Zooplankton

http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk

Objectives
Be able to define zooplankton Be familiar with the major groups of zooplankton and their characteristics Explain the benefits of zooplankton Explain how certain zooplankton can gauge reproductive success

Zooplankton
Zooplankton are the animal-like members of the plankton Permanent and temporary planktonic forms Most groups are multicellular and categorized by mouth parts and/or appendages Most groups feed as heterotrophic consumers

Planktos: drifts in greek

Their distribution depends on currents and gyres Certain zooplankton can swim well, but distribution controlled by current patterns Zooplankton: all heterotrophic plankton

except bacteria and viruses; size range from 2 m (heterotrophic flagellates, protists) up to several meters (jellyfish)

Major Groups of Zooplankton

Protozoa
Ciliates, Amoebae

Rotifera Copepods Gelatinous Zooplankton Invertebrate and Vertebrate Larvae

Protozoa
Single cell organisms Primarily feed on bacteria and phytoplankton Capable of reproducing rapidly due to small size Most species capable of forming cysts Microzooflagellates,

Ciliates and Amoebae

Rotifera
Typically referred to as Rotifers sloppy feeders on phytoplankton and other zooplankton recycle nutrient via feeding and fecal pellets parthenogenic eggs

Rotifers

Copepods
Sloppy feeder on phytoplankton and other zooplankton Major source of food for larval fish Recycles nutrients via feeding and fecal pellets

Copepods

Gelatinous Zooplankton
Commonly referred to as jellyfish Most have stinging cells called cnidocytes but some are filter feeders May be permanent of temporary members of the plankton

Ctenophores
Cteno means comb: sometimes called comb jellies Gelatinous filter feeding organismsno stinging cells May be bioluminescent Common in the Bay in the early Spring

Comb Jellies

Cnidarians
Stinging cells Chrysaora

quinequecirrha

Stinging and feeding tentacles Male and female forms jelly is the sexual stage of the life cycle and is called the medusa stage

Hydromedusa, Portugese Man-o-war

Other Cnidarians

Larvae of Invertebrate and Vertebrate Animals

Temporary members of the plankton Invertebrates are animals without backbones: worms, oysters, crabs Vertebrates are animals with backbones: fish

Nutritional modes in zooplankton

Herbivores: feed primarily on phytoplankton Carnivores: feed primarily on other
zooplankton (animals)

Detrivores: feed primarily on dead organic

matter (detritus)

Omnivores: feed on mixed diet of plants and

animals and detritus

Feeding modes in Zooplankton

Filter feeders Predators catch individual particles

Filter Feeder

Copepod

Ctenophore

Filter Feeder

Chaetognath Arrow Worm

Predator

Life cycles in Zooplankton

Holoplankton: spend entire life in the
water column (pelagic)

Meroplankton: spend only part of their

life in the pelagic environment, mostly larval forms of invertebrates and fish larvae

Ichthyoplankton: fish eggs and fish

Meroplankton

Nauplius larva
http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk

Barnacles: benthic sessile crustacean

http://science.whoi.edu/labs/pinedalab/

Meroplankton

Cypris larva
http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk

http://science.whoi.edu/labs/pinedalab/

Cypris larva and metamorphosed juveniles

http://science.whoi.edu/labs/pinedalab/

Barnacle population regulation

http://science.whoi.edu/labs/pinedalab/

Ichthyoplankton

Gadidae

Gadus morhua

Gadidae

Gadus morhua

Ichthyoplankton

Gadidae

Gadus morhua

Ichthyoplankton

Gadidae Atlantic cod

Gadus morhua

Demersal Adult

Common Meroplankton
Mollusca: clams and snails produce shelled veliger
larvae; ciliated velum serves for locomotion and food collection to cypris

Cirripedia: barnacles produce nauplii, which turn Echinodermata: sea urchins, starfish and sea

cucumber produce pluteus larvae of different shapes, which turn into brachiolaria larvae (starfish); metamorphosis to adult is very complex produce trochophora larvae, mostly barrel- shaped with several bands of cilia

Polychaeta: brittle worms and other worms

Common Meroplankton
Decapoda: shrimps and crabs produce zoa
larvae; they turn into megalopa larvae in crabs before settling to the sea floor

Pisces: fish eggs and larvae referred to as

ichthyoplankton; fish larvae retain part of the egg yolk in a sack below their body until mouth and stomach are fully developed

Meroplankton

Meroplanktonic Larvae
Planktotrophic
Feeding larvae Longer Planktonic Duration Times High dispersal potential

Lecithotrophic (non-feeding)
Non-feeding larvae Shorter planktonic Duration Times Low dispersal potential

Molluscs: Meroplankonic Veliger larvae PLANKTOTROPHIC

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sharks/island/images/veliger.jpeg

Protists: Protozooplankton
Dinoflagellates: heterotrophic relatives to the
phototrophic Dinophyceae; naked and thecate forms. Noctiluca miliaris up to 1 mm or bigger, bioluminescence, prey on fish egg & zooplankton taxonomically mixed group of small, naked flagellates, feed on bacteria and small phytoplankton; choanoflagellates: collar around flagella

Zooflagellates: heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNF):

Foraminifera: relatives of amoeba with calcareous

shell, which is composed of a series of chambers; contribute to ooze sediments; 30 m to 1-2 mm, bacteriovores; most abundant 40N 40S

Dinoflagellates

Noctiluca miliaris

Colonial choanoflagellates Bacteriofages (Ross Sea)

http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1999/nsf98106/98106htm/ht-015.gif

Foraminifera (calcareous all latitudes)

Protists: Protozooplankton
Radiolaria: spherical, amoeboid cells with silica
capsule; 50 m to several mm; contribute to silica ooze sediments, feed on bacteria, small phyto- and zooplankton; cold water and deep-sea

