Art History

Volume II: 1400Present

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Introduction to Boundless Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Chapter 26 Chapter 27 Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Chapter 30 Northern Europe from 1400-1500 Italys Renaissance in the 1400s Art in Commercial and Market Contexts Italy in the 1500s Northern Europe and the Iberian Peninsula in the 1500s Europe in the 1600s South and Southeast Asia After 1200 China and Korea After 1279 Japan After 1333

Art History
Volume II: 1400Present
Chapter 31 Chapter 32 Chapter 33 Chapter 34 Chapter 35 Chapter 36 Chapter 37 The Americas After 1300 Oceania Africa in the Modern Period Europe and America in the1700s and Early 1800s Europe and America in the 1800s Europe and America, 1900-1950 Global Art Since 1950

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Chapter 22

Northern Europe from 1400-1500

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Section 1

The Northern Renaissance

Introduction

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Introduction
Before 1450, Italian Renaissance humanism had little inuence outside Italy; after 1450, these ideas began to spread around Europe.
KEY POINTS

influence outside Italy; however, from the late fifteenth century, these ideas began to spread around Europe. This influenced the German Renaissance, French Renaissance, English Renaissance, Renaissance in the Netherlands, Polish Renaissance and other national and localized movements. Each of these regional expressions of the Renaissance evolved with different characteristics and strengths. In some areas, the Northern Renaissance was distinct from the Italian Renaissance in its centralization of political power. While Italy and Germany were dominated by independent city-states, parts of central and western Europe began emerging as nation-states. The Northern Renaissance was also closely linked to the Protestant Reformation and the long series of internal and external conflicts between various Protestant groups and the Roman Catholic Church had lasting effects. As in Italy, the decline of feudalism opened the way for the cultural, social, and economic changes associated with the Renaissance in northern Europe. Northern painters in the 16th century increasingly looked and traveled to Rome, becoming known as the Romanists. The High Renaissance art of Michelangelo and Raphael and the late Renaissance stylistic tendencies of Mannerism had a great impact on their work (Figure 22.1). Although Renaissance humanism and the large number of surviving classical artworks and monuments in Italy encouraged many Italian painters to explore Greco-Roman themes, Northern Renaissance painters developed other subject

Humanism influenced the German Renaissance, French Renaissance, English Renaissance, Renaissance in the Netherlands, Polish Renaissance and other national and localized movements, each with different characteristics and strengths. Northern painters in the 16th century increasingly looked and traveled to Rome (becoming known as the Romanists). The High Renaissance art of Michelangelo and Raphael and the late Renaissance stylistic tendencies of Mannerism had a great impact on their work. Although Renaissance humanism and the large number of surviving classical artworks and monuments in Italy encouraged many Italian painters to explore Greco-Roman themes, Northern Renaissance painters developed other subject matters, such as landscape and genre painting.

Overview The Northern Renaissance is the Renaissance in northern Europe. Before 1450, Italian Renaissance humanism had little

matters, such as landscape and genre painting. As Renaissance art styles moved through northern Europe, they changed and were adapted to local customs. For example, in England and the northern Netherlands, the Reformation nearly ended the tradition of religious painting. In France, the School of Fontainebleau, which was originally founded by Italians such as Rosso Fiorentino, succeeded in establishing a durable national style. Finally, by

Figure 22.1 Danae by Jan Mabuse

One of the most well-known Romanists was Jan Mabuse. The inuence of Michelangelo and Raphael showed in the use of mythology and nudity in this particular piece.

the end of the 16th century, artists such as Karel van Mander and Hendrik Goltzius collected in Haarlem in a brief but intense phase of Northern Mannerism that also spread to Flanders.
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Section 2

Burgandy and Flanders

Chartreuse de Champmol Illuminated Manuscripts Textiles

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Chartreuse de Champmol
The Chartreuse de Champmol, a Carthusian monastery on the outskirts of Dijon, represents the nest monumental work of early modern France.
KEY POINTS

provide a dynastic burial place for the Valois Dukes of Burgundy, and operated until it was dissolved in 1791, during the French Revolution. Called "the grandest project in a reign renowned for extravagance," it was lavishly enriched with works of art, and the dispersed remnants of its collection remain key to the understanding of the art of the period. Champmol was intended to rival Cteaux, Saint-Denis, where the Kings of France were buried, and other dynastic burial places. Purchase of the land and quarrying of materials began in 1377, but construction did not begin until 1383, under the architect Druet de Dammartin from Paris, who had previously designed the Duke's chateau at Sluis, and been an assistant in work at the Louvre. According to James Snyder his work at Champmol was "a somewhat conservative modification of the Late Gothic buildings of Paris". A committee of counselors from Dijon supervised the construction for the Duke, who was often elsewhere. By 1388 the church was consecrated, and most construction had probably been completed. The monastery was built for twenty-four choir monks, instead of the usual twelve in a Carthusian house, and two more were endowed to celebrate the birth in 1433 of Charles the Bold. These lived semi-hermitic lives in their individual small houses when not in the chapel. There would also have been non-ordained monks, servants, novices, and other workers.

Champmol was intended to rival Cteaux, Saint-Denis, where the Kings of France were buried, and other dynastic burial places. Called "the grandest project in a reign renowned for extravagance," Champmol was lavishly enriched with works of art, and the dispersed remnants of its collection remain key to the understanding of the art of the period. The monastery was founded in 1383 by Duke Philip the Bold to provide a dynastic burial place for the Valois Dukes of Burgundy, and operated until it was dissolved in 1791, during the French Revolution.

Monastic Splendor The Chartreuse de Champmol, formally the Chartreuse de la SainteTrinit de Champmol, was a Carthusian monastery on the outskirts of Dijon, which is now in France, but in the 15th century was the capital of the then-independent Duchy of Burgundy. The monastery was founded in 1383, by Duke Philip the Bold, to

A Ducal Symbol Somewhat in contradiction to the Carthusian mission of tranquil contemplation, visitors and pilgrims were encouraged; the expenses
Figure 22.2 Tomb of John the Fearless and Margaret of Bavaria

there would hardly have been room for so many in the choir of the church, where the monuments were. Only two monuments were ever erected, both in the same style, with painted alabaster effigies with lions at their feet and angels with spread wings at their heads (Figure 22.2). Underneath the slab on which the effigies rested, small (about 40 cm high) unpainted "pleurants" or mourners (traditionally called "weepers" in English), were set among Gothic tracery (Figure 22.3). These were described by Johan Huizinga in The Waning of the Middle Ages as "the most profound expression of mourning known in art, a funeral march in stone".
Figure 22.3 "Pleurants" or mourners Stone mourners (or "weepers") at a tomb in Chartreuse de Champmol, called "the most profound expression of mourning known in art, a funeral march in stone".

of hospitality were then recompensed by the Dukes. In 1418 Papal indulgences were granted to those visiting the Well of Moses, further encouraging pilgrims. The ducal family had a private oratory overlooking the church, which has since been destroyed, though their visits were in fact rare. The ducal accounts, which have fortunately survived, show major commissions for paintings and other works to

John the Fearless commissioned work on this tomb, though by his death in 1419 nothing had been done. The project saw several di!erent artists at work until its completion in 1470.

complete the monastery continuing until about 1415. Further works were later added by the Dukes and other donors, though building progressed at a slower rate .

The Valois dynasty of Burgundy had less than a century to run when the monastery was founded. The number of Valois tombs never approached that of their Capetian predecessors at Cteaux - indeed

Champmol was designed as a showpiece. The artistic contents, now dispersed, represent much of the finest monumental work of French

and Burgundian art of the period, demonstrating a tradition distinct from that of the similarly prestigious illuminated manuscripts.
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Illuminated Manuscripts
During the early to mid 1400s, illuminated books were considered a high art form, and Burgundy (Flanders) was a center of such production.

KEY POINTS

Illuminated manuscripts included religious works such the books of hours and prayer books, but also histories, tales of adventure and love, poetry, and a wide range of moralizing works that we might today class as self-improvement books. By the 14th century, the production of luxury manuscripts by monks writing in the monastic scriptorium had almost fully given way to commercial urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome, and Burgundy. At the time illuminated manuscripts were considered treasured works of high craft; to own books indicated wealth, status, and taste. In addition books were commonly used as diplomatic gifts or as offerings to commemorate dynastic marriages. In the 1440s the cities of Bruges and Ghent became the most important center of production of illuminated manuscripts, in part due to the patronage of the cultured Philip the Good, who by his death had collected over 1,000 individual books.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

love, poetry, and a wide range of moralizing works that we might today class as self-improvement books. Urban Scriptoria By the 14th century, the production of luxury manuscripts by monks writing in the monastic scriptorium had almost fully given way to commercial urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and Burgundy. While the process of creating an illuminated manuscript did not change, the move from monasteries to commercial settings was a radical step. Demand for manuscripts grew to such an extent that the monastic libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began employing secular scribes and illuminators. These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the day. In reality, illuminators were often well-known and acclaimed and many of their identities have survived. At the time illuminated manuscripts were considered treasured works of high craft; to own books indicated wealth, status, and taste. In addition, they became common as diplomatic gifts, or offerings to commemorate dynastic marriages. Paris was the major source of supply after their production spread from the monasteries. However, its importance was supplanted in the 1440s by the cities of Bruges and Ghent, in part due to the patronage of

Simon Marmion was perhaps the best known and most successful artist specializing in this area, although van Eyck is thought to have contributed to the "Turin-Milan Hours" as the anonymous artist known as Hand G.

Illumination in a Gothic World The Gothic period, which generally saw an increase in the production of illuminated manuscripts, also saw more secular works such as chronicles and works of literature illuminated. Wealthy people began to build up personal libraries; Philip the Bold probably had the largest personal library of his time in the mid-15th century, is estimated to have had about 600 illuminated manuscripts, while a number of his friends and relations had several dozen. Monastic Production of Luxury Books During the early to mid 1400s, illuminated books were considered a higher art form than panel painting. While they had traditionally been created in monasteries, by the 12th century levels of demand led to their production in specialist workshops known in French as libraries. The works included religious works such the books of hours and prayerbooks, but also histories, tales of adventure and

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the cultured Philip the Good, who by his death had collected over 1,000 individual books. When, in the early to mid 15th century, manuscripts were held in higher regard than panel paintings, masters would often produce single leaf illustrations to be almost randomly inserted into precious books, as a means for the master to display and advertise his skill. Outstanding Illuminators Simon Marmion was perhaps the best known and most successful artist specializing in this area, although van Eyck is thought to have contributed to the Turin-Milan Hours as the anonymous artist known as Hand G (Figure 22.4). A number of illustrations from the period show a strong stylistic resemblance to the work of Gerard David, though it is unclear whether they are by
The Birth of John the Baptist (above) and the Baptism of Christ below, by "Hand G", Turin. Figure 22.4 Page from the "TurinMilan Hours", anonymous artist known as Hand G.

between several different masters, with more junior painters, including many women, assisting, especially in producing the increasingly elaborate border decoration.
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his hand or by his followers. There was considerable overlap between panel painting and illumination, and by the second half of the century large manuscript commissions were often shared

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Textiles
During the Burgundy period, Flanders became one of the richest parts of Europe, where magnicent tapestries where produced.

The Evolution of Art and Industry By 1433 most of the Belgian and Luxembourgian territory, along with much of the rest of the Low Countries, became part of Burgundy under Philip the Good. When Mary of Burgundy, granddaughter of Philip the Good, married Maximilian I, the Low Countries became Habsburg territory. Their son, Philip I of Castile

KEY POINTS

(Philip the Handsome), was the father of the later Charles V. The Holy Roman Empire was unified with Spain under the Habsburg Dynasty after Charles V inherited several domains. During the late Middle Ages--especially during the Burgundy period (the 15th and 16th centuries)--Flanders' trading towns, particularly Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres, made it one of the richest and most urbanized parts of Europe, weaving the wool of neighboring lands into cloth for both domestic use and export. As a consequence, a very sophisticated culture developed, with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture, rivaling those of Northern Italy. Tapestries Flemish tapestries hung on the walls of castles throughout Europe. Among the most famous of Flemish tapestries is The Hunt of the Unicorn, often referred to as the Unicorn Tapestries. These constitute a series of seven tapestries dating from 14951505

By 1433, most of the Belgian and Luxembourgian territory, along with much of the rest of the Low Countries, became part of Burgundy under Philip the Good. When Mary of Burgundy, granddaughter of Philip the Good, married Maximilian I, the Low Countries became Habsburg territory. Flemish tapestries hung on the walls of castles throughout Europe. Among the most famous of Flemish tapestries is The Hunt of the Unicorn, often referred to as the Unicorn Tapestries: a series of seven tapestries dating from 1495 1505. The two major interpretations of the Unicorn Tapestries hinge on pagan and Christian symbolism. The pagan interpretation focuses on the medieval lore of beguiled lovers, whereas Christian writings interpret the unicorn and its death as the Passion of Christ.

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(Figure 22.5). The tapestries show a group of noblemen and hunters in pursuit of a unicorn. The tapestries were woven in wool, metallic threads, and silk. The vibrant colors still evident today were produced with three dye plants: weld (yellow), madder (red), and woad (blue). One tapestry, The Mystic Capture of the Unicorn, survives only in two fragments. Interpretive Traditions: Pagan and Christian Much of the history of the Unicorn
The second of the seven tapestries, often called The Unicorn is Found Figure 22.5 The second of the Unicorn Tapestries

writers, allowing the traditionally pagan symbolism of the unicorn to become acceptable within religious doctrine. The original myths surrounding The Hunt of the Unicorn refer to a beast with one horn that can only be tamed by a virgin; subsequently, Christian scholars translated this into an allegory for Christ's relationship with the Virgin Mary.
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Tapestries is disputed, and there are many theories about their original purpose and meaning, including suggestions that the seven tapestries were not originally hung together. However, it seems likely that they were commissioned by Anne of Brittany to celebrate her marriage to Louis XII, King of France. The two major interpretations of the tapestries hinge on pagan and Christian symbolism respectively. The pagan interpretation focuses on the medieval lore of beguiled lovers, whereas Christian writings interpret the unicorn and its death as the Passion of Christ. The unicorn has long been identified as a symbol of Christ by Christian

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Section 3

Flemish Painting

The Flemish School: Robert Campin, Jan van Eyck, and Rogier van der Weyden The Second Generation

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The Flemish School: Robert Campin, Jan van Eyck, and Rogier van der Weyden
The Flemish School refers to the paintings of artists who were active in Flanders during the 15th and 16th centuries.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Robert Campin has been identified with the signature, Master of Flemalle. Because the Flemish masters used a workshop system, they were able to mass produce high-end panels for sale and export throughout Europe.

The Flemish School The Flemish School, which has also been called the Northern Renaissance, the Flemish Primitive School, and Early Netherlandish, refers to artists who were active in Flanders during the 15th and 16th centuries, especially in the cities of Bruges and Ghent. The three most prominent painters during this period, Jan van Eyck, Robert Campin and Rogier van der Weyden, were known for making significant advances in illusionism, or the realistic and precise representation of people, space and objects. The subject matter of the Flemish School was typically religious in nature, but small portraits were common as well. The majority of this work was presented as either panels, single altarpieces, or more complex altarpieces, which were usually in the form of diptychs or polyptychs. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the Low Countries became a political and artistic center focused around the cities of Bruges and

KEY POINTS

The three most prominent painters during this period, Jan van Eyck, Robert Campin, and Rogier van der Weyden, were known for making significant advances in illusionism, or the realistic and precise representation of people, space and objects. The subject matter of the Flemish School was typically religious in nature. The majority of the work was presented as panels, usually in the form of diptychs or polyptychs. While the Italian Renaissance was based on rediscoveries of classical Greece and Rome, the Flemish school drew influence from the area's Gothic past. Van Eyck is known for signing and dating his work ALS IK KAN (AS I CAN).

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Ghent. Because Flemish masters employed a workshop system, wherein craftsmen helped to complete their art, they were able to mass produce high-end panels for sale throughout Europe. The Flemish School emerged almost concurrently with the Italian Renaissance. However, while the Italian Renaissance was based on the rediscoveries of classical Greek and Roman culture, the Flemish school drew influence from the region's Gothic past. Robert Campin Robert Campin, considered the first master of the Flemish School, has been identified with the signature, Master of Flemalle, which appears on numerous works of art. Campin is known for producing highly realistic work, for making great use of perspective and shading, and for being one of the first artists to work with oil paint instead of
"The Merode Altarpiece""is a triptych that features the Archangel Gabriel approaching Mary, who is reading in a well-decorated, typical middle class Flanders home. Figure 22.6 "The Merode Altarpiece" attributed to Robert Campin

is reading in a well-decorated, typical middle class Flanders home (Figure 22.6). Jan Van Eyck Jan Van Eyck, a contemporary of Campin, is widely considered to be one of the most significant Northern European painters of the 15th century. He is known for signing and dating his work ALS IK KAN (AS I CAN). Signatures were not particularly customary during this time, but helped to secure his lasting reputation. Active in Bruges and very popular within his own lifetime, Van Eyck's work was highly innovative and technical. It exhibited a masterful manipulation of oil paint
"The Ghent Altarpiece," a commissioned polyptych from around 1432, is perhaps Van Eyck's most famous work. Figure 22.7 "The Ghent Altarpiece" by Jan Van Eyck

and a high degree of realism. While Van Eyck completed many famous paintings, perhaps his most famous is the Ghent Altarpiece," a commissioned polyptych from around 1432 (Figure 22.7).

tempera. One of his best known works, the Merode Altarpiece, is a triptych that features the Archangel Gabriel approaching Mary, who

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Rogier Van der Weyden Rogier Van der Weyden is the last of the three most renowned Early Flemish painters. An apprentice under Robert Campin, Van der Weyden exhibited many stylistic similarities. Highly successful in his lifetime, his surviving works are mainly religious triptychs, altarpieces, and commissioned portraits. By the end of the 15th century, Van der Weyden surpassed even Van Eyck in popularity. Van Der Weydens most well-known painting is The Descent From the Cross, circa 1435 (Figure 22.8).
Figure 22.8 "The Descent from the Cross" by Rogier Van Der Weyden Van Der Weyden's most well-known painting is "The"Descent From the Cross, circa 1435.

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The Second Generation

The second generation of Flemish painters refers to painters who worked in the tradition of the three great masters of the Flemish School.
KEY POINTS

Followers of the Flemish School The second generation of Flemish painters refers to painters who worked in the tradition of the three masters of the Flemish School: Robert Campin, Jan Van Eyck, and Rogier Van der Weyden. These three artists of the Flemish School were incredibly influential, and not only within the realm of Flanders and the Netherlands. Their successful use of the workshop model allowed them to massproduce works of art for distribution, thereby spreading their influence throughout Europe. The second generation of Flemish painting coincides with the Dutch Golden age, which is characterized by the division of styles in painting, and the increase in non-religious works, while Flanders remained predominantly Catholic. The influence of Italy plays an important role in the work of the later generation of Flemish painters. Mannerism begins to be seen in Flemish painting, exemplified by long, curved human figures, and by unrealistic colors and shapes. The influence of Italy on Flanders is not thought to be as powerful as the reverse influence of Flanders on Italy, though there are numerous debates about this issue. The works of the second generation in Flanders continued the stylistic traditions of the early masters. Continuing attention to detail, complex religious iconography, exceptional realism, and further exploration into the use of oil paint characterizes their work.

The Flemish School (Robert Campin, Jan Van Eyck and Rogier Van der Weyden) were incredibly influential throughout Europe and had numerous followers. After the death of Van der Weyden, Petrus Christus is considered the first artist to set his portraits against a naturalistic background, as opposed to a flat plain. Hans Memling succeeded Christus as the next great painter of second generation in Bruges. Gerard David is known as the informal ending of the reign of the Flemish School in Bruges after which point Antwerp became the leader in art as well as political and commercial importance. Hieronymous Bosch is often discussed in relation to the second generation of Flemish artists, though he was Dutch and his style was highly individual, and decidedly more fantastical than that of Flemish School artists.

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Their themes, however, begin to expand to include more naturalistic landscape and genre paintings. Landmark Painters of the Second Generation The paintings of Petrus Christus have sometimes even been confused with those of his master, Jan Van Eyck. After the death of Van der Weyden, Petrus Christus was the first artist to set his portraits against a naturalistic background, as opposed to a flat plain. In Portrait of a Young Girl we no longer see the sitter in front of a neutral background, but poised within a defined space (Figure 22. 9). Hans Memling succeeded Christus as the next great painter of second generation in Bruges. His work is highly influenced by Van der Weyden, and exemplified by the three-quarter pose that is typical of his sitters. Memlings paintings were highly influential in their own right, but very much carried on the stylistic torch of the Early
Petrus Christus was the rst artist to set his portraits against a naturalistic background, as opposed to a at plain. In this painting, we no longer see the sitter in front of a neutral background, but poised within a dened space. Figure 22.9 "Portrait of a Young Girl" by Petrus Christus

Flemish School. After the death of Hans Memling, Gerard David became the leading painter of the area. Known for his brilliant use of color, he is another example of the second generation, having studied and copied the works of Van Eyck and Van Der Weyden. He was a direct student of Memling, whose influence is visible in David's stylistic solemnity, the great realism in his rendering of the human form, and the orderly arrangement of his figures (Figure 22. 10). David is known as the informal ending of the reign of the Flemish School in Bruges. By this time, Antwerp was becoming the leader in art as well as political and commercial importance.
Figure 22.10 "The Virgin Among the Virgins" by Gerard David

David was a direct student of Memling, whose inuence is visible in David's stylistic solemnity, the great realism in his rendering of the human form, and the orderly arrangement of his gures.

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Bosch as Contemporary Counterpoint Hieronymous Bosch is often discussed in relation to the second generation of Flemish artists, though he was Dutch and his style was highly individual, and decidedly more fantastical. His most renowned painting is The Garden of Earthly Delights. In this painting we can see a visible relation to early Flemish works, but with numerous variations of his own (Figure 22.11). The work of Bosch often exhibits visible brush strokes, a factor that is in direct opposition to the style of the Flemish school, which sought to conceal the brush with numerous layers of paint and glaze. As seen
Figure 22.11 "The Garden of Earthly Delights" by Hieronymous Bosch

in "The Garden of Earthly Delights," Boschs work employs more dream-like imagery and is seemingly less concerned with direct illusionism compared to the Flemish masters.
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The work of Bosch often exhibits visible brush strokes, a factor that is in direct opposition to the style of the Flemish school, which sought to conceal the brush with numerous layers of paint and glaze. As seen in "The Garden of Earthly Delights," Boschs work employs more dream-like imagery and is seemingly less concerned with direct illusionism compared to the Flemish masters.

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Section 4

Germany and Switzerland

Germany Switzerland

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Germany
The German Renaissance continued the use of elaborate Gothic ornament even in works that treated the human gure in entirely new ways.

Northern Renaissance: A Distinct Tradition The concept of the Northern Renaissance or German Renaissance is somewhat confused by the continuation of the use of elaborate Gothic ornament until well into the 16th century, even in works that are undoubtedly Renaissance in their treatment of the human figure and other respects. Classical ornament had little historical

KEY POINTS

resonance in much of Germany, but in other respects Germany was very quick to follow developments. They were especially in adopting printing with movable type, a German invention that remained almost a German monopoly for some decades, and which was first brought to most of Europe, including France and Italy, by Germans. Woodcuts and Engraving Printmaking by woodcut and engraving (perhaps another German invention) was already more developed in Germany and the Low Countries than anywhere else. The Germans took the lead in developing book illustrations. These were typically of a relatively low artistic standard, but were seen all over Europe, with the woodblocks often being lent to printers of editions in other cities or languages. Albrecht Drer The greatest artist of the German Renaissance, Albrecht Drer, began his career as an apprentice to a leading workshop in

Printmaking by woodcut and engraving (perhaps another German invention) was already more developed in Germany and the Low Countries than anywhere else, and the Germans took the lead in developing book illustrations. The greatest artist of the German Renaissance was Albrecht Drer. His work is often taken to represent the start of the German Renaissance in visual art, which for the next forty years replaced the Netherlands and France as the area producing the greatest innovation in Northern European art. Most leading German artists became Protestants, but this deprived them of painting most religious works, previously the mainstay of artists' revenue. Matthias Grnewald's Isenheim Altarpiece,!completed !in 1515, is widely regarded as the greatest German Renaissance painting.

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Nuremberg, that of Michael Wolgemut, who had largely abandoned his painting to exploit the new medium. Drer worked on the most extravagantly illustrated book of the period, the Nuremberg Chronicle, published by his godfather Anton Koberger, Europe's largest printer-publisher at the time. After completing his apprenticeship in 1490, Drer travelled in Germany for four years, and to Italy for a few months, before establishing his own workshop in Nuremberg. He rapidly became famous all over Europe for his energetic and balanced woodcuts and engravings; he also continued his painting during this period. Though retaining a distinctively German style, his work shows strong Italian influence. It is often taken to represent the start of the German Renaissance in visual art. For the next forty years Germany replaced the Netherlands and France as the area producing the greatest innovation in Northern European art. Drer supported Martin Luther, but continued to create Madonnas and other Catholic imagery, and to paint portraits of leaders on both sides of the emerging split of the Protestant Reformation. Reformation: the Protestant-Catholic Divide Drer died in 1528, before it was clear that the split of the Reformation had become permanent, but his pupils of the following generation were unable to avoid taking sides. Most leading German artists became Protestants, but this deprived them of the chance to

Figure 22.12 The Crucixion, central panel of the Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grnewald. The Crucixion, central panel of the Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grnewald.

paint most types of religious work, previously the mainstay of professional artists' revenue. Martin Luther had objected to much Catholic imagery, but not to imagery itself, and Lucas Cranach the Elder, a close friend of Luther, had painted a number of "Lutheran altarpieces," mostly showing the Last Supper, some with portraits of the leading Protestant divines as the Twelve Apostles. However, this phase of Lutheran art ended before 1550, probably under the more fiercely aniconic influence of Calvinism. Religious works for public display virtually ceased to be produced in Protestant areas. Presumably largely because of this, the development of German art had also virtually ceased by about 1550, but in the preceding

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decades German artists had been very fertile in developing alternative subjects to fill the gap in their order books. Cranach, apart from portraits, developed a format of thin vertical portraits of provocative nudes which were given classical or Biblical titles. Lying somewhat outside these developments is Matthias Grnewald, who left very few works, but whose masterpiece, his Isenheim Altarpiece, completed in 1515 (Figure 22.12), has been widely regarded as the greatest German Renaissance painting since it was restored to critical attention in the 19th century. It is an intensely emotional work that continues the German Gothic tradition of unrestrained gesture and expression; it used Renaissance compositional principles, but presented them in that most Gothic of forms, the multi-winged triptych.
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Switzerland
Switzerland brought together French, German, and Italian people in political union, and the art of this period also reects that mix.

KEY POINTS

Switzerland was preoccupied with war throughout much of the 15th century. Among Swiss artists one of the most outstanding is Konrad Witz, whose 1444 altarpiece panel, "The Miraculous Draft of Fishes" is credited with being the earliest extant faithful portrayal of a landscape in European art history, being based on observation of real topographical features. Another 15th century Swiss artist of note is Nicolaus Manuel, who painted many monumental mural decorations, which are some of the best representatives of Renaissance art North of the Alps.

In the 15th century, Europe was in a state of shift with political struggles between the growing strength of the Italian city-state and the Holy Roman Empire. In spite of this, Switzerland was consolidated during this period as a small conference formed in the Alps that brought together French, German, and Italian Duchies. During much of this century, Switzerland was occupied with

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defending itself, and eventually achieving full independence from the Holy Roman Empire. At the same time, a unique democracy was being formed, and as the century continued artists and thinkers were increasingly embracing humanist principals which would set the tone for the Swiss renaissance period. Switzerland was precoccupied with war throughout much of the 15th century. By 1353, the three original cantons had been joined by the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the city states of Lucerne, Zrich, and Bern, forming the "Old Federation" of eight states that persisted during much of the 15th century. Zrich was expelled from the Confederation from 1440 to 1450 due to a conflict over the territory of Toggenburg (the Old Zrich War). The Confederation's power and wealth increased significantly, with victories over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s and the success of Swiss mercenaries.The traditional listing order of the cantons of Switzerland reflects this state, listing the eight "Old Cantons" first, with the city states preceding the founding cantons, followed by cantons that joined the Confederation after 1481, in historical order.The Swiss defeated the Swabian League in 1499 and gaining greater collective autonomy within the Holy Roman Empire, including exemption from the Imperial reforms of 1495 and immunity from most Imperial courts.

Because of the unique political and cultural makeup of Switzerland, it is difficult to describe a single Swiss-style during this period. Instead, the painting and sculpture of Switzerland from the 15th century is related to French, German, and Italian art. Among Switzerland's outstanding artists are Konrad Witz (circa. 1400 1456), whose 1444 panel, The Miraculous Draft of Fishes (a portion of a lot altarpiece, (Figure 22.13) is credited with being the earliest
Figure 22.13 Konrad Witz, The Miraculous Draft of Fishes, 1444. Originally part of a now dismantled altarpiece known as Peter's Altar Table, the panel depicts the "miraculous catch of 153 sh" as reported in the Gospel of John and shows a scene of the disciples, who had been shing at the edge of a lake, recognizing the stranger who had called out to them from the shore as the resurrected Jesus. Peter is shown wading toward Jesus to greet him. In this painting Witz takes the revolutionary step of moving the scene from the biblical Sea of Galilee to his local area, around Lake Geneva. With this move, Witz was able to base his rendering of the far landscape on his own observation of actual topographical features rather than rely on imaginative interpretation as earlier artists did. He further brought the landscape to the fore of his work; here the range is not simply a footnote seen through a window or detail visible beyond a crucixion scene. The painting is renowned for its naturalistic representation of the Graian Alps and the snow-capped peaks of Mont Blanc and Le Mle seen in the distance. In this regard the work is the earliest known faithful portrayal of a landscape in European art history.

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extant faithful portrayal of a landscape in European art history, being based on observation of real topographical features. Another 15th century Swiss artist of note is Nicolaus Manuel (1484 1530), who painted many monumental mural decorations, which are some of the best representatives of Renaissance art North of the Alps.
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Section 5

France

Manuscript Printing Panel Painting

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Manuscript Printing
French manuscript painting of the 15th century was best represented by Enguerrand Quarton, who created a distinctly French style.

Block printing was long practiced in Christian Europe as a method for printing on cloth, achieving widespread use by the year 1300. Images printed on cloth for religious purposes could be quite large and elaborate, and when paper became relatively easily available, around 1400, the medium transferred very quickly to small woodcut religious images and playing cards printed on paper. These prints were produced in very large numbers from about 1425 onward. Around mid-century, block-books-- woodcut books with both text and images, usually carved in the same block-- emerged as a cheaper alternative to manuscripts and books printed with movable type. These were all short, heavily illustrated works, the bestsellers of the day, repeated in many different block-book versions: the Ars moriendi and the Biblia pauperum were the most common. Enguerrand Quarton (or Charonton) (c. 1410 c. 1466) was a French painter and manuscript illuminator whose few surviving works are among the first masterpieces of a distinctively French style, very different from either Italian or Early Netherlandish painting. Six paintings by him are documented, of which only two survive, and in addition the Louvre now follows most art historians in giving him the famous Avignon Piet. His two documented works are the remarkable Coronation of the Virgin (145354, Villeneuve-les-Avignon) and The Virgin of Mercy (1452, Muse

KEY POINTS

Enguerrand Quarton (or Charonton) (c. 1410 c. 1466) was a French painter and manuscript illuminator whose few surviving works are among the first masterpieces of a distinctively French style, very different from either Italian or Early Netherlandish painting. Quarton's The Virgin of Mercy, also known as the Cadard Altarpiece after the donor, uses a motif that is most often found in Italian art, and was developed by Simone Martini a century earlier. Quarton's The Coronation of the Virgin depicts the Provenal landscape in a style derived from Italian painting, while his figures are more influenced by Netherlandish art. They hold a severity and elegance, however, that is French alone, as is the geometrical boldness of his composition. The Piet, where the dead Christ is supported by his grieving mother, is one of the most common themes of late-medieval religious art, but Quarton's Piet of Villeneuve-les-Avignon is one of the most striking depictions, perhaps the greatest masterpiece produced in France in the 15th century.

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Cond, Chantilly). Two smaller altarpieces are also attributed to him. The Virgin of Mercy, also known as the Cadard Altarpiece after the donor, uses a motif that is most often found in Italian art, and was developed by Simone Martini a century earlier (Figure 22.14). The painting has the same plain gold background as the Avignon Piet, which by this date was unusual, although it also appears in what is now the best-known version of this theme, completed just a few years earlier by Piero della Francesca. The scale of the figures is hieratic; The Virgin and Saint John the Baptist and Saint John the Evangelist tower over the donor and his wife, who are themselves slightly larger than the faithful sheltered by the Virgin's robe. The Coronation of the Virgin is a common subject in art, but the contract for this work specifies the unusual representation of the Father and Son of the Holy Trinity as identical figures (very rare in the 15th century, though there are other examples), allowing Quarton only to represent the Virgin as he chooses. Around the Trinity, blue and red angels are deployed, similar to those in Fouquet's Melun diptych (now Antwerp). The depiction of Rome (left) and Jerusalem (right) in the panoramic landscape below is also specified in the contract; the donor had been on a pilgrimage that included both cities. Beneath this, Purgatory (left) and Hell (right) open up, and in the center the donor kneels before a

Crucifixion. On the extreme left a church is shown in "cut-away" style, containing a Mass of Saint Gregory.
Figure 22.14 Enguerrand Quarton, The Virgin of Mercy (1452)

The scale of the gures is hieratic; The Virgin and Saint John the Baptist and Saint John the Evangelist tower over the donor and his wife, who are themselves slightly larger than the faithful sheltered by the Virgin's robe.

Like many of Quarton's landscape backgrounds, this painting depicts the Provenal landscape in a style derived from Italian painting, while his figures are more influenced by Netherlandish artists like Robert Campin and Jan van Eyck. They hold a severity and elegance, however, that is French alone, as is the geometrical boldness of his composition. His very strong colors have little shading, and his lighting is "harsh, even merciless." The landscape includes perhaps the first appearance in art of Mont Sainte-Victoire, later to be painted so often by Czanne and others. The painting remains in the monastery Chartreuse du Val de Bndiction, Villeneuve-ls-Avignon, for which it was commissioned by a local clergyman, Jean de Montagny.

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The Piet, where the dead Christ is supported by his grieving mother, is one of the most common themes of late-medieval religious art, but Quarton's Piet of Villeneuve-les-Avignon is one of the most striking depictions, "perhaps the greatest masterpiece produced in France in the 15th century." (Figure 22.15) The curved back form of Christ's body is highly original, and the stark, motionless dignity of the other figures is very different from Italian
Figure 22.15 Enguerrand Quarton, The Piet of Villeneuve-ls-Avignon in the Louvre, ca. 1455

or Netherlandish depictions. Before the painting was generally attributed to Quarton, some art historians thought the painting might be by a Catalan or Portuguese master. The bare background landscape falls away to a horizon broken by the buildings of Jerusalem, but instead of a sky there is plain gold leaf with stamped and incised halos, borders and inscriptions. The clerical donor, portrayed with Netherlandish realism, kneels to the left. The painting comes from Villeneuve-ls-Avignon, just across the Rhne from Avignon, and is sometimes known as the "Villeneuve Piet".
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The Piet, where the dead Christ is supported by his grieving mother, is one of the most common themes of late-medieval religious art, but this is one of the most striking depictions, "perhaps the greatest masterpiece produced in France in the 15th century."

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Panel Painting
Fourteenth century French art was still dominated by the International Gothic style, even as a new Renaissance style developed in Italy.
KEY POINTS

century, it was the normal form of support for a painting not painted directly onto a wall (fresco), or vellum, which was used for miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and paintings for the framing. Sacred and Secular By the 15th century, with the increased wealth of Europe, and later the appearance of humanism and a changing attitude about the function of art and patronage, panel painting moved away from altarpieces and religious subjects. Secular art opened the way to the creation of chests, painted beds, birth trays and other furniture. Many such works have now been detached and hung framed on walls in museums. Many double-sided wings of altarpieces have also been sawed into two one-sided panels. While there was a growing market for secular painting, though, most 15th century French panel painting was still religious in nature and included votive portraits. Changing Media and Styles In France, until the 17th century, most panels were made from oak, the material Leonardo da Vinci used for his paintings in France, although a few panels made of walnut and poplar have been found. French art in the 14th century was still dominated by the International Gothic style, even as a new Renaissance style

A panel painting is a painting made on a flat panel made of wood, either a single piece or a number of pieces joined together. Until canvas became the more popular support medium in the 16th century, it was the normal form of support for a painting not on a wall (fresco) or vellum. In France, until the 17th century, most panels were made from oak (which is what Leonardo da Vinci used for his paintings in France), although a few made of walnut and poplar have been found. Notable painters in France during the 15th century include Jacques Fouquet, the unidentified painter known as the Master of Parement, Jacquemart de Hesdin, and the Netherlandish Limbourg brothers.

Overview A panel painting is a painting made on a flat panel made of wood, either a single piece, or a number of pieces joined together. Until canvas became the more popular support medium in the 16th

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developed in Italy. Notable painters in France during the 15th century include Jacques Fouquet (Figure 22.16), the unidentified painter known as the Master of Parement, Jacquemart de Hesdin, and the Netherlandish Limbourg brothers. In the late 15th century, the French invasion of Italy and the proximity of the vibrant Burgundy court, with its Flemish connections, brought the French into contact with the goods, paintings, and the creative spirit of the Northern and Italian Renaissance. Initial artistic changes at that time in France were executed by Italian and Flemish artists, such as Jean Clouet and his son Franois Clouet, along with the Italians, Rosso Fiorentino, Francesco Primaticcio, and Niccol dell'Abbate, who constituted what is often called
The Madonna is depicted here as the Queen of Heaven, and is meant to reveal her as between the veil of heaven and earth. She is both human and otherworldly. The unnatural colors have been attributed to represent the heraldic colors of the king, being red, white, and blue. The Virgin is believed to be an idealized portrait of Agns Sorel, mistress of King Charles VII, who died two years earlier. Sorel was considered by many at the time to be the most beautiful woman in the world and therefore an obvious choice after which to model the Virgin. Figure 22.16 Jacques Fouquet, right wing of Melun Diptych; Virgin and Child Surrounded by Angels (c.1450)

the first School of Fontainebleau (c. 1531). Leonardo da Vinci also was invited to France by Franois I, but other than the paintings which he brought with him, he produced little for the French king.
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Section 6

Art on Paper

Single Sheets Printed Books

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Single Sheets
Paper manufacturing became popular in Europe around 1400, and with it the medium of printmaking.
KEY POINTS

14th century, woodblock-printed cards and religious images were beginning to be seen. Landmark Printmakers Martin Schonhauer (c. 1450-1491), from Southern Germany, is credited as the first artist to create an engraving; he was also a wellFigure 22.17 "Ecce Homo" engraving by Martin Schonhauer

Artists such as Albrecht Durer, Rembrandt, and Goya made names for themselves as printmakers as well as painters. The main printmaking techniques were woodcut, engraving, and etching. Martin Schonhauer (c. 1450-1491), from Southern Germany, is credited as the first artist to create an engraving; he also refined the cross-hatch technique. Perhaps the most well- known of the Northern artists was Albrecht Durer, a painter, printmaker, engraver and mathematician from Nuremberg, Germany.

known painter (Figure 22.17). He is known for further developing the engraving methods by refining the cross-hatching technique to depict volume and shade. Another notable German printmaker is known as the "Housebook Master." His prints were made in drypoint: he scratched his lines on the plate leaving them much more shallow than they would be with an engraving. Other artists who developed distinctive styles during the 15th and 16th centuries include Lucas Cranach the Elder and Matthias Grunewald.

Printmaking The main printmaking techniques were woodcuts, engravings and etchings. Woodcut, or woodblock printing, had reached Europe from the Byzantine or Egyptian world by around 1300, and was used largely to print patterns on textiles. By the time paper was first being manufactured in Burgundy and Germany at the end of the
Martin Schonhauer is credited as the rst artist to create an engraving, and is also a wellknown painter.

