06/12/2013

The Earth in the Universe

(OCR 21st Century)

P1.1 The Earth in the Universe

06/12/2013

The eight planets of our Solar System

Mercury Venus

06/12/2013

Earth Mars

Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

As well as the eight planets, the solar system is also made up of asteroids, dwarf planets, comets and moons

Different Orbits
Mercury Venus

06/12/2013

Mercury = 88 days
Earth Mars

Mars = 687 days

Jupiter 90,500 days Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto

Pluto =

The Earths Orbit

06/12/2013

Ellipse

Asteroids

06/12/2013

An asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter. But what is an asteroid?

Comets
Comets are balls of dust and frozen gas. They have very elliptical orbits:

06/12/2013

Notice how the tail always points away from the sun!

The Solar System summarised

06/12/2013

What makes up our solar system? Complete the following mind map with what you now about each object:

The solar system

Solar systems, galaxies and the Universe

OUR SUN (100 times wider and 4.6 billion years old), which is small compared to

06/12/2013

Our planet (around 13,000km diameter and 4500 million years old) is pretty small compared to...

THE UNIVERSE, which contains billions of galaxies and is 14,000 million years old.

THE MILKY WAY, which contains at least 200 billion stars and is 100,000 light years across, which is small compared to

How to make a solar system

06/12/2013

Stage 1: Nebulae
A nebulae is a collection of dust, gas and rock.

06/12/2013

Some examples of nebulae

06/12/2013

Dark nebula

06/12/2013

Emission nebula

06/12/2013

Planetary nebula

06/12/2013

Reflection nebula

Stage 2: Throw the nebula together

Gravity will slowly pull these particles together

06/12/2013

As they move inwards their gravitational potential energy is converted into heat and a big object (PROTOSTAR) or smaller objects (planets, asteroids etc) are formed

Stage 3: Make a star

In a star the forces of gravitational attraction pulling the particles inwards are _________ by forces acting outwards due to the huge __________ inside the star.

06/12/2013

Stars are basically ________ reactors that use _______ as a fuel. During its main sequence a star will release energy by combining hydrogen and helium nuclei (light elements) into _________ elements.
Any element in space that is heavier than helium is thought to have been made in a star. Words heavier, balanced, hydrogen, nuclear, temperatures

Observing the Universe

06/12/2013

All of these methods rely on detecting radiation from stars.

The Light Year

06/12/2013

Distances in space are so big that they are measured in units called light years:

1 light year = the distance travelled by light in one yar Q. If light travels through space (i.e. A vacuum) at 300,000 km/s how far is one light year?

Because of this, when we see stars in the night sky we are actually seeing them as they were in the past.

Distances in space

06/12/2013

The Sun, our closest star, is 1.6x10-5 light years away from us. The next closest star, Proxima Centauri (4.2 light years away)

The centre of our galaxy, the Milky Way, is around 26,000 light years away.

The Andromeda Galaxy (our closest galaxy) approximately 2.5 million light years away

Measuring distance using brightness

The sun looks very bright. But, to be fair, its very close to us so it should look bright!

06/12/2013

Measuring distance using brightness

When I look at these stars some appear brighter than others. This because they are either brighter stars or closer to me. For example, the star Antares is 10,000 times brighter than the sun but it is 500 light years away from me, so it is only the 15th brightest star in the night sky.

06/12/2013

Measuring distances to stars

1) Relative Brightness The further away a star is the dimmer it is. Simple.

06/12/2013

Distant stars Nearby star

2) Parallax Parallax is the apparent change in position of closer stars due to the Earth moving around the sun.

Problems in Measuring Distances

1) Light pollution and other atmospheric conditions can interfere with observing stars:

06/12/2013

2) Stars are simply very far away so the angles involved in using techniques like parallax are very small:

How our Earth and the Sun compare to others

06/12/2013

06/12/2013

06/12/2013

06/12/2013

06/12/2013

How did the universe begin?

Scientists believe that the universe began by a big bang around 14 billion years ago:

06/12/2013

Evidence about the origins of the universe

06/12/2013

06/12/2013

Source of light

Spectra

If you pass the light through a gas something different is seen

06/12/2013

helium

Some wavelengths of light are absorbed by the gas an absorption spectrum.

