Definition Pain
An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described in term of such damage
International Association for the Study of Pain,(IASP), 1986
Pathophysiology
Duration
Acute Chronic
Nociceptive
Somatic
-superficial -deep
mixed
Neuropathic
Peripheral Central
idiopatik
Visceral
-Acute : < 3-6 months, mostly nociceptive -Chronic : > 3-6 months, mostly neuropathic
Klasifikasi Nyeri
Nyeri sederhana/fisiologik nyeri timbul oleh berbagai stimuli yang tidak menimbulkan kerusakan jaringan Nyeri patologis/klinis 1. nyeri inflamasi (nyeri akut/nyeri nosiseptik) nyeri timbul oleh berbagai stimuli yang menimbulkan kerusakan jaringan. 2. nyeri neuropatik : nyeri krn lesi primer atau disfungsi sistem saraf perifer atau sentral 3. nyeri idiopatik/psikogenik : nyeri yg kausanya tidak jelas
Psychological
pain
b
Nociceptive
Diagram Nyeri
(Farrar.J.T)
Physical state nociceptor Perception Memory & expectation Affect/mood environment Reflex action
Response
Actions
Symptoms & signs
Neurogenic Pain
Herniated disk Nerve compression
Mixed Pain
Pain with neuropathic and nociceptive components
Nociceptive Pain
Pain caused by injury to body tissues (musculoskeletal, cutaneous or visceral)2
Examples
Examples
Pain due to inflammation Limb pain after a fracture Joint pain in osteoarthritis Postoperative visceral pain
1. International Association for the Study of Pain. IASP Pain Terminology. 2. Raja et al. in Wall PD, Melzack R (Eds). Textbook of pain. 4th Ed. 1999.;11-57
Lumbar vertebra
Kortek Talamus
Cornu dorsalis
NAP
Substanse P
Platelet - serotonin Mass cell - histamin 1. Transduksi 2. Transmisi 3. Persepsi 4. Modulasi
A
A B
3-6
2-5 <3
15-30
12-30 3-15 +++ ++ +
C dorsal root Pain, temperature mechanoreception, reflex response C simpatetik Postganglionic sympathetic
0.4-1.2
0.5-2
++
++
+++
0.3-1.3
0.7-2.3
A and B fibers are myelinated, C : fibers unmyelinated, LA : local anesthetic +: least susceptible, ++ : intermediated susceptibility, +++ : most susceptible
A
Small fibers C Peripheral sensory Nerve fibers
a. Midbrain : periaquaduct graymatter (PAG) mengandung reseptor yg dpt mengaktivasi opioid endogen. b. Medula oblongata, di : - nucleus raphe magnus (NRM) melepas serotonin. - NPRG (nucl reticularis para giganto cellularis) melepas noradrenalin c. Cornu dorsalis Med spinalis, dapat menghambat trasmisi nosiseptor. Rasa nyeri atau menghilang.
(a)
midbrain
(b)
med.obl
(b)
med.spin
(c)
Pain-sensitive tissue
1
Histamine
Substance P
Blood vessel
2: Nosiseptor melepas substance P pemb drh melebar & dilepas mediator inflamasi yi Bradykinin (redness and heat)
3: Substance P juga merangsang degranulasi mass cells, dilepas zat histamin (swelling)
Bradykinin
Substance P
3
Nociceptor
Sensation Affect
hypothalamus
Nor-eph
Mediator Humoral Perifer Interleukin 1 & 2 TNF/tumor necr F Bradykinin interferon PGE1,PGE2, etc
Pituitary. gl
propiomelanocortin growth horm prolactin vasopressin endorphin
ACTH
pancreas
anabolic hormons
insulin, testosterone glycogenolisis, gluconeogenesis (cortisol, glucagon, growth H, adrenalin, free fatty acid). insulin secretion/activation.
cortisol, adrenalin, glucagon, IL-1, IL-6 dan TNF. catecholamine, cortisol, glucagon, growth H.
Metabolic
carbohydrate Hyperglycemia, glucose intolenrance, insulin resistence
Muscle prot catabolism synthesis of acute phase proteins lypolysis & oxidation
Protein
Lipid
Note: ICF - intracellular fluid, EC F- extracellular fluid, TNF - tumor necrosis factor Source: acute pain management; the scientific evidence (NHMRC, 1999)
Terapi
Kausal : merawat luka, reposisi dan fiksasi fraktur, operasi. Farmakologik : analgetik opioid, non-opioid, analgetik ajuvan (AED, antidepresan, dll) Non Farmakologik : terapi fisik, psikologis, dll
Chronic (neuropathic)
Sleep
> Dysfunction QoL > Socioeconomic loss
Mood
Surgical
Perawatan luka Operasi/mengangkat tumor Fiksasi/operasi fraktur
Terapi non-farmakologik :
neurostimulasi (TENS), psikologis (kognitif behavior, relaksi, hipnosis).