Perhaps the most well-known of the Northern artists was from Nuremberg, Germany (Figure 22.18). By the time he was in his twenties, he had an established reputation across Europe, and many

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young printmakers are known to have gone though periods of copying Durers work before adapting his technical advances to their own styles. Engraving on metal was considered part of the goldsmiths' practice throughout the Medieval period, but other classifications of artist

Figure 22.18 Engraving of St. Christopher by Albrecht Durer Albrecht Durer, a painter, printmaker, engraver and mathematician, was perhaps one of the most well-known of the Northern artists.

Printed Books
The mass production of paper in 15th-century Europe opened the door for the proliferation of printed books.

KEY POINTS

Around 1450, small woodcut books called "block books," or "xylographica," came into prominence and began to be reproduced in large numbers. Block books were short books consisting of up to 50 leaves. They were printed with woodcuts carved to include both text and imagery and were nearly always religious in nature. Germany and Northern Europe were important centers for the spread and development of printed works during the 15th and 16th centuries. The most renowned block book is titled the "Ars Moriendi," or "The Art of Dying." This block book was from the Netherlands and was reprinted in several editions with different illustrations. It is widely believed that block books existed as a cheaper alternative to the movable-type printed book, which was in use but still very expensive. The "Biblia Pauperum" involved visual depictions relating the Old Testament to the New Testament and often placed the illustrations in the center with very little additional text.

began to be involved at or around 1450. Albrecht Durer originally studied to be a goldsmith, but instead went the way of the artist and subsequently became one the most well known in history.
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The increasing mass production of paper, coupled with the invention of the printing press in 15th-century Europe, opened the doors for the proliferation of printed books. Woodcut printing on
Figure 22.19 A Print from the "Ars Moriendi"

illustrations, and then the type was filled in by hand; these are called chiro-xylographic block books. Block books are considered incunabula (or incunable"), a term referring to a book, pamphlet, or broadside printed before the year 1501 in Europe. The most renowned block book is the Ars Moriendi, or The Art of Dying, from the Netherlands; it was reprinted in several editions with different illustrations (Figure 22. 19). The Biblia Pauperum, or Paupers Bible, was also a popular series of titles; they had existed previously in the 14th century as illuminated manuscripts, hand-painted on vellum, before woodcuts took over. A "Biblia Pauperum" included visual depictions that related the Old Testament to the New Testament (Figure 22.20), often
The Biblia Pauperum, or Paupers Bible, was a popular series of titles; they had existed previously in the 14th century as illuminated manuscripts, hand-painted on vellum, before woodcuts took over. A "Biblia Pauperum" included visual depictions that related the Old Testament to the New Testament. Figure 22.20 Woodblock Print from a "Biblia Pauperum"

textiles had been practiced in Europe for some time when paper began to become more affordable and readily available. Around 1450, small woodcut books called block books or xylographica came into prominence and began to be reproduced in large numbers. Block books were short books consisting of up to 50 leaves block-printed with woodcuts carved to include both text and imagery. These books

The "Ars Moriendi" is the most renowned block book.

were aimed at a general audience and were often popular titles,

nearly always religious in nature, and sometimes reprinted into multiple editions. Germany and Northern Europe were important centers for the spread and development of printed works during the 15th and 16th centuries. It is widely believed that block books existed as a cheaper alternative to the movable-type printed book, which was in use but still very expensive. Some block books were printed with only the

placing the illustrations in the center with very little additional text. Other notable incunabula include the Gutenberg Bible of 1455, as

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well as the Peregrinatio in Terram Sanctam of 1486, printed and illustrated by Erhard Reuwich. Most of the earliest block books are believed to have been printed in the Netherlands, while the later ones are thought to be from Southern Germany. Specifically, Nuremberg, Ulm, Augsburg, and Schwaben were notable locations for the development of print media in the 15th and 16th centuries.
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Section 7

Holy Roman Empire

Sculpture Panel Painting Graphic Arts

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Sculpture
In the 15th century Holy Roman Empire enjoyed patronage from the state for public sculpture, and from the wealthy for their homes and tombs.

most surviving examples are in Germany, a resut of extensive iconoclasm (image destruction) elsewhere. Tilman Riemenschneider, Veit Stoss and others continued the style well into the 16th century, gradually absorbing Italian Renaissance influences. Life-size tomb effigies in stone or alabaster became popular among the wealthy, and grand multi-level tombs evolved. The Scaliger Tombs of Verona were so large they had to be moved outside the church. By the 15th century there was an industry exporting small Nottingham alabaster altar reliefs in groups of panels over much of Europe for economical parishes who could not afford stone retables. Small carvings, intended for a lay and often female market, became a considerable industry in Paris and some other centers. Types of ivories included small devotional polyptychs, single figures, especially of the Virgin, mirror-cases, combs, and elaborate caskets with scenes from Romances, used as engagement presents.

KEY POINTS

A revival of classical style is seen in the International Gothic work of Claus Sluter and his followers in Burgundy and Flanders around 1400. Life-size tomb effigies in stone or alabaster became popular for the wealthy, and grand multi-level tombs evolved (e.g., the Scaliger Tombs of Verona). The period was marked by a great increase in patronage of sculpture by the state for public art and by the wealthy for their homes; especially in Italy, public sculpture remains a crucial element in the appearance of historic city centers.

Late Gothic A revival of classical style is seen in the International Gothic work of Claus Sluter and his followers in Burgundy and Flanders around 1400. Late Gothic sculpture continued in the North, with a fashion for very large wooden sculpted altarpieces with increasingly virtuoso carving and large numbers of agitated expressive figures;

Northern Renaissance Renaissance sculpture is often thought to begin with the famous competition for the doors made for the Florence Baptistry in 1403. The trial models submitted by the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and by Filippo Brunelleschi survive. Ghiberti's doors are still in place, but were undoubtedly eclipsed by his second pair for the other

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entrance, the so-called "Gates of Paradise," which took him from 142552 to complete. They are dazzlingly confident compositions in the classicized mode, with varied depths of relief allowing extensive backgrounds (Figure 22.21). The intervening years had seen Ghiberti's early assistant Donatello develop; he had produced seminal statues, including his Davids in marble (140809) and bronze (1440s), and his Equestrian statue of Gattamelata, as well as reliefs. A leading figure in the later period was Andrea del Verrocchio, best known for his equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice. His pupil Leonardo Da Vinci designed an equine sculpture in 1482, The Horse for Milan, but
Ghiberti's doors were named by Michelangelo the "Gates of Paradise". Figure 22.21 Lorenzo Ghiberti's bronze doors of the Baptistry of Florence Cathedral

This was especially true in Italy, where public sculpture remains a crucial element in the appearance of historic city centers. Church sculpture mostly moved inside just as outside public monuments became common. Portrait sculpture, usually in busts, became popular in Italy around 1450, with the Neapolitan Francesco Laurana specializing in young women in meditative poses, while Antonio Rossellino and others more often depicted knobbly-faced men of affairs, but also young children. The portrait medal style introduced by Pisanello also often depicted women. In Catholic parts of South Germany the Gothic tradition of wood carving continued to flourish until the end of the 18th century, adapting to changes in style through the centuries. Veit Stoss (d. 1533), Tilman Riemenschneider (d.1531) and Peter Vischer the Elder (d. 1529) were Drer's contemporaries, and their long careers covered the transition between the Gothic and Renaissance periods, although their ornament often remained Gothic even after their compositions began to reflect Renaissance principles.
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only succeeded in making a 24-foot (7.3 m) clay model, which was destroyed by French archers in 1499. Da Vinci's other ambitious sculptural plans were never completed. The period was marked by a great increase in patronage by the state of sculpture for public art, and by the wealthy for their homes.

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Panel Painting
The court of the Holy Roman Emperor played an important role in forming the International Gothic style in the late 14th century.
KEY POINTS

time, Hamburg was a city of the Hanseatic League, and Bertram was succeeded in the city by artists such as Master Francke, the Master of the Malchin Altar, Hans Bornemann, Hinrik Funhof, and Wilm Dedeke, who survived into the Renaissance period. Hanseatic artists painted commissions for Baltic cities in Scandinavia and the modern Baltic states to the east. In the south, the Master of the Bamberg Altar was the first significant painter based in Nuremberg, while the Master of Heiligenkreuz and then Michael Pacher worked in Austria. Like Pacher, Bernt Notke-- a painter from the Hanseatic city of Lbeck-painted altarpieces or carved them into the increasingly elaborate painted and gilded style used as frameworks or alternatives for painted panels. South German wood sculpture was important in developing new subjects that reflected the intensely emotional devotional life encouraged by movements in late medieval Catholicism, such as German mysticism. These are often known in English as andachtsbilder (devotional images) and include the Piet (Figure 22.22), Pensive Christ, Man of Sorrows, Arma Christi, Veil
Piet is one of the most common artistic representations of a sorrowful Virgin Mary. Many German and Polish 15th-century examples in wood greatly emphasize Christ's wounds. Figure 22.22 Swabian painted wood Piet of c. 1500

The International Gothic style style was spread around the wealthy cities of Northern Germany by artists such as Conrad von Soest in Westphalia and Meister Bertram in Hamburg, and later by Stefan Lochner in Cologne. South German wood sculpture was important in developing new subjects that reflected the intensely emotional devotional life encouraged by movements in late medieval Catholicism, such as German mysticism. These are often known in English as andachtsbilder (devotional images). Martin Schongauer, who worked in Alsace in the last part of the 15th century, was the culmination of late Gothic German painting, with a sophisticated and harmonious style.

The court of the Holy Roman Emperor, originally based in Prague, played an important role in forming the International Gothic style in the late 14th century. The style was spread around the wealthy cities of Northern Germany by artists such as Conrad von Soest in Westphalia, Meister Bertram in Hamburg, and, later, Stefan Lochner in Cologne. At the height of its prosperity at the

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of Veronica, the severed head of John the Baptist, and the Virgin of Sorrows-- many of which would spread across Europe and remain popular until the Baroque and, in popular religious imagery, beyond. Indeed, "Late Gothic Baroque" is a term sometimes used to describe hyper-decorated and emotional 15th century art, above all in Germany. Martin Schongauer, who worked in Alsace in the last part of the 15th century, was the culmination of late Gothic German painting, with a sophisticated and harmonious style, but he increasingly spent his time producing engravings, for which national and international channels of distribution had developed, so that his prints were known in Italy and other countries. His predecessors were the Master of the Playing Cards and Master E. S., both also from the Upper Rhine region. German conservatism is shown in the late use of gold backgrounds, still used by many artists well into the 15th century.
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Graphic Arts
The artistic style that continued to predominate in the Holy Roman Empire of the fteenth century was Gothic.
KEY POINTS

In many areas of the Holy Roman Empire, especially Germany, late Gothic art continued well into the sixteenth century, before being subsumed into Renaissance art. Primary media in the Gothic period included sculpture, panel painting, stained glass, fresco, and illuminated manuscripts. Frescoes continued to be used as the main pictorial narrative craft on church walls in southern Europe, whereas in northern Europe, stained glass was an important and prestigious form of painting until the fifteenth century, when it became supplanted by panel painting. From the middle of the fourteenth century, blockbooks with both text and images cut as woodcut were most popular in the Low Countries. By the end of the century, printed books with illustrations, still mostly on religious subjects, were rapidly becoming accessible to the prosperous middle class. In the fifteenth century, the introduction of cheap prints, mostly in woodcut, made it possible even for peasants to have devotional images at home.

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The artistic style that continued to predominate in the Holy Roman Empire of the fifteenth century was Gothic. Gothic art was a style of Medieval art that developed in France out of Romanesque art in the mid-twelfth century, led by the concurrent development of Gothic architecture. It spread to all of Western Europe, but took over art more completely north of the Alps, never quite effacing more classical styles in Italy. In the late fourteenth century, the sophisticated court style of international Gothic developed and continued to evolve until the late fifteenth century. In many areas, especially Germany, Late Gothic art continued well into the sixteenth century, before being subsumed into Renaissance art. Primary media in the Gothic period included sculpture, panel painting, stained glass, fresco, and illuminated manuscripts. The easily recognizable shifts in architecture from Romanesque to Gothic, and Gothic to Renaissance styles, are typically used to define the periods in art in all media, although in many ways figurative art developed at a different pace. Painting during the Gothic period was practiced in four primary media: frescoes, panel paintings, manuscript illumination, and stained glass. Frescoes continued to be used as the main pictorial narrative craft on church walls in southern Europe as a continuation of early Christian and Romanesque traditions. In northern Europe, stained glass was an important and prestigious form of painting until the fifteenth century, when it became

supplanted by panel painting. Gothic architecture greatly increased the amount of glass in large buildings, partly to allow for wide expanses of glass, as in rose windows. In the early part of the period, mainly black paint and clear or brightly colored glass was used but in the early fourteenth century, the use of compounds of silver painted on glass which was then fired, allowed a number of variations of color, centered on yellows, to be used with clear glass in a single piece. By the end of the period, designs increasingly used large pieces of glass which were painted with yellows as the dominant colors and relatively few smaller pieces of glass in other colors. From the middle of the fourteenth century, blockbooks with both text and images cut as woodcut seem to have been affordable by parish priests in the Low Countries, where they were most popular. By the end of the century, printed books with illustrations, still mostly on religious subjects, were rapidly becoming accessible to the prosperous middle class, as were engravings of fairly high quality by printmakers like Israhel van Meckenem (Figure 22.23) and Master E. S.. In the fifteenth century, the introduction of cheap prints, mostly in woodcut, made it possible even for peasants to have devotional images at home. These images, tiny at the bottom of the market, often crudely colored, were sold in thousands but are now extremely rare, most having been pasted to walls.

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Painting with oil on canvas did not become popular until the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and was a hallmark of Renaissance art. In northern Europe, the important and innovative school of early Netherlandish painting is in an essentially Gothic style but can also be regarded as part of the northern Renaissance, as there was a long delay before the Italian revival of interest in classicism had a great impact in the north. Painters, such as Robert Campin and Jan van Eyck, made use of the technique of oil painting to create minutely detailed works, correct in perspective, where apparent realism was combined with richly complex symbolism arising precisely from the realistic detail they could now include, even in small works. In early Netherlandish painting, from the richest cities of northern Europe, a new minute realism in oil painting was combined with subtle and complex theological allusions, expressed precisely through the highly detailed settings of religious scenes. The Mrode Altarpiece (1420s) of Robert Campin and the Washington Van Eyck Annunciation or Madonna of Chancellor Rolin (both 1430s, by Jan van Eyck) are examples. For the wealthy, small panel paintings, even polyptychs in oil painting, were becoming increasingly popular, often showing donor portraits alongside, though often much smaller than, the Virgin or saints depicted. These were usually displayed in the home.

Figure 22.23 Israhel van Meckenem and his wife, the rst self-portrait in a print. Engraving, 1480s or 1490s.

Israhel van Meckenem was the most prolic engraver of the fteenth century and an important gure in the early history of old master prints. He was active from 1465 until his death.

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Chapter 23

Italy's Renaissance in the 1400s

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Section 1

Introduction

Art of the Italian Renaissance

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Art of the Italian Renaissance

The art of the Italian Renaissance was inuential throughout Europe for centuries.

At the turn of the 16th century, especially in Northern Italy, artists began to use new techniques in the manipulation of light and darkness, such as the tone contrast evident in many of Titian's portraits and the development of sfumato and chiaroscuro by Leonardo da Vinci and Giorgione. The period also saw the first secular themes. Botticelli is known for producing works with mythological themes, notably The Birth of Venus and Primavera, although he was deeply religious (becoming a follower of Savonarola) and the great majority of his output was of traditional religious paintings or portraits (Figure 23.1).
Figure 23.1 Birth of Venus

KEY POINTS

Renaissance artworks depicted more secular subject matter than previous artistic movements. Michelangelo, da Vinci and Rafael are among the best known painters of the High Renaissance. The High Renaissance was followed by the mannerist movement, known for elongated figures.

The Italian Renaissance was a broad intellectual movement, best known for its cultural achievements. Italian Renaissance painting exercised a dominant influence on subsequent European painting for centuries afterwards, with artists such as Giotto di Bondone, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Michelangelo, Raphael, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, and Titian. The same is true for architecture, as practiced by Brunelleschi, Leone Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Bramante. Their works include Florence Cathedral, St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, and the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini.
Botticelli's Birth of Venus was among the most important works of the early Renaissance.

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The period known as the high renaissance represents the culmination of the goals of the earlier period, namely the accurate representation of figures in space rendered with credible motion and in an appropriately decorous style. The most famous painters from this phase are Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. (Figure 23.2) Their paintings and frescoes are among the most widely known works of art in the world. Da Vinci's Last Supper, Raphael's The School of Athens and Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel Ceiling are the masterpieces of the period. High renaissance painting evolved into mannerism, especially in Florence. Mannerist artists, who consciously rebelled against the principles of high renaissance, tend to represent elongated figures in
Raphael was one of the great artists of the High Renaissance. Figure 23.2 Marriage of the Virgin, by Raphael

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illogical spaces. Modern scholarship has recognized the capacity of mannerist art to convey strong (often religious) emotion where the High Renaissance failed to do so. Some of the main artists of this period are Pontormo, Bronzino, Rosso Fiorentino, Parmigianino and Raphael's pupil, Giulio Romano.

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Section 2

Humanism

Humanistic Art

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Humanistic Art
Humanism was an activity of reform engaged in by scholars, writers and civic leaders in 14th century Italy.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

In humanist painting, the treatment of the elements of perspective and depiction of light became of particular concern.

KEY POINTS

Humanism, also known as Renaissance humanism, was an activity of reform engaged in by scholars, writers and civic leaders in 14th and early 15th century Italy, which later spread to the rest of Europe becoming known as the Renaissance. Renaissance humanism can be regarded as the early or proto Renaissance. The movement developed in response to the scholastic conventions in education at the time, which emphasized practical, pre-professional and scientific studies engaged in solely for job preparation, and typically by men alone. Humanists reacted against this utilitarian approach seeking to create a citizenry (frequently including women) able to speak and write with eloquence and thus able to engage the civic life of their communities. This was to be accomplished through the study of the studia humanitatis or the "humanities": grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy. Humanism introduced a program to revive the cultural and particularly the literary legacy and moral philosophy of classical antiquity. The movement was largely founded on the ideals of Italian scholar and poet Francesco Petrarca, which were often centered around humanitys potential for achievement.

Humanists reacted against the utilitarian approach to education seeking to create a citizenry (frequently including women) able to speak and write with eloquence and thus abe to engage the civic life of their communities. The movement was largely founded on the ideals of Italian scholar and poet Francesco Petrarca, which were often centered around humanitys potential for achievement. While humanism initially began as a predominantly literary movement, its influence quickly pervaded the general culture of the time, reintroducing classical Greek and Roman art forms, leading directly to the Renaissance. Donatello became renowned as the greatest sculptor of the Early Renaissance, known especially for his humanist and unusually erotic statue of David. While medieval society viewed artists as servants and craftspeople, Renaissance artists were trained intellectuals, and their art reflected this newfound perspective.

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While humanism initially began as a predominantly literary movement, its influence quickly pervaded the general culture of the time, reintroducing classical Greek and Roman art forms, leading to the Renaissance. Humanists considered the ancient world to be the pinnacle of human achievement and thought its accomplishments should serve as the model for contemporary Europe. Early Renaissance art in Italy was generally focused on sculpture with the leading artists being Donatello, Brunelleschi and Ghiberti. Donatello became renowned as the greatest sculptor of the Early

Figure 23.3 Donatello's "David"

relegated to religious themes, art was now primarily secular in nature. Important patrons such as Cosimo de Medici emerged and contributed largely ot the creation of new works. In painting, the treatment of the elements of perspective and light became of particular concern. The studies of Paolo Uccello, such as Battle of San Romano demonstrates his particular solutions to the problems of portraying light and linear perspective (Figure -.-). The use of oil paint had its beginnings in the early part of the 16th century and its use continued to be explored extensively throughout

Figure 23.4 "Battle of San Romano" by Paolo Uccello

Donatello's "David" is regarded as an iconic humanist work of art,

Renaissance, known especially for his humanist and unusually erotic statue of David, which became one of th icons of the Florentine republic (Figure 23.3). Humansim affected the artistic community and how artists were perceived. While medieval society viewed artists as servants and craftspeople, Renaissance artists were trained intellectuals, and their art reflected this newfound perspective. Patronage of the arts became an important activity and commissios were no longer
Italian humanist paintings were largely concerned with the depiction of perspective and light.

the coming High Renaissance of the 16th century.

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Section 3

Florence

Architecture Sculpture Painting Painting Post-Masaccio

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Architecture
Renaissance architecture rst developed in Florence in the 15th century and represented a conscious revival of classical antique styles.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

The buildings of the early Renaissance in Florence expressed a new sense of light, clarity, and spaciousness that reflected the enlightenment and clarity of mind glorified by the philosophy of Humanism.

The Quattrocento or the 15th century in Florence was marked by

KEY POINTS

the development of the Renaissance style of architecture, which represented a conscious revival and development of ancient Greek and Roman elements. The rules of Renaissance architecture were first formulated and put into execution in 15th-century Florence, whose buildings subsequently served as an inspiration to architects throughout Italy and Western Europe. The Renaissance style of architecture emerged in Florence not as a slow evolution from preceding styles but rather as a conscious development put into motion by architects seeking to revive a golden age. These architects were sponsored by wealthy patroms including the powerful Medici family and the Silk Guild, and approached their craft from an organized and scholarly perspective that coincided with a general revival of classical learning. The Renaissance style deliberately eschewed the complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings whose architects relied on intuition rather than mathematics. Instead, it placed emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry, and regularity

The Renaissance style of architecture emerged in Florence not as a slow evolution from preceding styles but rather as a conscious development put into motion by architects seeking to revive the golden age of classical antiquity. The Renaissance style eschewed the complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings, and placed emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry, and regularity of parts. 15th-century architecture in Florence popularized the use of classical antique features such as orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters, and lintels, semicircular arches, and hemispherical domes. Filippo Brunelleschi was the first to develop the Renaissance view of architecture. His enormous brick dome that covers the central space of Florence's Duomo or cathedral was the first dome erected since classical Rome and became a ubiquitous feature in Renaissance churches.

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of parts as demonstrated in classical Roman architecture, and made considerable use of classical antique features such as orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters, and lintels, semicircular arches, and hemispherical domes.
Figure 23.5 Duomo of Florence

the architecturally most significant. The Duomo was begun in 1296 in the Gothic style and completed structurally in 1436 with the dome engineered by Brunelleschi. While it retains the Gothic pointed arch and the Gothic ribs of the original 13th-century design, its dome is structurally influenced by the great domes of Ancient Rome such as the Pantheon, and it is often described as the first building of the Renaissance. The dome is made of red brick and was ingeniously constructed without supports, using a deep understanding of the laws of physics and mathematics. It remains the largest masonry dome in the world and was such an unprecedented success at its time that the dome became an indispensable element in church and even secular architecture thereafter (Figure 23.5). Another key figure in the development of Renaissance architecture in Florence was Leon Battista Alberti (1402 - 1472), an important Humanist theoretician and designer, whose book on architecture De re aedificatoria was the first architectural treatise of the Renaissance. Alberti designed two of Florence's best known 15thcentury buildings: the Palazzo Rucellai and the facade of the church of Santa Maria Novella. The first was a palatial townhouse built 1446-51, which typified the newly developing features of Renaissance architecture, including a classical ordering of columns over three levels and the use of pilasters and entablatures in proportional relationship to each other.

The Florence Cathedral is the rst example of a true dome in Renaissance architecture.

The person generally credited with originating the Renaissance view of architecture is Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), whose first major commission--the enormous brick dome that covers the central space of Florence's Duomo or cathedral--was also perhaps

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The facade of Santa Maria Novella (1456-70) also showed similar Renaissance innovations based on classical Roman architecture. Alberti attempted to bring the ideals of humanist architecture and proportion to the structure while creating harmony with the existing medieval facade, and his contributions included a classically inspired frieze decorated with squares, four white-green pilasters, and a round window crowned by a pediment with the Dominican solar
Faade of Santa Maria Novella church in Florence, designed by Alberti Figure 23.6 Santa Maria Novella

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emblem, and flanked on both sides by S-shaped scrolls. While the pediment and the frieze were were inspired by Roman architecture, the scrolls were new and without precedent in antiquity, and ended up becoming a very popular architectural feature in churches all over Italy (Figure 23.6). The buildings of the early Renaissance in Florence expressed a new sense of light, clarity, and spaciousness that reflected the enlightenment and clarity of mind glorified by the philosophy of Humanism.

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Sculpture
Renaissance sculpture originated in Florence in the 15th century and was deeply inuenced by ancient Roman sculpture.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

The period was marked by a great increase in patronage of sculpture by the state for public art and by the wealthy for their homes.Public sculpture became a crucial element in the appearance of historic city centers, and portrait sculpture, particularly busts, became hugely popular in Florence.

KEY POINTS

Renaissance sculpture proper is often taken to begin with the famous competition for the doors of the Florence baptistry in 1403, which was won by Lorenzo Ghiberti. Ghiberti designed a set of doors for the competition, housed in the northern entrance, and another more splendid pair for the eastern entrance, named the Gates of Paradise. Both these gates depict biblical scenes. Ghiberti set up a large workship in which many famous Florentine sculptors and artists were trained. He reinvented the lost-wax casting of bronze, a technique which had been used by the ancient Romans and subsequently lost. Donatello created his bronze David for Cosimo de' Medici. Conceived independent of any architectural surroundings, it was the first known free-standing nude statue produced since antiquity.

Commonly known as "the cradle of the Renaissance," 15th-century Florence was among the largest and richest cities in Europe and its wealthiest residents were enthusiastic patrons of the arts, particularly sculpture. Departing from the International Gothic style that had previously dominated in Italy, and drawing from the styles of classical antiquity, Renaissance sculpture originated in Florence and was self-consciously influenced by ancient Roman sculpture. Lorenzo Ghiberti Renaissance sculpture proper is often taken to begin with the famous competition for the doors of the Florence baptistry in 1403, from which the trial models submitted by the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and the runner up, Filippo Brunelleschi, still survive. Ghiberti's bronze doors consist of 28 panels depicting scenes from the life of Christ, the four evangelists, and the Church Fathers Saints Ambrose, Jeromy, Gregory, and Augustine. They took 21

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years to complete and still stand at the northern entrance of the baptistry, although they are eclipsed by the splendor of his second pair of gates for the eastern entrance, which Michelangelo dubbed "the gates of paradise." These new doors were commissioned in 1425 and built over a 27-year period. They consist of ten rectangular panels, depicting scenes from the Old Testament and employ a clever use of the recently discovered principles of perspective to add depth to the composition. They are surrounded by a richly decorated gilt framework of fruit and foliage, statuettes of prophets, and busts of the sculptor and his father (Figure 23.7). In order to carry out these huge commissions, Ghiberti set up a large workship in which many famous Florentine sculptors and
Ghiberti's gates representing scenes from the Old Testament at the eastern entrance of the Baptistry. Figure 23.7 Gates of Paradise, Florence Baptistry

artists trained in later years, including Donatello, Michelozzo, and Paolo Uccello. He reinvented the lost wax casting of bronze, a technique which had been used by the ancient Romans and subsequently lost. This made his workshop particularly famous and was a great draw for aspiring artists. Donatello Another deeply influential sculptor from Florence was Donatello (1386 - 1466), who is best known for his work in bas-relief, a form of shallow relief that he used as a medium for the incorporation of significant 15th century sculptural developments in perspectival illusion. Donatello received his early artistic training in a goldsmith's workshop and then trained briefly in Ghiberti's studio before undertaking a trip to Rome with Filippo Brunelleschi, where he undertook the study and excavation of Roman architecture and sculpture. Roman art became the single most important influence on Donatello's work. His foremost sponsor in Florence was Cosimo de'Medici, the city's foremost patron of art. Donatello created his bronze David for Cosimo's court in the Palazzo Medici. Conceived entirely in the round and independent of any architectural surroundings, it was the first known free-standing nude statue produced since antiquity and represented an allegory of civic virtues overcoming brutality and ignorance. This sculpture represented a particularly important development in Renaissance

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sculpture; namely the production of sculpture independent of architecture unlike the preceding International Gothic style where sculpture rarely existed independent of architecture (Figure 23.8). Donatello's other important projects in and near Florence include the marble pulpit of the facade of the Prato cathedral, the carved Cantoria or choir at the Florence Duomo, which was influenced by ancient sarcophagi and Byzantine ivory chests, the Annunciation scene for the Cavalcanti altar in the church of Santa Croce, and a bust of a Young Man with a Cameo, the first example of a lay bust portrait since the classical era.
Donatello's genius made him an important gure in the early Italian Renaissance period. Sculpted between 1430-32, his bronze David is an example of his mature work. It is currently located in the Bargello Palace and Museum. Figure 23.8 David by Donatello

city centers, and portrait sculpture, particularly busts, became hugely popular in Florence following Donatello's innovations. These 15th-century innovations soon spread throughout Italy and later through the rest of Europe.
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The period was marked by a great increase in patronage of sculpture by the state for public art and by the wealthy for their homes. Public sculpture became a crucial element in the appearance of historic

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Painting
Renaissance painting was born in fteenth-century Florence and moved away from the atness of Gothic painting to focus on naturalism.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Masaccio is best known for his frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel in which he employed techniques of linear perspective, such as the vanishing point for the first time, and had a profound influence on other artists despite the brevity of his career.

KEY POINTS

Florentine painting received a new lease of life in the early fifteenth century, when the use of perspective was formalized by the architect Filippo Brunelleschi and adopted by painters as an artistic technique. Other important techniques developed in Florence during the first half of the fifteenth century include the use of realistic proportions, foreshortening, sfumato, and chiaroscuro. The artist most widely credited with first popularizing these techniques in fifteenth-century Florence is Masaccio (1401-1428), the first great painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance. Masaccio was deeply influenced both by Giotto's earlier innovations in solidity of form and naturalism and Brunelleschi's formalized use of perspective in architecture and sculpture, and moved away from the international Gothic style to a more realistic mode.

Fifteenth-century Florence was the birthplace of Renaissance painting, which moved away from the comparative flatness and stylized nature of Gothic art to focus on accurate representations of the human body and naturalistic landscapes. While Giotto is often referred to as the herald of the Renaissance, his realism, threedimensional figures, and humanist interest in expressing the individual personality, rather than iconic images proved to be a fleeting passion, as Italian painting retreated to conservative late Gothic conventions after his death. However, Florentine painting received a new lease of life in the early fifteenth century, when the use of perspective was formalized by the architect Filippo Brunelleschi and adopted by painters as an artistic technique. This development of perspective was part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts. Many other important techniques commonly associated with Renaissance painting developed in Florence during the first half of the fifteenth century, including the use of realistic proportions,

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foreshortening, or the artistic effect of shortening lines in a drawing to create the illusion of depth, sfumato, or the blurring of sharp outlines by subtle and gradual blending to give the illusion of threedimensionality and chiaroscuro or the contrast between light and dark to convey a sense of depth. The artist most widely credited with first popularizing these techniques in fifteenth-century Florence is Masaccio (1401-1428), the first great painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance. Masaccio was deeply influenced both by Giotto's earlier innovations in solidity of form and naturalism and Brunelleschi's formalized use of perspective in architecture and sculpture, and moved away from the International Gothic style to a more realistic mode. Masaccio is best known for his frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel in which he employed techniques of linear perspective, such as the vanishing point for the first time, and had a profound influence on other artists despite the brevity of his career. Masaccio was friends with Brunelleschi and the sculptor Donatello, and collaborated frequently with the older and already renowned artist Masolino da Panicale (1383/4 - 1436) with whom traveled with him to Rome in 1423. From this point onwards, he eschewed the Byzantine and Gothic styles altogether, adopting traces of influence from ancient Greek and Roman art instead. These are

evident in the cycle of frescoes he executed alongside Masolino for the Brancacci Chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence. The two artists started working on the chapel in 1425, but their work was only completed by Filippo Lippi in the 1480s.
Figure 23.9 The Tribute Money, fresco in the Brancacci Chapel in Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, 1425.

The Tribute Money is one of Masaccio's most famous frescoes from the Brancacci Chapel. Jesus and his apostles are depicted as as neo-classical archetypes. The shadows of the gures fall away from the chapel window, as if the gures are lit by it; this is an added stroke of verisimilitude and further tribute to Masaccio's innovative genius.

The frescoes in their entirety represent the story of human sin and redemption from the fall of Adam and Eve to the works of St. Peter. Giotto's influence is evident in Masaccio's frescoes, particularly in the weight and solidity of his figures and the vividness of their expressions. Unlike Giotto, Masaccio utilized linear and atmospheric perspective, and made even greater use of

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directional light and the chiaroscuro technique, enabling him to create even more convincingly lifelike paintings than his predecessor. His style and techniques became profoundly influential after his death and were imitated and elaborated by his successors (Figure 23.9).
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Painting Post-Masaccio
Florentine artists after Masaccio's death built on his contributions to the use of perspective and light and shadow.
KEY POINTS

Florentine painting greatly increased in range and richness after Masaccio's death, and fifteenth-century artists adopted his drive towards naturalism and his use of linear perspective, as well as the sfumato and chiaroscuro techniques. The most famous Florentine Quattrocento painters of the post-Masaccio period were Paolo Uccello, Piero della Francesca, and Filippo Lippi, who dedicated themselves to the study of light and shadow and perspective as their paramount concern. Piero della Francesca studied light and linear perspective from a scientific point of view and wrote treatises about his findings. Paolo Uccello used foreshortening to give his work depth and also made use of light, color, and contrast to add to the drama of his painting.

Masaccio is widely regarded as the first Renaissance painter of the Italian Quattrocento, and despite the brevity of his career, had the

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most profound influence on his successors. Florentine painting greatly increased in range and richness after Masaccio's death, and fifteenth-century artists adopted and built on the style and techniques that he had introduced to Italian painting, most notably the drive towards naturalism, and the use of linear perspective, sfumato, and chiaroscuro. Artists also began to focus even more on proportional and anatomically accurate representations of the human body and naturalistic landscapes. Some of the most famous Florentine Quattrocento painters of the post-Masaccio period were Paolo Uccello (1397-1475), Piero della Francesca (1415-1492), and Filippo Lippi (1406-1469). These painters dedicated themselves to the study of light and shadow and perspective as their paramount concern. Paolo Uccello was said to be so obsessed with trying to achieve the appearance of perspective by grasping the exact vanishing point that it disturbed his sleep. Piero della Francesca studied light and linear perspective from a scientific point of view and wrote treatises about his findings. Paolo Uccello's paintings emphasized color and pageantry rather than strictly classical realism, and he used perspective to convey a feeling of depth rather than to narrate different or succeeding stories as his contemporaries did. He is best known for his three egg tempera on wood paintings representing the Battle of San Romano, which use broken weapons on the ground and fields on the distant

hills to give an impression of perspective (Figure 23.10). Paolo Uccello also used light and contrast for dramatic effect in some of his almost monochrome frescoes, enlivening terra verde or "green earth" compositions with touches of bright vermilion. The best known is his equestrian portrait of John Hawkwood in the Florence Cathedral, which gives the impression of being lit by natural light as if the light source was an actual window in the cathedral.
Figure 23.10 Niccol Mauruzi da Tolentino at the Battle of San Romano by Paolo Uccello, 1438-1440

In the foreground, broken lances and a dead soldier are carefully aligned, so as to create an impression of perspective.

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Piero della Francesca is famous for his fresco paintings including the cycle of frescoes depicting the Legend of the True Cross, and his painting is characterized by its serene humanism and its use of geometric forms in addition to his close attention to perspective. His Flagellation of Christ demonstrate his mastery over linear perspective and his knowledge of how light is proportionally disseminated from its point of origin. There are two light sources in the painting, one outside the building and the other from outside. While the light source inside the building is invisible, its position
Figure 23.11 The Flagellation of Christ by Piero della Francesca, 1460

can be calculated with mathematical certainty from the rest of the composition, demonstrating his intimate understanding of the science of light (Figure 23.11).
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The Flagellation of Christ demonstrates Piero della Francesca's control over both perspective and light.

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Section 4

The Second Half of the 1400s

Urbino Mantua Rome and the Papal States Florence in the Late 1400s Venice

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Urbino
Urbino was an important center of Renaissance culture in the 15th century.
KEY POINTS

architectural piece is the Palazzo Ducale, rebuilt by Luciano Laurana (Figure 23.12). Palazzo Ducale The construction of the Ducal Palace was begun for Duke Federico III da Montefeltro around the mid-15th century by the Florentine Maso di Bartolomeo (Figure 23. 13). Luciano Laurana, an architect from Dalmatia who had been influenced by Brunelleschi's cloisters in Florence, designed the faade, the famous courtyard, and the great entrance staircase. Laurana's light, almost delicate arcaded courtyard
The walled city of Urbino was a crucial center of cultural activity during the Renaissance. Figure 23.12 Urbino: panorama with Palazzo Ducale & Duomo

Duke Federico III da Montefeltro commissioned the construction of the Ducal Palace (Palazzo Ducale) and the Duomo di Urbino, and was a significant patron of the arts during the Renaissance. The Galleria Nazionale delle Marche is one of the most important collections of Renaissance paintings in the world, and resides in the Ducal Palace. No single architect is credited with designing Palazzo Ducale, though many of the most impressive features of this structure are attributed to Luciano Laurana.

Urbino's History Urbino is a walled city in the Marche region of Italy, south-west of Pesaro. It is notable for a remarkable historical legacy of independent Renaissance culture, especially under the patronage of Federico III da Montefeltro, who was the duke of Urbino from 1444 to 1482. It hosts the University of Urbino, founded in 1506, and is the seat of the Archbishop of Urbino. Its best-known

at Urbino rivals that of the Palazzo della Cancelleria in Rome as the finest of the Renaissance. Overcoming the challenges of the clifflike site, which made an irregular massing of architecture necessary, from the 1460s onwards Laurana created what contemporaries considered the ideal princely dwelling. Many of the refined Early Renaissance carved

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details are so similar to features in paintings by Piero della Francesca that scholars have debated his possible input in the execution of Laurana's plan. After Laurana's departure from Urbino in 1472, works were continued by Francesco di Giorgio Martini, who was mainly responsible for the faade decoration. The portals and the window sculptures were executed by the Milanese Ambrogio Barocci, who was also the decorator of the interior rooms. In high, plainly stuccoed rooms the richly sculptured doorways, chimneys, and friezes created by Barocci, Domenico Rosselli, and their workshops stand out. After the death of Duke Federico (1482), the construction was left partially unfinished. The second floor was added in the first half of the following century by Girolamo Genga.
Duke Federico III da Montefeltro was a major patron of Renaissance culture in Urbino. Figure 23.13 Duke Federico III da Montefeltro

Baldassare Castiglione represents as having taken place in the Hall of Vigils in 1507 in his Book of the Courtier. Duomo di Urbino The Duomo di Urbino, the cathedral at Urbino, was founded in 1021 and rebuilt in the 15th century; the rebuilding was commissioned by the duke of the period, Federico III. However, the cathedral was not completed until 1604. The Duomo, which had a simple plan with a nave and two aisles, was destroyed by an earthquake in 1789. The church was again rebuilt by the Roman architect Giuseppe Valadier. This rebuilding effort wasn't completed until 1801. The current church has a typical neo-classicist appearance, with a majestic dome (Figure 23.14). It houses a San Sebastian painting from 1557, an Assumption by Carlo Maratta (1701), and the famous Last Supper by Federico Barocci (16031608). Beyond the limits of the city is the Church of San Bernardino, housing the tombs of the Dukes of Urbino.
The Duomo di Urbino is the main church of the city and cathedral of Urbino. Figure 23.14 Duomo di Urbino

The Palazzo Ducale houses the Galleria Nazionale delle Marche, one of the most important collections of Renaissance paintings in the world. it is also famous as the setting of the conversations which

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Mantua
Arts and culture ourished in the time of the Gonzaga rule in Mantua.

KEY POINTS

The wealth of the city made possible a brilliant court culture under the Gonzaga family, who offered extensive patronage of the arts. Casa Giocaso was a famous humanist school established in Mantua by Vittorino da Feltre and sponsored by Marquis Gianfrancesco Gonzaga. The Palazzo del Te was commissioned by Federico II Gonzaga and built by Guilio Romano between 1524 and 1534. It is a strong example of Renaissance Mannerist architecture. Mannerism emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance, beginning around 1520. It represented a departure from the harmonious ideals and restrained naturalism associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and early Michelangelo.