Ciliates: feed on bacteria, phytoplankton, HNF;

naked forms more abundant but hard to study (delicate!); tintinnids: sub-group of ciliates with vase-like external shell made of protein; herbivores

Figure 3.21b

Radiolarians (siliceous low latitudes)

http://www.jochemnet.de/fiu/

Live Radiolarian

http://www-odp.tamu.edu/public/life/199/radiolaria.jpg

Holoplankton

Copepods Planktonic crustaceans

Invertebrate Holoplankton
Cnidaria: primitive group of metazoans; some
holoplanktonic, others have benthis stages; carnivorous (crustaceans, fish); long tentacles carry nematocysts used to inject venoms into prey; box jellyfish of Australia kills humans within minutes Medusae: single organisms, few mm to several meters Siphonophores: colonies of animals with specialization: feeding polyps, reproductive polyps, swimming polyps; Physalia physalis (Portuguese man-of-war), common in tropical waters, Gulf of Mexico, drifted by the wind and belong to the pleuston (live on top of water surface)

Cnidaria (medusae)

Cnidaria (medusae)

Cnidaria (siphonophora)

Invertebrate Holoplankton
Ctenophores: separate phylum, do not belong to
Cnidaria; transparent organisms, swimm with fused cilia; no nematocysts; prey on zooplankton, fish eggs, sometimes small fish; important to fisheries due to grazing on fish eggs and competition for fish food

Chaetognaths: arrow worms, carnivorous, <4 cm

Polychaets: Tomopteris spp. only important planktonic genus

Ctenophora (comb jellies)

Ctenophora (comb jellies)

Invertebrate Holoplankton
Mollusca:
Heteropods: small group of pelagic relatives of snails, snail foot developed into a single fin; good eyes, visual predators Pteropods: snail foot developed into paired wings; suspension feeder produce large mucous nets to capture prey; carbonate shells produce pteropod ooze on sea floor

Heteropod (Predates on Ctenophores)

Pteropod

http://www.mbari.org/expeditions/

Protochordate Holoplankton
Appendicularia: group of Chordata, live in
gelatinous balloons (house) that are periodically abandoned; empty houses provide valuable carbon source for bacteria and help to form marine snow; filter feeders of nanoplankton warm water; typically barrel-form, filter feeders; occur in swarms, which can wipe the water clean of nanoplankton; large fecal bands, transport of nano- and picoplankton to deep-sea; single or colonies

Salps or Tunicates: group of Chordata, mostly

Appendicularia

Pelagic Salps

Arthropoda: crustacean zooplankton

Cladocera (water fleas): six marine species (Podon
spp., Evadne spp.), one brackish water species in the Baltic Sea; fast reproduction by parthenogenesis (without males and egg fertilization) and pedogenesis (young embryos initiate parthenogenetic reproduction before hatching) common genus Themisto; frequently found on siphonophores, medusae, ctenophores, salps

Amphipoda: less abundant in pelagic environment, Euphausiida: krill; 15-100 mm, pronounced vertical

migration; not plankton sensu strictu; visual predators, fast swimmers, often undersampled because they escape plankton nets; important as prey for commercial fish (herring, mackerel, salmon, tuna) and whales (Antarctica)

Amphipoda

Amphipoda (parasites of gelatinous plankton)

http://www.imagequest3d.com/catalogue/deepsea/images/l038_jpg.jpg

Euphasids (krill)

Importance of krill in Antarctic food web

Arthropoda: crustacean zooplankton

Copepoda: most abundant zooplankton in the oceans,
insects of the sea; herbivorous, carnivorous and omnivorous species

Calanoida: most of marine planktonic species Cyclopoida: most of freshwater planktonic species Harpacticoida: mostly benthic/near-bottom species Copepod development: first six larval stages = nauplius (pl. nauplii), followed by six copepodit stages (CI to CVI) Tropical species distinct by their long antennae and setae on antennae and legs (podi)

Copepods

http://www.jochemnet.de/fiu/

Herbivorous zooplankton: Grazers

Vertical Distribution
Epipelagic: upper 200-300 m water column; high diversity, mostly small and transparent organisms; many herbivores Mesopelagic = 300 1000 m; larger than epipelagic relatives; large forms of gelatinous zooplankton (jellyfish, appendicularians) due to lack of wave action; some larger species (krill) partly herbivorous with nightly migration into epipelagic regimes Oxygen Minimum Zone: 400 800 m depth, accumulation of fecal material due to density gradient, attract high bacterial growth, which in turn attracts many bacterial and larger grazers; strong respiration reduces O2 content from 4-6 mg l-1 to < 2 mg l-1 Bathypelagic: 1000 3000 m depth, many dark red colored, smaller eyes Abyssopelagic: > 3000 m depth, low diversity and low abundance Demersal or epibenthic: live near or temporarily on the seafloor; mostly crustaceans (shrimp and mysids) and fish

Diel Vertical Migration

DAILY (diel) vertical migrations over distances of <100 to >800 m Nocturnal: single daily ascent beginning at sunset, and single daily descent beginning at sunrise Twilight: two ascents and descents per day (one each assoc. with each twilight period) Reversed: single ascent to surface during day, and descent to max. depth during night

Scattering Layer

Horizontal distribution: patchiness

Exotic Planktonic species

New England Ctenophore Black Sea

Water Tank Ballast Holoplankton Meroplankton

Black Sea Ballast Invasions

Mnemiopsis

Black Sea Ballast Invasions

Mnemiopsis Beroe ovata

European Green Crab Carcinus maenas

References
http://www.bayjournal.com/9503/zooplank.htm

http://faculty.washington.edu/cemills Many links to each group when typing group name