If the light source is moving away the absorption spectra look a little different

06/12/2013

Before
helium helium

After

The absorption lines have all been shifted towards the longer wavelength end (red end)

06/12/2013

This is called red shift. The faster the light source moves the further its light will be shifted

Before

After
A similar effect happens with sound this is called The Doppler Effect

Red Shift simplified

06/12/2013

Basically, if I walk towards you Ill look slightly more blue. Then, if I walk away from you, Ill look slightly more red!! Lets try it

06/12/2013

06/12/2013

Light from different stars and from the edge of the universe also shows this red-shift. This suggests that everything in the universe is moving away from a single point.

06/12/2013

This is the BIG BANG theory

Red shift summary

06/12/2013

Light from other galaxies has a longer _________ than expected. This shows that these galaxies are moving ____ from us very quickly. This effect is seen to a greater extent in galaxies that are _______ away from us. This indicates that the further away the galaxy is, the ______ it is moving. This evidence seems to suggest that everything in the universe is moving away from a single point, and that this process started around 15 _____ years ago. This is the ____ ________ Theory. Words to use faster, away, big bang, billion, wavelength, further

Hubbles Law

06/12/2013

The speed at which galaxies are moving away from us is proportional to their distance from us. In other words, the further away they are, the faster they go.

Edwin Hubble 1889-1953

Big Bang Theory

06/12/2013

Some scientists have explained that red shift can actually be used to support the Big Bang Theory this explanation is based around the rates of expansion and contraction of different galaxies. If our neighbouring galaxy is expanding at a different rate to the Milky Way then it will appear red or blue-shifted.

So Mr President, red shift shows us that galaxies are moving and therefore we assume that space itself is expanding. Elementary!

Stephen Hawking, 1942 -

The end of the Universe

There are some theories about how the universe will end but its difficult to tell due to difficulties in measuring objects that are so far away:

06/12/2013

The big crunch if there is too much mass (i.e. too much matter) the universe will collapse under its own gravity. It may then do another big bang this is the oscillating universe theory. Expanding Universe if there isnt enough mass in the universe then it will just keep on expending forever.
If there is just the right mass in the universe then it will reach a fixed size.

The End of the Universe

06/12/2013

Basically, how the universe will end depends on its energy-mass density.

Stephen Hawking Size of universe

Now

Open universe

Critical density Closed universe

Time

P1.2 The Changing Earth

06/12/2013

Evidence for the age of the Earth

Scientists once thought that the Earth was only 6000 years old. Rocks have provided lots of evidence for the world being older. 1) Erosion 2) Craters 3) Mountains 4) Fossils 5) Folding 6) Radioactive dating

06/12/2013

The Earths age must be older than the oldest rocks, which are around 4,000,000,000 years old.

Continental Drift

06/12/2013

Look at the coastlines of South America and Africa. I wonder of they used to fit together
Alfred Wegener

Im going to call this my Theory of Continental Drift

Tectonic theory

06/12/2013

Whats my evidence for this? Three things:

1) The jigsaw fit

2) Each continent has similar rocks and fossils 3) Each continent has similar animal species

Another Example of Continental Drift

06/12/2013

The formation of mountain ranges can be explained by tectonic theory. Consider the Himalayas at the top of India:

This is where India is now This is where India was millions of years ago

If it wasnt for processes like this then, if you think about it, continents would eventually disappear due to erosion. Fascinating.

The Evidence:

Tectonic theory

06/12/2013

1) Some continents look like they used to fit together 2) Similar rock patterns and fossil records The Problems: Wegener couldn't explain how continental drift happened or provide evidence so nobody believed him. Also, he wasnt a geologist so he had no credibility and there were other explanations for the same evidence. The Answer: Scientists discovered 50 years later that the Earth generates massive amounts of heat through radioactive decay in the core. This heat generated convection currents in the mantle causing the crust to move.