Mantua and Mannerism The City of Mantua, located in the northern Italian plain, was traditionally a center of cloth manufacture. On August 16, 1328, the

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Figure 23.15 Ludovico Gonzaga receiving the news of his son Francesco being elected cardinal by Andrea Mantegna, 1474

Gonzaga Patronage During the Renaissance, the Gonzaga family softened their despotic rule and raised the level of culture and refinement in Mantua. Because of the city's wealth and the Gonzaga support of arts and letters, the Mantuan court became one of the most brilliant in Italy. Marquis Gianfrancesco Gonzaga brought Vittorino da Feltre, to Mantua in 1423 to open his famous humanist school, the Casa Giocosa. Vittorino da Feltre was one of the first modern educators to develop during the Renaissance. The Gonzagas protected the arts and culture, and were hosts to several important artists, including Leone Battista Alberti, Andrea Mantegna, Giulio Romano, Donatello, Peter Paul Rubens, Pisanello, Domenico Fetti, Luca Fancelli, and Nicol Sebregondi. Though many of the masterworks made during the period have been dispersed, the cultural significance of Mantua is nonetheless outstanding. Many of Mantua's patrician and ecclesiastical buildings are uniquely important examples of Italian architecture. Under Francesco II, the famous Renaissance painter Andrea Mantegna worked in Mantua as the court painter, producing some of his most outstanding works. Mannerism and Giulio Romano's Work

This fresco of the powerful Gonzaga head of family resides in the Stanza degli Sposi of Palazzo Ducale.

Bonacolsi family was overthrown in a revolt backed by the House of Gonzaga. Luigi Gonzaga, who had been podest of the city in 1318, was elected "People's Captain." The Gonzagas built new city walls with five gates and renovated the architecture of the city in the 14th century, but the political situation in the city did not settle until the third ruling Gonzaga, Ludovico Gonzaga, eliminated his relatives, seizing power for himself (Figure 23.15).

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The first Duke of Mantua was Federico II Gonzaga, who acquired the title from Emperor Charles V in 1530. Federico commissioned Giulio Romano to build the famous Palazzo del Te, on the periphery of the city, and profoundly improved the city (Figure 23. 17). Romano was a pupil of Raphael.His stylistic deviations from high Renaissance classicism helped define the 16th-century style known as Mannerism. Stylistically, Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by and reacting to the harmonious ideals and restrained naturalism associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and early Michelangelo. Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. Once the shell of the Palazzo del Te was completed, for ten years a team of plasterers, carvers, and fresco painters labored, until barely a surface in any of the loggias or salons remained undecorated. Under
The Fall of the Giants is one of the most important frescoes of the Palazzo del Te. Figure 23.16 Giulio Romano, The Fall of the Giants in the "sala dei Giganti"

Figure 23.17 Palazzo del Te The Palazzo del Te was a mannerist palace constructed from 1524-1534 by Giulio Romano and commissioned by the Duke of Mantua.

Giulio Romano's direction, local decorative painters such as Benedetto Pagni and Rinaldo Mantovano worked extensively on the palace frescos. These frescoes remain today, and are the most remarkable feature of the Palazzo. The subjects range from the Olympian banquets in the Sala di Psiche and stylized horses in the Sala dei Cavalli to the most unusual of allgiants and grotesques wreaking havoc, fury, and ruin around the walls of the Sala dei Giganti (Figure 23.16).
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Rome and the Papal States

Rome was a center of Renaissance culture in the second half of the 15th century.
KEY POINTS

and public spaces, including a new Saint Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity), and Piazza Navona. As patrons of the arts, the Popes engaged such artists as Michelangelo, Perugino, Raphael, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, Botticelli, and Cosimo Rosselli. The Renaissance can be said to have begun in Rome under Pope Nicholas V, who became Pontiff on March 19, 1447. His ascension heralded a period during which the city became the center of humanism. He was the first Pope to embellish the Roman court
Figure 23.18 Piet by Michelangelo, 1498 1499

The Renaissance began in Rome during the papacy of Nicholas V, who became Pontiff on March 19, 1447. The patronage of arts and culture was important to successive popes. As its status as a cultural center in the Renaissance grew, Rome's role as a religious center diminished. Sixtus IV was considered the first Pope-King of Rome and was a great patron of the arts in that city. The most notable architectural achievement of Sixtus IV's papacy was the Sistine Chapel. Raphael became the most famous painter in Italy during his time at Rome.

with scholars and artists, including Lorenzo Valla and Vespasiano da Bisticci. The Renaissance had a great impact on Rome's appearance. The city was enhanced with works like the Piet, by Michelangelo, and the frescoes of the Borgia Apartment, which were all made during the latter half of the 15th century (Figure 23. 18).

The Dawning Dominance of Rome The latter half of the 15th century saw the seat of the Italian Renaissance move to Rome from Florence. The Papacy wanted to surpass the grandeur of other Italian cities. To this end the popes created increasingly extravagant churches, bridges, town squares,
The Piet is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture by Michelangelo Buonarroti, housed in St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City.

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Figure 23.19 Creation of Adam, by Michelangelo, c. 1511

contributing to what became one of the most famous monuments of the world. Rome reached the highest point of splendour under Pope Julius II (15031513) and his successors Leo X and Clement VII, both members of the Medici family. During this twenty-year period Rome became the greatest centre of art in the world. The former St. Peter's Basilica was demolished and a new one begun (Figure 23. 20).

Sixtus IV commissioned artists to work on the Sistine Chapel beginning in 1477; Michelangelo worked on the ceiling from 1508-1512.

Figure 23.20 St. Peter's Basillica

Sixtus IV, Julius II, Leo X and Clement VII Sixtus IV is considered the first Pope-King of Rome. A true patron of arts, he reopened the Roman Academy, and in 1471 began the construction of the Vatican Library. The Library was officially founded on June 15, 1475. Sixtus restored several churches, including Santa Maria del Popolo, the Aqua Virgo, and the Hospital of the Holy Spirit; however, his main building project was the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican Palace (Figure 23.19). Its designers included some of the most renowned artists of the age, including Mino da Fiesole, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Pietro Perugino, Luca Signorelli, and Pinturicchio; in the 16th century Michelangelo decorated the ceiling with his famous masterpiece,
Vatican City's Papal Basilica of Saint Peter is a denitive Late Renaissance church.

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The city hosted artists like Bramante, who built the Temple of San Pietro in Montorio and planned a great project to renovate the Vatican; Raphael, who in Rome became the most famous painter in Italy, creating frescos in the Cappella Niccolina, the Villa Farnesina, the Raphael's Rooms, and many other famous paintings Increasingly Secular Character Over time Rome lost some part its religious character, becoming increasingly a secular-humanist Renaissance city. It hosted a great number of popular feasts, horse races, parties, intrigues, and licentious episodes. Its economy was prosperous, with the presence of several Tuscan bankers, including Agostino Chigi, a friend of Raphael and a patron of the arts. Despite his premature death, and to his eternal credit, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins.
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Florence in the Late 1400s

The Renaissance began to ourish in the 15th century in Florence.

KEY POINTS

The wealth of Florence's upper classes contributed profoundly to the advancement of arts and culture in the city. Florence viewed itself as heir to the Roman Empire, in part for the shared emphasis on freedom and liberty. Filippo Brunelleschi was one of the great artistic talents in Florence at this time, renowned for his knowledge of mathematics and engineering, as well as his artistic abilities. Completing the dome of the Florence Cathedral was Brunelleschi's major life work.

During the Early Renaissance, Italy was divided into many citystates (Florence, Milan, Venice etc.), each with their own form of government. There are several reasons for the extraordinary rebirth of the Renaissance at this time. Tremendous wealth accumulated in Florence during this period among a growing middle and upper class of merchants and bankers. With the accumulation of wealth came the desire to enjoy the pleasures of life on Earth -- not just an exclusive focus on the hereafter.

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Figure 23.21 The Dome of the Florence Cathedral

Florence saw itself as the ideal city-state, a place where the freedom of the individual was guaranteed, and where many citizens had the right to participate in the government. Successfully defeating several wouldbe conquerors in the early 15th century, Florentines imagined themselves as

The dome, the lantern (built 1446ca.1461), and the exedra (built 1439-1445) occupied most of Brunelleschis life. Brunelleschi's success can be attributed to no small degree to his technical and mathematical genius. Brunelleschi used more than 4 million bricks in the construction of the dome of the Florence Cathedral.
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Brunelleschi dedicated much of his life to the completion of the Florence Cathedral's dome.

the "New Rome" -- in other words, as the heirs to the Ancient Roman Republic, prepared to sacrifice for the cause of freedom and liberty. This emphasis on freedom and individuality was key to the cultural and intellectual growth that defined the Renaissance. Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 April 15, 1446) was one of the foremost architects and engineers of the Italian Renaissance. He is perhaps most famous for his discovery of perspective and for engineering the dome of the Florence Cathedral, but his accomplishments also include other architectural works, sculpture, mathematics, engineering, and even ship design. His principal surviving works are to be found in Florence, Italy (Figure 23.21).

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Venice
In the latter years of the 15th century, Venice had a distinctive, thriving, and inuential art scene.

Bellini's Legacy Bellini has been described as reaching the High Renaissance ideals; his work certainly expresses
Figure 23.22 San Cassiano Altarpiece by Antonello da Messina, 1475-76

KEY POINTS

the key distinctive factors of the Venetian school. Throughout his career, he gradually developed a softer style that used glowing colors to represent form and suggest an atmospheric haze. Applying this approach in his San Zaccaria Altarpiece (1505), the high viewpoint, the uncluttered and interconnected figures arranged in space, and the subtle gestures all combine to form a tranquil yet majestic image (Figure 23.23). Considered to bring a primacy of color over line, the Venetian tradition begun by Bellini was seen to contrast with Mannerism, which was prevalent in much of Italy. The Venetian style is viewed as greatly influencing the subsequent development of painting.
Antonello's San Cassiano Altarpiece greatly inuenced the Venetian school.

During his long career, Bellini has been credited with developing the Venetian style, along with his pupils Titian and Giorgione. The Venetian school, characterized by softness, tranquility, and the use of warm colors, is easily contrasted with the aesthetic ideals of Mannerism. The Venetian school was influenced by traveling artists from elsewhere in Italy, including Leonardo da Vinci and Antonello da Messina.

Venetian Artistry Beginning with the workshop of Giovanni Bellini (c. 14301516), major artists of the Venetian school included Giorgione (c. 1477 1510), Titian (14891576), Tintoretto (15181594), Veronese (1528 1588), and the Bassano family (15101592).

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Outside Influences Venetian painting was also influenced by Renaissance artists from other regions. Antonello da Messina (c. 14301479) introduced the techniques of Early Netherlandish
Figure 23.23 San Zaccaria Altarpiece by Giovanni Bellini, 1505

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painting, which were probably acquired through his training in Naples. Antonello travelled to Venice c. 1470, to see Giovanni Bellini's paintings. He spent much of the next several years in Venice, where he both influenced and was influenced by Bellini's work. Antonello's works of this period began to show greater attention to the human figure in regards to both anatomy and expressivity. Antonello's San Cassiano Altarpiece especially influenced Venetian

Bellini's San Zaccaria Altarpiece typies the Venetian style.

painters, as it was one of the first of the large compositions in the sacra

conversazione format which was perfected by Giovanni Bellini (Figure 23.22). Leonardo da Vinci also visited Venice in 1500; his visit was particularly influential for Giorgione.

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Chapter 24

Art in Commercial and Market Contexts

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Section 1

Artists

Training Artists Making the Art The Role of the Artist

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Training Artists
In the current Western artistic tradition, artists typically train at an art school or institution.
KEY POINTS

today, apprenticing, or studying with an established artist, is still the method by which artists learn their crafts. In the current Western artistic tradition, artists typically train at an art school or institution. The model for the modern art school dates back to the French Royal Academy, which was founded by Louis XIV in the 17th century. Numerous universities, colleges, and private institutions teach the various artistic disciplines at a postFigure 24.1 Goldsmiths' College, London

Training in the visual arts has traditionally revolved around the apprentice system. The model for the modern art school dates back to the French Royal Academy, which was founded by Louis XIV in the 17th century. Art departments in most colleges and universities around the world offer degrees at both the undergraduate and graduate level. Art schools generally lead young artists on the path towards becoming exhibiting artists or teachers. Artists who did not attend art school are generally termed "self-taught".

secondary level. Prominent examples include the Pratt Institute, Rhode Island School of Design, Yale, The Art Institute of Chicago, California Institute of the Arts, and Goldsmiths' College (Figure 24.1). In addition, artistic training is

Goldsmiths' College in London is one example of an art school.

often taught in elementary school, and is valued as a

For many years, craftsmen and artists have formed associations, guilds, and groups in order to preserve and perpetuate their various crafts. Training in the visual arts has traditionally revolved around the apprentice system. In the Middle Ages, many guilds of goldsmiths, glassmakers, stonemasons, and artists were formed and supported most often by the monarchy or state. In many cultures

tool to enhance technical abilities and creativity. Artists today spend many years learning and training in their various disciplines. Art departments in most colleges and universities around the world offer degrees at both the undergraduate and graduate level. There are schools devoted to

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many art forms, including film, graphic design, sculpture, painting, drawing, printmaking, and textiles, to name a few. Art schools generally lead young artists on the path towards becoming exhibiting artists or teachers. Many art schools also grant degrees in art curation, criticism, art education, and design, and prepare individuals for the jobs associated with these degrees. Outside of the academic system, many artists learn their craft through personal practice. Artists who did not attend art school are generally termed "self-taught," and go about their practice in the same manner as artists who attended art school, by aiming to exhibit and sell their work.
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Making the Art

Arts practices revolve around a cycle of creation, exhibition and selling of art works.
KEY POINTS

Artists rely on a vast support network outside the studio space to create art. Most artists work in a studio, which is essentially an artists workshop. There are many steps between an artists initial concept and the finished work of art. Art shows or exhibitions represent the culmination of a body of work for an artist. The artist statement is a piece of writing that explains the motivation behind an artist's work, and is an essential part of the art show. Artist residencies invite artists to spend time and space away from their usual environments in order to create art.

After years of intensive learning and practice of their chosen art form, artists embark upon the task of creating art as professionals. The method by which an artist goes about creating art is typically referred to as their "process" or "artistic practice." Arts practices usually revolve around a cycle of creation, exhibition and selling of

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art works. While much of an artists work is completed in the studio, they also rely on a vast support network outside of the studio space. Entire industries revolve around the creation of art, from those who make tools for artists like paper and paint to those who help to distribute art like galleries and markets. Artists often join a network of similar minded artists, sometimes termed an artist collective." Creativity is a process, and as such, there are usually many steps between an artists initial concept and the finished work of art. Some artists employ staff to run the administrative side of their studio, or even hire craftspeople and technicians to create a work. Most artists work in a studio, essentially an artists workshop. This workshop can be in the home (a live-work studio) or it can exist as a space that is maintained outside of the home. Artists of all disciplines maintain studio practices. Art studios are sometimes called ateliers" (Figure 24.2). Art shows or exhibitions represent the culmination of a body of work for an artist, and are organized by curators. They take place most often in galleries, but can happen in any space the artist chooses. Art shows typically begin with an opening night or vernissage (private viewing), whereby the public is invited to celebrate the show with the artist. The artist statement is a piece of writing that explains the motivation behind the artist's work, and

stands as an essential part of the art show. At an art show, artworks are generally for sale, with a price list available from the gallerist.
Figure 24.2 Example of an artist studio

Art studios are sometimes called ateliers."

Artist residencies invite artists to spend time and space away from their usual environments to create art. Most residencies offer the artist a living and working space, sometimes offering small stipends and meals. There are numerous residencies around the world existing in artist-run-spaces, galleries, universities and private residences to aid artists in the task of creating work.

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The Role of the Artist

The role of the artist is to use his or her medium and style in order to convey a chosen purpose.
KEY POINTS

The visual arts are divided into categories that make distinctions based on the context of the work. Traditionally, the role of the artist revolved around describing themselves and their surroundings. For hundreds of years Western artists sought to create work that was realistically rendered. The advent of Cubism and subsequent avant-garde movements signified a shift in the role of the artist to a more cerebral plane. Currently, the role of the artist is to create art by whichever means he or she would like to.

Artists hold many different roles in society, but share the common role of using their medium and style in order to convey a chosen purpose to make art. The visual arts are divided into categories that make distinctions based on the context of the work. While these categories continue to grow and change, the primary ones are fine art (e.g., drawing, painting, sculpture, photography, and some new media), popular culture (e.g., advertising, graffiti, product

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design, television, and movies), and the decorative arts (e.g., utilitarian objects such as furniture, glassware, ceramics, and all the crafts). Traditionally, the role of artists has revolved around describing themselves and their surroundings. Among the earliest records of artistic production are depictions of people and animals on cave
Figure 24.3 "Young Hare" by Albrecht Durer

depiction of imagery in works such as "Young Hare" (Figure 24.3). The advent of Cubism and subsequent avant-garde movements signified a shift in the role of the artist. These movements no longer emphasized the importance of realistic depictions and moralistic themes, but were instead based on conceptual and cerebral ideals, ushering in numerous revolutions in the Western art world. The current role of the artist is to create art by whichever means he or she would like to. It is not uncommon for artists, especially those in the fine arts, to supplement their practice with another job, such as teaching, in addition to seeking grants and maintaining a regular cycle of creating and exhibiting works of art.
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walls. With the progression of Western art came the increasing division of the many art forms. Currently, the role of the artist is very dependent on the type of art being created; however, a universal role of an artist is to use his or her tools in order to describe and illuminate various aspects of life. For hundreds of years,

"Young Hare" by Albrecht Durer is an example of art that is realistically rendered.

Western artists sought to create work that was

realistically rendered. It was believed that the closer a painting or drawing was to reality, the closer it was to ultimate truth. The work of Albrecht Durer demonstrates a very technical and accurate

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Section 2

Support for Art Making

Private Patronage The Market Tax-Supported Art

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Private Patronage
A patron of the arts is a person who pays for or commissions works of art.
KEY POINTS

imperial rule dominated a significant share of resources. Throughout time, rulers and wealthy people have used patronage of the arts to support their political and social positions in society. Art patronage has also been important for art associated with various religious groups, especially the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches, both of which have sponsored numerous schools and specific works of art and architecture. Another example of a well-known patron of the arts is Catherine de Medici, who made a significant contribution to the French Renaissance through her widespread patronage (Figure 24. 4). The patronage system continues across many artistic fields today, however, the nature of the sponsors
A well-known patron of the arts is Catherine de Medici, who made a signicant contribution to the French Renaissance through her widespread patronage. Figure 24.4 Portrait of Catherine de Medici

Since ancient times, patronage of the arts has been important to the development of many artistic movements, works, and styles. Throughout time, rulers and wealthy people have used patronage of the arts to support their political and social positions in society. The patronage system continues across many artistic fields today, however, the nature of the sponsors has changed. Art collectors can act as patrons as well, by commissioning specific works or styles from artists they wish to support.

Patronage is the support, usually in reference to financial aid, that one individual or organization bestows to another. A patron of the arts is a person who pays for or commissions works of art, and commonly refers to the support that kings and popes provided to painters, sculptors, musicians, and poets. Since ancient times, patronage of the arts has been important to the development of many artistic movements, works, and styles. With strong ties to the medieval period, patronage of the arts tended to arise whenever

has changed. No longer churches and kings, it is now charitable organizations and governments that bestow grants and provide other aid to artists. Both private and public granting bodies exist for artists, and require minimal endorsement, though it is generally

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required that their patronage of a specific project be publicly known. Art collectors can act as patrons as well, by commissioning specific works or styles from the artists they wish to support. While the contemporary emphasis on artistic freedom generally dictates that the specifics of an artwork be left up to the artist, patrons, in the past, would dictate materials, style, and subjects of works of art. Over time, the discipline of art history has evolved to recognize the important and often neglected role that patronage has played in the cultural life of previous centuries.
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The Market
The important components of the art market are the gallery, curator, dealer, consultant, and collector.
KEY POINTS

The art market is an economic ecosystem that relies not only!on supply and demand, but also on the fabrication of a works predicted future monetary and/or cultural value. The primary art market refers to art that enters the market for the first time. The secondary market refers to artworks that have been sold at least once before. An art dealer is a person or company who buys and sells works of art. Art galleries are commercial or privately funded businesses that deal in artworks, typically made by contemporary artists. The curator is the manager or director of the gallery who traditionally programs the space and organizes art shows. Art fairs act as conventions or large-scale shows where galleries display the work of select artists whom they represent.

The art market is an economic ecosystem that relies not only on supply and demand, but on the fabrication of a works predicted future monetary and/or cultural value. The art market can appear

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somewhat unclear, since artists do not make art with the sole intention of selling it, and buyers often have no idea of the value of their purchase. The art market is made up of two parts: the primary market and the secondary market.
Figure 24.5 "Garcon a la Pipe" by Picasso

example, the Picasso painting Garcon a la Pipe sold for $104.2 million at auction, thereby setting its worth at $104.2 million (Figure 24.5). The important players in the art market are the gallery, curator, dealer, consultant, and collector. Art galleries are commercial or privately funded businesses that deal in artworks, typically made by contemporary artists. Nonprofit galleries are typically a step above commercial galleries, and include museums and galleries that are funded by the government or charity that do not sell artwork, such as the Tate gallery. The curator is generally the manager of the gallery, who traditionally programs the space and organizes art shows. Curators at commercial galleries may have the responsibility of selling work, while those at museums generally maintain the organizational aspects of exhibitions. Art dealers are persons or companies who buy and sell works of art. They typically seek out artists to represent while simultaneously building relationships with collectors and museums to whom they might be able to sell the work. Dealers are often able to anticipate market trends, and some prominent dealers might be able to influence the taste of the market. Many dealers specialize in a particular style, region, or time period and travel internationally to exhibitions, auctions, artists studios, and art fairs to pick up new

The primary art market refers to art that enters the market for the first time. The secondary market refers to artworks that have been sold at least once before. Once a work is sold, it enters the secondary market and the price at which it sold has a direct influence on its subsequent price. Supply and demand affects the secondary market more than the primary market, as contemporary art with no market history relies on speculative analysis to determine its value. For
Picasso's "Garcon a la Pipe" sold for, and is thereby valued at, $104.2 million.

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work. An example of a highly notable art dealer is Larry Gagosian, who also owns Gagosian Gallery, a highly influential art gallery. Art fairs act as conventions or large-scale shows, where galleries display the work of select artists whom they represent and are important to the structure of the contemporary art market. Prominent art fairs include Art Basel, Scope, Frieze Art Fair, and the Armory Show. Art auctions are the sale of art at auction houses, a tradition which dates from the 17th century and continues to thrive today. Art auctions deal in the most highly valued of art, such as works by Picasso, Manet, Jeff Koons, and Andy Warhol. The leading auction houses are Christies and Sothebys.
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Tax-Supported Art
Many artists seek nancial support in the form of grants.
KEY POINTS

Grants are available from both public and private institutions. In the USA and Canada, grants are available from the federal, state and municipal branches of government to fund artistic projects in all media, including drawing, painting, sculpture, theater, music, dance, new media, and interdisciplinary art forms. In the United States, the National Endowment of the Arts is an independent agency of the federal government that offers funding to projects it deems exhibit artistic excellence. In Canada, the Canada Council for the Arts funds the projects of artists in much the same way as the NEA, but allots more funding to the arts based on population. The grant application typically entails submitting a project proposal in relationship to ones artistic practice, as well as a detailed budget, timeline, and c.v.

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In addition to selling their artwork, many artists seek financial support in the form of grants, which are available from both public and private institutions. Grants are non-repayable funds dispersed by one party (often a government agency) to a recipient (often a nonprofit entity). Nearly every government has a department or agency that distributes these funds. In order to receive a grant, artists must submit a grant application by a specified deadline. In the USA and Canada, grants are available to fund artistic projects in all media, including drawing, painting, sculpture, theater, music, dance, new media, and interdisciplinary art forms. In the United States, the National Endowment of the Arts (NEA) is an independent agency of the federal government that offers funding to projects it deems exhibit artistic excellence. The NEA was created in 1965 and dispersed more than 128,000 grants between 1965 and 2008, totaling more than $4 billion. In 1996, Congress cut NEA funding to $99.5 million as a result of pressure from conservative groups. Numerous controversies have arisen from the use of tax dollars to fund art that can be seen as "controversial," such as the work of Robert Mapplethorpe in the 1980s (Figure 24.6). In Canada, the Canada Council for the Arts funds the projects of artists in much the same way as the NEA, but allots more funding to the arts based on population. Established in 1957, the Canada

Figure 24.6 Robert Mapplethorpe Exhibition An NEA-funded Robert Mapplethorpe exhibition was labeled obscene and a poor use of taxpayer money by conservative groups.

Council awards an average of $120.5 million in grants and awards annually. In addition to the Canada Council, the provincial and municipal branches of the Canadian government also award grants to artists and arts organizations for a variety of arts-based projects and activities. The grant application typically entails submitting a project proposal in relationship to ones artistic practice, as well as a detailed budget, timeline, and curriculum vitae (c.v.). Project grants are intended to cover the immediate costs of a project as well as the living expenses of the artist for the duration of the project. In Europe, similar arms of the government exist to award grants to working artists. Every country has its own arts granting bodies with different rules, regulations, and conventions specific to that country. In addition to awarding direct funds, grants can provide

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numerous in-kind benefits to artists, such as mentorships, residencies, travel, research, and exhibition opportunities.
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Section 3

Consumption of Art

Using Art National Pride Museums and Private Collections Preservation and Restoration

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Using Art
The ways in which we use art depend on the type of art in question.
KEY POINTS

balance, and rhythm (beauty), are examples of non-motivated artistic functions. Fine art can be categorized as either motivated or non-motivated. Additionally, the desire to experience mystery and
Figure 24.7 Giovanni Baglione,!Sacred and Profane Love.

the infinite, as well as to express the imagination in ways that are not related to the spoken or written language, are examples of non-motivated functions of art. Fine art includes drawing, painting, sculpture, photography, and some film and new media. Its function is often decorative, to appeal to the senses, or to communicate emotions and ideas. For example, a chiaroscuro painting communicates the feeling of drama through skilled application of the artistic elements (Figure 24.7). Art in

Motivated art is art that has been given an intentional, conscious purpose by the artist or creator. Non-motivated art functions on an innate human level and does not fulfill a specific external purpose. Art can function as decorative, to appeal to the senses, or to communicate emotions and ideas. Art can be used to influence popular conceptions, as with advertising and propaganda. Art can have ritualistic and symbolic functions. Art can function as entertainment for the viewer.

The ways in which we use art depend on the type of art in question. We can break down the way that art functions broadly into two groups: motivated and non-motivated. Motivated art is art that has been given an intentional, conscious purpose by the artist or creator such as popular culture and decorative arts. Non-motivated art functions on an innate human level and does not fulfill a specific external purpose. Creativity and the basic human need for harmony,
Baglione's "Sacred and Profane Love" is an example of a"chiaroscuro"painting.

this sense can be used to support political ideals, to comment on society, to express emotions, or to illustrate a concept. Additionally,

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art can be used to bring about political change, exemplified by movements like Dadaism and Surrealism (Figure 24.8).
Figure 24.8 Hannah Hoch,!Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife through the Last Weimar BeerBelly Cultural Epoch in Germany. Hoch's"Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife through the Last Weimar BeerBelly Cultural Epoch in Germany,"is an example of art resulting from the Dadaism movement.

conceptions. Propaganda and commercialism refer to art that is used to influence poplar conceptions or moods. Advertising attempts to sell a product by creating associations with a particular product or brand, while propaganda is used to manipulate the public on various ideas. The decorative arts are widely used and utilitarian by their very nature. Decorative arts include any object that might be used in everyday life, from chairs to ceramics. Typically, their purposes are obvious, and their aesthetic value is often secondary to their utilitarian function. Art can have ritualistic and symbolic functions. Many cultures and religions utilize art in rituals, performances, and dances as decoration or symbolism. While these art objects often have no specific utilitarian purpose, anthropologists have proven they hold very specific cultural importance.
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Popular art includes movies, product design, television, posters, graffiti, advertising, and video games. We encounter popular art at all times, and in fact we are almost oversaturated with it. Popular art usually functions as entertainment for the viewer, such as with a film or video game, but can also be used to influence popular

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National Pride
Art can be used to advance nationalistic goals, by providing a state or nation with political and social legitimacy.

Art can be used to advance nationalistic goals by providing a state or nation with political and social legitimacy. "Romantic nationalism" refers to the phenomenon by which a state derives power from the unity of those it governs, whether it be through culture, religion, customs, language, or race. Romantic nationalism was a key component of Romanticism as well as certain postEnlightenment philosophies that focused on the development of national language, folklore, and traditional customs. This form of nationalism arose in reaction to imperial and dynastic hegemony, which acquired legitimacy not from the bottom-up but from the top-down-- in other words, from the authority down to the people. National anthems, national epics, and national treasures are part of the language of Romantic nationalism, and date back to the 18th and 19th centuries. After the 1870s, Romantic nationalism became a very familiar movement in the arts that allowed for a form of reinterpretation of the past, without being considered merely historicist. Nationalist movements for the separation of Finland, the kingdom of Bavaria from Germany, and Czech and Serb nationalism created conflict, while Welsh and Irish tongues experienced a poetic revival and the Zionist movement both revived Hebrew and began immigration to Israel. In the first few decades of the 20th century, Romantic nationalism had an important influence on political events. The belief that nation states forming around unities in culture and

KEY POINTS

Romantic nationalism refers to the phenomenon by which a state derives power from the unity of those it governs, whether it be through culture, religion, customs, language, or race. Romantic nationalism was a key component of Romanticism as well as certain post-Enlightenment philosophies. National anthems, national epics, and national treasures are part of the language of Romantic nationalism, and date back to the 18th and 19th centuries. Today, cultural heritage-- both tangible and intangible-- is regarded as highly valuable. A national treasure refers to shared culture which has been deemed exceptionally valuable. Governments influence the artistic output of their regions by presenting grants and awards to artists whose careers they wish to support.

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ethnicity were in some sense natural was prominently held. After the Second World War however, Romantic nationalism took on a darker tone.
Figure 24.9 Bayeux Tapestry

value, such as Britains Bayeux tapestry (Figure 24.9). Governments influence the artistic output of their regions by presenting grants and awards to artists whose careers they wish to support-- a model which is not unlike the dynastic patronage common throughout Europe in the past.
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A hawking scene from the Bayeaux Tapestry.

Some degree of art-based national pride still exists today. The ageold notion of the state gaining political prowess through its artistic output still holds true in some senses. Cultural heritage-- both tangible and intangible-- is regarded as highly valuable. It is not uncommon for museums and art galleries to be owned by the state, thereby imparting biased and/or nationalistic worldviews on exhibitions. A national treasure refers to shared culture which has been deemed exceptionally valuable. A national treasure could be a skilled musician, such as Yo-Yo Ma, or a cultural object of great

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Museums and Private Collections

Museums and private collections are both engaged in the collection and display of works of art.

essentially holds them in public trust, and engages in varying levels of education and conservation practices. Private collections are privately owned works of art which may or may not be available for viewing by the public. Museums and private collections are both engaged in the collection and display of works of art. Early museums began as the private collections of wealthy families and individuals. Originally, only nobility collected art, but soon the

KEY POINTS

wealthy classes began to adopt the habit of collecting and displaying archaeological and art objects in their salons and living rooms. Cabinets of curiosity, or cabinets that held these collections of artifacts and art objects, became commonplace, and were the beginnings of museums and private collections. Often, these private collections were available for viewing by the so-called respectable public, but the majority did not become open to the public until the 18th century. The majority of significant museums were opened to the public in the 18th century, or the "Enlightenment Era," a time known for its pursuit and dissemination of knowledge throughout society. The arts were especially important during the Enlightenment and viewed as a deeply noble pursuit. The Grand Tour, which became very popular during this time, solidified the habit of collecting works for display from these trips abroad. Many of the most significant private collections of art were opened to the public in the

Early museums began as the private collections of wealthy families and individuals. "Cabinets of curiosity, or cabinets that held collections of artifacts and art objects, were the beginnings of museums and private collections. The majority of significant museums were opened to the public in the 18th century Enlightenment Era, such as the Louvre and the Hermitage Museum. Numerous art works in museums today were donated from private collections. It is not uncommon to see a note next to a work of art in a temporary museum exhibition, stating that it is on loan from a particular private collection.

Museums are institutions that collect art objects and make them available for public viewing, through either permanent or temporary exhibitions. A museum does not sell works of art, but

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18th century such as the Uffizi gallery in Florence, Italy, The Louvre in Paris, France (Figure 24.10), and The Hermitage Museum, founded in 1764 by Catherine the Great. Numerous art works in museums today were in fact donations from private collections. In addition, commonly a note is posted next to a work of art in a temporary museum exhibition stating that it is on loan from a particular private collection. Currently, some private collections remain private, while some are available for public viewings. The Frick Collection in New York City is one of the preeminent small art
The Louvre museum in Paris was a private collection opened to the public in the 18th century. Figure 24.10 The Louvre, Paris

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museums in the city. Housed in the mansion of its owner, Henry Clay Frick, the collection includes old master paintings by Jan van Eyck, Fragonard, Rembrandt, and others.

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Preservation and Restoration

Preservation and restoration is a profession devoted to the conservation of cultural heritage, such as works of art, for future generations.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Interventive conservation refers to any act that involves a direct interaction between the conservator and the cultural material, and could involve cleaning, stabilizing, repair, or replacement of parts.

KEY POINTS

Preservation and restoration is a profession devoted to the conservation of cultural heritage, such as works of art, for future generations. The activities involved in this profession include examination, documentation, treatment, and preventative conservation. The goal of the conservator is to attempt to maintain cultural heritage objects as close to their original condition as possible, for as long as possible. The conservator acts as a sort of steward for these objects, which range from archaeological to artistic. The tradition of conservation is considered by most to have begun in 1565, with the restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes (before: (Figure 24.11), after: (Figure
Detail of Sistine Chapel freso before restoration. Figure 24.11 Sistine Chapel

The goal of the conservator is to attempt to maintain cultural heritage objects as close to their original condition as possible, for as long as possible. The tradition of conservation is considered by most to have begun in 1565, with the restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes. Today, all museums employ teams of conservators to keep their collections up to date, conduct frequent tests, and engage in analysis and documentation. Conservators are often involved in what is termed preventative conservation, which refers to protecting art and cultural works from damage from environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and exposure to light. A guiding principal of conservation is the idea of "reversibility;" that is, any intervention with the object should be fully reversible.

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24.12). During the 19th century, the fields of science and art became somewhat intertwined, and scientific processes were used to care for artistic objects. Today, all museums employ teams of conservators to keep their collections up-to-date, conduct frequent tests, and engage in analysis and documentation. In addition, numerous organizations create standardized methodologies for the conservation of art objects, such as the International Institute for the Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, and the American Institute for Conservation.
Figure 24.12 Sistine Chapel

The conservators activities are guided by ethical standards. They must choose if, when, and how to alter a work of art in order to bring it closer to its original state. Since the original state is often beyond the conservators lifetime, a certain degree of guesswork is required. Conservators are often involved in what is termed preventative conservation, which refers to protecting art and cultural works from damage from environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and exposure to light. This is why, for example, it is common to see textiles or photography exhibited in dimly-lit galleries. A guiding principal of conservation is the idea of "reversibility;" that is, any intervention with the object should be fully reversible, and the object should be able to be returned to its original state. Interventive conservation refers to any act that involves a direct interaction between the conservator and the cultural material, and could involve cleaning, stabilizing, repair, or replacement of parts. The conservator is required to fully justify any work of this sort, and to complete documentation of the process before and after. Examples of interventive conservation include securing flaking paint, or the tinted varnish treatment, whereby the restorer applies a tinted varnish over the original varnish, giving the illusion that spots on a work have been repainted.

Detail of Sistine Chapel fresco after restoration.

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Section 4

Non-Preservation of Art

Conicts Rituals

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Conicts
The non-preservation of art via destruction, mislabeling, and repossession can cause numerous conicts.

art. Numerous conflicts can arise when cultural property is not properly preserved. Ownership conflicts are common when it comes to the nonpreservation of art objects. During
Figure 24.13 "L.H.O.O.Q." by Marcel Duchamp

KEY POINTS

times of unrest, such as war, there is a higher potential for unethical behaviorart is often stolen, or looted, in periods of conflict. Plunder, appropriation, and spoilation are related terms that describe the process of looting. During World War II, the Nazis looted a lot of European art, much of which was eventually repatriated returned to its rightful owners. Appropriation is a complex issue in art. The appropriation of Native American iconography, sacred images, and sculptures for commercial use by non-natives has been
"L.H.O.O.Q." is an example of appropriation usually deemed acceptable in art.

War, political unrest, accidents, and disaster are the typical outside factors that contribute to the non-preservation of art. Looting refers to when art is stolen during such times of conflict. Art repatriation refers to the process of returning artworks to their rightful owners. The use, or appropriation, of art has inspired much controversy and contributed to cultural subjugation. A prime example of appropriation and subjugation is seen the appropriation of sacred Native American images, iconography, and sculptures for commercial use by nonnatives. Copyright can give the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time.

Non-preservation of art refers to damages, destruction, mislabeling, and repossession that might occur due to a variety of circumstances. War, political unrest, accidents, and disaster are the typical outside factors that contribute to the non-preservation of

a source of controversy, contributing to cultural subjugation. For example, the Kachina doll is a sacred Hopi sculpture that was traditionally meant to be seen only during specific Hopi ritual

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events. Many commercial replicas have been created to sell to tourists, altering the original intent of the object. Appropriation is sometimes acceptable in certain Western art movements. Dadaist and Surrealist works typically utilize a great deal of appropriation, as seen in Marcel Duchamps L.H.O.O.Q. (Figure 24.13). A Copyright can give the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. There is a branch of the law that deals exclusively with copyright issues as they relate to artwork.
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Rituals
Issues regarding the non-preservation of ritual objects became widespread in the expansion of museums in the 19th"century.
KEY POINTS

Non-preservation refers to either to the physical decay, or more often, the alteration of an object or artifacts intended meaning and/or purpose. In the 19th century, the founding of museums and scholarly studies of various cultures and religions, and the growth of anthropology and archaeology as disciplines, saw private collectors, museums, and universities competing to acquire artifacts. In the Buddhist faith, materials are considered to have a life of their own, and this life must be allowed to end naturally. Cultural integrity can be compromised or wrongfully preserved through improper association in a museum context. Physical preservation of the Shinto shrines in Ise Jingo would damage their spiritual and cultural integrity.

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History and Tradition Preservation of meaning in library, archival, and museum collections involves understanding spiritual, ritual, or cultural perceptions of value for specific objects, and ensuring these values are maintained and respected. Meaning is assigned to objects of cultural or spiritual significance based on interpretations or perceived values by user populations, a process known as the social construction of an object. All artistic mediums have a branch of associated conservation theory, which may or may not be congruent with the original intentions of the objects maker. While not all artifacts and art objects have rituals or socially constructed beliefs associated with their continued existence, it is a relevant issue for many cultural and religious groups. Issues of non-preservation or wrongful preservation became widespread following the expansion of anthropology and archaeology in the 19th century. Non-preservation refers to the opposite of preservation, either to the physical decay, or more often, the alteration of an object or artifacts intended meaning and/or purpose. There are numerous ways in which non-preservation of ritual or spiritual objects can occur. Many times, the very effort to preserve an artifact compromises its socially constructed meaning; in this way, the act of preservation becomes, in fact, an act of non-preservation. A ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value, often

prescribed by the traditions or religions of a particular community. When removed from their ritual setting, or rightful environment, significant objects or artifacts lose their imbued symbolic and magical values, and take on very different meanings. Role of Museums The 19th century saw the widespread loss cultural artifacts of many cultures around the world. In North America, this was particularly true for Native American populations, who faced intense loss of culture and land during this time. With the founding of museums and scholarly studies of various cultures and religions, and the growth of anthropology and archaeology as disciplines, private collectors, museums, and universities competed to acquire artifacts. Many cultural and religious communities, including Native Americans, insisted these were cultural and ancestral assets, but nonetheless saw them sold and placed behind glass. As of the year 1990, federal agencies reported having the remains of 14.500 Native Americans in their possession. N.A.G.P.R.A. (North American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act) The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act is a United States federal law enacted on November 16, 1990, requiring institutions that receive federal funding, such as museums, to

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return Native American cultural items to lineal descendants and affiliated tribes and communities. Cultural items include human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects and objects of cultural patrimony. This act was brought into existence at the insistence of numerous Native American communities. Other Traditions In the Buddhist faith, materials are considered to have a life of their own, which must be allowed to end naturally. Impermanence (anitya) in the Buddhist faith relates to the natural end of all things, and acts of physical preservation would be contrary to this belief. Cultural integrity can be compromised or wrongfully preserved through improper association in a museum
11th-century North African Quran in the British Museum. Figure 24.14 The Koran at Islamic Gallery British Museum

Sikh religious text, is repaired by a conservator, instead of ceremoniously destroyed, its cultural meaning is likewise obliterated.

