carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle

Air Standard Cycle 1

1
Topics
Air Standard Cycle
Air Standard Carnot cycle
Reciprocating Engines
Air Standard Otto Cycle (Spark Ignition)
Air Standard Diesel Cycle (Compression Ignition)
Air Standard Duel Cycle (High Speed Diesel)
Air Standard Brayton (Gas Turbine)
2
Actual Gas Cycle
1. Open Cycle (intake, discharge)
2. Working fluid is not a pure substance
3. Heat input by COMBUSTION of a fuel
4. Involve friction
These make it very complex to study,
therefore, Air Standard Cycle, an ideal
cycle, is used instead.
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 2
3
Air Standard Assumptions
1. Working fluid is AIR and is IDEAL GAS.
2. All PROCESSES are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by
HEAT TRANSFER from external source.
4. The discharge and intake stroke is
replaced by a HEAT REJECTION which
restores the working fluid to its initial state.
4
Carnot Cycle
The 4 processes of the carnot cycle: (Heat Engine)
Reversible Isothermal heat transfer from high temp. reservoir.
Reversible adiabatic expansion.
Reversible Isothermal heat transfer to low temp. reservoir.
Reversible adiabatic compression
s
T
T
H
T
L
s
1
=s
4 s
2
=s
3
2 1
4
3
Q
H
Q
L
v
P
2
1
4
3
Q
H
Q
L
Heof
Engine
Source, T
H
Sink, T
L
W
nef
Q
H
Q
L
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 3
5
Example 1.1 Show that the thermal efficiency of a Carnot
cycle operating between the temperature limits of T
L
AND
T
H
is solely a function of these two temperatures.
Solution
s
T
T
H
T
L
s
1
=s
4 s
2
=s
3
2 1
4
3
Q
H
Q
L
H
L
H
L
H
L
th
L L H H
rev
rev
H
L
H
net
th
T
T
S S T
S S T
Q
Q
S S and S S But
S S T Q and S S T Q Therefore
S S T Q
T
Q
Q
T
S S
T
Q
S S
Q
Q
Q
W
from
=

= =
= =
= =
=
= =
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
= =
}
}
1
) (
) (
1 1
,
) ( ), ( ,
) ( or
1
then
const. T process, Isothermal rev. for
and
1
1 2
4 3
3 2 4 1
4 3 1 2
1 2 2 1
2 1
2
1
1 2
2
1
1 2