Conclusion scientists now believe Wegeners Tectonic Theory

The Earths LITHOSPHERE (i.e. the _______) is split up into different sections called ________ plates:

Movement of the Lithosphere

06/12/2013

These plates are moving ______ from each other a few centimetres every _______. They can slide past each other, move apart from each other or move towards each other, causing volcanoes and _________.

Words earthquakes, crust, apart, tectonic, year

Sea Floor Spreading

06/12/2013

Igneous Rock

Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions can be common here

Oceanic Crust Mantle

Convection Currents

Magma

Magnetic Patterns in Sea Floor Spreading

06/12/2013

The Earths magnetic field swaps poles every million years. The above picture shows those changes recorded over time in rocks on the sea floor and provides evidence for long-term sea floor spreading.

More on Plate Movements

Subduction

06/12/2013

Thin, dense oceanic plate

Thick, less dense continental plate

Convection Currents

The Structure of the Earth

A thin crust - 10100km thick and not very dense

06/12/2013

A mantle extends almost halfway to the centre, hot and dense A core made of molten nickel and iron. Outer part is liquid and inner part is solid. Gets hot due to radioactive decay.

How do we know? A lot of the evidence for these facts comes from studying earthquakes (seismic waves)

An introduction to Waves

06/12/2013

A Wave is a movement of energy but NOT a transfer of matter

Transverse vs. longitudinal waves

are when the displacement is at right angles to the direction of the wave.
Displacement

06/12/2013

Transverse waves

Direction

Examples light, other EM waves, some seismic waves Displacement

Longitudinal waves
are when the displacement is parallel to the direction of the wave

Direction

Examples sound, some seismic waves

Seismic waves
Earthquakes travel as waves through the Earth we call them SEISMIC WAVES. There are two types:

06/12/2013

P waves:
1) They are longitudinal so they cause the ground to move up and down
2) They can pass through solids and liquids 3) They go faster through more dense material

S waves:
1) They are transverse so they cause the ground to move from right to left 2) They ONLY pass through solids 3) They are slower than P waves 4) They go faster through more dense material

Seismic waves

06/12/2013

These P waves are being reflected at the crust These P waves travel through the Earth and are refracted when they pass through a medium These S waves cannot travel through the outer core as they only go through solids this tells us that the outer core is liquid

The paths of these waves are all curved because density is gradually changing

Locating Earthquakes

06/12/2013

By measuring the time it takes the wave to travel to these locations the location of the earthquake can be found.

Wave definitions
1) Amplitude this is how high the wave is: 2) Wavelength () this is the distance between two corresponding points on the wave and is measured in metres: 3) Frequency this is how many waves pass by every second and is measured in Hertz (Hz)

06/12/2013

4) Speed this is how fast the wave travels and is measured in metres per second (m/s)

Distance, Speed and Time for waves

Speed = distance (in metres)

06/12/2013

D S T

time (in seconds)

1) A water wave travels 200 metres in 40 seconds. What is its speed? 2) Another wave covers 2km in 1,000 seconds. What is its speed? 3) Sound travels at around 330m/s. How long does it take to travel one mile (roughly 1,600m)? 4) Light travels at a speed of 300,000,000m/s. How long would it take to travel around the world if the diameter at the equator is around 40,000km?

Drawing waves
1) Low amplitude, low frequency:

06/12/2013

2) Low amplitude, high frequency:

3) High amplitude, low frequency:

4) High amplitude, high frequency:

The Wave Equation

All E-M waves obey the Wave Equation:

06/12/2013

Wave speed (v) = frequency (f) x wavelength () in m/s in Hz in m

V f

Notice that frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength if wavelength goes up, frequency goes down

Some example wave equation questions

06/12/2013

1) A water wave has a frequency of 2Hz and a wavelength of 0.3m. How fast is it moving? 0.6m/s

2) A water wave travels through a pond with a speed of 1m/s and a frequency of 5Hz. What is the wavelength of the waves? 0.2m
3) The speed of sound is 330m/s (in air). When Dave hears this sound his ear vibrates 660 times a second. What was the wavelength of the sound? 0.5m 4) Purple light has a wavelength of around 6x10-7m and a frequency of 5x1014Hz. What is the speed of purple light? 3x108m/s