EXAMPLE

The Shinto Shrines of Ise Jingu in Japan serve as an example of the importance of non-preservation. Every twenty years since the time of Emperor Temmu, in the 7th century CE, the buildings are completely destroyed, then rebuilt. The rebuilding process is based on descriptions from ancient documents and ensures that the recreations are exact replicas of the shrines that were taken down. Physical preservation of these monuments would damage the spiritual and cultural integrity of both this process and its purpose.

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context. For example, when books are piled on top of a Qur'an in a museum display (Figure 24.14) the spiritual integrity is compromised or destroyed completely, leaving the physical object devoid of cultural meaning. Similarly, if a Guru Granth Sahib, a

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Chapter 25

Italy in the 1500s

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Section 1

Sixteenth Century Europe

Introduction

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Introduction
Sixteenth-century Italian art history is characterized by the High Italian Renaissance and Mannerism, which both ourished in Florence.
KEY POINTS

in the early nineteenth century. Over the last twenty years, use of the term has been frequently criticized by academic art historians for oversimplifying artistic developments, ignoring historical context, and focusing only on a few iconic works.
Figure 25.1 Creation of Adam

Many art historians consider sixteenth-century High Renaissance Italian art to be largely dominated by three individuals: Michelangelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci. Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication and its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities, such as elongated proportions, stylized poses, and lack of clear perspective. Some historians regard Mannerism as a degeneration of High Renaissance classicism, or even as an interlude between High Renaissance and Baroquein which case the dates are usually from c. 1520 to 1600, and it is considered a positive style complete in itself.
The Creation of Adam, Michelangelo's work in the Sistine Chapel.

Nevertheless, many consider sixteenth-century High Renaissance Italian art to be largely dominated by three individuals: Michelangelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci. Michelangelo excelled as a painter, architect, and sculptor, demonstrating a mastery of portraying the human figure. His frescoes rank among the greatest works of Renaissance art (Figure 25.1). Raphael was skilled in creating perspective and in the delicate use of color. Leonardo da Vinci painted two of the most famous works of Renaissance art (The Last Supper and Mona Lisa) and made numerous drawings of human skeletons and muscles. Although the

Sixteenth-century Italian art history is often characterized by the High Italian Renaissance and Mannerism, which both flourished in Florence. The High Renaissance period is traditionally taken to begin in the 1490s, with Leonardo's fresco of The Last Supper in Milan, and to end in 1527, with the sacking of Rome by the troops of Charles V. This term was first used in German ("Hochrenaissance")

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works of these artists are emblematic of the High Renaissance, they were by no means wholly representative of the all the aesthetic styles emerging in this period. For instance, Mannerism is a period of European art that emerged from the later years of the sixteenth century and lasted as a popular aesthetic style in Italy until about 1580, when the Baroque began to replace it (although Northern Mannerism continued into the early seventeenth century throughout much of Europe). Stylistically, Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals and restrained naturalism associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and early Michelangelo. Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication, as well as its artificial (as opposed to
Madonna with the Long Neck Figure 25.2 Madonna with the Long Neck

Some historians regard Mannerism as a degeneration of High Renaissance classicism, or even as an interlude between High Renaissance and Baroquein which case the dates are usually from c. 1520 to 1600, and it is considered a positive style complete in itself. The definition of Mannerism, and the phases within it, continues to be the subject of debate among art historians. For example, some scholars have applied the label to certain early modern forms of literature (especially poetry) and music of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The term is also used to refer to some Late Gothic painters working in northern Europe from about 1500 to 1530, especially the Antwerp Mannerists, a group unrelated to the Italian movement.
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naturalistic) qualities, such as elongated proportions, stylized poses, and lack of clear perspective (Figure 25.2).

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Section 2

The High Renaissance

Leonardo da Vinci Raphael Michelango Architecture of Rome Architecture of Northern Italy Architecture of Venice and the Veneto Paintings of Venice

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Leonardo da Vinci
Despite popular admiration of da Vinci as a scientist, his fame rests on his achievements as the painter of several Renaissance masterpieces.

for a variety of qualities that have been much imitated by students and discussed at great length by connoisseurs and critics. Among the qualities that make Leonardo's work unique are the
Figure 25.3 The Last Supper Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper, although much deteriorated, demonstrates the painter's mastery of the human form in gurative composition.

KEY POINTS

Among the qualities that make Leonardo's work unique are the innovative techniques that he used in laying on the paint, his detailed knowledge of anatomy, his innovative use of the human form in figurative composition, the sfumato smoking technique, and his use of the subtle gradation of tone. Among the most famous works created by Leonardo is the small portrait titled the Mona Lisa, known for the elusive smile on the woman's face, brought about by the fact that Leonardo subtly shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined. Despite his famous paintings, Leonardo was not a prolific painter, but he was a most prolific draftsman, keeping journals full of small sketches and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that took his attention.

innovative techniques that he used in laying on the paint, his detailed knowledge of anatomy, his innovative use of the human form in figurative composition, the sfumato smoking technique, and his use of the subtle gradation of tone. All these qualities come together in his most famous painted works, the Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, and the Virgin of the Rocks. Leonardo's most famous painting of the 1490s is The Last Supper, painted for the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. (Figure 25.3) The painting represents the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his capture and death. When finished, the painting was acclaimed as a masterpiece of design and characterization. However, it deteriorated rapidly, so that within a

Despite the admiration of Leonardo da Vinci as a scientist, academic, and inventor, his fame rests on his achievements as the painter of Renaissance masterpieces. These paintings are famous

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hundred years it was described by one viewer as "completely ruined." Leonardo, instead of using the reliable technique of fresco, had used tempera over a ground that was mainly gesso, resulting in a surface that was subject to mold and flaking. Despite this, the painting has remained one of the most reproduced works of art. Among the works created by Leonardo in the sixteenth century is the small portrait known as the Mona Lisa, or La Gioconda, "the laughing one" (Figure 25.4). In the present era it is arguably the most
In the Mona Lisa, Leonardo incorporates his sfumato technique to create a shadowy quality. Figure 25.4 Mona Lisa

between colors, tones, and often objects. Other characteristics found in this work are the unadorned dress, in which the eyes and hands have no competition from other details; the dramatic landscape background, in which the world seems to be in a state of flux; the subdued coloring; and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly technique, employing oils, but applied much like tempera
Figure 25.5 Virgin and Child with Saint Anne

and blended on the surface so that the brushstrokes are indistinguishable. In the painting Virgin and Child with St. Anne, Leonardo's composition again picks up the theme of figures in a landscape, which Wasserman describes as "breathtakingly beautiful," and harkens back to the St. Jerome picture with the figure set at an oblique angle (Figure 25.5). What makes this painting unusual is that there are two obliquely set

famous painting in the world. Its fame rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the woman's faceits mysterious quality brought about perhaps by the fact that the artist has subtly shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined. The shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be called "sfumato," or the application of subtle layers of translucent paint so that there is no visible transition
Virgin and Child with St. Anne, (c. 1510)-Louvre Museum.

figures superimposed. Mary is seated on the knee of her mother,

St. Anne. She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice. This

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painting influenced many contemporaries, including Michelangelo, Raphael, and Andrea del Sarto. The trends in its composition were adopted in particular by the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese. Despite these famous pieces, Leonardo was not a prolific painter. He was a most prolific draftsman, keeping journals full of small sketches and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that took his attention. His earliest dated drawing is a Landscape of the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows in great detail the river, the mountains, Montelupo Castle, and the farmlands beyond it. Among his famous drawings are the Vitruvian Man, a study of the proportions of the human body, the Head of an Angel (for the Virgin of the Rocks), and a botanical study of Star of Bethlehem. Some of his drawings employ the subtle sfumato technique of shading, in the same manner of the Mona Lisa, suggesting that Leonardo used his drawings to hone his techniques. Other, often meticulous, drawings show studies of drapery. A marked development in Leonardo's ability to draw drapery occurred in his early works. For instance, an often-reproduced drawing is a macabre sketch that was done by Leonardo in Florence in 1479, showing the body of Bernardo Baroncelli, hanged in connection with the murder of Giuliano, brother of Lorenzo de' Medici, in the Pazzi Conspiracy.

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Raphael
Raphael was an Italian Renaissance painter and architect, and his work is admired for its clarity of form and ease of composition.
KEY POINTS

ease of composition and for its visual achievement of the Neoplatonic ideal of human grandeur. Together with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael forms the traditional trinity of great masters of that period. He was enormously productive, running an unusually large workshop, and, despite his death at thirty, a large body of his work remains among the most famous of High Renaissance art. Influences Some of Raphael's most striking artistic influences come from the paintings of Leonardo da Vinci. In response to da Vinci's work, Raphael gave his figures more dynamic and complex positions in some of his earlier compositions. For instance, Raphael's Saint Catherine of Alexandria,1507, borrows from the contrapposto pose of Leonardo's Leda and the
Saint Catherine of Alexandria, 1507, borrows from the contrapposto pose of Leonardo's Leda. Figure 25.6 Saint Catherine of Alexandria

Together with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael forms the traditional trinity of great masters of that period. He was enormously productive, running an unusually large workshop, and despite his death at thirty, a large body of his work remains. Some of Raphael's most striking artistic influences come from the paintings of Leonardo da Vinci; because of this inspiration, Raphael gave his figures more dynamic and complex positions in his earlier compositions. Raphael's "Stanze" masterpieces are very large and complex compositions that have been regarded among the supreme works of the High Renaissance. They give a highly idealized depiction of the forms represented, and the compositions, though very carefully conceived in drawings, achieve "sprezzatura".

Overview Raphael, 14831520, was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. His work is admired for its clarity of form and

Swans (Figure 25.6). On the other hand, while Raphael was also aware of Michelangelo's works, he still deviates from his style. For instance, in his Deposition of Christ, Raphael draws on classical

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sarcophagi to spread the figures across the front of the picture space in a complex and not wholly successful arrangement, and although there is some influence of the Madonna from Michelangelo's Doni Tondo, most of the composition is far removed from his style. The Stanze Rooms and the Loggia In 1511, Raphael began work on his famous Stanze rooms, which made a stunning impact on Roman art, and remains generally regarded as his greatest masterpiece. The Stanze contains The School of Athens, The Parnassus (Figure 25.7), and the Disputa.
Figure 25.7 The Parnassus

These very large and complex compositions have been regarded ever since as among the supreme works of the High Renaissance, and the "classic art" of the post-antique West. They give a highly idealized depiction of the forms represented, and the compositionsthough very carefully conceived in drawingsachieve "sprezzatura," a term invented by Raphael's friend Castiglione, who defined it as "a certain nonchalance that conceals all artistry and makes

Figure 25.8 Raphael Sketch

This drawing shows Raphael's e!orts in developing the composition for the Madonna and Child.

whatever one says or does seem uncontrived and effortless." In the later phase of Raphael's career, he designed and painted the Loggia at the Vatican, a long thin gallery that was open to a courtyard on one side and decorated with Roman-style grottesche. He also produced a number of significant altarpieces, including The Ecstasy of St. Cecilia and the Sistine Madonna. His last work, on
The Parnassus, 1511, from the "Stanze" or Stanza della Segnatura Rooms.

which he was working until his death, was a large Transfiguration

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which, together with Il Spasimo, shows the direction his art was taking in his final years, becoming more proto-Baroque than Mannerist. The Master's Studio Raphael also ran a workshop of over fifty pupils and assistants, many of whom later became significant artists in their own right. This was arguably the largest workshop team assembled under any single old master painter, and much higher than the norm. They included established masters from other parts of Italy, probably working with their own teams as sub-contractors, as well as pupils and journeymen. Architecture In architecture, Raphael's skills were employed by the papacy and wealthy Roman nobles. For instance, Raphael designed the plans for the the Villa Madama, which was to be a lavish hillside retreat for Pope Clement VII (and was never finished). Even incomplete, Raphael's schematic was the most sophisticated villa design yet seen in Italy, and greatly influenced the later development of the genre. It also appears to be the only modern building in Rome of which Palladio made a measured drawing.

Draftsman Finally, Raphael was one of the finest draftsmen in the history of Western art, and used drawings extensively to plan his compositions. According to a near-contemporary, when beginning to plan a composition, he would lay out a large number of stock drawings of his on the floor, and begin to draw "rapidly," borrowing figures from here and there. Over forty sketches survive for the Disputa in the Stanze, and there may well have been many more originally (over four hundred sheets survive altogether). As evidenced in his sketches for his Madonna and Child, Raphael used different drawings to refine his poses and compositions, apparently to a greater extent than most other painters, to judge by the number of variants that survive (Figure 25.8). Most Raphael drawings are rather preciseeven initial sketches with naked outline figures are carefully drawn, and later working drawings often have a high degree of finish, with shading and sometimes highlights in white. They lack the freedom and energy of some of Leonardo's and Michelangelo's sketches, but are almost always very satisfying aesthetically.
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Michelango
Michelangelo was a sixteenth-century Florentine artist renowed for his masterpieces in sculpture, painting, and architectural design.
KEY POINTS

three most famous works are his David, the Sistine Chapel, and the Basilica of Saint Peter's in the Vatican. Sculpture: David In 1504, Michelangelo took a commission to create a colossal marble statue portraying David as a symbol of Florentine freedom. The subsequent masterpiece, Michelangelo's David, was created out of a single marble block. The work definitively established his prominence as a sculptor of extraordinary technical skill and strength of symbolic imagination (Figure 25.9). Michelangelo's David differs from previous representations in that the Biblical hero is not depicted with the head of the slain Goliath, as he is in Donatello's and Verrocchio's statues; both had represented the hero standing victorious over the head of Goliath. No earlier Florentine artist had omitted the giant altogether.Instead of appearing victorious over a foe, David's face looks tense and ready for
Michelangelo's David stands in contrapposto pose. Figure 25.9 The David

Michelangelo created his colossal marble statue, the David, out of a single block of marble, which definitively established his prominence as a sculptor of extraordinary technical skill and strength of symbolic imagination. In painting, Michelangelo is renowned for the ceiling and Last Judgement of the Sistine Chapel, where he depicted a complex scheme representing Creation, the Downfall of Man, the Salvation of Man, and the Genealogy of Christ. Michelangelo's chief contribution to Saint Peter's Basilica was the use of a Greek Cross form and an external masonry of massive proportions, with every corner filled in by a stairwell or small vestry. The effect is a continuous wall-surface that appears fractured or folded at different angles.

Overview Michelangelo was a 16th century Florentine artist renowned for his masterpieces in sculpture, painting, and architectural design. His

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Figure 25.10 The Last Judgement

combat. The tendons in his neck stand out tautly, his brow is furrowed, and his eyes seem to focus intently on something in the distance. Veins bulge out of his lowered right hand, but his body is in a relaxed contrapposto pose, and he carries his sling casually thrown over his left shoulder. The majority of his weight is on his back leg, staying consistent with the Renaissance practice of

for a different and more complex scheme, representing creation, the Downfall of Man and the Promise of Salvation through the prophets, and the Genealogy of Christ. The work is part of a larger scheme of decoration within the chapel which represents much of the doctrine of the Catholic Church. The composition eventually contained over three hundred figures, and had at its center nine episodes from the Book of Genesis, divided into three groups: God's Creation of the Earth, God's Creation of Humankind and their fall from God's grace, and lastly, the state of Humanity as represented by Noah and his family. On the pendentives supporting the ceiling are painted twelve men and women who prophesied the coming of the Jesus. Among the most
Michelangelo designed the dome of St. Peter's Basilica on or before 1564, although it was unnished when he died. Figure 25.11 St. Peter's Basillica

The frescoed altar wall of the Sistine Chapel

depicting its subjects in recoiled, calm positions. In the Renaissance, contrapposto poses were thought of as a distinctive feature of antique sculpture. In David, the figure stands with one leg holding its full weight and the other leg relaxed. This classic pose causes the figures hips and shoulders to rest at opposite angles, giving a slight s-curve to the entire torso. Painting: Last Judgement In painting, Michelangelo is renowned for the ceiling and Last Judgement of the Sistine Chapel. He was originally commissioned only to paint the Twelve Apostles against a starry sky, but lobbied

famous paintings on the ceiling are The Creation of Adam, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, the Great Flood, the Prophet Isaiah and the Cumaean Sibyl. Around the windows are painted the ancestors of Christ. The fresco of The Last Judgment on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel was commissioned by Pope Clement VII, and Michelangelo

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labored on the project from 1534-1541 (Figure 25.10). The work is massive and spans the entire wall behind the altar of the Sistine Chapel. The Last Judgment is a depiction of the second coming of Christ and the apocalypse; where the souls of humanity rise and are assigned to their various fates, as judged by Christ, surrounded by the Saints. The wall on which The Last Judgment is painted looms out slightly over the viewer as it rises, and is meant to be somewhat fearful and to instill piety and respect for God's power. In contrast to the other frescoes in the Chapel, the figures are heavily muscled and appear somewhat torturedeven the Virgin Mary at the center seems to be cowering before God. Once completed, the depiction of Christ and the Virgin Mary naked was considered sacrilegious; after Michelangelo's death, the Church decided to obscure the figures' genitals. Architecture: St. Peter's Basilica Finally, although other architects were involved, Michelangelo is given credit for designing St. Peter's Basilica. Michelangelo's chief contribution was the use of a symmetrical plan of a Greek Cross form and an external masonry of massive proportions: with every corner filled in by a stairwell or small vestry. The effect is of a continuous wall-surface that is folded or fractured at different angles, lacking the right-angles which usually define change of direction at the corners of a building. This exterior is surrounded by

a giant order of Corinthian pilasters all set at slightly different angles to each other, in keeping with the ever-changing angles of the wall's surface. Above them the huge cornice ripples in a continuous band, giving the appearance of keeping the whole building in a state of compression (Figure 25.11).
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Architecture of Rome
Rome, the second Renaissance capital after Florence, was one of the most important architectural and cultural centers in this period.
KEY POINTS

from Roman and Greek classical models. However, like the styles of Renaissance architecture emerging elsewhere in Italy, Rome was also characterized by several novel features that emerged in
Figure 25.12 Loggia Example

Roman Renaissance architects derived their main designs and inspirations from Roman and Greek classical models. However, Roman architecture was also characterized by several features that emerged in sixteenth century Italy. Loggias, an architectural feature that refers to a gallery or corridor on the facade of a building that is open to the air on one side (and is often supported by classically-inspired columns or pierced openings in the wall), were fashionable styles in Roman buildings. A primary example of Renaissance Roman architecture include the Palazzo Farnese, one of the most important High Renaissance palaces in Rome.

Villa Godi by Palladio. A loggia is the focal point in place of a portico in the centre, and used again at each side of the structure as a corridor.

sixteenth century Italy. For instance, Loggias, an architectural feature that refers to a gallery or corridor on the facade of a building that is open to the air on one side (and is often supported by classically-inspired columns or pierced openings in the wall) were emerging fashionable styles in Roman buildings (Figure 25.12). Loggias are accessed only from inside which makes it a place for leisure, and hence it is found mainly on noble residences and public buildings. Opulent palaces, or palazzi, built in Rome often had rusticated blocks that decorated grand entrances in churches, especially in St. Peter's Basilica where baldacchini or a column-supported canopy, were widely employed.

Architecture of Rome Rome is widely regarded by scholars as being the second Renaissance capital of Italy after Florence, and was one of the most important architectural and cultural centers in this period. Roman Renaissance architects derived their main designs and inspirations

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A primary example of Renaissance Roman architecture include the Palazzo Farnese, one of the most important High Renaissance palaces in Rome (Figure 25.13). First designed in 1517 for the Farnese family, the building expanded in size and conception from designs by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger when Alessandro Farnese became Pope Paul III in 1534. Its building history involved some of the most prominent Italian architects of the sixteenth century, including Michelangelo, Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola and Giacomo della Porta. Key Renaissance architectural features of the main facade include the alternating triangular and segmental pediments that cap the windows of the piano nobile, the central rusticated portal, and Michelangelo's projecting cornice which throws a deep shadow on the top of the facade. Michelangelo revised the central window in 1541, adding an architrave to give a central focus to the facade, above which is the largest papal stemma, or coatof-arms with papal tiara, Rome
Outside facade of the Palazzo Farnese. Figure 25.13 Palais Farnese

had ever seen. The Palazzo Farnese courtyard, initially open arcades, is ringed by classically-inspired columns (characteristic of Italian Renaissance architecture), in ascending orders (Doric, Corinthian, and Ionic). The piano nobile entablature was given a frieze with garlands, added by Michelangelo. On the garden side of the palace, which faced the River Tiber, Michelangelo proposed the innovatory design of a bridge which, if completed, would have linked the palace with the gardens of the Vigna Farnese. While the practicalities of achieving this bridge remain dubious, the idea was a bold and expansive one. Furthermore, during the sixteenth century, two large granite basins from the Baths of Caracalla were adapted as fountains in the Piazza Farnese, the urban face of the palace. The palazzo was completed for the second Cardinal Alessandro Farnese by Giacomo della Porta's porticoed facade towards the Tiber (finished in 1589). Following the death of Cardinal Odoardo Farnese in 1626, the palazzo stood virtually uninhabited for twenty years.
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Architecture of Northern Italy

During the High Renaissance, architectural concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used with greater surety.
KEY POINTS

development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture. Stylistically, Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture. During the High Renaissance, architectural concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used with greater surety. The most representative architect is Bramante (14441514), who expanded the applicability of classical architecture to contemporary buildings, a style that was to dominate Italian architecture in the sixteenth century. In the late fifteenth century and early sixteenth century architects such as Bramante, Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, and others showed a mastery of the revived style and ability to apply it to buildings such as churches and city palazzos, which were quite different from the structures of ancient times. Although studying and mastering the details of the ancient Romans was one of the important aspects of Renaissance architectural theory, the style also became more decorative and ornamental, with a widespread use of statuary, domes, and cupolas. Forms and Purposes of Buildings Renaissance architecture adopted obvious distinguishing features of

Renaissance architecture adopted obvious distinguishing features of classical Roman architecture. However, the forms and purposes of buildings had changed over time, as had the structure of cities, which is reflected in the fusion of classical and sixteenth-century forms. The primary features of sixteenth-century structures, which fused classical Roman technique with Renaissance aesthetics, were based in several foundational architectural concepts: facades, columns and pilasters, arches, vaults, domes, windows, and walls. Although studying and mastering the details of the ancient Romans was one of the important aspects of Renaissance architectural theory, the style also became more decorative and ornamental: with a widespread use of statuary, domes, and cupolas.

Renaissance architecture is the architecture of the period between the early fifteenth and early seventeenth centuries in different regions of Europe, demonstrating a conscious revival and

classical Roman architecture. However, the forms and purposes of buildings had changed over time, as had the structure of cities, which is reflected in the resulting fusion of classical and sixteenth-

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century forms. The plans of Renaissance buildings typically have a square, symmetrical appearance in which proportions are usually based on a module. The primary features of sixteenth-century structures, which fused classical Roman technique with Renaissance aesthetics, were based in several foundational architectural concepts: facades, columns and pilasters, arches, vaults, domes, windows, and walls. Foundational Architectural Concepts Renaissance faades are symmetrical around their vertical axis. For instance, church faades of this period are generally surmounted by a pediment and organised by a system of pilasters, arches, and entablatures. The columns and windows show a progression towards the center One of the first true Renaissance faades was the Cathedral of Pienza (145962), which has been attributed to the Florentine architect Bernardo Gambarelli (known as Rossellino). Renaissance architects also incorporated columns and pilasters, using the Roman orders of columns (Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite) as models (Figure 25.14). The orders can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form of pilasters. During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated system. One of the first buildings to

Figure 25.14 Classical Roman Columns

use pilasters as an integrated system was the Old Sacristy (14211440) by Brunelleschi. Arches are semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental structures often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental scale at the St. Andrea in Mantua. Renaissance vaults do not

The classical orders were models for Renaissance architects.

have ribs and are semicircular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular. The barrel vault was returned to architectural vocabulary, as at the St. Andrea in Mantua.

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The dome is used frequently in this period, both as a very large structural feature that is visible from the exterior, and also as a
Figure 25.15 Dome of St. Peter's Basilica

Figure 25.16 Palazzo Farnese The Palazzo Farnese in Rome demonstrates the Renaissance window's particular use of square lintels and triangular and segmental pediments used alternatively.

means of roofing smaller spaces where they are only visible internally. Domes had been used only rarely in the Middle Ages, but after the success of the dome in Brunelleschis design for the Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore and its use in Bramantes plan for St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, the dome became an indispensable element in church architecture (Figure 25.15).

Stained glass, although sometimes present, is not a prevalent feature in Renaissance windows. Finally, external Renaissance walls were generally of highly finished ashlar masonry, laid in straight courses. The corners of buildings are often emphasized by rusticated quoins. Basements and ground floors were sometimes rusticated, as modeled on the Palazzo Medici Riccardi (14441460) in Florence. Internal walls are smoothly plastered and surfaced with white-chalk paint. For more formal spaces, internal surfaces were typically decorated with frescoes.
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The Dome of St Peter's Basilica, Rome is often cited as a foundational piece of Renaissance architecture.

Windows may be paired and set within a semicircular arch and may have square lintels and triangular or segmental

pediments, which are often used alternately. Emblematic in this respect is the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, begun in 1517 (Figure 25. 16). In the Mannerist period, the Palladian arch was employed, using a motif of a high semicircular topped opening flanked with two lower square-topped openings. Windows are used to bring light into the building and in domestic architecture, to give views.

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Architecture of Venice and the Veneto

In the Venato, the Renaissance ushered in a new era of architecture after a Gothic phase, which drew on classical Roman and Greek motifs.
KEY POINTS

Figure 25.17 Villa Foscari

Architecture in Venice and the Veneto was largely based on the work of Andrea Palladio, who designed and completed some highly influential works, including Villas in the mainland, in Vicenza, Padua, and Treviso. Palladian architecture, in masterpieces such as Villa Emo, Villa Barbaro, Villa Capra, and Villa Foscari, evoked the imagined grandeur of antique classical Roman villas. Palladio created an architectural movement called Palladianism, which has had strong following in the next three centuries, inspiring a new generation of architects who completed several works that echo Palladio's aestheticism, including the first Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza.

The front faade of the Villa Foscari features several neoclassical columns.

Ottoman influences. The style originated in 14th-century Venice, where the confluence of Byzantine style from Constantinople met Arab influence from Moorish Spain. Chief examples of the style are the Doge's Palace and the Ca' d'Oro in the city. The city also has several Renaissance and Baroque buildings, including the Ca' Pesaro and the Ca' Rezzonico. In the Venato, the Renaissance ushered in a new era of architecture

Venice, the capital of the Veneto, has a rich and diverse architectural style, the most famous of which is the Gothic style. Venetian Gothic architecture is a term given to a Venetian building style combining use of the Gothic lancet arch with Byzantine and

after a phase of Gothic art, with the creation of important works including the Ca' d'Oro (Figure 25.18) and the churches of Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari and of Saints John and Paul in Venice. This

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phase of architecture drew heavily on classical Roman and Greek motifs. Architecture in Venice and the Veneto was largely based on the work of Andrea Palladio, who designed and completed some highly influential works, including villas in the mainland, in Vicenza, Padua, and Treviso.

Figure 25.18 Ca' d'Oro

front of the villa, created a space that recalled the ancient idea of the Roman Forum, bringing all campaign activities to gravitate in front of the villa itself.
Figure 25.19 Teatro Olimpico

Ca' d'Oro faade overlooking the Grand Canal in Venice

In Venice, he designed the Basilica of San Giorgio Maggiore, the Il Redentore, and Zitelle on the island of Giudecca. Palladian architecture, in masterpieces such as Villa Emo, Villa Barbaro, Villa Capra, and Villa Foscari, evoked the imagined grandeur of antique classical Roman villas (Figure 25.17). This aesthetic, established through Palladio's publications, proved very popular and underwent a revival in the neoclassical period. For instance, palladian villas were designed so that the owner visibly exerted control over production activities of the surrounding countryside by structuring the functional parts, such as the porch, close to the central body. In the case of Villa Badoer, the open barn, formed by a large circular colonnade, enclosing the front yard in
Scaenae frons of the Teatro Olimpico. The large arch in the center is known as the porta regia or "royal arch."

Palladio created an architectural movement called Palladianism, which had a strong following in the next three centuries, inspiring architects, some of them his direct students, including Vincenzo Scamozzi, who completed several works that echo Palladio's aestheticism, including the first Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza (Figure 25.19).

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Paintings of Venice
Veronese, Titian, and Tintoretto constitute the triumvirate of preeminent Venetian painters of the late Renaissance.
KEY POINTS

All three similarly employed novel techniques of color, scale, and composition, which established them as acclaimed artists north of Rome. In particular, Veronese, Titian, and Tintoretto were adherents of the Venetian School's primacy of color over line in painting composition. Titian was arguably the most important member of the Venetian school, as well as one of the most versatile. His painting methods, particularly in the use of color, would exercise a profound influence not only on painters of the Italian Renaissance, but on future generations of Western art.

Veronese, Titian, and Tintoretto constitute the triumvirate of preeminent Venetian painters of the late Renaissance. All three similarly employed novel techniques of color, scale, and composition which established them as acclaimed artists north of Rome. In particular, Veronese, Titian, and Tintoretto were

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adherents of the Venetian School's primacy of color over line in painting composition. Paolo Veronese (15281588) was one of the primary Renaissance painters in Venice, famous for paintings such as The Wedding at Cana and The Feast in the House of Levi. Veronese is known as a supreme colorist, and for his illusionistic decorations in both fresco and oil. His most famous works are elaborate narrative cycles, executed in a dramatic and colorful Mannerist style, full of majestic architectural settings and glittering pageantry. His large paintings of biblical feasts executed for the refectories of monasteries in Venice and Verona are especially notable. For instance, The
Figure 25.20 The Wedding at Cana The artist's decorative genius in The Wedding at Cana was to recognize that dramatic perspectival e!ects would have been tiresome in a living room or chapel, and that the narrative of the picture could best be absorbed as a colorful diversion.

Wedding at Cana, painted in 15621563, was a collaboration with Palladio, and Veronese arranged the architecture to run mostly parallel to the picture plane, accentuating the processional character of the composition (Figure 25.20). The artist's decorative genius was to recognize that dramatic perspectival effects would have been tiresome in a living room or chapel, and that the narrative of the picture could best be absorbed as a colorful diversion. The Wedding at Cana offers little in the representation of emotion: rather, it illustrates the carefully composed movement of its subjects along a primarily horizontal axis. Most of all, it is about the incandescence of light and color. Even as Veronese's use of color attained greater intensity and luminosity, his attention to narrative, human sentiment, and a more subtle and meaningful physical interplay between his figures became evident.Tiziano Vecelli, or Titian (14901576), was arguably the most important member of the sixteenth-century Venetian school, as well as one of the most versatile: equally adept with portraits, landscape backgrounds, and mythological and religious subjects. His painting methods, particularly in the application and use of color, would exercise a profound influence not only on painters of the Italian Renaissance, but on future generations of Western art. During the course of his long life, Titian's artistic manner changed drastically, but he retained a lifelong interest in color. Although his mature works may not contain the vivid, luminous tints of his early pieces, their loose

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brushwork and subtlety of polychromatic modulations were without precedent. In 1516, Titian completed, for the high altar of the church of the Frari, his famous masterpiece, the Assumption of the Virgin, still in situ (Figure 25.21). This extraordinary piece of colorism, executed on a grand scale rarely before seen in Italy, created a sensation. The pictorial structure of the Assumptionuniting in the same composition two or three scenes superimposed on different levels, earth and heaven, the temporal and the infinitewas continued in a series of his works, finally
It took Titian two years (15161518) to complete his Assunta, whose dynamic three-tier composition and color scheme established him as the preeminent painter north of Rome. Figure 25.21 Assunta

Figure 25.22 Paradise

Detail of Tintoretto's Paradise.

gave a new conception of the traditional groups of donors and holy persons moving in aerial space, the plans and different degrees set in an architectural framework. Tintoretto (15181594), was a notable exponent of the Venetian and Renaissance schools. His work is characterized by its muscular figures, dramatic gestures, and bold use of perspective in the Mannerist style, as well as color and light typical of the Venetian School. The crowning production of Tintoretto's life was the vast Paradise, reputed to be the largest painting ever done upon canvas (Figure 25.22). It is a work so stupendous in scale, as well as divergent from ordinary standards of conception, color, and method, that it has defied the connoisseurship of three centuries.

reaching a classic formula in the Pesaro Madonna, (better known as the Madonna di Ca' Pesaro). This perhaps is Titian's most studied work, whose patiently developed plan is set forth with supreme display of order and freedom, originality and style. Here, Titian

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All Venice applauded Paradise when it was unveiled, which has since suffered from neglect. In the restless dynamism of his composition, his dramatic use of light, and his emphatic perspective effects, Tintoretto seems to art historians to be a baroque artist ahead of his time.
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Section 3

Mannerism

Painting Sculpture Architecture

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Painting
Mannerism emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520 and lasted until about 1580 in Italy.

lasted until about 1580 in Italy, when a more Baroque style began to replace it. Stylistically, Mannerist painting encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals and restrained naturalism associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and early Michelangelo. Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. Mannerism developed in both Florence and Rome. The early Mannerist painters in Florenceespecially the students of Andrea del Sarto: Jacopo da Pontormo and Rosso Fiorentinoare notable for elongated forms, precariously balanced poses, a collapsed perspective, irrational settings, and theatrical lighting. Parmigianino (a student of Correggio) and Giulio Romano (Raphaels head assistant) were moving in similarly stylized aesthetic directions in Rome. These artists had matured under the influence of the High Renaissance, and their style has been characterized as a reaction or exaggerated extension of it (Figure 25.23). In other words, instead of studying nature directly, younger artists began studying Hellenistic sculptures and paintings of masters past. Therefore, this style is often identified as "anti-classical," yet at the

KEY POINTS

Mannerist painting encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals and restrained naturalism associated with High Renaissance artists. Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. Mannerism developed in both Florence and Rome. The early Mannerist painters are notable for elongated forms, precariously balanced poses, a collapsed perspective, irrational settings, and theatrical lighting. The second period of Mannerist painting, called "Maniera," is differentiated from the earlier "anti-classical" phase. High mannerists stressed intellectual conceits and artistic virtuosity, features that have led later critics to accuse them of working in an unnatural and affected "manner".

Mannerism is a period of European art that emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance. It began around 1520 and

time it was considered a natural progression from the High Renaissance. The earliest experimental phase of Mannerism, known

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for its "anti-classical" forms, lasted until about 1540 or 1550. This period has been described as both a natural extension of the art of Andrea del Sarto, Michelangelo, and Raphael, as well as a decline of those same artists' classicizing achievements. In past analyses, it has been noted that Mannerism arose in the early 16th century alongside a number of other social, scientific, religious and political movements such as the Copernican model, the Sack of Rome, and the Protestant Reformation's increasing challenge to the power of the Catholic Church. Because of this, the style's elongated forms and distorted forms were once interpreted as a reaction to the idealized compositions prevalent in High Renaissance art.
In Parmigianino's Madonna with the Long Neck (1534-40), Mannerism makes itself known by elongated proportions, highly stylized poses, and lack of clear perspective. Figure 25.23 Madonna with the Long Neck

This explanation for the radical stylistic shift in1520 has fallen out of scholarly favor, though the early Mannerists are still set in stark contrast to High Renaissance conventions; the immediacy and balance achieved by Raphael's School of Athens, no longer seemed interesting to young artists. Indeed, Michelangelo himself displayed tendencies towards Mannerism, notably in his vestibule to the Laurentian Library, in the figures on his Medici tombs, and above all the Sistine Chapel (Figure 25.24). The second period of Mannerist painting, called "Maniera," or High Mannerism, is commonly
The Libyan Sibyl from Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling. Figure 25.24 The Libyan

differentiated from the earlier, so-called "anti-classical" phase. High mannerists stressed intellectual conceits and artistic virtuosity, features that have led later critics to accuse them of working in an unnatural and affected "manner" (maniera). Maniera artists held their elder contemporary Michelangelo as their prime example; theirs was an art imitating art, rather than an art imitating nature. Maniera art couples exaggerated elegance with exquisite attention to surface and detail: porcelain-skinned figures recline in an even, tempered light, regarding the viewer with a cool glance, if at all. The

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Maniera subject rarely displays an excess of emotion, and for this reason is often interpreted as "cold" or "aloof." A number of the earliest Mannerist artists who had been working in Rome during the 1520s fled the city after the Sack of Rome in 1527. As they spread out across the continent in search of employment, their style was distributed throughout Italy and Europe. The result was the first international artistic style since the Gothic (including
Figure 25.25 Joachim Wtewael's Perseus and Andromeda, 1616,

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French, English, and Dutch Mannerism styles, (Figure 25. 25). The style waned in Italy after 1580, as a new generation of artists, including the Carracci brothers, Caravaggio and Cigoli, reemphasized naturalism. Walter Friedlaender identified this period as "anti-mannerism," just as the early mannerists were "anti-classical" in their reaction to the High Renaissance.

An example of seventeenth-century Dutch mannerism.

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Sculpture
Mannerist sculpture, like Mannerist painting, was characterized by elongated forms, spiral angles, and aloof subject gazes.
KEY POINTS

typical of Mannerism. It is similar, but not identical, to contrapposto, and often features figures in spiral poses. Early examples can be seen in the work of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. In defining figura serpentinata, Emil Maurer writes of the painter and theorist Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo: "the recommended ideal form unites, after Lomazzo, three qualities: the pyramid, the 'serpentinata' movement and a certain numerical proportion, all three united to form one whole. At the same time, precedence is given to the 'moto', that is, to the meandering movement, which should make the pyramid, in exact proportion, into the geometrical form of a cone." With the loosening of the norms of the High Renaissance and the development of the "Serpentita" style, the Mannerist style's structures and rules began to be systematized. The Mannerist style of sculpture began to create a form in which figures showed physical
Giambologna, Rape of the Sabine Women, 1583, Florence, Italy, 13' 6" high, marble. In this piece, Giambologna demonstrates the use of the gura serpentinata. Figure 25.26 Rape of the Sabine Women

Figura Serpentinata (Latin - serpentine figure) is a style in painting and sculpture that is typical of Mannerism. It is similar, but not identical, to contrapposto, and often features figures in spiral poses. The Mannerist style of sculpture began to create a form in which figures showed physical power, passion, tension, and semantic perfection. Movements were not without motivation, nor even simply done with a will, but were shown in a pure form. Mannerist sculpture was an attempt to find an original style that would surpass the achievements of the High Renaissance: equated with Michelangelo. Much of the struggle to surpass his success centered on commissions to fill other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, next to the David.