6
Problems
1.1. Do internal combustion engines operate on a closed or an
open cycle? Why?
1.2. How are the combustion and exhaust processes modeled under the air-
standard assumptions?
1.3. What are the air-standard assumptions?
1.4. An air-standard cycle is executed in a closed system and is composed
of the following four processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression from 100 kPa and 27C to 800 kPa
2-3 v = constant heat addition to 1800 K
3-4 Isentropic expansion to 100 kPa
4-1 P = constant heat rejection to initial state
(a) Show the cycle on P-v and T-s diagrams.
(b) Calculate the net work output per unit mass.
(c) Determine the thermal efficiency.
Account for the variation of specific heats with temperature.
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 4
7
1.5. An air-standard cycle is executed in a closed system
and is composed of the following four processes:
1-2 v = constant heat addition from 100 kPa and 27C in the
amount of 701.5 kJ /kg
2-2 P = constant heat addition to 2000 K
3-4 Isentropic expansion to 100 kPa
4-1 P = constant heat rejection to initial state
(a) Show the cycle on P-v and T-s diagrams.
(b) Calculate the total heat input per unit mass.
(c) Determine the thermal efficiency.
Account for the variation of specific heats with temperature.
1.6. Repeat Prob. 5 using constant specific heats at room temperature.
8
Reciprocating Engines,
Air Standard Otto Cycle
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 5
9
Bore
Stroke
TDC
BDC
Intake
valve
Exhaust
valve
Over View on Reciprocating Engines
Top Dead Center (TDC) : Upper most position
Bottom Dead Center (BDC) : Lower most position
Stroke : Length of piston travel
Bore : Diameter of the cylinder
Clearance Volume (V
c
) : V where piston is at TDC
Displacement Volume (V
d
) :Swept Volume (V
max
-V
min
)
Compression Ratio (r
v
) = (V
max
/V
min
) = (V
BDC
/V
TDC
)
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) :
W
net
= (MEP) x (Displacement Volume)
Reciprocating Engine is INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE, and is Classified
into 2 types:
1. Spark Ignition: Gasoline Engine, Mixing air-fuel outside cylinder, ignites
by a spark plug
2. Compression Ignition: Diesel engine, fuel is injected into the cylinder,
self ignited as a result of compression.
10
Equivalent
v
P
W
net
v
min
v
max
Actual Processes
W
net
v
P
v
min
v
max
MEP
Equivalent by MEP
Mean Effective Pressure, MEP Concept
TDC BDC
W
net
= (MEP) x (Displacement Volume)
= (MEP) x (V
max
-V
min
)
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 6
11
Four Stroke Engine
Intake
Compression
Power Exhaust
1. Intake Stroke piston moves from TDC to BDC,
drawing in fresh air-fuel mixture.
2. Compression Stroke piston moves from BDC to
TDC, compress air-fuel mixture.
3. Power Stroke piston at TDC, spark plug ignite
the air-fuel mixture. the combustion occur
very fast that, in theory, the piston still at
TDC. After that the piston is pushed to BDC.
4. Exhaust Stroke piston moves from BDC to TDC,
pushes the combustion gases out.
12
Two Stroke Engine
Power
Compression
Intake &
Exhaust
1. Compression Stroke piston moves from
BDC to TDC, compress air-fuel
mixture.
2. Power Stroke piston at TDC, spark plug
ignite the air-fuel mixture. After the
piston is pushed to BDC. Meanwhile,
about half way, combustion gases are
discharged and fresh air-fuel mixture
is drawing in .
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 7
13
Air Standard Otto Cycle
Ideal cycle of spark ignition engine, comprises of 4- Process:
Process 1-2 Isentropic Compression Isentropic Compression (piston moves from BDC to TDC)
Process 2-3 v = constant, heat added v = constant, heat added (piston stays still, represents combustion)
Process 3-4 Isentropic expansion Isentropic expansion (piston moves from TDC to BDC gives POWER)
Process 4-1 v = constant, heat rejection v = constant, heat rejection (piston stays still, represents EXHAUST
and INTAKE stroke)
s
T
s
1
=s
2 s
3
=s
4
2
1
4
3
q
in
q
out
v
P
v
2
=v
3
v
1
=v
4
2
1
4
3
w
out
w
in
Whof is fhe differenf of Offo cycIe from Cornof cycIe, fhe mosf efficienf cycIe
Incc vc on, 2.o[c o{ v !o.c..c.,
Druw the T-s und P-v diugrums by yourseIf > times
TDC BDC
14
Analysis of Air Standard Otto Cycle
Review of equations used:
) .....(6.19
...(6.18) .......... and
constant
gases Ideal of Process Isentropic
: gas Ideal
0 .
q
system closed : law 1st
fer heat trans olume Constant v
1
2
1
/ ) 1 (
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
2 2 1 1
2 3 3 2
2 3 3 2
3 2
3 2 2 3 3 2

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= = =
=
= =
=
= =
+ =
k k k
k k
k k k
v
v
v
v
P
P
T
T
V
V
v
v
P
P
v P v P Pv
) T (T C q
dT C RT, du Pv
u u q
w const v
w u u
( )
) (
Pressure Effective Mean
1 1
,
1
1
,
efficiency Thermal
2 1
3 2
1 4
th
1 2
2 1
1 1 2 2
2 1
4 3 2 1
th
v v MEP w
q
q
q
q
or
k
T T R
w
k
v P v P
w
C
C
k c Pv
Pdv w
w w w
q
w
net
H
L
v
p k
net
H
net
=
= =

