of the states).22 They were treated by the British authorities as British protected persons and were granted passports accordingly. Finally, after the independence, British no longer to give British citizenship to those who are stayed in Singapore, Penang and Malacca. It was happen as well in the side of education. The educational system was indefinite. The Chinese generally sent their children to the Chinese schools with their syllabus adopted from mainland China and this cultivated their nationalism towards China; Malays sent their children to Madrasa (religious school) and Indian to Indian schools.23 There is no space for them (Malays, Chinese and Indian) to interact and integrate as a community (Malaysian community). As a result, to the Malays, the Chinese were foreigners. They came from China and controlled the economy of Malaysia which the Malays feared greatly. Nowadays, the desire among the Chinese to go back to China has become history. The young Chinese do not have any memories of their fathers and forefathers who harboured the hope to go back to China. None of them would like to return to China as living is hard over there.24 However, the races stereotyping in Malaysia should be look as well from the angle of ethnic situation. Then, it can be cleared why it was happen. Malaysias strategic location has made it the target of cultural impacts and influences from countries such as China, India, Indonesia, the Middle East and those in Europe. Malaysia is a 'melting pot' of the culture of the great world.25 During the pre-colonial era and before the coming of Islm, Malaysia

21

M. Kamal Hassan and Ghazali Basri. 2005. The Encyclopedia of Malaysia. Volume 10: Religion and Beliefs. Singapore. Page: 110
22

Ibid. Asmah Hj. Omar. 2004. Op.Cit. M. Kamal Hassan and Ghazali Basri. 2005. Op.Cit.

23

24

25

See more about Malaysia or Malaya as a 'melting pot' at: Shuid, Mahdi and Yunus, Mohd. Fauzi. 2001. Malaysian Studies. Kuala Lumpur: Longman. Pages: 29-31

8 or Malaya it was known then, was very much under the influence of Indian culture.26 Till today, the Hindu influences are evident in the language, literature and customs. For example a couple who just married mostly in all races will be called Raja from the word Sanskrit which means free to do anything. While Hinduism has had an influence, the most important influence on Malaysian history is Islm. Islm was introduced by the Indian and Arab merchants to the local people. When the Malacca ultn became Muslim after 4 , Malacca became the centre of Islm and from it, the religion spread to other regions. Now, it is obviously a very important religion and is the official religion of all the states of Malaysia and is the religion of all the Malays in Malaysia.27 A big numbers of Indian Muslims, a few converted Chinese Muslims, as well as some native people are also Muslims. The influence of Islam can be seen in the existence of the mosques throughout the countries, the various customs related to Islm, the ways of clothing of the Muslims and the holidays of the Islamic festivals. Meanwhile, in the colonial era, Christianity was introduced to Malaysia. Missionaries followed the conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511 and also later when Malacca fell to the Dutch in 1641. The British finally extended full territorial rights to the whole of Malaya.28 Presently, there are churches belonging to both the Catholic and Protestant denominations throughout the country. The influences of Christianity can be seen in the various schools, hospitals and orphanage homes set up by the missionaries. Besides that, Christmas is a national holiday for Malaysia. Unfortunately, during the British colonial era, the Malays were the most neglected ethnic group in Malaya. The Malays were not given much chance to work and they stayed in the rural areas. The Malays also did not have much chance of a good education as they did not like to go to the Christian missionary schools. Furthermore, the colonial government had no intention of advancing the Malay ethnic group economically. The British exploited the ethnic situation in Malaya. They wanted the natives to remain a backward ethnic group so that they would not think of ruling their own country. The natives were stereotyped as a backward and lazy people and were not given much chance in education or other fields.29 Luckily, since independence, Malaysia has undergone rapid changes and development in the various fields of activities. The policy of the government is to unite all the ethnic groups so that they can make this country their home. It has always been the policy of the government to maintain and strengthen goodwill, understanding and friendship among people of all races so that they ultimately will be able to regard themselves as members of one nation and as one people. This takes time but it must be the unshakeable determination of all of Malaysian to move ahead toward the goal. However, the problem in Malaysia is that it is a melting pot of some of the most important cultural traditions in human history. Here, the culture of China, India, the Middle East, Europe and indigenous polynesian Malay culture have come together.30 Thus, the challenge is to harmonize the various cultures and this is not an easy task. The three main ethnic groups of Malaysia, Malay, Chinese

26

Ibid. M. Kamal Hassan and Ghazali Basri. 2005. Op.Cit Ibid. Ibid. Pages: 200-204 Shuid, Mahdi and Yunus, Mohd. Fauzi. 2001. Op.Cit.