Mannerist sculpture, like painting, was characterized by elongated forms, spiral angles, and aloof subject gazes. Figura Serpentinata (Latin - serpentine figure) is a style in painting and sculpture that is

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power, passion, tension, and semantic perfection. Movements were not without motivation, nor even simply done with a will, but were shown in a pure form. Also, their actions arose not out of power, but powerlessness, perhaps best evidenced by Giambologna's Rape of the Sabine Women (Figure 25.26).
Figure 25.27 Perseus with the Head of Medusa

Mannerists, Bandinelli removes far more of the original block of stone than Michelangelo would have done. Outside of natural stone sculptures, Cellini's bronze Perseus with the head of Medusa is a Mannerist masterpiece, designed with eight angles of view (Figure 25.27). Characteristically of Mannerist sculpture were small bronze figures for collector's cabinets, often mythological subjects with nudes. They were a popular Renaissance form at which Giambologna excelled in the later part of the century. He and his followers devised elegant, elongated examples of the figura serpentinata, often of two intertwined figures, that were interesting from all angles and joined the Piazza della Signora collection (Figure 25.28).
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Hercules and Nessus (1599), Florence. Figure 25.28 Hercules Beating Nessus

Also as in painting, early Italian Mannerist sculpture was largely an attempt to find an original style that would expand and surpass the achievements of the High Renaissance. For contemporaries in sculpture, the High Renaissance was equated with Michelangelo, and much of the struggle to surpass his success was played out in commissions to fill other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, next to Michelangelo's David. For instance, Baccio Bandinelli took

Benvenuto Cellini, Perseus with the head of Medusa, 1545 1554.

over the project of Hercules and Cacus from Michelangelo, although his work was maliciously compared

by Benvenuto Cellini to "a sack of melons." Like other works of

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Architecture
During the Mannerist period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships.
KEY POINTS

experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships. Specifically, in Mannerist architecture, the Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms. The best known architect associated with the Mannerist style was Michelangelo (14751564), who is credited with inventing the giant order, a large pilaster that stretches from the bottom to the top of a faade. He used this in his design for the Campidoglio in Rome. Stylistically, Mannerist architecture was marked by widely diverging tendencies from Renaissance and Medieval styles that eventually led to the Baroque style, in which the same architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric. Baldassare Peruzzi (14811536) was an architect working in Rome, whose work bridges the High Renaissance and Mannerism. His Villa Farnesina of 1509 is a very regular monumental cube of two equal stories, with the bays articulated by orders of pilasters. Peruzzis most famous work is the Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne in Rome. The unusual features of this building are that its faade curves gently around a curving street. It has, in its ground floor, a dark central portico running parallel to the street, but as a semi enclosed space, rather than an open loggia. Above this, three undifferentiated floors rise, the upper two with identical small horizontal windows in thin flat frames which contrast strangely

Stylistically, Mannerist architecture was marked by widely diverging tendencies from Renaissance and Medieval styles that eventually led to the Baroque style, in which the same architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric. Michelangelo (14751564) is credited with inventing the giant order, which is a large pilaster that stretches from the bottom to the top of a faade. Andrea Palladio, "the most influential architect of the whole Renaissance", was to transform the architectural style of both palaces and churches by taking a different perspective on the notion of Classicism.

During the High Renaissance, architectural concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used with greater surety. The most representative architect is Bramante (14441514) who expanded the applicability of classical architecture to contemporary buildings in a style that was to dominate Italian architecture in the sixteenth century. During the Mannerist period, however, architects

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with the deep porch, which has served, from the time of its construction, as a refuge to the citys poor. Giulio Romano (14991546) was a pupil of Raphael, assisting him on various works for the Vatican. Romano was also a highly inventive designer, working for Federico II Gonzaga at Mantua on the Palazzo Te (15241534), a project which combined his skills as architect, sculptor, and painter. In this work, which incorporated garden
Romano's Palazzo Te incorporates mixture of architectural forms and textures. Figure 25.29 Palazzo Te

other architect. When he took over the project in 1546, Michelangelo incorporated Bramantes Greek-cross plan and redesigned the piers, the walls, and the dome, giving the lower weight-bearing members massive proportions and eliminating the encircling aisles from the chancel and identical transept arms. Michelangelos dome was a masterpiece of design using two masonry shells, one within the other and crowned by a massive lantern supported, as at Florence, on ribs (Figure 25.30). For the exterior of the building, he designed a giant order which defines every external bay. The whole lot is held together by a wide cornice which runs unbroken like a rippling ribbon around the entire building. Andrea Palladio, "the most influential architect of the whole Renaissance" transformed the architectural style of both palaces and churches by taking a different perspective on the notion of Classicism. While the architects of Florence and Rome were influenced by structures like the Colosseum and the Arch of Constantine, Palladio
St Peter's Basilica was designed by Michelangelo. Figure 25.30 St. Peter's Basillica

grottoes and extensive frescoes, he uses illusionistic effects, surprising combinations of architectural form and texture, and the frequent use of features that seem somewhat disproportionate or out of alignment (Figure 25.29). Michelangelo's architectural fame lies chiefly in St Peter's Basilica in Rome. St Peter's was "the greatest creation of the Renaissance," and a great number of architects contributed their skills to it. But at its completion, there was more of Michelangelos design than of any

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looked to classical temples with their simple peristyle form. When he used the triumphal arch motif of a large arched opening with a lower square-topped opening on either side, he invariably applied it on a small scale, such as windows, rather than on a large scale as Alberti used it at SantAndreas. This Ancient Roman motif is often referred to as the Palladian Arch. The best known of Palladios domestic buildings is Villa Capra, otherwise known as "la Rotonda", a centrally planned house with a domed central hall and four identical faades, each with a templelike portico like that of the Pantheon in Rome (Figure 25.31). At the
Figure 25.31 Villa Rotonda

recessed loggia of the garden faade are of two ordered stories, the upper forming a balcony. In designing church faades, Palladio was confronted by the problem of visually linking the aisles to the nave while maintaining and defining the structure of the building. Palladios solution was entirely different from that employed by della Porta. At the church of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice, he overlays a tall temple, with its columns raised on high plinths, over another low wide temple faade, which has its columns rising from the basements and its narrow lintel and pilasters appearing behind the giant order of the central nave.
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Palladio's Villa Capra La Rotonda

Villa Cornaro, the projecting portico of the north faade and

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Section 4

The Counter-Reformation

Rome and the Vatican

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Rome and the Vatican

Italian painting after 1520 concerned many Catholic leaders during the Reformation as lacking pious appeal.

Figure 25.32 The Last Judgement

it lacked pious appeal. Furthermore, a great divergence had arisen between the Catholic Church and Protestant reformers of the north regarding the content and style of art work. Church pressure to restrain religious imagery affected art from the 1530s and influenced several decrees

KEY POINTS

Pressure to restrain religious imagery affected art from the 1530s and influenced several decrees from the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563. These included short passages on religious images that had significant impact on the development of Catholic art during the Counter-Reformation. .The Counter-Reformation Catholic Church promoted art with sacred or religious content. In other words, art was to be strictly religious, created for the purpose of glorifying God and Catholic traditions. Despite the different approaches to religious art, stylistic developments passed quickly across religious divisions. This meant Rome was in!closer touch!artistically with Protestant Netherlands than with Catholic Spain by the end of the sixteenth century.

The Last Judgment fresco in the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo (1534-41) came under persistent attack in the CounterReformation for nudity (later painted over for several centuries), not showing Christ seated or bearded, and including the pagan gure of Charon.

from the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563. These included short passages concerning religious images that had

significant impact on the development of Catholic art during the Counter-Reformation. The church felt that religious art in Catholic countries (especially Italy) had lost its focus on religious subjectmatter. It focused on decorative qualities instead, leading to a church decree that art was to be direct and compelling in its narrative presentation, that is was to provide an accurate presentation of the biblical narrative or saints life, rather than

Italian Painting and Mannerism Italian painting after 1520, with the notable exception of Venice, developed into Mannerism. This highly sophisticated style concerned many Catholic leaders in the wake of the Reformation, as

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adding incidental and imaginary moments, and that it was to encourage piety." The reforms that resulted from this council are what set the basis for Counter-Reformation art. Counter Reformation Movement While the Protestants largely removed public art from religion and moved towards a more secular style of art embracing the concept of glorifying God through depictions of nature, the CounterReformation Catholic Church promoted art with sacred or religious content. In other words, art was to be strictly religious, created for the purpose of glorifying God and Catholic traditions. To that end, The Last Judgment, a fresco in the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo (153441), came under attack for nudity (later painted over for several centuries), not showing Christ seated or bearded, and including the pagan figure of Charon (Figure 25.32). Scipione Pulzone's painting of the Lamentation, commissioned for the Gesu Church in 1589, gives a clear demonstration of what the Council of Trent was striving for in the new style of religious art. With the focus of the painting giving direct attention to the crucifixion of Christ, it complies with the religious content of the council and shows the story of the passion while keeping Christ in the image of the ideal human (Figure 25.33).

On the other hand, in Paolo Veronese's painting the Last Supper (subsequently renamed Feast in the House of Levi), one can see what the Council regarded as inappropriate. Veronese was summoned before the Inquisition on the basis that his composition was indecorous for the refectory of a monastery. The painting shows a fantasy version of a Venetian patrician feast, with, in the words of the Inquisition:
Figure 25.33 Lamantation

"buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs and other such scurrilities" as well as extravagant costumes and settings. Veronese was told that he must change his painting within a three month period - in fact he just changed the title to The Feast in the House of Levi (Figure 25.34). The Movement Grows As Counter-Reformation grew stronger and the Catholic Church felt less threat from Protestant Reformation, Rome began to reassert its universality

Scipione Pulzone's Lamentation, a pious depiction of the Crucixion, embodied a typical CounterReformation work.

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to other nations around the world. The Jesuits, also known as the Society of Jesus, sent missionaries to the Americas, parts of Africa, India and eastern Asia, using the arts as an effective means of
Figure 25.34 Last Supper/House of Levi

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Paolo Veronese's Last Supper (The Feast in the House of Levi)

articulating the Catholic Church's dominance over the Christian faith. The Jesuits' impact was so profound very similar styles of art from the Counter-Reformation period in Catholic Churches can be found all over the world today. Despite the different approaches to religious art, stylistic developments passed about quickly across religious divisions. This meant Rome was artistically in closer touch with Protestant Netherlands than with Catholic Spain by the end of the sixteenth century.

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Section 5

The Late 1500s in Venice and the Veneto

Oil Painting Palladio

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Oil Painting
Oil painting did not gain popularity in Europe until the fteenth century.

peace for much of the fifteenth century and a rise of Venetian-style Renaissance art in the 1500s. While Florence and the southern Italian states were well known for fresco painting, Northern Italy, especially Venice, adopted the technique of oil painting during the High Renaissance. Oil

KEY POINTS

painting is the process of painting with pigments bound with a medium of drying oil. An oil like linseed would be boiled with a resin (pine resin or frankincense), resulting in "varnishes" prized for their body and gloss. Although oil paint was first used for the Buddhist Paintings created by Indian and Chinese painters in western Afghanistan sometime between the fifth and ninth centuries, it did not gain popularity until the fifteenth century in Europe. Oil painting techniques likely migrated from Afghanistan and China to Europe during the Middle Ages.

Northern Italy adopted the technique of oil painting in the High Renaissance. Oil painting is the process of painting with pigments that are bound with linseed or other drying oil. Oil paint eventually became the principal medium used for creating artworks. Oil paint remains wet longer than many other types of artists' materials, enabling the artist to change the color, texture or form of the figure. One of the most famous Venetian oil paintings is The Tempest (La Tempesta), painted in 1508 by Giorgione and commissioned by Venetian noble Gabriele Vendramin.

Venice entered as a dominant player in Renaissance art and politics with its hegemony in sea warfare. For much of the Renaissance, Northern Italy and upper Central Italy were divided into a number of warring city-states, the most powerful being Milan, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Genoa, Ferrara, Mantua, Verona and Venice. Warfare between these states was common, and the first part of the Renaissance saw almost constant fighting as the city-states vied for preeminence. Venice's unquestioned maritime hegemony led to

Oil paint eventually became the principal medium used for creating artworks. Oil paint remains wet longer than many other types of artists' materials, enabling the artist to change the color, texture or form of the figure. At times, the painter might even remove an entire layer of paint and begin anew. This can be done with a rag and some turpentine while the paint is wet. After awhile, however, the hardened layer must be scraped. Oil paint dries by oxidation, and is usually dry to the touch within a span of two weeks. It is

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generally dry enough to be varnished in six months to a year. The popularity of oil painting spread throughout Italy from the North, starting in Venice in the late fifteenth century. By 1540, oil painting had eclipsed the previous method for painting, although southern
Figure 25.35 The Tempest

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Italians continued to use frescoes for wall paintings. One of the most famous Venetian oil paintings is The Tempest (La Tempesta), painted in 1508 by Giorgione and commissioned by Venetian noble Gabriele Vendramin (Figure 25.35). There is no clear theme to The Tempest, which depicts a

Giorgione's The Tempest, oil on canvas, 1508

semi-nude woman suckling a baby while a

man stands in contrapposto. The Tempest may represent Adam and Eve in their post-Eden days. One thing that appears to be certain is that Giorgione painted a female nude; the very first female nude that stands (or rather, lies) as a subject to be portrayed and admired for beauty alone.

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Palladio
Palladio, inspired by Roman and Greek architecture, is considered the most inuential individual in the history of Western architecture.
KEY POINTS

considered one of the most influential individuals in the history of Western architecture. All of his buildings are located in what was the Venetian Republic, but his teachings, summarized in the architectural treatise, The Four Books of Architecture, gained him wide recognition beyond Italy. Andrea Palladio began to develop his own architectural style around 1541. Palladian Architecture, named after him, adhered to classical Roman principles that Palladio rediscovered, applied, and explained in his works. Palladian architecture has "been
Portrait of Palladio from 1576. Figure 25.36 Palladio

Palladian Architecture adhered to classical Roman principles that Palladio rediscovered, applied, and explained in his works. Palladian architecture has "been valued for centuries as the quintessence of High Renaissance calm and harmony". Palladio's buildings served to communicate, visually, their place in the social order of their culture. This powerful integration of beauty and the physical representation of social meanings is apparent in three major building types: the urban palazzo, the agricultural villa, and the church. One factor in the spread of Palladian influence was the publication in 1570 of Palladio's architectural treatise, I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura (The Four Books of Architecture), which set out rules others could follow.

valued for centuries as the quintessence of High Renaissance calm and harmony." Palladio designed many palaces, villas, and churches, but his reputation has been founded on his skill as a designer of villas. Palladian villas are located mainly in the province of Vicenza, while the palazzi are concentrated in the city of Vicenza and the churches in Venice.

Overview Andrea Palladio (1508 1580) was the Chief Architect in the Republic of Venice in the sixteenth century (Figure 25.36). Deeply inspired by Roman and Greek architecture, Palladio is widely

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The Four Books of Architecture One factor in the spread of palladian influence was the publication in 1570 of Palladio's architectural treatise, I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura (The Four Books of Architecture), which set out rules others could follow. The first book includes studies of decorative styles, classical orders, and materials. The second book included Palladio's town and country house designs and classical reconstructions. The third book has bridge and basilica designs, city

planning designs, and classical halls. The fourth book included information on the reconstruction of ancient Roman temples. Palladio's Architecture Palladio's architecture was not dependent on expensive materials, which must have been an advantage to his more financially-pressed clients. Many of his buildings are of brick covered with stucco. Stuccoed brickwork was always used in his villa designs in order to portray his interpretations of the Roman villa typology. Palladio's success and influence came from the integration of extraordinary aesthetic quality with expressive characteristics that resonated with his clients' social aspirations. His buildings served to communicate, visually, their place in the social order of their culture. This powerful integration of beauty and the physical representation of social meanings is apparent in three major building types: the urban palazzo, the agricultural villa, and the church. Palazzos By 1556, Palladio had developed three main palace types. He often used Mannerist elements such as stucco surface reliefs and large columns often extending two-stories high (Figure 25.37). In his urban structures, he developed a new improved version of the typical early Renaissance palazzo. Adapting a new urban palazzo type created by Bramante in the House of Raphael, Palladio found a

Figure 25.37 Palazzo Chiericati

Faade of Palazzo Chiericati in Vicenza, which includes surface reliefs and high columns that extend two stories high.

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powerful expression of the importance of the owner and his social position. For instance, the main living quarters of the owner on the second level were clearly distinguished in importance by use of a pedimented classical portico, centered and raised above the subsidiary and utilitarian ground level. The height of the portico was achieved by incorporating the owner's sleeping quarters on the third level, within a giant two-story classical colonnade, a motif
Figure 25.38 Villa Barbaro

based on practicality and employed fewer reliefs. He consolidated the various stand-alone farm outbuildings into a single impressive structure, arranged as a highly organized whole, dominated by a strong center and symmetrical side wings, as illustrated at Villa Barbaro (Figure 25.38). The Palladian villa configuration often consists of a centralized block raised on an elevated podium, accessed by grand steps and flanked by lower service wings. This format, with the quarters of the owner at the elevated center of their own world, found resonance as a prototype for Italian villas and later for the country estates of the British nobility. Palladio developed his own more flexible prototype for the plan of the villas to moderate scale and function. Churches Similarly, Palladio created a new configuration for the design of

In many of Palladio's villas, like the Villa Barbaro, pavilions were little more than mundane farm buildings behind a concealing facade.

Catholic churches by establishing two interlocking architectural orders, each clearly articulated, yet delineating an hierarchy of a larger order overriding a lesser order. This idea directly coincided with the rising acceptance of the theological ideas of St. Thomas Aquinas, who postulated the notion of two worlds existing simultaneously; the divine world of faith and the earthly world of humans. Palladio created an architecture which made a visual statement communicating the idea of two superimposed systems, as illustrated at San Francesco della Vigna.

adapted from Michelangelo's Capitoline buildings in Rome. The elevated main floor level became known as the "piano nobile," and is still referred to as the "first floor" in continental Europe. Villas Palladio also established an influential new building format for the agricultural villas of the Venetian aristocracy. His designs were

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Chapter 26

Northern Europe and the Iberian Peninsula in the 1500s

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Section 1

The Reformation

Introduction

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Introduction
The Reformation was a religious movement in the sixteenth century that divided Christianity between Roman Catholics and Protestants.
KEY POINTS

Northern countries became Protestant, while Southern countries remained Catholic. Protestant theology centered on the individual relationship between the worshipper and the divine, and accordingly, the Reformation's artistic movement focused on the individuals personal relationship with God (reflected in the number of common people and day-to-day scenes depicted in art). The Reformation and Protestant Art The Reformation ushered in a new artistic tradition that highlighted the Protestant agenda and diverged drastically from southern European humanist art produced during the High Renaissance. Reformation art embraced Protestant values, although the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced. Instead, many artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of art like history painting, landscapes, portraiture, and still life. Art that did seek to portray religious figures or scenes followed Protestant theology by depicting people and stories that emphasized salvation through divine grace and not through personal deeds or by intervention of church bureaucracy. In terms of subject matter, iconic images of Christ and scenes from the Passion became less frequent, as did portrayals of the saints and clergy. Instead, narrative scenes from the Bible, and moralistic depictions of modern life were prevalent.

Art that did seek to portray religious figures or scenes followed Protestant theology by seeking to portray people and stories that emphasized salvation through divine grace and not through personal deeds or by intervention of church bureaucracy. Reformation art embraced Protestant values, although the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced. Instead, many artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of art like history painting, landscapes, portraiture, and still life. The Protestant Reformation induced a wave of iconoclasm, or the destruction of religious imagery, among the more radical evangelists.

The Protestant Reformation arose during the sixteenth century in Europe. The Reformation was a religious movement that occurred in Western Europe during the sixteenth century that resulted in a split in Christianity between Roman Catholics and Protestants. This movement created a North-South split in Europe, where generally

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The Protestant Reformation also capitalized on the popularity of printmaking in northern Europe. Printmaking allowed images to be mass produced and widely available to the public at low cost. The Protestant church was therefore able to bring their theology to the people through portable, inexpensive visual media. This allowed for the widespread
Figure 26.1 Bruegel's Peasant Wedding

artists in Protestant areas painted far fewer religious subjects for public display, although there was a conscious effort to develop a Protestant iconography of Bible illustration in book illustrations and prints. In the early Reformation, some artists made paintings for churches showing the leaders of the reformation in ways very similar to Catholic saints. Later Protestant taste turned away from the display in churches of religious scenes, although some continued to be displayed in homes. There was also a reaction against large images from classical mythology, the other manifestation of high style at the time. This brought about a style that was more directly related to accurately portraying the present times. For instance, Bruegels Wedding Feast, portrays a Flemishpeasant wedding dinner in a barn. It makes no reference to any religious, historical or classical events, and merely gives insight into the everyday life of the Flemish peasant (Figure 26.1).
Altar piece in St. Martin's Cathedral, Utrecht, attacked in the Protestant iconoclasm in 1572. This retable became visible again after restoration in 1919 removed the false wall placed in front of it. Figure 26.2 Iconoclasm: Catholic Altar Piece

availability of visually persuasive imagery. With the great development of the engraving and printmaking market in Antwerp in the sixteenth century, the

Bruegael's Peasant Wedding is a painting that captures the Protestant Reformation artistic tradition: focusing on scenes from modern life rather than religious or classical themes.

public was provided with accessible and affordable images. Many artists provided

drawings to book and print publishers. Iconoclasm and Resistance to Idolatry All forms of Protestantism showed a degree of hostility to religious images, especially sculpture and large paintings, considering them forms of idol worship. After the early years of the Reformation,

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The Protestant Reformation induced a wave of iconoclasm, or the destruction of religious imagery, among the more radical evangelists (Figure 26.2). Protestant leaders, especially Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, actively eliminated imagery from their churches and regarded the great majority of religious images as idolatrous, even plain crosses. On the other hand, Martin Luther encouraged the display of a restricted range of religious imagery in churches. For the most part, however, Reformation iconoclasm resulted in a disappearance of religious figurative art, compared with the amount of secular pieces that emerged.
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Section 2

The Holy Roman Empire in Germany

Sculpture Painting

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Sculpture
The sculpture of The Holy Roman Empire spread its inuence into the already gothic style in Germany.
KEY POINTS

Background The court of the Holy Roman Emperor, then based in Prague, played an important part in forming the International Gothic style of sculpture in the late 14th century. The style was spread around the wealthy cities of Northern Germany by artists such Conrad von Soest in Westphalia, Meister Bertram in Hamburg, and, later, Stefan Lochner in Cologne. Hamburg was one of the cities in the Hanseatic League, then at the height of its prosperity, and artists such as Master Francke, the Master of the Malchin Altar, Hans Bornemann, Hinrik Funhof, and Wilm Dedeke, who survived into the Renaissance period, succeeded Bertram in the city. Hanseatic artists painted commissions for Baltic cities in Scandinavia and for modern Baltic States to the east. In the south, the Master of the Bamberg Altar was the first significant painter
Schussenried Abbey (Kloster Schussenried, Reichsabtei Schussenried) was a Premonstratensian monastery in Bad Schussenried, Upper Swabia, BadenWrttemberg, Germany. Figure 26.3 Wessobrunner stucco at Schussenried Abbey

The court of the Holy Roman Emperor, then based in Prague, played an important part in forming the International Gothic style for sculpture in the late 14th century. The style was spread around the wealthy cities of Northern Germany. In Catholic parts of South Germany the Gothic tradition of woodcarving continued to flourish until the end of the 18th century, adapting to changes in style through the centuries. Veit Stoss, Tilman Riemenschneider and Peter Vischer the Elder were Drer's contemporaries, and their long careers covered the transition between the Gothic and Renaissance periods, although their ornament often remained Gothic even after their compositions began to reflect Renaissance principles. Veit Stoss was a leading German sculptor, mostly in wood, whose career covered the transition between the late Gothic and the Northern Renaissance. His style emphasized pathos and emotion, helped by his virtuoso carving of billowing drapery; it has been called "late Gothic Baroque".

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based in Nuremberg, while the Master of Heiligenkreuz and Michael Pacher worked in Austria. Gothic Style in Sculpture In Catholic parts of South Germany, the Gothic tradition of woodcarving continued to flourish until the end of the 18th century, adapting to changes in style through the centuries. Veit Stoss (d. 1533), Tilman Riemenschneider (d.1531), and Peter Vischer the Elder (d. 1529) were Albrecht Drer's contemporaries, and their long careers covered the transition between the Gothic and Renaissance periods, although their ornament often remained Gothic even after their compositions began to reflect Renaissance principles. Two and a half centuries later, Johann Joseph Christian and Ignaz Gnther were leading masters in the late Baroque period, both dying in the late 1770s, barely a decade before the French Revolution. A vital element in the effect of German Baroque interiors was the work of the Wessobrunner School, a later term for the stuccoists of the late 17th and 18th centuries. Another manifestation of German sculptural skill was in porcelain (Figure 26.3); the most famous modeler is Johann Joachim Kaendler of the Meissen factory in Dresden, but the best work of Franz Anton Bustelli for the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory in Munich is often considered the greatest achievement of 18th century porcelain.

Veit Stoss Veit Stoss was a leading German sculptor, mostly working in wood, whose career covered the transition between the late Gothic and the Northern Renaissance (Figure 26.4). His style emphasized pathos and emotion, helped by his virtuoso carving of billowing drapery; it has been called "late Gothic Baroque". He had a large workshop, and in addition to his own works there are a number by pupils. He is best known for the altarpiece in St. Mary's Basilica in Krakw, Poland.
Figure 26.4 Gothic Altar by Veit Stoss The altar at in Krakw was not completed until 1489, and was the largest triptych of its time and, like his other large works, required a large workshop including specialized painters and gilders.

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Painting
German Renaissance is reective of Italian and German inuence in its paintings, and one is not present without the other.
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KEY POINTS (cont.)

The outstanding achievements of the first half of the 16th century were followed by several decades with a remarkable absence of noteworthy German art, other than accomplished portraits that never rival the achievement of Holbein or Drer.

The concept of the Northern Renaissance or German Renaissance is somewhat confused by the continuation of the use of elaborate Gothic ornament until well into the 16th!century, even in works that are undoubtedly Renaissance in their treatment of the human figure and other respects. Though retaining a distinctively German style, Drer's work shows strong Italian influence, and is often taken to represent the start of the German Renaissance in visual art. For the next forty years, Germany produced the greatest innovations in Northern European art. Lying somewhat outside these developments is Matthias Grnewald, who left very few works, but whose masterpiece, his Isenheim Altarpiece (completed 1515), has been widely regarded as the greatest German Renaissance painting since it was restored to critical attention in the 19th century. Hans Holbein the Elder and his brother Sigismund Holbein painted religious works in the late Gothic style. Hans the Elder was a pioneer and leader in the transformation of German art from the Gothic to the Renaissance style.

Background The concept of the Northern Renaissance or German Renaissance is somewhat confused by the continuation of the use of elaborate Gothic ornament until well into the 16th century, even in works that are undoubtedly Renaissance in their treatment of the human figure and other respects. Classical ornamentation had little historical resonance in much of Germany, but Germany was very quick to follow developments in other respects, especially in adopting printing with movable type--a German invention that remained almost a German monopoly for some decades and was first brought to most of Europe, including France and Italy, by Germans. After completing his apprenticeship in 1490, Drer traveled in Germany for four years, and Italy for a few months, before establishing his own workshop in Nuremberg. He rapidly became famous all over Europe for his energetic and balanced woodcuts and engravings, while also painting. Though retaining a distinctively

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German style, his work shows strong Italian influence, and is often taken to represent the start of the German Renaissance in visual art, which for the next forty years replaced the Netherlands and France as the area producing the greatest innovation in Northern European art. Drer supported Martin Luther but continued to create Madonnas and other Catholic imagery, and to paint portraits of leaders on both sides of the emerging split of the Protestant Reformation. Famous Paintings in Germany Lying somewhat outside these developments is Matthias Grnewald, who left very few works, but whose masterpiece, his Isenheim Altarpiece (completed 1515), has been widely regarded as the greatest German Renaissance painting since it was restored to
Figure 26.5 The Crucixion, Central Panel of the Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grnewald This work is intensely emotional and continues the German Gothic tradition of unrestrained gesture and expression, using Renaissance"compositional" principles, but all in that most Gothic of forms, the multi-winged triptych.

critical attention in the 19th century (Figure 26.5). It is an intensely emotional work that continues the German Gothic tradition of unrestrained gesture and expression, using Renaissance compositional principles, but all in that most Gothic of forms, the multi-winged triptych. Albrecht Altdorfer's (c.1480 1538) Danube landscape near Regensburg (c. 1528) is one of the earliest Western pure landscapes, from the Danube School in southern Germany (Figure 26.6). The Danube School is the name of a circle of artists of the first third of the 16th century in Bavaria and Austria, including Albrecht Altdorfer, Wolf Huber, and Augustin Hirschvogel. With Altdorfer in the lead, the school produced the first examples of independent landscape art in the West (nearly 1,000 years after China), in both paintings and prints. Their religious paintings had an expressionist style somewhat similar to Grnewald's. Drer's pupils Hans
One of the earliest Western pure landscapes, from the Danube School in southern Germany. Figure 26.6 Albrecht Altdorfer (c. 14801538), Danube landscape near Regensburg (c. 1528)

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Burgkmair and Hans Baldung Grien worked largely in prints, with Baldung developing the topical subject matter of witches in a number of enigmatic prints. Hans Holbein the Elder and his brother Sigismund Holbein painted religious works in the late Gothic style. Hans the Elder was a pioneer and leader in the transformation of German art from the Gothic to the Renaissance style. His son, Hans Holbein the Younger, was an important painter of portraits and a few religious works, working mainly in England and Switzerland. Holbein's well known series of small woodcuts on the Dance of Death relate to the works of the Little Masters, a group of printmakers who specialized in very small and highly detailed engravings for bourgeois collectors, including many erotic subjects. The outstanding achievements of the first half of the 16th century were followed by several decades with a remarkable absence of noteworthy German art, other than accomplished portraits that never rival the achievement of Holbein or Drer. The next significant German artists worked in the rather artificial style of Northern Mannerism, which they had to learn in Italy or Flanders. Hans von Aachen and the Netherlandish Bartholomeus Spranger were the leading painters at the Imperial courts in Vienna and Prague, and the productive Netherlandish Sadeler family of engravers spread out across Germany, among other counties.

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Section 3

France

Renaissance in the Reign of Francis I

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Renaissance in the Reign of Francis I

Francis I (1515 - 1547) brought about such huge cultural changes in France that he has been called France's original Renaissance monarch.
KEY POINTS

Francis I (1494 1547) was King of France from 1515 until his death. During his reign, huge cultural changes took place in France and he has been called France's original Renaissance monarch. His permanent rivalry with the Emperor Charles V for hegemony in
Figure 26.7 Francis I by Jean Clouet (circa 1530)

Europe was the origin of a long and ruinous military conflict that gave rise to the Protestant revolution. Francis was an ally of Suleiman the Magnificent, with whom he formed the FrancoOttoman alliance. His great rivals were King Henry VIII of England and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. By the time he ascended the throne in 1515, the Renaissance had arrived in France, and Francis became a major patron of the arts. At the time of his accession, the

At the time of his accession, the royal palaces of France were ornamented with only a scattering of great paintings, and not a single piece of sculpture, ancient or modern. During Francis's reign, the magnificent art collection of the French kings was begun. Francis patronized many great artists of his time, including Andrea del Sarto and Leonardo da Vinci; the latter was persuaded to make France his home during his final years. Francis set an important precedent by opening the royal library to scholars from around the world in order to facilitate the diffusion of knowledge. In 1537, Francis signed the Ordonnance de Montpellier, decreeing that his library be given a copy of every book to be sold in France. Francis poured vast amounts of money into new structures. He continued the work of his predecessors on the Chteau d'Amboise and also started renovations on the Chteau de Blois. Early in his reign, he also began construction of the magnificent Chteau de Chambord.

Francis I of France was one of the great patrons of the arts in early modern Europe.

royal palaces of France were ornamented with only a scattering of great paintings, and not a single piece of sculpture, ancient or modern. During Francis's reign, the magnificent art collection of the French kings, which can still be seen at the Louvre Palace, was begun (Figure 26.7).

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Francis patronized many great artists of his time, including Andrea del Sarto and Leonardo da Vinci; the latter was persuaded to make France his home during his final years. While Leonardo painted very little during his years in France, he brought with him many of his greatest works, including the Mona Lisa (known in France as La Joconde), and these remained in France after his death. There is another version of the Mona Lisa, discovered by Hugh Blaker, which never made it to France. It is known as the Isleworth Mona Lisa, and has for years been the subject of much debate, since it possesses many qualities that fit the history of the Mona Lisa which the Louvre version does not. These qualities include the columns depicted in Raphael's 1504 sketch of the Mona Lisa, completed in Leonardo's studio, and a younger woman (in her 20s) which better suits the age Lisa Gherardini would have been in 1504. Other major artists to receive Francis's patronage include the goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini and the exceedingly loyal painters Rosso, Romano, and Primaticcio, all of whom were employed in decorating Francis's various palaces. Francis also commissioned a number of agents in Italy to procure notable works of art and ship them to France. Francis was also renowned as a man of letters. When the subject of Francis enters a conversation among characters in Castiglione's Book of the Courtier, he is referenced as the greatest hope of bringing culture to a war-obsessed French nation. Not only did

Francis support a number of major writers of the period, he was a poet himself, if not one of particular quality. Francis worked hard at improving the royal library. He appointed the great French humanist Guillaume Bud as chief librarian, and began to expand the collection. Francis employed agents in Italy looking for rare books and manuscripts, just as he had agents looking for art works. During his reign, the size of the library greatly increased. Not only did Francis expand the library, but, according to Knecht, there is much evidence that he read the books he bought for it, a much rarer event in the royal annals. Francis set an important precedent by opening his library to scholars from around the world in order to facilitate the diffusion of knowledge. In 1537, Francis signed the Ordonnance de Montpellier, decreeing that his library be given a copy of every book to be sold in France.
The Chateau de Blois's spiral staircase is one of the great artistic achievements of the French Renaissance under Francis I. Figure 26.8 The Francis I wing of the Chateau de Blois

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Francis poured vast amounts of money into new structures. He continued the work of his predecessors on the Chteau d'Amboise and also started renovations on the Chteau de Blois (Figure 26.8). Early in his reign, he began construction of the magnificent Chteau de Chambord, inspired by the styles of the Italian renaissance, and perhaps even designed by Leonardo da Vinci. Francis rebuilt the Chteau du Louvre, transforming it from a medieval fortress into a building of Renaissance splendor. He financed the building of a new City Hall (Htel de Ville) for Paris in order to have control over the building's design. He constructed the Chteau de Madrid in the Bois de Boulogne, and rebuilt the Chteau de St-Germain-en-Laye. The largest of Francis's building projects was the reconstruction and expansion of the royal chteau of Fontainebleau, which quickly became his favorite place of residence, as well as the residence of his official mistress (Anne, duchess of tampes). Each of Francis's projects was luxuriously decorated, both inside and out. Fontainebleau, for instance, had a gushing fountain in its courtyard where quantities of wine were mixed with the water.
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Section 4

Spain and Portugal

Architecture Painting

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Architecture
Gothic, Renaissance, and Mannerist elements are all important to the architecture of the Iberian peninsula in the 16th century.
KEY POINTS

architecture which had been popular for the centuries preceding the Renaissance. In Spain, the Renaissance began to be grafted to Gothic forms in the last decades of the 15th century. Local architects developed a specifically Spanish Renaissance, bringing the influence of South Italian architecture, sometimes from illuminated books and paintings, mixed with Gothic tradition and local traditions. The new style was called Plateresque because of the extremely decorated facades that brought to the mind the decorative motifs of the intricately detailed work of silversmiths, the Plateros. From the mid 16th century, under such architects as Pedro
The Monastery of Ucls is a prime example of Herrerian architecture. Figure 26.9 Monasterio de Ucls, Cuenca, Espaa

Plateresque emerged in Spain in the late 15th century. This architectural style,!named for silversmiths, was!known for producing decorative facades suggestive of silver plate. From the mid 16th century, Spanish architecture adhered closely to the art of ancient Rome, anticipating Mannerism. The Herrerian style dominated Spain in the late 16th and 17th centuries and was defined by clean and sober facades and attention to geometrical precision. In Portugal, the transition from Gothic to Renaissance architecture is visible in the Manueline style which combined ornamental elements from each of these styles. Portuguese!Mannerism dominated the!Portuguese!architecture of the late 16th century and was also known as "plain style" for its lack of decorative elements.

Renaissance architecture reached the Iberian peninsula in the 16th century, ushering in a new style that gradually replaced the Gothic

Machuca, Juan Bautista de Toledo, and Juan de Herrera, there was a much closer adherence to the art of ancient Rome, sometimes

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anticipating Mannerism. An example of this is the palace of Charles V in Granada built by Pedro Machuca. A new style emerged in Spain with the work of Juan Bautista de Toledo and Juan de Herrera in the Escorial, known as the Herrerian style. Herrerian architecture was extremely sober, naked, and particularly accomplished in the use of granite ashlar work. This style influenced the Spanish architecture of both the peninsula and the colonies for over a century (Figure 26.9). The adoption of the Renaissance style in Portugal was gradual and intimately linked to Gothic architecture. The Manueline style (circa 1490-1535) was a transitional style that combined Renaissance and Gothic ornamental elements. One of the most important examples of Manueline style is the Jernimos Monastery at Lisbon, in which Renaissance ornaments decorate portals, church columns, and cloisters (Figure 26.10). The definitive abandonment of Gothic architecture and the first "pure" Renaissance structures, like the Chapel of Nossa Senhora da Conceio in Tomar (153240), the Porta Especiosa of Coimbra Cathedral, and the Graa Church at vora (c. 1530-1540), appeared later in the 16th century under King John III. Manueline was succeeded by a brief Early Renaissance phase (c. 1530-1550), followed by the adoption of Mannerist, or, late

Renaissance forms. Portuguese Mannerism, especially in secular architecture, is characterized by simplicity in the organization of faades and relative lack of decoration, being often referred to as Estilo Cho (plain style).
Figure 26.10 Jernimos Monastery, Lisbon

The church at Jernimos Monastery is an important example of Manueline architecture.

An important and rare example of urban palaces of the Renaissance is the Casa dos Bicos (c. 1525) in Lisbon, with a faade covered with diamond reliefs in Italian fashion (Figure 26.11). During the first half of the 16th century, the Portuguese nobility built various quintas (manor houses) in the area surrounding Lisbon. Among these, the Quinta da Bacalhoa (15281554), near Setbal, is the most important. The faades of Bacalhoa palace have symmetrical

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windows, loggias, and towers, and the building is surrounded by an artificial lake and geometrical gardens, an ensemble that reveals Italian inspiration. The Ribeira Palace of Lisbon, a royal palace built in the early 16th century in Manueline style by King Manuel I, was remodeled towards the end of the 16th century by the orders of Philip I (Philip II of Spain). At this time, the faade of the palace was modernized and a large Renaissancestyle tower with a dome was built by the Tagus river. The palace and its prominent tower dominated the cityscape of Lisbon until 1755, when the Great Lisbon Earthquake destroyed it. With the royal palace destroyed, perhaps the most important late Renaissance palace in Portugal is the Ducal Palace of Vila Viosa, built between the late 16th and early 17th centuries.
Casa dos Bicos exemplies Portugese urban palaces of the 16th century. Figure 26.11 Casa dos Bicos, Lisbon

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Painting
Spain and Portugal were both inuenced by Netherthandish painting, due to shared economic and political connections.

due to the mix of Flemish and Italian influences, and regional variations. Apart from technical aspects, the themes and spirit of the Renaissance were modified to the Spanish culture and religious environment. Consequently, very few classical subjects or female nudes were depicted, and the works frequently exhibited a sense of

KEY POINTS

pious devotion and religious intensity - attributes that would remain dominant in much art of Counter Reformation Spain throughout the 17th Century, and beyond. Important Mannerist artists included Vicente Juan Masip (1475 1550) and his son Juan de Juanes (15101579), the painter and architect Pedro Machuca (14901550), and Juan Correa de Vivar (15101566). However, the most popular Spanish painter of the early 17th Century was Luis de Morales (ca. 1510-1586), called "The Divine" by his contemporaries, because of the religious intensity of his paintings. From the Renaissance style, he also frequently used sfumato modeling, and simple compositions, but combined them with Flemish-style precision of details. His subjects included many devotional images, including the Virgin and Child. The Spanish Golden Age, a period of Spanish political ascendancy and subsequent decline, saw a great development of art in Spain. The period is generally considered to have begun at some point after 1492 and ended by or with the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659,

As Spain was an extremely devout country, religious intensity was heightened in Spanish painting in the 1500s. El Greco was one of the most important and distinctive artists to emerge during the Spanish Golden Age. Mannerism was the dominant style of painting, for most of the 16th century. Given the low status granted to artists in the 1500s, Portugese painters of this period remain anonymous.