=
= =
=
+ =
=
}

carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle

Air Standard Cycle 8
15
2
1
2
1
min
max
1 Otto th,
3
4
1
4
3
1
1
2
2
1
2 3 2
1 4 1
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4
th
2 3 3 2
1 4 1 4
3 2
1 4
th
1
1
1 /
1 /
1
1
1
1
efficiency Thermal Otto
v
v
V
V
V
V
r
r
T
T
v
v
v
v
T
T
) T (T T
) T (T T
) T (T
) T (T
) T (T C
) T (T C
) T (T C q
) T (T C q
q
q
v
k
v
k k
v
v
v
v
= = =
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=
=
=
=

1. The higher r
v
the higher thermal eff.
2. The higher r
v
cause Self-Ignition
engine knock
3. Higher Octane Number of fuel used retard
the self-ignition
4. Typical r
v
of gasoline engine ~ 9.0 10.0
5. Thermal efficiency of actual spark
ignition engine ~ 25-30%
16
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
r
r
r
r
v
v
v
v
P
P
P
P
=
=
Table A-17 Ideal gas properties of AIR
isentropic process of ideal gas
Relative Pressure, P
r
Relative Volume, v
r
T h P
r
u
v
r
s
o
Tyyy
T1
h
1
P
r1
u
1 v
r1
Txxx
T2
h
2
P
r2
u
2 v
r2
Table A-17
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 9
17
Example 2.1 An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the
begining of the compression process, the air is at 100 kPa and 17
o
C, and
800 kJ/kg of heat is transfered to air during the heat addition proceed.
Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air with temperature,
determine, (a) the maximum temperature and pressure which occur during
the cycle, (b) the net work out put, (c) the thermal efficiency, and (d) the
mean effective pressure of the cycle
s
T
s
1
=s
2 s
3
=s
4
2
1
4
3
q
in
q
out
v
P
v
2
=v
3
v
1
=v
4
2
1
4
3
w
out
w
in
Given:
r
v
= 8.0
P
1
= 100 kPa and
T
1
=17
o
C
q
H
= 800 kJ/kg
variation of specific heats
Determine:
a) T
max
b) w
net
c)
th
d) MEP
18
(a) T
max
= T
3
:find state 2 and then 3 using Ideal gas eqn.
and Table A-17
Table A-17 ; T
1
= 290 K u
1
= 206.91 kJ/kg, and v
r
= 676.1
1-2 Isentropic proc. v
r2
/v
r1
= v
2
/v
1
, v
2
/v
1
=1/r
v
= 1/8,
v
r2
= v
r1
/r
v
= 676.1/8.0 = 84.51
Table A-17 : at v
r2
= 84.51 T
2
= 652.4 K and u
2
= 475.11 kJ/kg,
P
2
v
2
/T
2
= P
1
v
1
/T
1
,
P
2
= P
1
(v
1
/v
2
)(T
2
/T
1
) = (100 kPa)(8.0)(652.4/290) = 1799.7 kPa
2-3 Constant volume heat added,
1
st
law q
23
= w
23
+ u
3
u
2
; w
23
= 0
q
23
= u
3
u
2
; 800 kJ/kg = u
3
475.11
u
3
=1275.11 kJ/kg table A-17: T
3
= 1575.1 K and v
r3
= 6.108
P
3
v
3
/T
3
= P
2
v
2
/T
2
,
P
3
= P
2
(v
2
/v
3
)(T
3
/T
2
) = (1799.7 kPa)(1/8.0)(1575.1/652.4) = 543.4
kPa
T
max
= T
3
= 1575.1 K answer
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 10
19
(b) w
net
= q
H
q
L
, similar to q
23
; -q
L
=q
41
= u
1
u
4
3-4 Isentropic proc.
v
r4
/v
r3
= v
4
/v
3
, v
4
/v
3
=r
v
= 8, v
r4
= v
r3
r
v
= 6.108*8.0 = 48.864
Table A-17 : at v
r4
= 48.864 T
2
= 795.6 K and u
4
=588.74 kJ/kg,
4-1 Constant volume heat rejected,
1
st
law q
41
= w
41
+ u
1
u
4
; w
41
= 0
q
41
= u
1
u
4
= 206.91 - 588.74 = -381.83 kJ/kg
q
L
= -q
41
= 381.83 kJ/kg
w
net
= q
H
q
L
= 800 381.83 = 418.17 kJ/kg answer
(c)
th
= w
net
/q
H
= 418.83/800 = 0.523 or 52.3 % answer
(d) MEP = w
net
/(v
1
-v
2
) ; P
1
v
1
= RT
1
v
1
= 0.832 m
3
/kg , v
2
=v
1
/8,
MEP = 574.4 kPa answer
20
Problems
2-1 What is the difference between the clearance volume and
the
displacement volume of reciprocating engines?
2-2 Define the compression ratio for reciprocating engines.