27

28

29

30

9 and Indian are not only physically different from one another but also differ in a sociological sense. They have differences in customs, languages and religions. On the other hand, non-Malays Muslims who conform to Islamic norms are generally accepted as Malays. There is no colour prejudice at all. It appears that the main barrier to interethnic marriage is related to religions and customs. In the recent past, the implementation of Malay as a official language as well as the medium of instruction in the schools and universities in Malaysia has enable more young people to speak Malay. Besides, there are now more books published in Malay. The Main Malay newspaper has become the most circulated newspaper as many Chinese also read the Malay paper. The Malay language has indeed become the common language used for interethnic communication.31 After the Second World War, there were a few isolated outbreaks of interethnic violence. The racial riot at May 13, 1969 or known as May 13 incident32 could have easily got out of control. Fortunately, the ethnic leaders had mobilized opinion against violence and ethnic hostility. At the time of the riot, the Chinese were envious of the political position of the Malays while the latter were envious of the economic position of the former. The Chinese firmly believed that their wealth was due to their industriousness, thriftiness and adaptability to modern ways. The Malays believed that they were 'the sons of the soil' and they ought to control the country. They perceived that the Chinese were brought in by foreign rule and they should have any political stake or economic power in the country.33 However, after independence, new development took place. Polarisation of population among the various ethnic groups was fuelled by political and economic competition besides differences in languages, customs and religions and demand for education of individual ethnic groups like the Merdeka University (means Independence University) for the Chinese. This led to mistrust among the various ethnic groups. Finally after the 1969 election, another ethnic conflict broke out. Since then, Parliament has passed an act forbidding the people from discussing sensitive issues such as the position of the ultn (states and Islamic leader in Malaysia), the rights of Bumiputera34, the official language and the official religion of the country. The government also implemented a new policy called New Economic Policy (NEP)35 to

31

See more related with the implementation of Malay language at: Asmah Hj. Omar. 1989. The Malay spelling Reform. Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society. Volume 11. Pages: 9-13
32

The 'May 13 Incident' is a term for the Malay-Chinese riots which was started in Kuala Lumpur on 13th of May, 1969. The riot also happens in two other states in Malaysia which are Selangor and Perak. Luckily, the remain of the states are not involving with the riot. Local journalist reported that 196 people were killed within one and half month of the riot. Then, the government declared 'National Emergency' and suspended the Parliament started from the date of the riot until 1st of January, 1971. See more about this riot at: Hwang, In-Won. 2003. Personalized Politics: The Malaysian State under Mahathir. Hong Kong: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Pages: 78-100
33

Ibid.

34

Bumiputera (was taken from Sanskrit, 'Bhumiputra'; means 'son of the soil'), is an official definition widely used in Malaysia, embracing ethnic Malays as well as other indigenous ethnic groups such as the Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia and the tribal peoples in Sabah and Sarawak. Economic policies designed to favour Bumiputeras (including affirmative action in public education) were implemented in the 1970s in order to defuse inter-ethnic tensions following the May 13 incident in 1969. See more about this term in: Hwang, In-Won, Ibid.
35

NEP stands for 'New Economic Policy' or DEB for 'Dasaqr Ekonomi Negara in Malay language is a socioeconomic restructuring programme launched by the Malaysian government in 1971. It was ended in 1990 and changed with the new policy known as NDP (National Development Policy) in 1991. The NEP or DEB and NDP both have a same objective which is targeted a 30% share of the economy for the Bumiputera especially for the Malays. See more about both policies at: Goh, Cheng Teik. 1994. Op.Cit. Pages: 64-78

10 bridge the economic gap between the Malays and the Chinese. The two biggest ethnic groups, the Malays and the Chinese have their own values, norms and practices different from each other.36 On the other hand, during and after the Japanese occupation (1945-1947), some Chinese joined the Malayan Communist Party (MCP). Although only a small number of Chinese become members of MCP, the Chinese were generally stereotyped as communists by the Malays at that time. 37 Political and economic competition between the Malays and Chinese, the economic differences between the two ethnic groups and differences in the value system, culture, languages and the long period of mistrust developed eventually into major communal conflict (on May 13 incident). After that, especially after a new economic policy was introduced to eradicate poverty of all ethnic groups and than to attempt to give the Malays 30% of the management and share of the economy. The Malay language also was made the medium of instruction in all schools and even in the universities later. Many states government authorities also encouraged Malays to participate in commercial corporations lead by the government. 38 There were also great structural changes. The public sectors especially the police, navy and air force have become staffed mostly by Malays. Most of the academicians and administrative staff of the Universities are also Malays. The number of medical practitioners, lawyers, accountants, engineers and other professional people from the Malay ethnic group has also been increasing rapidly. As a result, there are also more Malays in the towns than in the past. There has also been more interaction and integration between the Malays and the Chinese, right from primary schools and secondary schools and universities compared to the colonial era.39 Besides schools and universities, there have been much more interaction and integration in many places and many sectors and obviously there have also been more visits from one ethnic to another. Political leaders also take the opportunity to have open house40 since it encourages social interaction and integration among various ethnic groups. Finally, because of the introduction of the Malay language as a medium of instruction in schools and universities, the young Chinese can all speak Malay. Thus the Malay language as a unifying force has been successful. With the prolonged impressive economic growth of Malaysia, as well as the very low unemployment rate, the ethnic competition for economic welfare has been much reduced. However, personal interaction among the various ethnic groups in Malaysia is restrained by the different religions of the people. or example, as Islm is a religion with strict rule, the Malay being the Muslim will not like to enter a house where a dog is present. Many Chinese families unfortunately rear dogs as pets and for security reasons. On the other hand, some of the food originally belonging to one ethnic group has become neutral in ethnic identity. For example, Nasi Lemak (Coconut Rice) is a very well-known Malay food but now it is a food commonly taken by all ethnic groups in Malaysia. Similarly, Yong Tau Fu, Mee, Bee Hun and Kuew Tiaw are originally Chinese food but are now accepted by all ethnic groups. Further more, certain social behaviours are still a sign of particular ethnic identity. For example, wearing Songkok (the
36