Due to important economic and political links between Spain and Flanders from the mid-15th century onwards, the early Renaissance in Spain was heavily influenced by Netherlandish painting, leading to the identification of a Hispano-Flemish school of painters. Leading exponents included Fernando Gallego, Bartolome Bermejo, Pedro Berruguete and Juan de Flandes. Overall the Renaissance and subsequent Mannerist styles are hard to categorize in Spain,

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though in art the start is delayed until the reign of Philip III (1598-1621), or just before, and the end also delayed until the 1660s or later. El Greco (15411614) "the Greek", was one of the most individualistic of the painters of the period, developing a strongly Mannerist style based on his origins in the postByzantine Cretan school, in contrast to the naturalist approaches then predominant in Seville, Madrid and elsewhere in Spain (Figure 26.12). Universally known for his great impact in bringing the Italian Renaissance to Spain, El Greco studied the great Italian masters of his time - Titian, Tintoretto, and Michelangelo - when he lived in Italy from 1568 to 1577. Many of his
This is presumably a self-portrait by the great Spanish Mannerist. Figure 26.12 Portrait of a Man, by El Greco, 1604

works reflect the silvery-greys and strong colors of Venetian painters such as Titian, but combined with strange elongations of figures, unusual lighting, disposing of perspective space, and filling the surface with very visible and expressive brushwork. During the Golden Age of Portugal, in the late 15th and early 16th century, Portuguese artists were also influenced by Flemish art, and were in turn influential on Flemish artists. During this period, Portuguese art became internationally well-known, mostly because of its very original and diverse characteristics, but little is known about the artists of this time due to the medieval culture that considered painters to be artisans. The anonymous artists in the Portuguese "escolas" produced art not only for metropolitan Portugal but also for its colonies, namely Malacca or Goa and even Africa, gratifying the desires of local aristrocatic clients and religious clients.
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Section 5

The Netherlands

Art for Aristocrats Antwerp

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Art for Aristocrats

While Dutch"painting"focused on"anti-aristocratic themes, Spanish art was heavily patronized by nobility and royalty.
KEY POINTS

developed in direct response to the Reformation and was heavily patronized by nobility and royalty. Dutch and Flemish Renaissance Painting The "Golden Age" of Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting represents the 16th century response to the Italian Renaissance and Mannerism in the Low Countries. After 1550, the Flemish and Dutch painters begin to show more interest in nature, leading to a style that incorporates Renaissance elements, but remained far from the elegant lightness of Italian Renaissance art. It focussed on scenes from everyday life including: landscapes, still life, and genre painting. This evolution is seen in the works of Joachim Patinir and Pieter Aertsen, and especially Pieter Brueghel the Elder. The latter was well-known for his depictions of nature and everyday life, with a preference for the natural condition of man, and his numerous depictions of peasants instead of the princes. The Fall of Icarus (now in fact, considered a copy of a Bruegel work), although highly atypical in many ways, combines several elements of Northern Renaissance painting. It hints at the renewed interest for antiquity (the Icarus legend), but the hero Icarus is hidden away in the background. The main actors in the painting are nature itself

However, while the Dutch schools focused on nature and anti-aristocratic themes, Spanish art developed in direct response to the Reformation and was heavily patronized by nobility and royalty. After 1550, Flemish and Dutch painters showed more interest in nature, leading to a style that incorporates Renaissance elements, but remained far from the elegant lightness of Italian Renaissance art; focusing on scenes from everyday life, including landscapes, still life, and genre painting. Spanish art, particularly that of Morales, contained a strong mark of mysticism and religion that was encouraged by the Counter-Reformation and the patronage of Spain's strongly Catholic monarchs and aristocracy.

The Dutch and Spanish Golden Ages This style of art centered around the 16th century and was influenced by the Italian Renaissance. However, while the Dutch schools focused on nature and anti-aristocratic themes, Spanish art

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and, most prominently, the peasant, who does not even look up from his plough when Icarus falls (Figure 26.13). Here, as opposed to the classical aristocratic tradition, Brueghel shows man as an anti-hero; comical, and sometimes, grotesque.
Figure 26.13 Fall of Icarus

The Habsburg princes in Spain and Austria were great patrons of the arts. King Philip II developed relationships with great artists and commissioned works of art and architecture. An example, El Escorial monastery was built by invited architects and decorated by works of other invited artists. Diego Velzquez was one of the artists who developed a patronage relationship with the King, painting several portraits that demonstrated why he was considered one of the most influential painters of his time. Over the course of the 16th century, the religious element in Spanish art grew in importance with the pace of the CounterReformation. Philip IV, for instance, actively patronized artists who agreed with his views on the Counter-Reformation and religion. Therefore, much of the art from the Spanish courts depicted Catholic themes and narratives. Luis de Morales, one of the leading exponents of Spanish Mannerist

Landscape with the Fall of Icarus, Pieter Bruegel the Elder

painting, retained a distinctly Spanish style in his work, reminiscent of medieval art. His art also contained a strong mark of mysticism and religion that was encouraged by the Counter-Reformation and the patronage of Spain's strongly Catholic monarchs and aristocracy. During the Italian Renaissance, Spain had seen few great artists come to its shores, until Ferdinand and Isabella's reign, which

Spanish Renaissance Painting The "Golden Age" of Spanish of art coincided with the rise and decline of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty, and was heavily influenced by Mannerism as well as Catholic and aristocratic patronage.

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launched a steady traffic of intellectuals across the Mediterranean between Valencia, Seville, and Florence. Universally known for his great impact in bringing the Italian Renaissance to Spain, "El Greco" was not Spanish. However, he was influential in creating a Spanish Renaissance style based on impressions and emotion, featuring elongated fingers, and vibrant color and brushwork. Uniquely, his works featured faces that captured expressions of sombre attitudes and withdrawal, while still having his subjects bear witness to the terrestrial world. Furthermore, El Greco's paintings of the city of Toledo became models for a new European tradition in landscapes, and later influenced the work of Dutch masters (Figure 26.14).
Toledo by El Greco Figure 26.14 A View of Toledo

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Antwerp
Antwerp, located in Belgium, was a center for art in Netherlands and northern Europe for much of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
KEY POINTS

the economic center of the Low Countries, and again during the seventeenth century when it became the artistic stronghold of the Flemish Baroque. The Antwerp School was comprised of many generations of artists and is known for portraiture, animal paintings, still lifes, and prints. Antwerp took over from Bruges as the main trading and commercial center of the Low Countries around 1500, and the boost in the economy attracted many artists to the cities to join craft guilds. For instance, many sixteenth-century painters, artists, and craftsmen joined the Guild of Saint Luke, which educated apprentices and guaranteed quality. The first school of artists that emerged in the city were the Antwerp Mannerists, a group of anonymous late Gothic painters active in the city from about 1500 to 1520. Antwerp Mannerism bore no direct relation to Renaissance or Italian Mannerism, but the name suggests a peculiarity that was a reaction to the "classic" style of the earlier Flemish painters. Although attempts have been made to identify the individual artists, most of the paintings remain attributed to anonymous masters. Characteristic of Antwerp Mannerism are paintings that combine Early Netherlandish and Northern Renaissance styles, and incorporate both Flemish and Italian traditions into the same compositions. Practitioners of the style frequently painted subjects such as the Adoration of the Magi and the Nativity, both of which

The Antwerp School for painting flourished during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Antwerp School was comprised of many generations of artists and is known for portraiture, animal paintings, still lifes, and prints. Antwerp Mannerism bore no relation to Renaissance Mannerism, but the name suggests a reaction to the "classic" style of the earlier Flemish painters. Although attempts have been made to identify the individual artists, most of the paintings remain attributed to anonymous masters. Antwerp was an internationally significant publishing centre, and had a huge production of old master prints and book illustrations. Furthermore, Antwerp animaliers or animal painters, such as Frans Snyders, Jan Fyt and Paul de Vos, dominated animal-painting in Europe.

Antwerp, located in present-day Belgium, was a center for art in Netherlands and northern Europe for much of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The so-called Antwerp School For Painting flourished during the sixteenth century when the city was

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are generally represented as night scenes, crowded with figures and dramatically illuminated. The Adoration scenes were especially popular with the Antwerp Mannerists, who delighted in the patterns of the elaborate clothes worn by the Magi and the ornamentation of the architectural ruins in which the scene was set (Figure 26.15).
Figure 26.15 The Adoration of the Kings by Jan Gossaert

The city experienced an artistic renewal in the seventeenth century. The large workshops of Peter Paul Rubens and Jacob Jordaens, and the influence of Anthony van Dyck, made Antwerp the center of the Flemish Baroque. The city was an internationally significant publishing centre, and had a huge production of old master prints and book illustrations. Furthermore, Antwerp animaliers or animal painters, such as Frans Snyders, Jan Fyt and Paul de Vos, dominated animalpainting in Europe for at least the first half of the century (Figure 26.16). But as the economy continued to decline, and the Habsburg nobility and the Church reduced their patronage, many artists trained in Antwerp left for the Netherlands, England, France or elsewhere, and by the end of the seventeenth century, Antwerp was no longer a major artistic center.
Jan Fyt, a member of the Antwerp School, was well-known for the use of animal motifs in his paintings. Figure 26.16 Hunting Trophies

The iconoclastic riots ('Beeldenstorm' in Dutch) of 1566 that preceded the Dutch Revolt resulted in the destruction of many works of religious art, after which time the churches and monasteries had to be refurnished and redecorated. Artists such as Otto van Veen and members of the Francken family, working in a late mannerist style, provided new religious decoration. It

This painting captures the Antwerp Mannerist tradition of using religious themes, particularly the Adoration of the Magi, for inspiration.

also marked a beginning of economic decline in the city, as the Scheldt river was blockaded by the Dutch Republic in 1585 and trade diminished.

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Section 6

England

The Tudors Architecture

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The Tudors
The Tudor period was, for England, one of unusual isolation from European trends.
KEY POINTS

courtiers between 1485 and 1603 (from the reign of Henry VII to the death of Elizabeth I).Typically managing a group of assistants and apprentices in a workshop or studio, many of these artists produced works across several disciplines, including portrait miniatures, large-scale panel portraits on wood, illuminated manuscripts, heraldric emblems, and elaborate decorative schemes for masques, tournaments, and other events. The Tudor period was, for England, one of unusual isolation from European trends. At the start, the Wars of the Roses had greatly disrupted artistic activity, which apart from architecture had reached a very low ebb by 1485. The York dynasty overthrown by the Tudors had been very close to their Burgundian allies, and English diplomats had their portraits painted by the finest Early Netherlandish painters-- Edward Grimshaw by Petrus Christus, and Sir John Donne by Hans Memling (both National Gallery, London). These were both painted abroad, however. In the Tudor period, foreign artists were recruited and often welcomed lavishly by the English court, as they were in other artistically marginal parts of Europe like Spain or Naples. The Netherlandish painters remained predominant, though French influence was also important on both Lucas Horenbout and Nicholas Hilliard, the founder and greatest exponent of the distinctively English tradition of the portrait miniature, respectively.

In the Tudor period, foreign artists were recruited and often welcomed lavishly by the English court, as they were in other artistically marginal parts of Europe like Spain or Naples. The Netherlandish painters remained predominant, though French influence was also important on both Lucas Horenbout and Nicholas Hilliard, the founder and greatest exponent of the distinctively English tradition of the portrait miniature, respectively. With the virtual extinction of religious painting during the Reformation, and little interest in classical mythology until the very end of the period, the portrait was the most important form of painting for all the artists of the Tudor court, and the only one to have survived in any numbers. Jewelery and metalwork were regarded as extremely important, and far more was spent on them than on painting. Holbein produced many spectacular designs for nowvanished table ornaments in precious metals, and Hilliard was also a practicing goldsmith.

The artists of the Tudor court were the painters and limners engaged by the English monarchs' Tudor dynasty and their

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With the virtual extinction of religious painting during the Reformation, and little interest in classical mythology until the very end of the period, the portrait was the most important form of painting for all the artists of the Tudor court, and the only one to have survived in any numbers. How many of these have also been lost can be seen from Holbein's book (nearly all pages in the Royal Collection), containing preparatory drawings for portraits: of eighty-five drawings, only a handful have surviving Holbein paintings, though often copies have survived. Portraiture ranged from the informal miniature-- almost invariably painted from life in the course of a few days and intended for private contemplation-- to the later large-scale portraits of
The Rainbow Portrait epitomizes the elaborate iconography associated with later Tudor court portraiture. Figure 26.17 The Rainbow Portrait, an image of Elizabeth I as the "Queen of Love and Beauty," by Isaac Oliver c. 1600.

Elizabeth I, such as the Rainbow Portrait, filled with symbolic iconography in dress, jewels, background, and inscription (Figure 26.17). Much energy was also expended on the decorative painting of fixtures and fittings, often of a very temporary nature. In theory, the "Serjeant Painters" of the King, a lower rank of painter, did most of this, probably to the designs of the more elevated "King's Painters" (or Queen's), but it is clear that they too spent time on this, as did court artists all over Europe (see Royal Entry). There was also the Master of the Revels, whose Office was responsible for festivals and tournaments, and no doubt called upon the artists and Serjeant Painters for assistance. Jewelery and metalwork were regarded as extremely important, and far more was spent on them than on painting. Holbein produced many spectacular designs for now-vanished table ornaments in precious metals, and Hilliard was also a practicing goldsmith. The main artistic interests of Henry VIII were music, building palaces and tapestry (of which he had over 2,000 pieces, costing far more than he ever spent on painters). Elizabeth spent far less, hardly building anything herself, but took a personal interest in painting, keeping her own collection of miniatures locked away, wrapped in paper on which she wrote the

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names of the sitter. She is reputed to have had paintings of her burnt that did not match the iconic image she wished to be shown. The most progressive and spectacular palace of the Tudor period, Nonsuch Palace, begun by Henry VIII in 1538 a little way south of London, was covered inside and out with prodigious quantities of figurative sculpted stucco reliefs. The whole scheme covered over 2,000 square meters (21,000 sq ft). There was also probably much decorative painting. As for the similar work at the Chteau de Fontainebleau, which Nonsuch was certainly intended to compete with and outshine, Italians were brought in to provide authentic Mannerist work; however, much of the general plan remains English. The scattered fragments and images that have survived suggest that the awestruck accounts of visitors were not exaggerated.
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Architecture
The Tudor architectural style was the nal development of medieval architecture during the Tudor period (1485 1603).
KEY POINTS

Tudor architecture followed the Perpendicular style and, although superseded by Elizabethan architecture in the domestic building of any pretensions to fashion, the Tudor style still retained its hold on English taste. The four-centered arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature of the period; some of the most remarkable oriel windows belong to this period; typically, the moldings were more spread out and the foliage became more naturalistic. During this period, the arrival of the chimney stack and enclosed hearths resulted in the decline of the great hall based around an open hearth, which was typical of earlier medieval architecture. During the Tudor era, houses and buildings of ordinary people were typically timber-framed, the frame usually filled with wattle and daub but occasionally with brick.

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The Tudor architectural style was the final development of medieval architecture during the Tudor period (14851603), and even beyond, for conservative college patrons. It followed the Perpendicular style and, although superseded by Elizabethan architecture in the domestic building of any pretensions to fashion, the Tudor style still retained its hold on English taste. Portions of the additions to the various colleges of Oxford University and Cambridge University were still being carried out in the Tudor style, which overlaps with the first stirrings of the Gothic Revival (Figure 26.18). The four-centered arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature of the period. Some of the most remarkable oriel windows belong to this period. Typically, the moldings were more spread out and the foliage became more naturalistic. Nevertheless, "Tudor style" is an awkward style-designation, with its implied suggestions of continuity through the period of the Tudor dynasty and the misleading impression that there was a style break at the accession of Stuart James I in 1603. During this period, the arrival of the chimney stack and enclosed hearths resulted in the decline of the great hall based around an open hearth, which was typical of earlier medieval architecture. Instead, fireplaces could now be placed upstairs, and it became possible to have a second story that ran the whole length of the

house. Tudor chimney-pieces were made large and elaborate to draw attention to the owner's adoption of this new technology, and the jetty appeared as a way to show off the modernity of having a complete, full-length upper floor.
Figure 26.18 King's College chapel, University of Cambridge

The chapel at King's College of the University of Cambridge is one of the nest examples of late Gothic (Perpendicular) English architecture, while its early Renaissance rood screen (separating the nave and chancel), erected in 1532-36 in a striking contrast of style, has been called by Sir Nikolaus Pevsner "the most exquisite piece of Italian decoration surviving in England."

The style of large houses moved away from the defensive architecture of earlier moated manor houses, and instead began

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emphasizing aesthetics. For example, quadrangular ('H' or 'E' shaped plans) became more common. It was also fashionable for these larger buildings to incorporate "devices," or riddles, designed into the building, which served to demonstrate the owner's wit and to delight visitors. Occasionally these were Catholic symbols, for example, subtle or not-so-subtle references to the trinity, seen in three-sided, triangular, or 'Y' shaped plans, designs, or motifs. The houses and buildings of ordinary people were typically timberframed, the frame usually filled with wattle and daub but occasionally with brick. These houses were also slower to adopt the latest trends and the great hall continued to prevail. The Dissolution of the Monasteries provided surplus land, resulting in a small building boom, as well as a source of stone.
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Chapter 27

Europe in the 1600s

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Section 1

The Baroque Period

Introduction

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Introduction
Baroque is a period of artistic style that started around 1600 in Rome, Italy, and spread throughout the majority of Europe.
KEY POINTS

The Baroque is a period of artistic style that started around 1600 in Rome, Italy, and spread throughout the majority of Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. In informal usage, the word "baroque" describes something that is elaborate and highly detailed. The popularity of the style was encouraged by the Catholic Church, which had decided at the Council of Trent that the arts should communicate religious themes and direct emotional involvement in response to the Protestant Reformation. Baroque art manifested itself differently in various European countries owing to their unique political and cultural climates. The most important factors during the Baroque era were the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation, with the development of the Baroque style considered to be linked closely with the Catholic Church.
Chiaroscuro technique refers to the interplay between light and dark and is often used in paintings of dimly lit scenes to produce a very high-contrast, dramatic atmosphere. This technique is visible in the painting "The Massacre of the Innocents" by Peter Paul Rubens. Figure 27.1 "The Massacre of the Innocents" by Peter Paul Rubens

The popularity of the Baroque style was encouraged by the Catholic Church, which had decided at the Council of Trent that the arts should communicate religious themes and direct emotional involvement in response to the Protestant Reformation. In informal usage, the word "baroque" describes something that is elaborate, or highly detailed. The most important factors during the Baroque era were the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation; the development of the Baroque style was considered to be closely linked with the Catholic Church. The chiaroscuro technique refers to the interplay between light and dark and is often used in paintings of dimly lit scenes to produce a very high-contrast, dramatic atmosphere. In music, the Baroque style makes up a large part of the classical canon. The later Baroque style was termed "Rococo".

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The Baroque style is characterized by exaggerated motion and clear detail used to produce drama, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, and music. Baroque iconography was direct, obvious, and dramatic, intending to appeal above all to the senses and the emotions. Important Baroque painters include Caravaggio (who is thought to be a precursor to the movement), Peter Paul Rubens, and Rembrandt.
Figure 27.2 Queluz National Palace, Portugal In the Baroque style of architecture, emphasis was placed on bold spaces, domes, and large masses, as exemplied by the Queluz National Palace in Portugal.

large masses, as exemplified by the Queluz National Palace in Portugal (Figure 27.2). In music, the Baroque style makes up a large part of the classical canon. Important composers include Johann Sebastian Bach, George Handel, and Antonio Vivaldi. In the later part of the period, the Baroque style was termed "Rococo," a style characterized by increasingly decorative and elaborate works.
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The use of the "chiaroscuro" technique is a well known trait of Baroque art. This technique refers to the interplay between light and dark and is often used in paintings of dimly lit scenes to produce a very high-contrast, dramatic atmosphere. The chiaroscuro technique is visible in the painting "The Massacre of the Innocents" by Peter Paul Rubens (Figure -.-). In the Baroque style of architecture, emphasis was placed on bold spaces, domes, and

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Section 2

Italy

Architecture in Rome Sculpture in Rome Painting

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Architecture in Rome
The highly theatrical Baroque architectural style dominated Italy in the 1600s.

itself in response to the Protestant Reformation. Baroque architecture and its embellishments were on the one hand more accessible to the emotions and on the other hand, a visible statement of the wealth and power of the Church. A number of ecclesiastical buildings of the Baroque period in Rome

KEY POINTS

had plans based on the Italian paradigm of the basilica with a crossed dome and nave, but the treatment of the architecture was very different than what had been carried out previously. One of the first Roman structures to break with the Mannerist conventions (exemplified in the

Baroque architecture was linked to the Counter-Reformation, celebrating the wealth of the Catholic church. Bernini was the master of Baroque architecture in Rome; St. Peter's Square was one of his greatest achievements. Carlo Fontana, a prolific and influential writer on architecture, as well as practitioner, became Rome's leading Baroque architect following Bernini's death in 1680.

Figure 27.3 Facade of Santa Susanna by Carlo Maderno

The Baroque period of architecture began in late sixteenth century Italy and took the Roman vocabulary of Renaissance architecture and used it in a new rhetorical and theatrical fashion, often to express the triumph of the Catholic Church and the absolutist state. It was characterized by new explorations of form, light and shadow and dramatic intensity. Whereas the Renaissance drew on the wealth and power of the Italian courts and was a blend of secular and religious forces, the Baroque was, initially at least, directly linked to the CounterReformation, a movement within the Catholic Church to reform

Ges) was the church of Santa Susanna, designed by Carlo Maderno (Figure 27.3). The dynamic rhythm of columns and pilasters, central massing, and the protrusion and condensed central decoration add complexity to the structure. There is an incipient playfulness with the rules of classic design, but it still maintains rigor.
The design elements of this church signalled a departure from the prevailing Mannerist style of architecture.

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The same concerns with plasticity, massing, dramatic effects, and shadow and light are evident in the architectural work of Pietro da Cortona, illustrated by his design of Santi Luca e Martina (construction began in 1635) with what was probably the first curved Baroque church faade in Rome. These concerns are even more evident in his reworking of Santa Maria della Pace (1656-8, (Figure 27.4). The faade, with its chiaroscuro half-domed portico and concave side wings, closely resembles a theatrical stage set and the projects forward so that it substantially fills the tiny trapezoidal piazza. Other Roman ensembles of the Baroque and late Baroque period are likewise suffused with theatricality and, as urban theatres, provide points of focus within the surrounding cityscape. Probably the most well known example of such an approach is Saint Peter's Square, which has been praised as a masterstroke of Baroque theatre (Figure 27.5). The piazza, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, is formed principally by two colonnades of free standing columns centered on an Egyptian obelisk. Bernini's own favorite
Pietro da Cortona restored the edice of Santa Maria Della Pace, adding a Baroque faade. Figure 27.4 Santa Maria Della Pace

Figure 27.5 St. Peter's Square by Gian Lorenzo Bernini

St. Peter's Square is an iconic example of Baroque theatricality.

design was his oval church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, decorated with polychome marbles and an ornate gold dome. His secular architecture included the Palazzo Barberini (based on plans by Maderno) and the Palazzo Chigi-Odescalchi (1664), both in Rome. Bernini's rival, the architect Francesco Borromini, produced designs that deviated dramatically from the regular compositions of the ancient world and Renaissance. His building plans were based on complex geometric figures, his architectural forms were unusual and inventive and he employed multi-layered symbolism in his architectural designs. His iconic masterpiece is the diminutive church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, distinguished by a complicated plan arrangement that is partly oval and partly a cross and so has complex convex-concave wall rhythms. Following the death of Bernini in 1680, Carlo Fontana emerged as the most influential architect working in Rome. His early style is exemplified by the slightly concave faade of San Marcello al Corso. Fontana's academic approach, though lacking the dazzling

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inventiveness of his Roman predecessors, exerted substantial influence on Baroque architecture both through his prolific writings and through the number of architects he trained, who would disseminate the Baroque idioms throughout eighteenth century Europe.
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Sculpture in Rome
Baroque sculpture dominated Italy in the 1600s.
KEY POINTS

Baroque sculpture attempted to capture dynamic movement of human figures. Baroque sculpture was meant to be viewed from all angles and displayed centrally rather than against a wall. Gian Lorenzo Bernini was the most important sculptor of the age, in Rome and throughout Europe. Bernini's sculpture of French ruler Louis XIV set the standard for royal portraiture for a century.

Baroque sculpture is the sculpture associated with the Baroque cultural movement. In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new importance, and there was a dynamic movement and energy of human formsthey spiralled around an empty central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding space. Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal viewing angles, and reflected a general continuation of the renaissance's move away from relief to sculpture created in the round. They were typically designed to be placed in the middle of a large space; for example, elaborate fountains such as Bernini's "Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi" (Rome,

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1651), or those in the Gardens of Versailles were a Baroque speciality. Much Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements; for example, concealed lighting, or water fountains, or fused sculpture and architecture that created a transformative experience for the viewer. Artists saw themselves as working in the classical tradition, and admired Hellenistic and later Roman sculpture. Gian Lorenzo Bernini was the dominating figure of the age. Bernini's sculptural output was immense and varied. The "Ecstasy of St. Theresa", in the Cornaro Chapel, "Santa Maria della Vittoria", and the now-hidden "Constantine", at the base of the Scala Regia (which he designed) were among his best known works (Figure 27.6) He was also given the commission for the Tomb of Pope Urban VIII in St Peters.
Bernini was the most prominent sculptor of the Baroque period. Figure 27.6 Ecstasy of St. Theresa, by Bernini

In 1665, at the height of his fame, Bernini travelled to Paris for several months. His international popularity was such that on his walks in Paris the streets were lined with admiring crowds. This trip was a response to repeated requests for his works by King Louis XIV. Here Bernini presented some designs for the east front of the Louvre, which were ultimately rejected. He soon lost favor at the French court as he praised the art and architecture of Italy over that of France. The sole work remaining from his time in Paris is a bust of Louis XIV, which set the standard for royal portraiture for a century.
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Painting
Baroque painting emerged in the 16th century and became extremely popular in the 17th century; the Roman High Baroque was from 1623 to 1667.

dark backgrounds to dramatic effect. Some of his famous paintings are 'The Calling of St. Mathew', 'St. Thomas', 'The Conversion of St. Paul', 'The Entombment', and 'The Crowning of the Christ'. His use of light and shadow was emulated by the Caravaggisti, the followers of Caravaggio, such as Orazio Gentileschi (15631639), Artemisia Gentileschi (1592-1652/3), Mattia Preti, Carlo Saraceni and Bartolomeo Manfredi. Other influential painters during this early period who influenced the development of Baroque painting included Peter Paul Rubens, Giovanni Lanfranco and Guercino. Other artists, such as
Figure 27.7 Ecce Homo by Caravaggio, 1605

KEY POINTS

Caravaggio was an important figure in early Baroque painting during the 15th century and inspired many mimics, known as Caravaggisti. Pietro da Cortona was the most influential painter of the High Baroque Period. In the later seventeenth century, artists such as Giordano increasingly produced monumental ceiling frescoes.

Relevant Painters of the Time Caravaggio (15711610), born and trained in Milan, stands as one of the most original and influential contributors to late sixteenth century and early seventeenth century European painting. He was known for painting figures, even those of classical or religious themes, in contemporary clothing, or as ordinary living men and women (Figure 27.7). Nevertheless, his inclusion of the seedier side of life was in marked contrast to the trends of the time. He used tenebrism and stark contrasts between partially lit figures and

Guido Reni and Domenico Zampieri, pursued a more classical approach. Baroque painters such as Cortona,
Example of a Baroque work by Caravaggio.

Giovan Battista Gaulli and Ciro Ferri continued to flourish alongside the classical trend represented by painters such as Sacchi and Nicholas Poussin. Even a classicist painter like Sacchi's pupil Carlo Maratta was influenced in his use of color by the Baroque. The

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principal painter of the Roman High Baroque, a period that spanned several papal reigns from 1623 to 1667, was Pietro da Cortona. His baroque manner is clearly evident in paintings that he executed for the Sacchetti family in the 1620s, and the vault fresco in the Palazzo Barberini (finished 1639) in Rome. Monumental ceiling frescoes mainly date to the latter part of the seventeenth century. Some were dramatically illusionistic such as Gaulli's nave fresco (1674-9) in the church of the Gesu and Andrea Pozzo's nave vault (1691-4) in
Giordano was an extremely prolic Italian Baroque painter. Figure 27.8 The creation of man, fresco in the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi in Florence, 1684-1686.

Sant'Ignazio, both in Rome. Luca Giordano (1634-1705) was born in Naples and was so prodigious in his output of paintings that he was known as Luca fa presto (Luke fast work, (Figure 27.8).
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Section 3

Spain

Painting Architecture

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Painting
The Spanish Golden Age is a period of ourishing in arts, coinciding with the political rise and decline of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty.
KEY POINTS

the Spanish Habsburg dynasty. It begins no earlier than 1492, with the end of the Reconquista (Reconquest), the sea voyages of Christopher Columbus to the New World, and the publication of Antonio de Nebrija's Gramtica de la lengua castellana (Grammar of the Castilian Language). Politically, it ends no later than 1659 with the Treaty of the Pyrenees, ratified between France and Habsburg Spain. Spain, in the time of the Italian Renaissance, had seen few great artists come to its shores. The Italian holdings and relationships made by Ferdinand of Aragon,Queen Isabella's husband and later Spain's sole monarch, launched a steady traffic of intellectuals across the Mediterranean between Valencia, Seville, and Florence. Luis de Morales, one of the leading exponents of Spanish mannerist painting, retained a distinctly Spanish style in his work reminiscent of medieval art. Spanish art, particularly that of Morales, contained a strong mark of mysticism and religion
A View of Toledo Figure 27.9 A View of Toledo

The Spanish Golden Age begins in 1492, with the end of the Reconquista and the sea voyages of Christopher Columbus to the New World. Politically, it ends no later than 1659, with the Treaty of the Pyrenees, ratified between France and Habsburg Spain. The Italian holdings and relationships made by Queen Isabella's husband and later Spain's sole monarch, Ferdinand of Aragon, launched a steady traffic of intellectuals across the Mediterranean between Valencia, Seville, and Florence. Spanish art contained a strong mark of mysticism and religion that was encouraged by the counter-reformation and the patronage of Spain's strongly Catholic monarchs and aristocracy. The Habsburgs, both in Spain and Austria, were great patrons of art in their countries.

Overview The Spanish Golden Age is a period of flourishing in arts and literature in Spain, coinciding with the political rise and decline of

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that was encouraged by the counter-reformation and the patronage of Spain's strongly Catholic monarchs and aristocracy. Artists of the Golden Age of Spain The Habsburgs, both in Spain and Austria, were great patrons of art in their countries. The following three painters are often considered by scholars as the influential founders of a uniquely Spanish style of painting. Universally known for his great impact in bringing the Italian Renaissance to Spain, "El Greco", or "The Greek", was not Spanish. Born Domenikos Theotokopoulos in Crete, he studied the great Italian masters of his time - Titian, Tintoretto, and Michelangelo - when he lived in Italy from 1568 to 1577. El Greco was influential in creating a style based on impressions and emotion, featuring elongated fingers and vibrant color and brushwork. Uniquely, his works featured faces that captured expressions of somber attitudes and withdrawal while still having his subjects bear witness to the terrestrial world. His paintings of the city of Toledo became models for a new European tradition in landscapes, and influenced the work of later Dutch masters (Figure 27.9). Diego Velzquez is widely regarded as one of Spain's most important and influential artists. He was a court painter for King Philip IV and found increasingly high demand for his portraits from statesmen, aristocrats, and clergymen across Europe. His portraits

of the King, his chief minister, the Count-duke of Olivares, and the Pope himself demonstrated a belief in artistic realism and a style comparable to many of the Dutch masters. Velazquez's most famous painting, however, is the celebrated Las Meninas, in which the artist includes himself as one of the subjects (Figure 27.10). Religion in the Art of the Spanish Golden Age The religious element in Spanish art, in many circles, grew in importance with the CounterReformation. The austere, ascetic, and severe work of Francisco de Zurbarn exemplified this thread in Spanish art, along with the work of composer Toms Luis de Victoria. Philip IV actively patronized artists who agreed with his views on the counterreformation and religion. The mysticism of Zurbarn's work influenced by Saint Theresa of Avila - became a hallmark of Spanish
In his most celebrated painting, Valzquez's self-portrait is included on the left. Figure 27.10 Las Meninas (1656, English: The Maids of Honor)

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art in later generations. Influenced by Caravaggio and the Italian masters, Zurbarn devoted himself to an artistic expression of religion and faith. His paintings of St. Francis of Assisi, the immaculate conception, and the crucifixion of Christ reflected a third facet of Spanish culture in the seventeenth century, against the backdrop of religious war across Europe(Figure 27.11). Zurbarn broke from Velzquez's sharp realist interpretation of art and looked, to some extent, to the emotive content of El Greco and the earlier mannerist painters for inspiration and technique, though Zurbarn respected and maintained the lighting and physical nuance of Velzquez.
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The Birth of the Virgin by Francisco de Zurbarn, demonstrates the religious themes, particular the devotion to the Virgin Mary, which pervaded Counter-Reformation Spanish artwork. Figure 27.11 The Birth of the Virgin

Architecture
Spanish Baroque is a strand of Baroque architecture that evolved in Spain and its provinces and former colonies, in the late 17th century.

KEY POINTS

In contrast to the art of Northern Europe, the Spanish art of the period appealed to the emotions rather than seeking to please the intellect. The Churriguera family, which specialized in designing altars and retables, revolted against the sobriety of the Herreresque classicism and promoted an intricate, exaggerated, almost capricious style of surface decoration known as the Churrigueresque. Between 1720 and 1760, the Churrigueresque column, or estipite, in the shape of an inverted cone or obelisk, was established as a central element of ornamental decoration.

Spanish Baroque is a strand of Baroque architecture that evolved in Spain and its provinces and former colonies, notably Spanish America and Belgium in the late seventeenth century. As Italian Baroque influences penetrated across the Pyrenees, they gradually superseded in popularity the restrained classicizing approach of

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Juan de Herrera, which had been in vogue since the late sixteenth century. For example, by 1667, the facades of Granada Cathedral (by Alonso Cano) and Jan Cathedral (by Eufrasio Lpez de Rojas) suggest the artists' fluency in interpreting traditional motifs of Spanish cathedral architecture in the Baroque aesthetic idiom. In Madrid, a vernacular Baroque with its roots in Herrerian and in traditional brick construction was developed in the Plaza Mayor (Figure 27.12) and in the Royal Palace of El Buen Retiro, which was destroyed during the French invasion by Napoleon's troops. Its gardens still remain as El Retiro park. This sober brick Baroque of the seventeenth century is still well represented in the streets of the capital in palaces and squares. In contrast to the art of Northern Europe, the Spanish art of the period appealed to the emotions rather than seeking to please the intellect. The Churriguera family, which specialized in designing altars and retables, revolted against the sobriety of the Herreresque classicism and promoted an intricate, exaggerated, almost capricious style of surface decoration known as the Churrigueresque. Within half a century, they transformed Salamanca into an exemplary Churrigueresque city. The development of the style passed through three phases. Between 1680 and 1720, the Churriguera popularized Guarini's blend of

Figure 27.12 Plaza Mayor

Three sides of the Plaza Mayor.

Solomonic columns and composite order, known as the "supreme order." Between 1720 and 1760, the Churrigueresque column, or estipite, in the shape of an inverted cone or obelisk, was established as a central element of ornamental decoration (Figure 27.13). Three of the most eye-catching creations of Spanish Baroque are the energetic faades of the University of Valladolid (Diego Tome and Fray Pedro de la Visitacin, 1719), the western faade (or Fachada del Obradoiro)

Figure 27.13 Caravaca de la Cruz.

The Churrigueresque column, or estipite, was a central element of ornamental decoration in the Spanish Baroque, as shown here in the Estipite in the Church of Caravaca de la Cruz.

of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (Fernando de Casas y Novoa, 1750, (Figure 27.14). In this case as in many others, the

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Churrigueresque design involves a play of tectonic and decorative elements with little relation to structure and function. The focus of the florid ornamentation is an elaborately sculptured surround to a main doorway. If one removed the
Figure 27.14 Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Spain.

The Royal Palace of Madrid and the interventions of Paseo del Prado (Saln del Prado and Alcal Doorgate, also in the same city), deserve special mention. They were constructed in a sober Baroque international style, often mistaken for neoclassical, by the kings Philip V and Charles III. The Royal Palaces of La Granja de San Ildefonso, in Segovia, and Aranjuez, in Madrid, are good examples of baroque integration of architecture and gardening. They have a noticeable French influence, (La Granja was known as the Spanish Versailles), but with local spatial conceptions that in some ways display the heritage of the Moorish occupation. In Flanders, the richest imperial province of seventeenth-century Spain, florid decorative detailing was more tightly knit to the structure, thus precluding concerns of superfluity. A remarkable convergence of Spanish, French, and Dutch Baroque aesthetics may be seen in the Abbey of Averbode (1667). Another characteristic example is the Church of St. Michel at Louvain (165070), with its exuberant two-storey faade, clusters of half-columns, and the complex aggregation of French-inspired sculptural detailing.
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intricate maze of broken pediments, undulating cornices, stucco shells, inverted tapers and garlands from the rather plain wall it is set against, the building's form would not be affected in the slightest. Nonetheless, Churrigueresque baroque offered some of the most impressive combinations of space and light. Buildings like Granada Charterhouse (sacristy by Francisco Hurtado Izquierdo), considered to be the apotheosis of Churrigueresque styles applied to interior spaces, or the

The facade of the Santiago de Compostela reects the Churrigueresque facade: the lavish details of the facade have little structural use.

Transparente of the Cathedral of Toledo, by Narciso Tom, where sculpture and architecture are integrated to achieve notable light and dramatic effects.

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Section 4

Flanders

Introduction Painting

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Introduction
During the 17th century, Flanders saw a great deal of rich artistic production which is exemplied in Flemish Baroque painting.
KEY POINTS

(1584-1585), which ended the Eighty Years War, the Southern Provinces of the Netherlands (known as Flanders), remained under Spanish rule and were separated from the independent Northern Netherlands (known as the Dutch Republic). Flanders was Catholic whereas the Dutch Republic was Protestant, which created a divide in the two regions artistic themes and output. The late 16th century saw the end of late Renaissance and Mannerist styles in the Flanders region, and the beginning of the age of Rubens. Art in Flanders during the 17th century was innovative and rich. In both Flanders and the Dutch Republic, this period is often known as the Dutch Golden Age, a time especially important for the arts. Baroque art was the prevalent style in 17th century Europe. In Flanders, this style is known as Flemish Baroque, where it exemplifies unique traits, largely due to the Catholicism of the region. Painting flourished especially, with artists such as Rubens, Anthony Van Dyck, and Jacob Jordaens rising to prominence during the period. Rubens set up an influential live work studio, Rubenshuis, where he trained some of his students.

After the Siege of Antwerp, the Southern Provinces of the Netherlands (known as Flanders), remained under Catholic Spanish rule and were separated from the independent Northern Netherlands (known as the Dutch Republic) which was Protestant. The artist Peter Paul Rubens rose to prominence during the period as well as Anthony Van Dyck and Jacob Jordaens. Flemish Baroque painting of the period is distinctive for its use of detailed realism as well as the separation of genres. Antwerp was the undisputed capital of artistic production for Flanders during the 17th century.