2-3 How is the mean effective pressure for reciprocating engines
defined?
2-4 Can the mean effective pressure of an automobile engine in
operation be less than the atmospheric pressure?
2-5 As a car gets older, will its compression ratio change? How
about the mean effective pressure?
2-6 What is the difference between spark-ignition and
compressionignition engines?
2-7 Define the following terms related to reciprocating engines:
stroke, bore, top dead center, and clearance volume.
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 11
21
Otto Cycle
2-8 What four processes make the ideal OTTO cycle?
2-9 How is the rpm (revolutions per minute) of an actual four-stroke.
gasoline engine related to the number of thermodynamic cycles?
What would your answer be for a two-stroke engine?
2-10 Are the processes which make up the Otto cycle analyzed as
closed-system or steady-flow processes? Why?
2-11 How does the thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle change
with the compression ratio of the engine and the specific heat ratio of
the working fluid?
2-12 Why are high compression ratios not used in spark-ignition
engines?
2-13 An ideal Otto cycle with a specified compression ratio is
executed using (a) air, (b) argon, and (c) ethane as the working fluid.
For which case will the thermal efficiency be the highest? Why?
2-14 What is the difference between fuel-injected gasoline engines
and diesel engines?
22
2-15 An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the
beginning of the compression process, air is at 25 kPa and 27C,
and 750 kJ /kg of heat is transferred to air during the constant-volume
heat addition process. Taking into account the variation of specific heats
with temperature, determine (a) the pressure and temperature at the end
of the heat addition process, (b) the net work output, (c) the thermal
efficiency, and (d) the mean effective pressure for the cycle. Answers: (a)
3898 kPa, 1539 K; (b) 392.4 kJ /kg; (c) 52.3 percent; (d) 495 kPa
2-16 Repeat Prob. 8-35 using constant specific heats at room
temperature.
2-17 The compression ratio of an air-standard Otto cycle is 9.5. Prior to
the isentropic compression process, the air is at 100 kPa, 17C, and 600
cm
3
. The temperature at the end of the isentropic expansion process is
800 K. Using specific heat values at room temperature, determine (a) the
highest temperature and pressure in the cycle, (b) the amount of heat
transferred, in kJ, (c) the thermal efficiency, and (d) the mean effective
pressure. Answers: (a) 1969 K, 6449 kPa; (b) 0.65 kJ; (c) 59.4 percent;
(d) 719 kPa
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 12
23
Top Dead Center (TDC) : Upper most position
Bottom Dead Center (BDC) : Lower most position
Stroke : Length of piston travel
Bore : Diameter of the cylinder
Clearance Volume (V
c
) : V where piston is at TDC
Displacement Volume (V
d
) :Swept Volume (V
max
-V
min
)
Compression Ratio (r
v
) = (V
max
/V
min
) = (V
BDC
/V
TDC
)
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) :
W
net
= (MEP) x (Displacement Volume)
Bore
Stroke
TDC
BDC
Intake
valve
Exhaust
valve
Reciprocating Engines
Diesel engine, Compression Ignition
Only air is drawn into the cylinder during intake stroke
fuel is injected into the cylinder after the air is compressed
and the piston reaches TDC
And continue injecting until reaches Cut Off Volume, V
3