Terapi invasif/operasi
Perawatan luka Fiksasi/operasi fraktur
Step 3
Opioid for mild to moderate pain +/- Non opioid , +/- Adjuvant
Persisting Pain Non opioid +/- Adjuvant
Step 2
Step 1
Asetaminofen Ibuprofen
Sodium Naproxen
325-650mg
FARMAKOTERAPI TINGKAT II
200mg
Awal 440mg, selanjutnya 220mg
Ketoprofen
12,5mg
4-6jam sekali
Nama Obat
Asetaminofen
Dosis
Penyesuaian dosisi misal Aspirin 1000mg
Jadwal
4 jam sekali
Ibuprofen
Sodium naproxen Ketoprofen
FARMAKOTERAPI TINGKAT IV Jika terapi tk. III, OAINS yg dipilih dapat diganti, pilihan OAINS ke-2 sebaiknya dr kelompok kimia yg berbeda (lihat tabel analgesik non-opioid yg sering digunakan FARMAKOTERAPI TINGKAT V
Tramadol
50-100mg
4-6 jam
Dosis
325-1000mg
Jadwal
4-6 jam sekali
Kalium diklofenak Natrium diklofenak Ibuprofen indometasin Ketoprofen Asam Mefenamat naproxen
8 jam sekali 8 jam sekali 4-8 jam sekali 8-12 jam sekali 6-12 jam sekali 6 jam sekali 12 jam sekali
Dosis
10-20 mg 20-40 mg
Jadwal
12-24 jam sekali 24 jam sekali
24 jam sekali 12 jam sekali 12 jam sekali 4-6 jam sekali 6-8 jam sekali 8 jam sekali
Analgesik Opioid
Jenis Obat Morphine Pot Equal-analgesic Oral 30mg parenteral 10mg Long acting oral 8-12 jam yg dpt diberikan rektal, hati-hati pd pts CRF dpt myoclonus Opioid poten, bisa utk pts disfungsi renal Long acting diberikan o/rectal/8-12jam Keterangan
Methadone
5mg
**
Waktu paruh >24jam, penyesuaian dosis harus hati2, diberikan 6-8 jam utk th/ nyeri, dipakai utk nyeri neuropatik, ratio equal analgesik berubah dg dosis morphin oral >100mg, konsul spesialis
Derby, 1998 American Pain Society, Principles of Analgesic Use in the Treatment of Acute Pain and Cancer Pai, 5th edition, 2003
Analgesik Opioid .. 2
Jenis Obat Levorphanol Pot Equal-analgesic Oral 4mg parenteral 2mg Poten opioid dgn bbrp aktivitas NMDA antagonis Keterangan
Meperidine
300mg 75mg
Metabolisme normoperidine, stimulan CNS, dpt menimbulkan kejang pd pts dgn gagal ginjal.
Short-acting, bisa patch transdermal dan buccal
Fentanyl ***
100mcg
Codein
200mg 130mg
5-10% ras kaukusia tdk bisa merubah codein ke morphin, SE nausea dan konstipasi > dp opioid lain, efek narkose pd pts gagal ginjal
Sering dikombinasi dgn analgesik nonopioid,
Hydrocodone
30mg
Derby, 1998 American Pain Society, Principles of Analgesic Use in the Treatment of Acute Pain and Cancer Pai, 5th edition, 2003
Non Farmakologi
1.Physical treatment - Heat: diathermy, ultrasonic. - Cold: compress, ice massage, vapo-coolant spray. - Massage - Exercise - Ortosis. - TENS, accupuncture. 2. Psychological therapy Relaxation, biofeedback, education, hypnosis.
SCS - equipment
Spinal Cord Stimulator
Kesimpulan
1. Nyeri akut adalah respon fisiologis atas stimulasi noksius (mengancam/merusak jaringan atau tubuh). 2. Persepsi nyeri bersifat individual, dasar mekanisme fisiologisnya sangat komplek 3. Tatalaksana nyeri kronik/neuropatik bersifat multidisiplin meliputi terapi farmasi non farmasi, dan terapi bedah.