Flanders is an historical region located in parts of present-day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. The geographical territory of Flanders has varied over time, yet figured prominently throughout European history nonetheless. During the Middle Ages, the trading towns of Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres made Flanders one of the richest and most urban areas in Europe. After the Siege of Antwerp Flemish Baroque painting of the period is distinctive for its use of detailed realism as well as the separation of genres, where artists produced the majority of their work within a single genre. These genres include history, portraiture, genre, still life, religious, and landscape painting. Flemish art is also notable for the great deal of

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collaboration that took place between master painters. This was largely due to the aforementioned tendency to specialize in a particular area. Antwerp was the undisputed capital of artistic production for Flanders in the 17th century despite its new Habsburg authority, and largely due to the presence of Rubens. Brussels, the capital of Flanders, was also important, as it was the location of the court. Many artists fled the religious wars, moving from Flanders to the Dutch Republic. However, Flemish painting still flourished, especially in the Antwerp school, during the 17th century when the artists who remained influenced the direction of Flemish art. Baroque architecture in Flanders developed quite differently than in the Protestant North. Important architectural projects were set up
The house and studio of Peter Paul Rubens. Figure 27.15 Rubenshuis

in the vein of the Counter-Reformation. Rubens had a strong influence on architecture as well. In his book I Palazzi di Genova, he introduced new Italian models for buildings and decoration. The courtyard and portico of his own house in Antwerp (Rubenshuis) are good examples of his architectural aesthetic (Figure 27.15). Overall, the 17th century in Flanders saw a great deal of rich artistic production, mostly exemplified in Flemish Baroque painting. Rubens was at the forefront during the time, and his presence in Antwerp caused it to be a nexus for art.
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Painting
The style of painting produced in Flanders during the 17th century is known as Flemish Baroque.
KEY POINTS

Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony Van Dyck, and Jacob Jordaens-figured prominently as a point of artistic production during this time, as did Brussels and Ghent, to a lesser extent. Peter Paul Rubens, the preeminent painter of the Flemish Baroque style, had a strong influence on the artistic aesthetic of the 17th century. Flemish Baroque painting is notable for the fact that it was separated into different thematic categories, and artists of the time tended to specialize in one of these areas. These genres included history, portraiture, genre, landscape, and still life paintings. History painting, considered the most noble genre during the 17th
Rubens introduced the monumental hunting scene to painting, such as Wolf and Fox Hunt,' which depicted noble battle on a large scale and was inspired by his study of classical antiquity. Figure 27.16 'Wolf and Fox Hunt' by Peter Paul Rubens

Peter Paul Rubens was the preeminent painter of the Flemish Baroque style. Rubens was the dominant painter in the history painting category, and drew influence from Italian painting. Flemish Baroque painting is notable for the fact that it was separated into the different thematic categories of history, portraiture, genre, landscape, and still life. Genre paintings depict scenes from everyday life and were very common in 17th century Flanders. The vanitas, a type of still life painting that is meant to illustrate the meaninglessness of earthly life and the transience of all earthly pursuits, became very popular in 17th century Flemish painting.

The style of painting produced in Flanders during the 17th century is known as Flemish Baroque. This style was produced between about 1585, when the Dutch Republic split from the Habsburg Spain regions of the south, until about 1700, when the Habsburg rule ended after the death of King Charles II. Antwerp-- the home of

century, was comprised of depictions of historical, biblical, mythological and allegorical scenes. Rubens was the dominant painter in this category, though his student Anthony Van Dyck also became prominent. More than in any other category, Flemish history painters continued to draw influence from Italian painting. Rubens spent nine years in Italy studying the work of the masters.

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Rubens introduced the monumental hunting scene to painting, such as Wolf and Fox Hunt (Figure 27.16), which depicted noble battle on a large scale and was inspired by his study of classical antiquity.
Figure 27.17 Genre Painting

Genre paintings depict scenes from everyday life and were very common in 17th century Flanders. These paintings feature figures with no specific identity, commonly engaged in activities associated with the peasant life. Many genre artists follow the tradition of Peter Brueghel the Elder in their depiction of the lower classes (Figure 27.17). The paintings of Adriaen Brouwer, which often show peasants fighting and drinking, serve as an example of Flemish genre painting. Brouwer is known for painting his subjects in interior, rather than exterior, scenes. He was also known for his expressive facial studies, characteristic of a genre called tronies (faces), exemplified in works such as The Bitter Drink. Landscape painting was a major category in the 17th century. The style developed from earlier 16th century Flemish landscape paintings which were not particularly realistic and employed the

A genre painting by Peter Brueghel, enititled 'Village Lawyer'.

semi-aerial view typical of Peter Brueghel the Elder. Architectural interior painting also became popular around this time, developing out of the works of Hans Vredman de Vries, and depicting the realistic interiors of existing churches and cathedrals. Floral still life painting was widespread in 17th century Flanders, popularized by Brueghel the Elder around 1600. His sons, Jan Brueghel the Younger and Ambrosius Brueghel, were also known flower specialists of the time. Other subjects, or subcategories of still life painting, included the banquet still life, the animal still life,

Portrait paintings were for the most part monumental or life sized, though the group and family portrait came into prominence during the 17th century. Although he was not a portrait painter, Rubens completed some early works in this category. He also exerted influence through his student, Anthony Van Dyck, who became the court painter for Charles I of England and an influence on subsequent portraiture in England.

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and garland scenes. Still life paintings often had an underlying moralistic message concerning the brevity of life, a trait exemplified
Figure 27.18 Vanitas Painting

by the vanitas. A vanitas is a symbolic still life painting that is meant to illustrate the meaninglessness of earthly life and the transience of all earthly pursuits (Figure 27.18). Vanitas paintings were very popular in 17th century Flemish and Dutch work,

An example of a vanitas from the 17th century by Franciscus Gysbrechts.

and often depict symbols like skulls, flowers, rotting fruit, clocks, watches, smoke and hourglasses,

all meant to convey the ephemeral nature of life on earth.

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Section 5

The Dutch Republic

Ter Brugghen, van Honthorst, Hals, Leyster Rembrandt Landscape Art and Interior Painting Still-Life Painting

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Ter Brugghen, van Honthorst, Hals, Leyster

Hendrick ter Brugghen, Gerrit van Honthorst, Frans Hals and Judith Leyster were important genre painters of the Dutch Republic.
KEY POINTS

painters of the Dutch Republic. Their work generally depicted taverns and other scenes of entertainment that catered to the tastes and interests of a growing segment of the Dutch middle class. Hendrick Jansz ter Brugghen
Figure 27.19 Flute Player, by ter Brugghen, 1621

(1588 1629) was a Dutch painter and a leading member of the Dutch followers of Caravaggio, or the Dutch Caravaggisti (Figure 27.19). ter Brugghen began painting at the age of thirteen, studying with Abraham Bloemaert, a history painter trained in Mannerism. Around 1604, ter Brugghen travelled to Italy to expand his skills like many of his Dutch counterparts. While in Rome, he could have been in direct contact with Caravaggio.

ter Brugghen and Honthorst were both artists from the Utrecht working in the Caravaggisti tradition, emulating Caravaggio's dramatic use of light. Both of these artists were directly inspired by their travels to Italy. "Tavern scenes" and other depictions of lively entertainment were common subjects for genre painters of this period. Hals is remembered primarily for his portraiture and his pioneering use of loose brushwork. Judith Leyster is one of the few prominent female artists of the Dutch Golden Age. Leyster's work is extremely similar to Hals, leading some historians to speculate that she may have been his apprentice. Leyster is known for depicting female subjects in domestic interior scenes.
ter Brugghen, with Gerard van Honthorst imported Caravaggio's techniques from Italy in the early 17th century.

He certainly studied his work, as well as that of his followers the Italian Caravaggisti. Upon returning to Utrecht, he worked with Gerard van Honthorst, another member of the Dutch Caravaggisti.

The Utrecht Caravaggisti Hendrick ter Brugghen and Gerrit van Honthorst, as well as Frans Hals and Judith Leyster, were genre

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ter Brugghen's favourite subjects were half-length figures of drinkers or musicians, but he also produced larger-scale religious
Figure 27.20 The Matchmaker, by Gerard van Honthorst, 1625 This painting demonstrates Honthorst's use of chiaroscuro, a style made popular by Caravaggio.

Honthorst briefly became a court painter to Charles I in England in 1628. His popularity in the Netherlands was such that he opened a second studio in The Hague, where he painted portraits of members of the court and taught drawing. Honthorst cultivated the style of Caravaggio and had great skill at chiaroscuro, often painting scenes illuminated by a single candle. Apart from portraiture, he is known for painting tavern scenes with musicians, gamblers, and people eating (Figure 27.20). Frans Hals the Elder (c. 1582 26 August 1666), notable for his loose painterly brushwork, helped introduce this lively style of painting into Dutch art. Hals was also instrumental in the evolution

images and group portraits. He carried with him Caravaggio's influence, and his paintings have a strong dramatic use of light and shadow, as well as emotionally charged subjects. Though he died fairly young, at age 41, his work was well received and highly influential in his lifetime. Gerard van Honthorst (1590-1656) was born in Utrecht, and also studied under Abraham Bloemaert. In 1616, Honthorst also traveled to Italy and was deeply influenced by the recent art he encountered there. Honthorst returned to Utrecht in 1620 and went on to build a considerable reputation both in the Dutch Republic and abroad.

of 17th century group portraiture. Hals is best known for his portraits, mainly of wealthy citizens like Pieter van den Broecke and Isaac Massa, who were both prominent merchants. He also painted large group portraits for local civic guards and the regents of local hospitals. His pictures illustrate the various strata of society: banquets or meetings of officers, guildsmen, local councilmen from mayors to clerks, itinerant players and singers, gentlefolk, fishwives and tavern heroes. In his group portraits, such as the Archers of St. Hadrian, Hals captures each character in a different manner. Hals was fond of daylight and silvery sheen, in contrast to Rembrandt's use of golden glow effects.

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Judith Jans Leyster (1609 1660) was one of three significant women artists in Dutch Golden Age painting. The other two, Rachel Ruysch and Maria van Oosterwijk, were specialized painters of flower still-lifes, while Leyster painted genre works, a few portraits, and a single still life (Figure 27.21). Leyster largely gave up painting after her marriage, which produced five children. Although well-known during her lifetime and esteemed by her contemporaries, Leyster and her work were largely forgotten after her death. Leyster was rediscovered in 1893 when the Louvre purchased a Frans Hals only to find it had, in fact, been painted by Judith Leyster. Some historians have asserted that Hals may have been Leyster's teacher due to the close similarity between their work. Leyster's The Merry Drinker from 1629, has a very strong resemblance to The Jolly Drinker of 1627-28 by Hals, for example.
Leyster's subject matter was similar to other genre painters of the period, with the exception that she tended to focus on female subjects. Figure 27.21 A Game of Cards, by Judith Leyster

Leyster was particularly innovative in her domestic genre scenes. In them, she creates quiet scenes of women at home, which were not a popular theme in Holland until the 1650s.
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Rembrandt
Rembrandt is remembered as one of the greatest artists in European history and the most important in Dutch history.
KEY POINTS

etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, earning him an excellent reputation as an artist and teacher. In 1626 Rembrandt produced his first etchings, the wide dissemination of which would largely account for his international fame. Among the more prominent characteristics of Rembrandt's work is his use of chiaroscuro, the theatrical employment of light and shadow. This technique was most likely derived from the Dutch Caravaggisti, (followers of the Italian painter Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio). Also notable are his dramatic and lively presentation of subjects, devoid of the rigid formality that his contemporaries often displayed, and a visible
Rembrandt's immediate family frequently gured in his paintings. This work features Rembrandt's son Titus as a monk. Figure 27.22 Titus as a Monk, by Rembrandt, 1660

Rembrandt is primarily known for portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits, landscapes and illustrations of scenes from the Bible. Rembrandt's self-portraits are exceptionally sincere, revealing and personal. Stylistically, Rembrandt's work evolved from "smooth" to "rough"over the course of his lifetime. The thick, "coarse" strokes in Rembrandt's work were unconventional at the time, and poorly received by many of his contemporaries, though this technique is now viewed as essential to the emotional resonance of his work. Though he is remembered as the master of Dutch painting, Rembrandt's success was uneven during his lifetime.

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606 1669) was a Dutch painter and etcher during the Dutch Golden Age, a period of great wealth and cultural achievement. Though Rembrandt's later years were marked by personal tragedy and financial hardship, his

compassion for the human subject, irrespective of wealth and age. Throughout his career Rembrandt took as his primary subjects the themes of portraiture (dependent upon commissions from wealthy patrons for survival), landscape, and narrative painting. For the

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last, he was especially praised by his contemporaries, who extolled him as a masterly interpreter of biblical stories for his skill in representing emotions and attention to detail. His immediate family often figured prominently in his paintings, many of which had mythical, biblical or historical themes (Figure 27.22). In later years biblical themes were still depicted often, but the emphasis shifted from dramatic group scenes to intimate portraitlike figures (James the Apostle, 1661). In his last years, Rembrandt painted his most deeply reflective self-portraits (from 1652 to 1669 he painted fifteen), and several moving images of both men and women (The Jewish Bride, c. 1666)in love, in life, and before God. Rembrandt's self portraits trace the progress from an uncertain young man, through the dapper and very successful portrait-painter of the 1630s, to the troubled but massively powerful portraits of his old age. Together they give a
Rembrandt's numerous self portraits provide a strong record of his development as an artist and o!er insight into his personal psychology. Figure 27.23 Self Portrait, by Rembrandt, 1659

remarkably clear picture of the man, his appearance and his psychological make-up, as revealed by his richly weathered face. In his portraits and self-portraits, he angles the sitter's face in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always forms the line of demarcation between brightly illuminated and shadowy areas (Figure 27.23). Stylistically, his paintings progressed from the early "smooth" manner, characterized by fine technique in the portrayal of illusionistic form, to the late "rough" treatment of richly variegated paint surfaces, which allowed for an illusionism of form suggested by the tactile quality of the paint itself. Contemporary accounts sometimes remark disapprovingly of the coarseness of Rembrandt's brushwork, and the artist himself was said to have dissuaded visitors from looking too closely at his paintings.The richly varied handling of paint, deeply layered and often apparently haphazard, suggests form and space in both an illusory and highly individual manner.
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Landscape Art and Interior Painting

Landscape painting of the Dutch Republic became increasingly sophisticated and realistic in the 17th century.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Jan Vermeer, whose work uniquely captured lighting in interior spaces, is now the most renowned genre painter of the Dutch Republic.

Dutch and Flemish Painting Landscape painting was a major genre in the 17th century, inspired by Flemish landscapes of the 16th century, particularly from Antwerp. These Flemish works had not been particularly realistic, most having been painted in the studio, partly from imagination, and often still using the semi-aerial view style typical of earlier Netherlandish landscape painting, in the tradition of Joachim Patinir, Herri met de Bles and Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Dutch Landscapes A more realistic style soon developed in the Netherlands, with lower horizons making it possible to emphasize the often impressive cloud formations so typical of the region. Favourite subjects were the dunes along the western sea coast and rivers with their broad adjoining meadows where cattle grazed, often with the silhouette of a city in the distance. Winter landscapes featured frozen canals and creeks. The sea was a favorite subject as well, and held both military

The first phase of Dutch landscape painting was known as the "tonal phase", characterized by soft outlines, atmospheric effect, and focus on the sky. The "classical phase" began in the 1650s, retaining the atmospheric quality, but featuring contrasting light and color and the frequent presence of a compositional anchor - a prominent tree, tower, or ship. Paintings featuring animals emerged as a distinctive subgenre of Dutch landscape painting at this time. Romantic Italianate landscapes, featuring soft golden light, also emerged as a sub-genre of landscape painting. Genre paintings were also extremely popular during the Dutch Republic, featuring lively scenes from everyday life, such as markets, inns, taverns, and street scenes, as well as domestic interiors.

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and trade significance. Important early figures in the move towards realism were Esaias van de Velde (15871630) and Hendrick Avercamp (15851634).
Figure 27.24 A Southern Landscape with a Ruin, by Jan Both Both was known for working in the Italianate landscape style.

From the 1650s, the "classical phase" began, retaining the atmospheric quality, but with more expressive compositions and stronger contrasts of light and color. Compositions are often anchored by a single "heroic tree", windmill or tower, or ship in marine works. The leading artist of this phase was Jacob van Ruisdael (16281682), who produced a great quantity and variety of work, including "Nordic" landscapes of dark and dramatic mountain pine forests with rushing torrents and waterfalls. Other Landscape Styles Landscapes with animals in the foreground were a distinct subtype, and were painted by Cuyp, Paulus Potter (16251654), Adriaen van de Velde (16361672) and Karel Dujardin (16261678, farm animals), with Philips Wouwerman painting horses and riders in various settings. The cow was a symbol of prosperity to the Dutch and, apart from the horse, by far the most commonly shown animal; goats were used to indicate Italy. An important type of landscape, produced throughout the tonal and classical phases, was the romantic Italianate landscape, typically in more mountainous settings than are found in the Netherlands, with golden light, and sometimes picturesque Mediterranean staffage and ruins.

From the late 1620s, the "tonal phase" of landscape painting began, as artists softened or blurred their outlines, and concentrated on an atmospheric effect. Great prominence was given to the sky, with human figures usually either absent or small and distant. The leading artists of this style were Jan van Goyen (15961656), Salomon van Ruysdael (16021670), Pieter de Molyn (15951661), and in marine painting, Simon de Vlieger (16011653), with a host of minor figures.

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Jan Both (d. 1652), who had been to Rome and worked with Claude Lorrain, was a leading developer of the sub-genre (Figure 27.24). Italianate landscapes were popular as prints, and more paintings by Berchem were reproduced in engravings during the period itself than those of any other artist. Dutch Genre Painting Apart from landscape painting, the development and enormous popularity of genre painting is the most distinctive feature of Dutch painting in this period. These represented scenes or events from everyday life, such as markets, domestic interiors, parties, inn scenes, and street scenes. Genre Painting developed from the realism and detailed background activity of Early Netherlandish painting, which Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel the Elder were among the first to turn into their principal subjects. Adriaen Brouwer is acknowledged as the Flemish master of peasant tavern scenes. Before Brouwer, peasants were
Vermeer is a conrmed master of Dutch genre painting for his interior scenes. Figure 27.25 The Milkmaid, by Vermeer, 1658

typically depicted outdoors; he usually shows them in a plain and dim interior. Genre paintings, reflected the increasing prosperity of Dutch society and settings grew steadily more comfortable, opulent and carefully depicted as the century progressed. Other artists whose common subjects were intimate interior scenes included Nicolaes Maes, Gerard ter Borch and Pieter de Hooch. Jan Vermeer, long a very obscure figure, is now the most highly regarded genre painter of all. He specialized in domestic interior scenes of middle class life (Figure 27.25). Unique Artists A number of other artists do not fit in any of these groups, above all Rembrandt, whose relatively few painted landscapes show various influences, including some from Hercules Seghers (c.1589 c. 1638); his very rare large mountain valley landscapes were a very personal development of 16th-century styles. Artists with more personal styles were Aelbert Cuyp (16201691) and Philips Koninck (16191688). Cuyp took golden Italian light and used it in evening scenes featuring a group of figures in the foreground with a river and wide landscape behind them. Koninck's best works are panoramic views, as if from a hill, looking out over wide flat farmlands, with a huge sky.

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Still-Life Painting
Still life painting ourished during the Golden Age of the Dutch Republic.
KEY POINTS

Ambrosius Bosschaert was one of the early still life painters of the Dutch Republic. Still lifes presented opportunities for painters to demonstrate their abilities in working with difficult textures and complex forms. The vanitas theme, a moral message frequently found in still life painting, alluded to the fleeting nature of life. In the mid 16th century, pronkstilleven emerged, which focused on ornate and exotic objects. Still lifes were frequently drawn by copying flowers in books, as the Dutch were leaders in scientific and botanical drawings and illustrations.

The Dutch still life tradition was largely initiated by Ambrosius Bosschaert (15731621), a Flemish-born flower painter who had settled in the north by the beginning of the period, and founded a dynasty (Figure 27.27). Early still lifes were relatively brightly lit, with bouquets of flowers arranged in a relatively simple way. From the mid-century, arrangements that could fairly be called Baroque,

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usually against a dark background, became more popular, exemplified by the works of Willem van Aelst (16271683). Painters from Leiden, The Hague, and Amsterdam particularly excelled in the genre. Still lifes were a great opportunity to display skill in painting textures and surfaces in great detail, and with highly realistic light effects. Food of all textures, colors and shapes-- silver cutlery, intricate patterns, and subtle folds in table cloths and flowers-- all challenged painters. Flower paintings were a popular sub-genre of still life with its own specialists, and were favored by prominent women artists, such as Maria van Oosterwyck and Rachel Ruysch. Dead game, as well as birds painted live but studied from death, were another sub-genre, as were dead fish, a staple of the Dutch diet. Abraham van Beijeren painted this subject frequently.
This work is an example of an "ostentatious" still life. Figure 27.26 Banquet Still Life, 1660, by Abraham Van Bereyen.

Virtually all still lifes had a moralistic message, usually concerning the brevity of life. This is known as the vanitas theme. The vanitas theme was included in explicit symbols, such as a skull, or less obvious ones such as a half-peeled lemon (like life, sweet in appearance but bitter to taste). Flowers wilt and food decays, and silver is of no use to the soul. Nevertheless, the force of this message seems less powerful in the more elaborate pieces of the second half of the century.
Figure 27.27 Flowers in a Porcelain Vase by Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder

Initially, the subjects of still life paintings were typically mundane, but from the mid-century the pronkstilleven ("ostentatious still-life"), showing expensive and exotic objects, became more popular (Figure 27.26). Willem Claeszoon Heda (1595c. 1680) and Willem Kalf (16191693) led the shift towards the pronkstilleven. In the works of all of the still-life painters, colors tended to be muted, with browns dominating, especially in the middle of the century.

Bosschaert was an early still life painter who established a dynasty of ower painters.

Despite the intense realism of

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individual flowers, paintings were composed from individual studies or even book illustrations, and blooms from very different seasons were routinely included in the same composition. The same flowers also reappear in different works, just as pieces of tableware do. In reality, bouquets of flowers in vases were not at all common in houses at the time; even the very rich displayed flowers one by one in delftware tulip-holders. The Dutch also led the world in botanical and other scientific drawings, prints and book illustrations at this time.
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Section 6

France

Architecture, Sculpture, and Decoration at Versailles Painting

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Architecture, Sculpture, and Decoration at Versailles

The Palace of Versailles is a palace built by Louis XIV that contains seven hundred rooms, extensive gardens, and lavish decoration.
KEY POINTS

The Palace of Versailles is an opulent palace built by Louis XIV that contains seven hundred rooms, extensive gardens, and lavish decoration. Initially a small hunting lodge built by his father, Louis XIV transformed Versailles with four intensive building campaigns over his reign. The formal aesthetic of the palace was meant to glorify France and show the power and greatness of the selfproclaimed Sun King,' Louis XIV. The architect for the palace was Louis Le Vau, the interior decorator was Charles Le Brun, and the landscape designer was Andre Le Notre. These three artists had worked together previously on the private Chateau Vaux le Vicomte for the kings minister of finance, before he was imprisoned. In 1682 Versailles was transformed into the official residence of the king, and such notable features of the palace as the Hall of Mirrors and the Grande Canal were built.
Figure 27.28 Louis XIV-style The style of Louis XIV at Versailles is"characterized by red and gold richlywoven fabrics or brocades, heavy gilded plaster molding, large sculpted side boards, and heavy marbling.

The architect for the palace was Louis Le Vau, the interior decorator was Charles Le Brun, and the landscape designer was Andre Le Notre. The Palace of Versailles was executed in the French Baroque style, characterized by its large curved forms, twisted columns, high domes, and complicated shapes. Interior design from this period is known as Louis XIV-style.' Originated by Le Brun, it is characterized by red and gold richly-woven fabrics or brocades, heavy gilded plaster molding, large sculpted side boards, and heavy marbling. The gardens at Versailles cover eight hundred hectares of land and were executed in the French formal garden style, or jardin a la francaise'. Notable features of the palace include the Hall of Mirrors and the Grande Canal.

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The Palace of Versailles was executed in the French Baroque style

Figure 27.29 The Hall of Mirrors

woven fabrics or brocades, heavy gilded plaster molding, large sculpted side boards, and heavy marbling (Figure 27.28). The Hall of Mirrors is the central gallery of the Palace of Versailles and is one of the most famous rooms in the world (Figure 27.29). The main feature of this room is a series of seventeen mirrored arches that reflect seventeen arcaded windows overlooking the gardens. Each arch contains twenty-one mirrors. The arches are fixed between marble pilasters upon which bronze symbols of France are embedded. The landscape design at the Palace of Versailles is one of the most extravagant in history (Figure 27.30). Headed by Andre Le Notre, the gardens at Versailles cover eight hundred hectares of land and were executed in the French formal garden style, or jardin a la francaise.' This style is characterized by its meticulously manicured lawns, parterres of flowers, numerous fountains, and sculptures. The Bassin de Latone was designed by Le
Plan for the extravagant gardens at the Palace of Versailles. Figure 27.30 Gardens at Versailles

by architect Louis Le Vau, a French Classical architect who worked for King Louis XIV. French Baroque architectural style is characterized by its large curved forms, twisted columns, high domes, and complicated shapes. In comparison to the Baroque architecture of the rest of Europe, it is commonly thought to be more restrained and characterized by its

The main feature of the Hall of Mirrors is a series of seventeen mirrored arches that reect seventeen arcaded windows overlooking the gardens. Each arch contains twenty-one mirrors. The arches are xed between marble pilasters upon which bronze symbols of France are embedded.

mixture of lavish details on symmetrical and orderly buildings. Charles le Brun was the interior decorator for the Palace of Versailles as well as first painter to his majesty." Louis XIV declared him the greatest painter of all time, and Le Brun worked on such notable features of the palace as the Halls of War and Peace,' the Ambassadors Staircase, and the Great Hall of Mirrors.' Interior design from this period is known as Louis XIV-style,' originated by Le Brun, and characterized by red and gold richly-

Notre and sculpted by Gaspard and Balthazar Marsy between 1668-1670. This fountain depicts scenes from Ovids

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Metamorphoses, chosen as allegories to revolts during the kings reign. The Bassin dApollon is another fountain, which depicts the sun god driving his chariot to light the sky. The Grotte de Thetys is a freestanding structure with an interior decorated in elaborate shell-work to represent the myth of Apollo. A common feature of sculpture and decoration at Versailles is the use of classical mythology as allegory. The Grande Canal is a notable feature of the gardens, with an impressive length of 1500 by 62 metres. King Louis XIV ordered the construction of little Venice on the Grand Canal, which housed yachts, gondolas and gondoliers received from Venice. It also served a functional purpose by gathering the water that drained from the fountains and redistributing it to the gardens by horse-powered pump. The Grande Commande is a series of twenty-four statues that were commissioned by Louis XIV to decorate the gardens. The statues illustrate the classic quaternities of the Four Humors, the Four Parts of the Day, the Four Parts of the World, The Four Forms of Poetry, the Four Elements and the Four Seasons. Four additional sculptures depict abductions from classical mythology.
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Painting
17th century painting in France was inuenced by Italian Baroque sensibilities as well as the Classical tastes of the powerful monarchy.
KEY POINTS

Important painters of 17th century in France include Simon Vouet, Charles Le Brun, Nicolas Poussin, Claude Lorrain, and Georges de la Tour. Charles Le Brun was a student of Vouet and the most important painter in the court of King Louis XIV, responsible for the interior decoration at the Palace of Versailles. Nicolas Poussin is known for his Classical style paintings that favor clarity, logic, order and clean lines over color. Georges de la Tour was a French Baroque painter known for painting religious chiaroscuro scenes. Claude Lorrain is known particularly for his work in landscape paintings. King Louis XIV established the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, which propagated a style of art with distinctly Classical affectation.

17th century painting in France was influenced by Italian Baroque sensibilities as well as the Classical tastes of the powerful monarchy.

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These two strong influences resulted in a style that was unique to France and culminated in the art produced for King Louis XIV. The reign of Louis XIV saw a shift from Mannerist and Baroque styles popular in the early part of the century, during the reign Louis XIII, towards a more prescribed, Classical style. Louis XIV established royal control over artisanal production in France, prohibiting the purchase of luxury goods from abroad. He also established the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, which maintained a hierarchy of genres in painting and a distinctly Classical flavor. Important

painters of 17th century France include Simon Vouet, Charles Le Brun, Nicolas Poussin, Claude Lorrain, and Georges de la Tour. Simon Vouet is known for introducing Baroque style painting to France. He studied in Italy and learned the techniques of the Italian masters, which he imbued with his own sensibilities. He was made premier peintre du Roi by Louis XIII, who commissioned numerous works from him. Charles Le Brun was Vouets most influential pupil, and was to become an important painter in the court of King Louis XIV. Charles Le Brun worked primarily for King Louis XIV, and his most important works reside at the Palace of Versailles. Mostly producing battle pieces and altarpieces, Le Bruns
Nicolas Poussin is known for his Classical style paintings created in 17th"century France. His work features clarity, logic, order and clean lines over color, and serves as a counterpoint to Baroque style painting.

Figure 27.32 Nicolas Poussin, Echo and Narcissus.

Figure 27.31 Charles Le Brun,!The Conquest of Franche-Comt

Charles Le Brun worked primarily for King Louis XIV, and his most important works reside at the Palace of Versailles. Mostly producing battle pieces and altarpieces, Le Bruns paintings exemplify a synthesis of Baroque and Classical styles.

paintings exemplify a synthesis of Baroque and Classical styles (Figure 27.31).

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Nicolas Poussin is known for his Classical style paintings created in 17th century France. His work features clarity, logic, order and clean
Figure 27.33 Georges De La Tour,!Bende Maria Magdalena (Magdalena Terf)

17th century painting in France was divided: on the one hand there was influence from the Italian Baroque style as seen in the work of De La Tour; on the other was a distinctive turn towards a rigid, classical style that was favored by the monarchy, and exemplified by the works of Le Brun, Poussin, and Lorrain. The convergence of these two styles gave 17th century painting an aesthetic tone which was wholly unique to France.
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lines over color, and serves as a counterpoint to Baroque style painting (Figure 27.32). He spent most of his life working in Rome and became a favorite painter of King Louis XIV. Claude Lorrain is known particularly for his work in landscape paintings. He earned the patronage of Pope Urban VIII, after which his fame grew rapidly. Lorrain and Poussin were friends and were known to have traveled the Italian countryside together.

Georges de la Tour was a French Baroque painter known for painting religious chiaroscuro scenes lit by candlelight. His work shows a great deal of inuence from Caravaggio, characterized by the painted e!ects of light and dark, but is unique in that he applies this technique to genre subjects.

Georges de la Tour was a French Baroque painter known for painting religious chiaroscuro scenes lit by candlelight. His work shows a great deal of influence from Caravaggio, characterized by the painted effects of light and

dark, but is unique in that he applies this technique to genre subjects (Figure 27.33).

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Section 7

England

Architecture

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Architecture
English architecture during the 17th century can be characterized by its use of Palladian, Jacobean and English Baroque styles.
KEY POINTS

Baroque architecture, a distinctly English take on the Italian Baroque style, became prevalent during the later part of the 17th century, after the Great Fire of London. Inigo Jones, one of the first significant English architects, is known for introducing the Italianate Renaissance style to England. Jones is responsible for the Queens House at Greenwich (1635, (Figure 27.34), and the Banqueting House in the Palace of Whitehall (1622), which he designed based on the work of Palladio, an influential Italian Classical-style architect, with a ceiling painted by Peter Paul Rubens. Palladian architecture is highly symmetrical and based on the principles of formal Classical temple architecture of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Palladian architecture is seen during the 17th
The Queen's House at Greenwich was built by Inigo Jones, one of the rst signicant English architects known for introducing the Italianate Renaissance style to England. Figure 27.34 The Queen's House at Greenwich

Inigo Jones is known for introducing Palladian architecture to England. Popular during the early 17th century, Jacobean style can be classified by its adoption of decadent and detailed Renaissance motifs such as columns and pilasters, round arch arcades and flat roofs with openwork parapets e.g. Hatfield House. The architect Sir Christopher Wren was responsible for the genesis of the English Baroque style and designed St. Paul's Cathedral. After the Great FIre of London in 1666, Wren rebuilt many of the city's churches.

The architecture in England during the 17th century saw a continuation of the use of Classical forms, which eventually gave way to a uniform style, derived chiefly from Italy and exemplified predominantly in the work of Inigo Jones. Jacobean architecture was prominent in the first quarter of the 17th century and English

century in England with works by Jones and became truly prominent in the 18th century. The second phase of Renaissance architecture in England is termed Jacobean style. This style was popular during the first quarter of the

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17th during the reign of King James I. Chronologically following the Elizabethan style, Jacobean style can be classified by its adoption of decadent and detailed Renaissance motifs such as columns and pilasters, round arch arcades and flat roofs with openwork parapets. These classical motifs were, however,
Figure 27.35 St. Paul's Cathedral

Popular from 1666 to about 1715, English Baroque architecture can be characterized by heavy structures adorned with elaborate decoration, but tends to be relatively plain, with more Classical subtleties, compared to the Baroque architecture of the continent that was being built at the same time. Baroque country houses, such as Chatsworth House (Figure 27.36) by William

Figure 27.36 Chatsworth House, England

not strictly applied (as they were by Inigo Jones) but used rather freely and synthesized with elements of Elizabethan style architecture. Architectural examples of the style include Hatfield House, Knole House and Holland House by John Thorpe. The later 17th century saw Baroque architecture come to prominence in a

Built by Christopher Wren, St. Paul's Cathedral is the only English cathedral in the Classical tradition.

style that is termed English Baroque. It was the architect Christopher Wren, one of the most acclaimed English architects in history, who was

English Baroque architecture can be characterized by heavy structures adorned with elaborate decoration, but tends to be relatively plain, with more Classical subtleties, compared to the Baroque architecture of the continent that was being built at the same time. Baroque country houses, such as Chatsworth House by William Talman and Castle Howard by Vanbrugh and Hawksmoor, began to appear in the 1690s.

Talman and Castle Howard by Vanbrugh and Hawksmoor, began to appear in the 1690s. The most significant architects after Wren were Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor who built Castle Howard (1699) and Blenheim Palace (1705).
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responsible for the genesis of the English Baroque style. When the Great Fire of London in 1666 forced much of the city to be rebuilt, Wren was hired to replace many of the churches. His most ambitious construction, St. Pauls Cathedral (Figure 27.35), a magnificent piece of architecture, is the only English cathedral in the Classical tradition.

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Chapter 28

South and Southeast Asia After 1200

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Section 1

India

Buddhist Art Jain Art Hindu Art Sultanate of Delhi Vijayanagar Empire Mughal Empire Hindu Rajput Kingdoms Nayak Dynasty

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Buddhist Art
Buddhist art originated in India in the 6th century BC and and evolved as it came into contact with other cultures in Asia.
KEY POINTS

of the Buddha ("the awakened one"). Born to a royal family and originally named Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha abjured worldly life to live as an ascetic and teach in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent during the sixth and fifth centuries BC. Buddhist art flourished in India following the establishment of the religion and a sizeable base of followers. In India, there are two broad phases of Buddhist art: the Pre-iconic phase that lasted from the 5th to the 1st centuries BC, and the Iconic phase from the 1st century AD to the present day. As Buddhism expanded outside of India from the first century AD onward, Buddhist art and architecture came into contact with different cultures that were adopting new artistic influences. Central and Eastern Asia practiced Mahayana Buddhism, which formed the Northern branch of Buddhist art. Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka practiced Theravada Buddhism, which formed the Southern branch of Buddhist art. Early Buddhist Art and Architecture: The Pre-Iconic Phase Buddhist architecture emerged after the Buddha's death, building

Buddhist art in India has two phases: the Pre-Iconic phase where the Buddha was represented by abstract symbols instead of anthropomorphic figures; and the Iconic phase during which representations of the Buddha in human form developed for the first time. There are two separate strands of Buddhist art in Asia: the Northern Branch, which encompasses Central Asia, China, Japan, and Korea where Mahayana Buddhism is practiced; and the Southern Branch which encompasses Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, where Theravada Buddhism is practiced. The initial impact of Islam on Buddhist art was generally destructive, as Muslim invaders destroyed many Buddhist monasteries and artifacts. By the end of the 12th century, Buddhism in India remained only in select regions of the country.

Buddhist Art Buddhism is a religion indigenous to the Indian subcontinent that emerged in the fifth and fourth centuries BC, based on the teachings

on the model of the Brahminist Hindu temple that contained an inner sanctum, a surrounding ambulatory route, and a columned porch. They incorporated specifically Buddhist symbols such as the

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eight-spoked dharmachakra, the wheel of life that symbolized the Buddha's teaching of the path to enlightenment. Another characteristic feature of Buddhist architecture was the stupa, a mound-like structure housing the relics of holy men (Figure 28.1). From the 2nd to the 1st
Figure 28.1 The Great Stupa at Sanchi

Gandhara had benefited from centuries of interaction with Greek culture following the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, leading to the development of Greco-Buddhist art, characterized by wavy hair, detailed flowing drapery, and shoes or sandals The Buddhist art of Mathura, in contrast, was based on native Indian traditions. The two styles were characterized by a high degree of realism. Influencing each other strongly, they formed an iconographic canon for subsequent Buddhist art (Figure 28.3). Buddhist art continued to develop in India through the 4th and 6th centuries AD. The pink sandstone sculptures of the Gupta period were particularly influential in Southeast Asia. By the 10th century, the creation of new Buddhist art in India was waning and disappeared by the 12th
Sculptural frieze of the footprint of the Buddha. 1st century BC, Gandhara. Pre-iconic Buddhist art avoided anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha and used symbols such as footprints to indicate his presence in a sculpture. Figure 28.2 Footprint of the Buddha

century BC, Buddhist sites were decorated with votive tablets and sculptural friezes. These sculptures avoided anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha even in scenes where other human figures were present. His presence was indicated through symbols such as the wheel, a footprint, or an empty seat (Figure 28. 2).

The Great Stupa at Sanchi is the oldest stone structure of its kind in India and was commissioned by the Maurya emperor Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BC. It contains the relics of the Buddha and is decorated with ne examples of pre-iconic Buddhist sculpture.

The Iconic Phase Anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha began to emerge in the 1st century AD in the Mathura and the Gandhara kingdoms in Northern India, which reached their zenith between the 1st and 5th centuries AD under the Buddhist Kushan kings. The art of

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century, due to the expansion of Islam. It continued, however, to expand through the Himalayan kingdoms and in East and
Figure 28.3 Gandhara Buddha

under governmental sponsorship. Japan also developed an extremely rich figurative art for the pantheon of Buddhist deities. Southern Buddhist Art Buddhism traveled to Southeast Asia through maritime trade routes in the Indian Ocean. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism, Brahmanism and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact, through sacred texts, and Indian literature such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Theravada Buddhism was transmitted to Burma, Siam (Thailand), lower Cambodia, Southern Vietnam, and Indonesia. They largely influenced the direction Buddhist art would take in Southeast Asia. Several very powerful empires formed in Southeast Asia between the 9th and 13th centuries. These powers, including the Sri Vijaya Empire based in Sumatra, the Khmer Empire in Cambodia, and the ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai, were very active in Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The construction of vast Buddhist temple complexes played a particularly important role in this artistic creation.
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Southeast Asia. Northern Buddhist Art The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to Central Asia, China, and ultimately Japan and Korea started in the 1st century AD, where the Mahayana branch of Buddhism was developed and practiced. Buddhist art persisted for several centuries in Bactria (modern Afghanistan) and Central Asia until the advent of Islam in the 7th century AD. They spread

Representation of the Buddha in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, 1st - 2nd century AD.

from eastern Central Asia to China, which favored solemn and abstract representations of the Buddha under

the Northern Dynasties of the 5th and 6th centuries, and more lifelike, classically Indian depictions under the Tang Dynasty until 845. Buddhism was introduced in Japan in the 6th century and adopted by the state in the 7th. Numerous temples and monasteries were built in Japan, and countless sculptures and paintings made

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Jain Art
Jainism has inuenced and contributed to many artistic spheres in India, such as painting, sculpture, and architecture.

worldly life to become an ascetic and establish the central tenets of Jainism. Jainism found favor with the merchant classes and also with several powerful rulers. Chandragupta Maurya (born c. 340
Figure 28.4 The two Jain Tirthankaras, British museum

KEY POINTS

BC, ruled c. 320 BC - 298 BC), the founder of the great Maurya Empire, who had succeeded in conquering almost the entire Indian subcontinent, abdicated his throne at the age of 42 to become a Jain monk. Samprati, also a emperor of the Maurya dynasty and the grandson of Ashoka the Great (304 - 232 BC) also became a Jain. Both Chandragupta and Samprati were responsible for spreading Jainism in southern and eastern India.
This sculpture represents the Tirthankaras, or two founders of Jainism. On the left is Rishabha, who was the rst of the 24 tirthankaras. On the right is Mahavira, the last of those 24, who consolidated and reformed the religious and philosophical system.

Common themes in Jain painting and sculpture are the Tirthankaras or saviors, the yakshas and yakshinis or supernatural guardian deities, and symbols such as the lotus and the swastika, which represents peace and well-being. A large number of Jain palm leaf manuscripts have survived from the 10th to the 14th centuries with illustrations in the sharp and angular Western Indian style of art. Figures are shown in profile except for the Tirthankaras who are depicted in full-face view. From the 14th century onward, the increased availability of paper allowed the production of larger and more elaborate Jain illustrated manuscripts.