Cut off ratio r

c
= V
3
/V
2
= v
3
/v
2
Fuel is self ignited as a result of compression.
Therefore, the Compression Ratio, r
v
, must be high enough,
Typical r
v
~12 24
During the combustion PRESSURE remains constant .
Others processes are the same as Otto Cycle
Thermal efficiency of actual Diesel engine ~ 30-40%
24
Air Standard Diesel Cycle
Ideal cycle of Compression ignition engine, comprises of 4- Process:
Process 1-2 Isentropic Compression (piston moves from BDC to TDC)
Process 2-3 P = constant, heat added (represents combustion, piston moves downward)
Process 3-4 Isentropic expansion (piston moves from TDC to BDC gives POWER)
Process 4-1 v = constant, heat rejection (piston stays still, represents EXHAUST and INTAKE
stroke)
Whof is fhe
differenf of
DieseI CycIe
from Cornof
ond Offo cycIe
q
out
4
w
out
v
P
3
v
3
q
in
1 w
in
v
2 v
1
=v
4
2
TDC BDC
s
T
q
out
q
in
3
2
s
1
=s
2
1
s
3
=s
4
4
cutoff ratio, r
v
= v
3
/v
2
Druw the T-s und P-v diugrums by yourseIf > times
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 13
25
Analysis of Air Standard Diesel Cycle
Review of equations used:
( )
) (
Pressure Effective Mean
1 1
,
1
1
,
efficiency Thermal
2 1
3 2
1 4
th
1 2
2 1
1 1 2 2
2 1
4 3 2 1
th
v v MEP w
q
q
q
q
or
k
T T R
w
k
v P v P
w
C
C
k c Pv
Pdv w
w w w
q
w
net
H
L
v
p k
net
H
net
=
= =

=
= =
=
+ =
=
}

) .....(6.19
...(6.18) .......... and
constant
gases Ideal of Process Isentropic
ratio, cutoff
: gas Ideal
or
) ( .
q
system closed : law 1st
fer heat trans pressure Constant
1
2
1
/ ) 1 (
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
2 2 1 1
2
3
2 3 3 2
2 3 3 2
2 3 3 2
3 2 2 3 3 2

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= = =
=
=
= =
=
= =
+ =
k k k
k k
k k k
c
p
p
v
v
P
P
T
T
V
V
v
v
P
P
v P v P Pv
v
v
r
) T (T C q
dT C RT, dh Pv
h h q
v v P w const P
w u u
26
v
P
q
out
4
w
out
v
3
1 w
in
v
2 v
1
=v
4
2
q
in1
3
q
in2
x
Air Standard Duel cycle
Modern DieseI Engine
High Speed DieseI
Firsf porf of fhe
combusfion occur fhe some os
Offo cycIe, fhof is consfonf
voIume process. WhiIe fhe
second porf is consfonf
pressure process Iike fhe DieseI
cycIe.
Therefore, in onoIysis
ones hove fo seporofe fhese
"two heut input process" ond
coIcuIofe by using fhe reIevonce
equofions occording fo eoch
processes.
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 14
27
Example 3.1 An air standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18 . At the beginning of
the compression process, the air is at 100 kPa and 15
o
C, and 1,800 kJ/kg of heat is
transferred to air during the heat addition proceed determine,
(a) the temperature and pressure at each point in the cycle,
(b) the net work and the thermal efficiency, and
(c) the mean effective pressure of the cycle
Assume constant specific heat. (Van Wylen)
Given:
r
v
= 18.0
P
1
= 100 kPa and T
1
=15
o
C
q
H
= 1,800 kJ/kg
q
out
4
w
out
v
P
3
v
3
q
in
1 w
in
v
2 v
1
=v
4
2
s
T
q
out
q
in
3
2
s
1
=s
2
1
s
3
=s
4
4
Determine:
a) T, P
b) w
net
and
th
c) MEP
Analysis: step by step calculation:
property relation for each process
definition, parameter of the Diesel engine
1
st
law: Closed system
Answer:
(a) State T(K) P(MPa) v (m
3
/kg)
1 0.827
2 915.8 5.72 0.04595
3 2710 = P2 0.13598
4 1316 = v1
(b) Wnet = 1063.4 kJ/kg,
th
= 59.1 %
(c) MEP = 1362 kPa
28
Some remarks about Otto, Diesel Some remarks about Otto, Diesel and their actual engine: and their actual engine:
Gasoline engine and Diesel engine. Gasoline engine and Diesel engine.
Typical P Typical P--v diagram of gasoline engine v diagram of gasoline engine
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 15
29
v
P
Otto
Diesel 1
v
1
v
2
Diesel 2
v
2
/
11. With the same . With the same
compression ratio, r compression ratio, r
vv
,,
Diesel cycle has less Diesel cycle has less
thermal efficiency than thermal efficiency than
the Otto cycle the Otto cycle