Hwang, In-Won. 2003. Op.Cit.

37

Kernial Singh Sandhu. 1964. The Saga of the 'Squatter' in Malaya. Journal of South East Asian History. Page: 72
38

Goh, Cheng Teik. 1994. Op.Cit. Shuid, Mahdi, Yunus, Mohd. Fauzi. 2001. Op.Cit.

39

40

'Open house' or known in Malay language as 'rumah terbuka' is an Malaysian concept whereby people celebrating various holidays will invite friends from all races for drop by for festive snacks and fellowship.

11 information about this thing will come later) is a sign of Malay identity and is unbecoming for the Chinese to wear it. Using chopsticks for taking food may not be acceptable to some Malays. Thus, it appears that the two ethnic groups of Malays and Chinese have similar values in certain aspects but different in others. Their main differences are the way of life including the religion aspect. For examples, in religion aspect, the worshipping of the death is forbidden in Islm while it is virtue to the Chinese. On the other hand, both the Malays and Chinese visit the graveyard to clear the grass growing around the tomb. The Malays used to read the verses of al-Qurn and offer prayers to Allah for the peace of the death during the Eid festival41 while the Chinese used to bring offerings like steamed cake with roasted pork to offer the death during the Cheng Ming festival.42 They also burn candles and incense while worshipping the death in the cemetery during this festival. These acts are strictly forbidden by Islm.43 However, Malays as an ethnic group have great powers of absorption. Even as early as during British period there were some Chinese who had converted to Islm and integrated into the Mala y group. They are called Chinese Peranakan44. Other example is about the Malacca state sultanate was Hindu initially but when their descendents embraced Islm, they too were integrated into the Malay group and become known as the Malacca Islamic sultanate. The Malays also had absorbed the Javanese (people who came from Java island, Indonesia), the Indian Muslims, the Arab Muslims and the Orang Asli (native people) Muslims. All these groups have been integrated into the Malay race.45 The Chinese in Malaysia being an ethnic group with their own distinctive culture, languages, beliefs and value system should be measured their interaction and integration into the Malay community. Then, Malaysia will be known as the most harmonies country in the South East Asia region. With an impressive economic growth of an average of 9% per year46 and full employment for the past five years, it is less likely an ethnic conflict would occur in Malaysia now. However, the ethnic relationship through historical background above cause an policy enforcement in 97 known as 97 National Culture olicy in Malaysia. Even though, the policy still on disputing agreement but the content was encouraged Malaysian to have better interaction and integration.

41

'Eid' festival is a celebration just after a month of fasting called Rama n. It was celebrated by all Muslim. 'Cheng Ming' festival celebrates by Malaysian Chinese by worshipping the death in the cemetery. Shuid, Mahdi and Yunus, Mohd. Fauzi. 2001. Op.Cit.

42

43

44

Chinese Peranakan or also known as 'Baba-Nyonya' Chinese are term used for the descendents of the very early immigrants to the Straits of Malacca (the Straits of Malacca represent three states in Malaysia which are Malacca, Penang and Singapore. Unfortunately, Singapore was asked by the first Prime Minister of Malaysia to set up own their country because of the political reasons in 1963). Chinese Peranakan now remains their own religion and belief but they practices mostly Malays culture in their way of life. They are a good example for the 'assimilation' between Chinese and Malays. See more at: Khoo, Joo Ee. 1998. The Straits Chinese: A Culture History. Kuala Lumpur: The Pepin Press. Pages: 21-35
45

Khoo, Joo Ee. 1998. Ibid. Ibid.

46

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