diesel diesel11
<<
Otto Otto
22. But Diesel engine can . But Diesel engine can
has much higher has much higher
compression ratio, r compression ratio, r
vv
, than , than
the gasoline engine. This the gasoline engine. This
make Diesel engine can make Diesel engine can
be built with higher be built with higher
thermal efficiency than thermal efficiency than
gasoline engine . gasoline engine .

diesel diesel22
>>
Otto Otto
Thermal efficiency comparison: Thermal efficiency comparison:
30
Selected Problems
3-1 How does a diesel engine differ from a gasoline engine?
3-2 How does the ideal Diesel cycle differ from the ideal auo cycle?
3-3 For a specified compression ratio, is a diesel or gasoline engine more efficient?
3-4 Do diesel or gasoline engines operate at higher compression ratios? Why?
3-5 What is the cutoff ratio? How does it affect the thermal efficiency of a Diesel
cycle?
3-6 An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 16 and a cutoff ratio of
2. At the beginning of the compression process, air is at 95 kPa and 27C. Using
constant specific heats at room temperature, determine (a) the temperature after the
heat addition process, (b) the thermal efficiency, and (c) the mean effective pressure.
Answers: (a) 1819K, (b) 61.4 percent, (c) 660.5kPa
3-7 An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18.2. Air is at 27C and
0.1 MPa at the beginning of the compression process and at 2000 K at the end of the
heat addition process. Using constant specific heats at room temperature, determine
(a) the cutoff ratio, (b) the heat rejection per unit mass, and (c) the thermal
efficiency.
carnot, otto, diesel & dual Cycle
Air Standard Cycle 16
31
3-8 An ideal diesel engine has a compression ratio of 20 and uses air as 'the working
fluid. The state of air at the beginning of the compression process is 95 kPa and
20C. If the maximum temperature in the cycle is not to exceed 2200 K, determine
(a) the thermal efficiency and (b) the mean effective pressure. Assume constant
specific heats for air at room temperature. Answers: (a) 63.5 percent, (b) 933 kPa
3-9 Repeat Prob. 3-8, but replace the is en tropic expansion process by [polytropic
expansion process with the polytropic exponent n = 1.35.
3-10 A four-cylinder 4.5-L diesel engine that operates on an ideal Diesel Cycle has a
compression ratio of 17 and a cutoff ratio of 2.2. Air is at 27C and 97 kPa at the
beginning of the compression process. Using the cold-air-standard assumptions,
determine how much power the engine will deliver at 1500 rpm.
3-11 Repeat Prob. 3-10 using nitrogen as the working fluid.
3-12 The compression ratio of an ideal dual cycle is 14. Air is at 100 kPa and 300 K
at the beginning of the compression process and at 2200 K at the end of the heat
addition process. Heat transfer to air takes place partly at constant volume and partly
at constant pressure, and it amounts to 1520.4 kJ/kg. Assuming variable specific
heats for air, determine (a) the fraction of heat transferred at constant volume and (b)
the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
32
End of Purt End of Purt
Web Links:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-stroke_cycle
http://library.thinkquest.org/C006011/english/sites/index.php3?v=2
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/diesel1.htm