Jainism is a transtheistic religion prescribing non-violence toward all living beings that originated in the Indian subcontinent in the sixth century. Its founder Mahavira (c. 540 - 468 BC) was born into a royal family, but was possessed of a spiritual bent, renouncing

Jain Art and Architecture

For the most part, artists in ancient India belonged to nondenominational guilds who were prepared to lend their services to any patron, whether Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain. The styles they used

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were a function of the time and place rather than the religion. Therefore, Jain art from this period is stylistically similar to Hindu or Buddhist art, although its themes and iconography are specifically Jain. Popular themes and icons in Jain art include the Tirthankaras (Jain saviors: human beings who achieved the ultimate spiritual salvation and served as role models for society), yakshas and yakshinis (supernatural male and female guardian deities), and holy symbols such as the swastika which symbolized peace and wellbeing (Figure 28.4). The earliest Jain monuments were temples based on the Brahmanical Hindu temple plan and monasteries for Jain monks. Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves Among the earliest Jain monuments are the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, located near the city of Bhubaneshwar in Orissa, India. These caves are partly natural and partly manmade and were carved out as residential blocks for Jain monks during the reign of King Kharavela of Kalinga (ruled 193 - 170 BC). The caves bear inscriptions and sculptural friezes depicting Tirthankaras, elephants, women, and geese.

The Statue of Bahubali A colossal monolithic statue of Bahubali at Shravanbelagola, the Jain siddha (one who has attained spiritual salvation), located in Karnataka in southern India, is one of the most sacred pilgrimage sites for Jains. The statue was carved in 981 AD out of a single block of granite. The statue stands 55 feet high and is completely nude, as is customary in the Jain tradition. The Dilwara Temples Built under Chalukya rule in Rajasthan between the 11th and 13th centuries AD, the Dilwara Temple complex consists of five ornately carved marble temples, each dedicated to a different Tirthankara. The largest temple in the complex, the Vimal Vasahi Temple, was built in 1021 and is dedicated to the TirthankaraRishabha. Among its most remarkable features are the rang manda, a grand hall supported by twelve pillars and surmounted by a breathtaking central dome, and the navchowki, a
This is the interior of a richly carved marble dome in the Dilwara Temple complex that represents Jain Tirthankaras. Figure 28.5 Domed ceiling detail

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collection of nine rectangular ceilings, also richly carved. The pillars in the main hall are carved into the likenesses of women playing musical instruments and the sixteen vidyadevis or goddesses of knowledge, each holding a symbol representing her individual branch of learning (Figure 28.5). Jain Illustrated Manuscripts A large number of illustrated manuscripts commissioned by members of the Jain community have survived from between the tenth and fourteenth centuries, representing the Western Indian style of art. Painted on palm leaf, these illustrations rely on sharp outlines for effect, becoming progressively more angular and wiry until barely a trace of naturalism is left. The figures are shown in profile, as the full-face view was reserved for the Jain Tirthankaras. A common feature of this style is the projection of an eye beyond the face shown in profile, meant to indicate the second eye which would not be visible in this position. Only a few colors are used: yellow, green, blue, black, and red.The earliest illustrations are simple icons in small panels, but they gradually become more elaborate, depicting scenes from the lives of various Tirthankarasin detail. The increased availability of paper from the late 14th century enabled artists to paint more elaborate illustrations. A 15th-century manuscript of Kalpasutra, a Jain text containing the biographies of

Figure 28.6 Jain Kalpasutra manuscript

This illustration is from a Jain Kalpasutra manuscript, 1470 - 1500 AD. It uses opaque watercolor and gold on paper.

the Tirthankaras is particularly opulent. The text is written in gold and the margins are illuminated with figural patterns. Paintings in lavish blue, gold, and red, testifying to the wealth of the patron, often take up an entire page (Figure 28.6). With some minor variations, the western style of Indian art endured throughout the 16th century and into the 17th century. The rise in Islam contributed to the decline of Jain art but did not result in its total elimination.
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Hindu Art
Hindu art represents a plurality of beliefs and has deeply inuenced the painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Indian subcontinent.

Hinduism is the predominant religion of the Indian subcontinent. Dating back to the Iron Age, it is often called the oldest living religion in the world. Hinduism has no single founder and is a conglomeration of diverse traditions and philosophies rather than a rigid set of beliefs. Most Hindus believe in a single supreme God who appears in
Figure 28.7 Shiva Nataraja, the Lord of the Dance

KEY POINTS

many different manifestations as devas (celestial beings or deities) and may worship specific devas as individual facets of the same God. Hindu art reflects this plurality of beliefs, and Hindu temples, in which architecture and sculpture are inextricably connected, are usually devoted to different deities. Deities commonly worshiped include Shiva the Destroyer, Vishnu in his incarnations as Rama and Krishna, Ganesha, the elephant god of prosperity, and different forms of the goddess Shakti (literally, "power"), the primordial feminine creative principle. These deities are often portrayed with multiple limbs and heads, demonstrating the extent of the god's power and ability. Hindu art is also characterized by a number of recurring holy
Nataraja from Tamil Nadu, India. Chola dynasty copper alloy sculpture, ca. 950 - 1000 CE. The deity is depicted as having multiple arms, as is common for idols of Hindu gods.

Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in Hindu temples, which are usually devoted to a number of different deities. Deities are often portrayed with multiple limbs and heads. A Hindu temple generally consists of an inner sanctum, in which the idol of the deity is housed, a congregation hall, and sometimes an antechamber and porch. The garba griha is surmounted by a tall tower. Two main styles of temples exist in India: the north Indian Nagara style, characterized by a beehive shaped central tower, and the south Indian Dravida style, characterized by a graduated tower with multiple layered pavilions. The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was marked by the appearance of a large number of Hindu states and was a productive and creative period for Hindu temple architecture. Some popular icons in Hindu art include the swastika, the om, and the lotus.

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symbols, including the om, an invocation of the divine consciousness of God, the swastika, a symbol of auspiciousness, and the lotus flower, a symbol of purity, beauty, fertility and transcendence (Figure 28.7). A Hindu temple generally consists of a garba griha (literally, "womb chamber"), the inner sanctum in which the murti,or idol of the deity, is housed, a congregation hall, and sometimes an antechamber and porch. The garba griha is surmounted by a shikhara,or tower. Two main styles of temples exist in India: the northern, or Nagara, style, in which the shikhara takes the shape of a curvilinear beehive, and the southern, or Dravida, style, in which the tower, also called a gopuram, consists of progressive smaller stories of pavilions (Figure 28.8). The earliest Hindu temples found in India date back to the Gupta period (ca. 320 550 CE), one of which is the Dashavatara Vishnu Temple in Deogarh in central India, built ca. 500 CE. The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was
The 11th-century Lingaraj Temple is a ne example of the north Indian Nagara style of temple architecture, marked by its curvilinear, beehive-shaped shikhara. Figure 28.8 Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa

marked by the appearance of a large number of states, most of which were ruled by Hindu dynasties. This was a deeply productive and creative period for Hindu temple architecture and many beautiful examples survive to the present day, including the monumental, rock-cut Kailashnath Temple (754 - 774 CE) dedicated to Shiva at Ellora in the western state of Maharashtra, the 11thcentury Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjore in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, which is India's largest temple, and the Sun Temple (1238 - 1250 CE) at Konarak in Orissa (Figure 28.9). Although many Hindu temples were destroyed during the period of Muslim rule in India (12th - 18th centuries),
The Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjore has the tallest Dravida-style tower (216 feet) in India. The multiple stories are ornately carved. Figure 28.9 Brihadeeswarar Temple Gopuram Detail

Hindu influence on Indian art and architecture has withstood the test of time and continues to shape works of art.
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Sultanate of Delhi
Indo-Islamic art and architecture emerged in India under the Delhi Sultanate during the 13th to 16th centuries.
KEY POINTS

The five dynasties were: the Mamluk Dynasty (1206-1290) the Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320) the Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414) the Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451) the Afghan Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526) The early rulers of the Delhi Sultanate are often viewed as iconoclastic pillagers, best known for their indiscriminate destruction of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples; acting on Islamic prohibitions of anthropomorphic representations in art, and the attendent outrage that the sumptuously-realistic Indian sculptures and paintings would have caused them. However, the fusion of indigenous and Muslim customs and styles

The Delhi Sultanate's greatest contribution to Indian fine arts was the introduction of Islamic architectural features, including true domes and arches, and the integration of Indian and Islamic styles of architecture. Built by the first sultan of Delhi, the Qutb Minar is the tallest minaret in India. The Delhi Sultanate patronized painting despite Islamic injunctions against anthropomorphic figures in art, and developed an Indo-Persian style that drew heavily both from schools in Iran and from Jain paintings.

The Delhi Sultanate This term refers to the five short-lived kingdoms or sultanates of Turkic and Pashtun (Afghan) origin that ruled Delhi between 1206 and 1526, when the last of their line was overthrown by the Mughals.

under the Delhi Sultanate gave rise to the beginnings of IndoIslamic art and architecture, which reached its zenith under the Mughal emperors. Architecture The Sultanate's greatest contribution to the fine arts of India lies in their Indo-Islamic architecture. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the governor of Delhi and subsequently, the first sultan of the Delhi Sultanate

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(ruled 1206-1210 AD), started the construction of the Qutb Minar in 1192, which was completed after his death by his successor Iltutmish. Made of fluted red sandstone and marble, the Qutb Minar is the tallest minaret in India, standing at a height of 238 feet. It comprises several superposed flanged and cylindrical shafts, separated by balconies supported by Muqarnas corbels (an architectural ornamentation reminiscent of stalactites employed in traditional Islamic and Persian architecture). The walls of the minaret are covered with Indian floral motifs and verses from the Quran (Figure 28.10). The Qutb Minar is located in Mehrauli Archeological Park, which also contains other fine examples of Delhi Sultanate architecture, including the tomb of the sultan Balban (reigned 1266-1287 AD), the first known building in India to feature a true arch. Another building of historical importance in the develoment of Indo-Islamic architecture is the Alai Darwaza, the main gateway on
One of the earliest and best known of the Delhi Sultanate architectural monuments, and also the tallest minaret in India. Its accompanying gateway, the Alai Darwaza bears the rst surviving true dome in India. Figure 28.10 The Qutb Minar and the Alai Darwaza

the southern side of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. Built by the second Khilji sultan of Delhi, Ala-ud-din Khilji in 1311 AD, it features the earliest-surviving true dome in India. There is little architecture remaining from the Sayyid and Lodi periods, but a few fine examples survive in Lodi Gardens in Delhi, including the tomb of Mohammad Shah, the last sultan of the Sayyid Dynasty, built in 1444. It is characterized by an octagonal main chamber with Islamic pointed arches, stone chhajjas (projecting eaves supported by carved brackets borrowed by Muslim empires from Hindu architecture) and guldastas (ornamental flower-shaped pinnacles) on the roof, both of which would eventually become common feaures of Mughal architecture. Art Scholars previously believed that the Delhi Sultanate did not patronize painting because of the Islamic injunction against the portrayal of living beings in art. However, literary evidence and the discovery of illustrated manuscripts from the period suggests otherwise, and royal painting workshops appear to have flourished under more liberal rulers. The painting style of the Delhi Sultanate borrowed heavily from the flourishing traditions of Islamic painting abroad, resulting in the development of an Indo-Persian style, based essentially on the

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schools of Iran but influenced by

Figure 28.11 "Rustam Kills the Turanian Hero Alkus with his Lance."

the individual tastes of Indian rulers and local styles. The earliest known examples date from the 15th century, including a copy of the Shahnama or Book of Kings, created under Lodi rule, which bears a close relationship to contemporary Jain paintings. Features of Delhi Sultanate paintings that are based on Indian traditions include groups of people standing in rows and identical poses, narrow bands of decoration running across the

Vijayanagar Empire
The Vijayanagar Empire ruled in South India from 1336 until 1646 and left a lasting legacy of architecture, sculpture, and painting.

KEY POINTS

Shahnama, Delhi Sultanate, c. 1450."This miniature comes from a manuscript made by an artist who was highly inuenced by Jain art from western India. Both the intense palette and the depiction of gures di!er from those found in other Islamic painting.

Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles, which evolved from prior empires in earlier centuries. It is also influenced by later Deccan and Dravidian styles. It uses granite as its main building material. Vijayanagar temples are characterized by ornate pillared halls and rayagopurams, or monumental towers adorned with lifesized figures of gods and goddesses that stand at the entrance of the temple. The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar is generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often shows secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches, domes, and vaults. The Vijayanagar School of Painting is renowned for its frescoes of Hindu gods and goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology on temple walls and ceilings.

width of the painting, and bright and unusual colors that replace the muted hues found in earlier Timurid painting (Figure 28.11).
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The Vijayanagar Empire was a Hindu empire based in the Deccan plateau region of South India. Established in 1336 by Harihara I (ruled 1336-135 CE), it enjoyed its greatest political and cultural

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prominence under Emperor Krishna Deva Raya (ruled 1509-1529 CE) and lasted until 1646, when it was conquered by the Muslim Sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda. The empire's patronage enabled its fine arts and literature to rise to new heights, and its legacy of sculpture, painting, and architecture influenced the development of the arts in South India long after the empire came to an end. There were great innovations in Hindu temple construction during this period, and many diverse templebuilding traditions and styles in South India came together in the Vijayanagar style of architecture, the finest examples of which are to be found in the capital Hampi. Vijayanagar Architecture and Sculpture Vijayanagar-era architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly, and civic architecture. Its style is a harmonious combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles which evolved in earlier centuries and represents a return to the simplicity and serenity of the past. Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had been for the Badami Chalukyas, but soapstone, which was soft and easily carved, was also used for reliefs and sculptures. In order to cover the unevenness of the stone used in sculptures, artists employed brightly-painted plaster to smooth over and finish rough surfaces.

Temples Vijayanagar temples are surrounded by strong enclosures and characterized by ornate pillared kalyanamandapa (marriage halls), tall rayagopurams (carved monumental towers at the entrance of the temple) built of wood, brick, and stucco in the Chola style, and adorned with life-sized figures of gods and goddesses. This dravida style became popular during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over the next two centuries. Vijayanagar temples are also known for their carved pillars, which depict charging horses, figures from Hindu mythology, and yali (hippogriphs) (Figure 28.12). Some of the larger temples are dedicated to a male deity, with a separate shrine intended for the worship of his female counterpart. Another element of the Vijayanagar style is the carving of large, monolithic statues, such as the Sasivekalu Ganesha at Hampi. Some famous temples exemplifying the Vijayanagar style include the Virupaksha Temple
Pillars of Vijayanagar temples are often engraved with images of yali, or hippogri!s. Figure 28.12 Chandikesvara Temple in Hampi

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at Hampi and the Hazara Rama temple of Deva Raya I (Figure 28. 13). Palaces and Courtly Architecture No royal palace structures from the Vijayanagar period survive intact, and most of what is known about them has been drawn from archeological excavations at Hampi. Most of the palaces faced east or north and stood within compounds surrounded by high, tapering stone and earth walls. They were built on raised granite platforms with multiple tiers of mouldings decorated with carved friezes. Palaces usually spanned multiple levels and had tall flights of stairs flanked on either side by balustrades carved with yali and elephants. Pillars and beams were made of wood and the roofs of brick and lime concrete. The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar is generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often shows secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches, domes, and vaults.
This temple has a particularly ne example of the tall, ornate rayagopuram popularized by Vijayanagar architecture. Figure 28.13 Virupaksha Temple, Hampi

The Vijayanagar School of Painting The Vijayanagar emperors were enthusiastic patrons of painting, and the Vijayanagar School of Painting was renowned for its frescoes of Hindu mythological themes on temple walls and ceilings. Mysore painting, an important form of South Indian classical painting, is an off-shoot of Vijayanagar painting and originated in the southern town of Mysore, in Karnataka, during the reign of the Vijayanagar emperors. Mysore paintings are known for their elegance, muted colors, and attention to detail. Popular themes include Hindu gods and goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology. Vijayanagar art includes wall-paintings of the Dashavatara (The Ten Avatars of Vishnu) and the Girijakalyana (marriage of Parvati) at the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi (Figure 28.14).
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15th century, depicting scenes from Hindu mythology. Figure 28.14 Painted ceiling, Virupaksha Temple

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Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire spanned most of the Indian subcontinent from the 16th-19th centuries and contributed greatly to the Indian ne arts.
KEY POINTS

The Mughal Empire was an imperial power that ruled most of the Indian subcontinent from the 16th to the mid-18th century and continued to exist as a considerably weaker entity until 1857. The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin, descended from Genghis Khan and Timur. At the height of their power in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, they controlled most of the subcontinent, and their lands stretched over a territory of 1.2 million square miles. The History of the Great Mughals The Mughal dynasty was founded by Babur (r. 1526-1530 CE), a Mongol-Turkic prince from Ferghana (modern Uzbekistan). Ousted from his lands in Central Asia, he turned his attention to the fertile lands of the Delhi Sultanate in northern India. From his base in Kabul, which he conquered in 1504, he gradually captured more territory farther east. Babur finally defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the head of the Delhi Sultanate, in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 (despite having a much smaller army), and took his kingdom, thus establishing the beginnings of the Mughal Empure. Babur's son, Humayun (r. 1530-40 and 1555-56), succeeded him in 1530 but lost most of his fledgling empire to Afghan enemies and was forced to go into exile. However, his son Akbar (r. 1556-1605), defeated the Hindu king Hemu Vikramaditya, who had seized

The Mughal dynasty was founded by Babur (ruled 1526-1530), a Mongol-Turkic prince from Central Asia. The emperor Akbar (ruled 1556-1605) extended the boundaries of the Mughal emperor through military conquests and diplomacy, set up efficient structures of government, and pursued policies of religious conciliation and harmony towards his Hindu subjects. Mughal architecture reached its zenith under Shah Jahan (ruled 1628-1658). The Taj Mahal was constructed during this period. The Mughal emperors were enthusiastic patrons of the arts. Their biggest contribution to the Indian arts were Mughal architecture and painting, both of which were amalgams of Persian and Turkic styles with local Indian styles. The Mughal Empire declined in political, economic, and cultural strength after the death of the emperor Aurangzeb in 1707 and finally collapsed at the hands of the British Raj in 1857.

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Figure 28.15 Western side of Taj Mahal at sunset

Akbar's son Jahangir (r. 1605-1627) built on his father's foundations of excellent administration, and his reign was similarly characterized by political and economic stability and cultural achievements. He also opened relations with the British East India Company. Jahangir was succeeded by his son, Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658), who was a keen patron of culture. Mughal art and architecture reached its zenith under his rule. He erected many spectacular monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal in Agra (Figure 28.15).

The Taj Mahal is one of the nest examples of Indian architecture under the Mughal Empire. In 1983, it was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

A succession struggle for the Mughal throne ensued even while Shah Jahan was still alive. His third son, Aurangzeb, prevailed against his brothers and declared the ailing king incompetent to rule, putting him under house arrest. Following Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb became emperor, ruling from 1658-1707. He was a notable expansionist, and the Mughal Empire reached its greatest territorial extent under Aurangzeb and included almost all of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and most of Afghanistan. A religious conservative, Aurangzeb chose not to tread the path of religious liberalism and tolerance that his predecessors had chosen. His religious intolerance, combined with his military and political expansionism, roused dissension among the Rajputs and the Hindu Maratha states in the Deccan Peninsula; he spent the last 26 years of his life and vast amounts of wealth trying to put down rebellions in the far reaches of his vast empire.

power in Delhi during Humayun's exile in the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556, thus reestablishing Mughal rule in northern India. Arguably the greatest of all Mughal emperors, Akbar was simultaneously an adept military leader who conquered vast swaths of northern and central India and a shrewd statesman who extended his empire by forging martial and marital alliances with his Hindu Rajput neighbors. He also was an exceptionally capable ruler, setting up efficient and durable administrative institutions of government, and a tolerant man who pursued policies of religious accommodation and harmony towards his Hindu subjects. The Mughal Empire under Akbar's reign experienced an unprecedented period of religious peace and economic and cultural progress.

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Decline of the Mughal Empire Aurangzeb died in 1707. His son, Bahadur Shah I, who lacked the military might and the strong
Figure 28.16 Mughal painting

strong economy under Mughal rule. The Mughal emperors were enthusiastic patrons of the arts, and their vast royal treasuries funded many cultural achievements. Most notable among their contributions to the culture of the Indian subcontinent were Mughal architecture and Mughal painting (Figure 28.16), both of which were an amalgam of Persian and Turkic styles with local styles. The Urdu language is another contribution, which continues to be the national language of Pakistan and a co-official language in India.
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leadership qualities of his father, proved unequal to governing an empire that had grown too big. Thereafter, a string of weak emperors, endless wars of succession, fiscal collapse, and persistent onslaughts from the Marathas in the south heralded the decline of the Mughal Empire. In 1739, a weakened Mughal Empire was defeated in battle by the conqueror Nader Shah, ruler of Iran, and continued to exist with only the most nominal power

A Mughal miniature painting, created between 1598 and 1602, is a watercolor on paper.

until 1857, when the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, was overthrown by the British Raj.

Cultural Contributions The creation of a road system and a uniform currency, along with the unification of previously disparate territories, allowed for a

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Hindu Rajput Kingdoms

The Rajputs were patrilineal clans, ruling a majority of Hindu princely states in northern India between the 6th and 20th centuries.
KEY POINTS

The Rajputs (from Sanskrit raja-putra, "son of a king") are members of patrilineal clans in western, central, and northern India who claim to be descendants of the kshatriyas, the Hindu ruling warrior caste. The Rajputs rose to prominence between the 6th and 12th centuries, establishing the overwhelming majority of Hindu
Figure 28.17 Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho Complex

Claiming to be descendants of the Hindu ruling warrior caste, the Rajputs rose to prominence between the sixth and twelfth centuries, establishing the overwhelming majority of Hindu princely states in Rajasthan and Surashtra in northwestern India. During the period of Islamic invasions (11th through 16th centuries), the Rajput kingdoms proved to be the primary obstacle to the complete Muslim conquest of Hindu India. Under the Mughal emperor Akbar's reign (1556-1605 CE), the Rajputs accepted Mughal authority and were admitted into the emperor's court, given positions in his government and army, and formed martial and marital alliances with the emperor. Through their many centuries of rule in northern India, the Rajputs built spectacular temples, forts, and palaces and were eager patrons of painting. Rajput and Mughal art and architecture were also important influences on one another once the two powers came into contact.

The Khajuraho Group of Monuments in Madhya Pradesh, India, are the legacy of the Rajput Chandela Dynasty, who built the temples between 950 and 1150 CE. Khajuraho has the largest group of medieval Hindu temples and arguably the nest. The temples were built from sandstone, without mortar, and the stones are held in place solely by gravity. They are particularly famous for the erotic sculptures that adorn the temple spires and walls.

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princely states in Rajasthan and Surashtra in northwestern India, which they ruled until the twentieth century. The History of the Rajputs The origin of the Rajputs is a subject of debate, as the term was not used to designate any particular clan or social group before the 6th century CE. According to one theory, the invading Hephthalites, who ushered in the collapse of the Gupta dynasty in the late 6th century, were integrated into Indian society and given a ritual rank, kshatriya, within the Hindu caste system. From the beginning of the 9th century, these Rajput dynasties dominated many parts of northern India. Some important dynasties include the Chauhan Dynasty of Ajmer and Delhi, which ruled between 956 and 1192 and whose famous leader Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad of Ghor, a Persian conqueror, in battle; the Solanki Dynasty, which ruled present-day Gujarat between 945 and 1297; and the Chandela Dynasty, which ruled the Bundelkhand Region of central India between the 10th and 13th centuries and built the famous carved Hindu temples of Khajuraho between 950 and 1150 (Figure 28.17). During the period of Islamic invasions, the Rajput kingdoms proved to be the primary obstacle to the complete Muslim conquest of Hindu India. Even after the Punjab and the Ganges river valley fell

to Muslim armies, the Rajputs maintained their sovereignty in Rajasthan, in the forests of central India. Later, Sultan Alauddin Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate took the two Rajput forts of Chittor and Ranthambore, but he did not succeed in holding them. The Rajputs and the Mughals The Rajputs of Mewar were defeated by the Mughal emperor Babur in 1527 CE when he was in the process of establishing Mughal rule in India. His grandson, Akbar (r. 1556-1605), retook the forts of Chittor and Ranthambore in 1568-69 and then made a settlement with all the Rajput princes of Rajasthanwith the exception of Mewar, which continued to hold out against Mughal lordship. Accepting Mughal authority, the Rajputs were admitted into the emperor's court. Many Rajputs assumed positions in Akbar's government and army or formed martial and marital alliances with him. Mughal-Rajput relations suffered under the reign of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707), who did not pursue the policy of religious accommodation of his predecessors. After the death of Aurangzeb and the subsequent decline of the Mughal empire, the Rajputs fell afoul of the Maratha Confederacy, an Indian power that covered much of the subcontinent and is credited with ending Mughal rule in India. At the end of the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818) between the Maratha Confederacy and the English East

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India Company, all the Rajput states in Rajasthan entered into a subsidiary alliance with the Company and became princely states under the British Raj.

important influences on one another once the two cultures came into contact (Figure 28.19).
Figure 28.19 City Palace, Udaipur

Figure 28.18 Jaisalmer Fort

Situated in Jaisalmer in the Indian state of Rajasthan, Jaisalmer Fort is one of the largest forts in the world. It was built in 1156 by the Bhati Rajput ruler Rao Jaisal and played a major role in trade with Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and Africa. The fort has three layers of walls and an ingenious drainage system that allows for easy drainage of rainwater away from the fort in all four directions. Built from yellow sandstone, it shines honey gold at sunset and is, consequently, also known as the Golden Fort. The palace complex in Udaipur Rajasthan was constructed by Maharana Udai Singh as the capital of the Sisodia Rajput clan in 1559. The largest of its type in Rajasthan, the Udaipur Palace is a amboyant fusion of Rajput and Mughal architectural styles.

Contributions to Art and Architecture Through their many centuries of rule in northern India, the Rajputs built spectacular forts and palaces (Figure -.-). They were also eager patrons of painting. Rajput and Mughal art and architecture were

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Nayak Dynasty
The Nayak reign in South India was renowned for its unique style of temple architecture and for the development of Tanjore painting.

century. Nayak rule was noted for its administrative reforms, its artistic and cultural achievements, and the creation of a unique style of temple architecture. They also renovated temples that had
Figure 28.20 Gopuram, Meenakshi Amman Temple

been sacked by the Delhi Sultans. Tanjore painting, a famous South Indian school of classical painting, also emerged under the Nayaks. Nayak Architecture The main characteristics of Nayak temple architecture as pioneered by the Nayaks of Madurai and Tanjore are the long corridors; the carved hundredpillared and thousand-pillared mandapas (outdoor temple halls or porches); and the high, multi-storied gopurams (towers adorning the entrance of a

KEY POINTS

The Nayak dynasties emerged in South India after the downfall of the Vijayanagar Empire in 1565, when the Nayak military governors declared independence and ruled from the 16th to 18th century. Nayak architectural style was characterized by elaborate hundred- and thousand-pillared mandapas, the high gopurams with painted stucco statues on the surface, and long corridors. The Nayak Dynasty is also known for its mural and wall paintings. Tanjore paintings from this time are known for their surface richness, vivid colors, and compact composition.

Nayak Dynasty The Nayak dynasties emerged in South India after the collapse of the Vijayanagar Empire. The Nayaks, former military governors of the Vijayanagar emperors, had declared their independence in 1565 and established their own kingdoms, ruling from the 16th to 18th

Gopurams from the Nayak Period are adorned with brightly-painted stucco statues of gods and goddesses, demons, and animals, both real and mythical.

temple), richly decorated with brightly-painted stone and stucco statues of animals, gods, and demons (Figure 28.20). Arguably the greatest example of the Nayak style is the Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai that was built between 1623 and 1655

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AD. The temple has ten ornate gopurams and a hall with 985 pillars, each of which is a sculpture in the Dravidian style (Figure 28.21). The temple complex also includes a sacred temple tank, the Porthamarai Kulam or Pond with the Golden Lotus. A portico on the west side of the tank contains remnants of Nayak paintings from the 17th and18th centuries. Nayak civic architecture combines Dravidian and Islamic styles, as exemplified by the palace erected by King Thirumalai Nayak of the Madurai Nayak dynasty in 1636 AD. The palace features an octagonal throne room topped by a dome that rises 70 feet, held up
Each pillar in these Nayak, many-pillared temple halls is carved in the shape of gods and goddesses or mythical beasts such as gri#ns. Figure 28.21 Hall of a Thousand Pillars, Meenakshi Amman Temple

by massive circular columns linked by Islamic pointed arches. The structure was constructed using foliated brickwork and the surface details finished in stucco mixed from shell lime and egg whites to provide a smooth and glossy texture. Painting Tanjore painting, a major form of classical South Indian painting, originated under the Nayaks of Tanjore around 1600 AD. Renowned for their surface richness, vivid colors, and compact composition, these paintings serve primarily as devotional icons. Hindu gods, goddesses, and saints are the most frequent subjects. Tanjore paintings are usually done on solid wooden planks. The artist began by making a preliminary sketch of the image on a base of cloth pasted onto the wood and applied a mixture of zinc oxide and adhesive to the base. After the drawing was completed, the jewelry and apparel on the image were decorated with semiprecious stones, lace, or thread. They applied a mixture of chalk powder and African gum for an embossed look, and the painting
Showing images of Nayak Kings and Queens at Srirangam Temple with inscriptions in Kannada language Figure 28.22 The Nayaka Murals

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was covered with gold foil and finished with dyes to color the figures. In Tanjore paintings, the figures are static and located in the center of the composition inside decorated arches or curtains. Eyes are broad and the outer lines are either brown or red, except for the god Krishna who's eyes are depicted in blue. Artists under Nayak rule also painted frescoes on the walls of buildings, usually temples, mostly featuring religious subjects or images of royal power (Figure 28.22). Coins The Nayaks issued coins made of gold and copper, featuring Hindu gods and goddesses such as Shiva and Parvati, figures of the king, and animals. Both real and mythical, the latter included bears, elephants, lions, and fish (the emblem of the Pandyas who had ruled Madurai before the Vijayanagar and Nayak rulers). The coins also carry inscriptions in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Nagari scripts.
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Section 2

Southeast Asia

Thailand Burma Vietnam Indonesia

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Thailand
Traditional Thai art primarily consists of Buddhist art with inuences from Thai folklore and Hinduism.
KEY POINTS

Traditional Thai art primarily consists of Buddhist art and, to a lesser extent, Hindu-influenced Thai folklore. Thai sculptures most often depict images of the Buddha and other characters from Buddhist and Hindu mythology, while Thai paintings comprise book illustrations and painted ornamentation of temples and palaces. The history of Buddhist art in Thailand until the 18th century can be divided into three broad phases: the Dwaravati period, the Sukhothai period, and the Ayutthaya period. Origins of Buddhist art in Thailand From the 1st to the 7th centuries, art in Thailand was influenced by direct contact with Indian traders and the expansion of the Mon Kingdom, leading to the creation of Hindu and Buddhist art inspired by the Gupta tradition of India. Dwaravati period (6th - 11th centuries) The Indian styles of the Amaravati and Gupta empires formed the basis of much of Dwaravati art, which produced both Hindu and
8th - 9th century. The continuous eyebrow and the thick lips are characteristic of the Amaravati style patronized by Dwaravati. Figure 28.23 Head of Buddha, Dvaravati kingdom

Thai sculptures depict images of the Buddha and other characters from Buddhist and Hindu mythology, while Thai paintings comprise book illustrations and painted ornamentation of temples and palaces. From the 1st to the 7th centuries, art in Thailand was influenced by direct contact with Indian traders and the expansion of the Mon Kingdom, leading to the creation of Hindu and Buddhist art inspired by Indian traditions. The history of Buddhist art in Thailand until the 18th century can be divided into three broad phases: the Dwaravati period (6th - 11th centuries), the Sukhothai (13th - 15th centuries) period, and the Ayutthaya period (14th - 18th centuries). The Sukhothai period witnessed the development of four classic postures of the Thai Buddha, namely, walking, standing, sitting, and reclining. Later Thai art was highly influenced by Sukhothai images and continued to imitate these postures. The most common form of Buddhist architecture seen in Thailand is the wat or monastery temple, which is characterized by multiple-tiered roofs.

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Buddhist images, usually taking the form of monumental statues. From the 9th century onward, Mahayana influences such as the Cambodian Khmer style in the north and the Sri Vijaya style in the south became more important. Dwaravati art came to represent the Mahayana pantheon, portraying of multiple creations of Bodhisattvas, or enlightened beings. Three important styles of portraying the Buddha emerged during the Dwaravati period, namely: 1. Buddha in the Tribhanga (leaning) position, with Indian features and no aureole. 2. Buddha in the Amaravati style with loosely folded legs, a continuous eyebrow, flat nose, thick lips, and a lotus-shaped aureole (Figure 28.23). 3. A square-faced Buddha with a cleft chin, Khmer features, and fully folded legs, sitting on a lotus base. Sukhothai period (13th - 15th centuries) Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka arrived in Thailand for the first time the 13th century, at the same time that the Sukhothai kingdom was established in north-central Thailand. Theravada Buddhism had a considerable influence on Sukhothai art, which favored highly stylized images of the Buddha-- cast with the

intention of depicting his superhuman traits, and in keeping with his canonical defining marks, as set out in ancient Buddhist texts. Sukhothai Buddhas usually had finely curled hair, a slight smile, broad shoulders, and a slender oval face, and were accompanied by a flame-shaped aureole. Small anatomical details were frequently omitted to emphasize the Buddha's spiritual aspects. The Sukhothai period witnessed the development of four classic postures of the Thai Buddha: walking, standing, sitting, and reclining. Later Thai art was highly influenced by Sukhothai images and continued to imitate these postures (Figure 28.24). Ayutthaya period (14th - 18th centuries)

Figure 28.24 Bronze walking Buddha, Thailand, Sukhothai kingdom, 15th century

The Sukhothai period witnessed the development of Buddha images in a walking position.

Ayutthaya sculptures were executed in stone, bronze, and brick and stucco. The period was characterized by juxtaposed rows of Buddha figures. The influence of the Sukhothai period continued to loom large, particularly in bronze Buddha images which were portrayed

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in Sukhothai poses. Artists of the late Ayutthaya period usually depicted the Buddha in royal attire, set on ornate bases. Sculptures were often gilded, or decorated with gold leaf in free-form designs on lacquer backgrounds (Figure 28.25). Thai Painting Traditional Thai paintings show subjects in two dimensions without perspective. An important element in the composition is the apportioning of areas: the main elements in the image are isolated from one another by space transformers, which eliminate the intermediate ground that would otherwise imply perspective. The size of each element in the picture reflects its degree of importance. The most frequent themes for Thai painting are illustrations of the Jataka tales (a vast body of fables about the previous incarnations of the Buddha, both in human and animal form), events from the life of the Buddha, the Buddhist
Gilded sculptures of the Buddha became popular during the Ayutthaya period. Figure 28.25 Standing Buddha, Thailand, Ayutthaya kingdom, 16th century

heavens and hells, and scenes from daily life. The paintings reflect a blend of Thai folklore and traditional Buddhist iconography. Thai Buddhist Architecture The most common form of Buddhist architecture seen in Thailand is the wat or monastery temple. It usually consists of two parts: the phuttawat or the area dedicated to the Buddha, and the sanghawat or the living quarters of the Buddhist monks. Multiple roof tiers are an important element of the Thai temple. Temples have two or three tiers, although royal temples may have four. Multiple tiers are used to lighten a roof's massive appearance, and individual layers themselves have multiple breaks, creating dynamic visual rhythms. Roofs are surrounded by a finial called the lamyong, sculpted in a serpentine shape, resembling the feathers of Garuda, a mythical bird-like creature from Hindu and Buddhist mythology. The lamyong is surmounted by a large, curving ornament called the chofah, which represents the beak of Garuda. Temples are also decorated with sculptures and paintings of the garuda, and other mythical beings from Hindu and Buddhist iconography, including the many-armed gods Vishnu and Shiva, the elephant god Ganesh, the naga or serpent deity, and the ghostbanishing giant Yaksha.

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Burma
Burmese art has been inuenced primarily by Theravada Buddhism with additional inuences from India, Thailand, and China.
KEY POINTS

Buddhist art and architecture first began to flourish in Burma under the Pyu city-states (2nd century BC - mid-11th century AD). The Pyu imported Buddhism from India and built solid stupas that served as inspiration for later Burmese temples. Under the Pagan Empire (849 - 1297 AD), two types of Buddhist temples developed: the stupa-style solid temple and the gu-style hollow temple. Two innovations in temple architecture of the Pagan period are pointed arches and vaulted chambers, and the pentagonal temple plan. There are three popular styles of Buddha images in Burma: the Ava style, the Mandalay style, and the Shan style.

Burmese art has been influenced primarily by Theravada Buddhism and the culture of the Mon people, with additional influences from India, Thailand, and China. Themes are commonly drawn from Buddhist and Hindu cosmology and myths. Burma is particularly renowned for its richness of

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Buddhist architecture, and is justifiably called "The Land of Pagodas." Buddhist monasteries and gilded pagodas dot the landscape. Buddhist art and architecture began to flourish in Burma under the Pyu city-states (2nd century BC - mid-11th century AD). Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, and imported Buddhism along with various Indian cultural, and architectural concepts. While Theravada Buddhism was the primary religion of the Pyu kingdoms, archeological finds indicate that Tantric Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Hinduism were also present. Figures from the Mahayana and Tantric pantheons, including Avalokiteshwara (a bodhisattva who embodies compassion) and Tara (a female Tantric meditation deity); Hindu deities, including the Hindu holy trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, and the goddess Lakshmi, were represented in Pyu art. Starting from the 4th century, the Pyu began to build stupas and other religious buildings. The styles, ground plans, and construction techniques used are very similar to those of Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in the Andhra region in present-day south-eastern India. By the 7th century, the tall cylindrical solid stupas, characteristic of the Pyu reign, had emerged in the city of Sri Ksetra. These solid stupas served as models for later pagodas.

The Pyu city-states declined in the early 9th century when a new group of ethnic Burmans from the north entered and raided their lands, establishing the Pagan dynasty and eventually, overtaking the Pyu realm in the late-10th century. The Pagan state endured between 849 and 1297 AD, and laid the foundations for Burmese language and culture and the spread of Theravada Buddhism through all of Burma. The Pagan Empire is famous for its religious architecture. Over 2000 temples from the period survive to the present day in two broad architectural styles: the stupa-style solid temple, inherited from the Pyu city-states, and the gu-style hollow temple (Figure 28.26). During the Pagan period, the stupa developed into a longer, more cylindrical form than its Pyu predecessors at Sri Ksetra. By the 11th century, it had assumed a bell-like form, surmounted by a series of increasingly smaller rings, placed one on top of the other and rising
A view of the stupas in Bagan (formerly Pagan), the capital of the Pagan Empire. Figure 28.26 Pagan plains today

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to a point. A lotus or banana-bud topped these rings. Three or four rectangular terraces served as the base for a pagoda, often decorated by a gallery of terracotta tiles depicting the Jataka tales. One of the earliest examples of Pagan temple architecture is the Shwezigon Pagoda in Nyaung-U. It is considered a prototype of Burmese stupas and consists of a bell-shaped goldleaf-gilded stupa surrounded by smaller temples and shrines (Figure 28.27). The hollow gu-style temple comes in two basic styles: the one-face design with one main entrance, and the four-face design with four main entrances. The main features of these temples are pointed
Figure 28.27 Shwezigon Pagoda Completed in 1102 AD, this is one of the earliest examples of Pagan-style Buddhist temples. It is marked by a solid, bell-shaped stupa.

Buddhist temple with the pentagonal floor in order to honor the Maitreya Buddha, a future Buddha foretold of in Buddhist mythology. In addition to setting the model for subsequent Buddhist stupas and temples, the Pagan period also witnessed the production of beautiful jeweled statues of the Buddha. The Pagan Empire was succeeded by the Ava Kingdom, which ruled Upper Burma from 1364 to 1555. Ava rule was marked by the popularization of the Innwa style of Buddha, in which the Buddha has large protruding ears, exaggerated eyebrows that curve upward, half-closed eyes, thin lips, and a hair bun that is pointed at the top. Ava statues of the Buddha are also usually portrayed in the bhumisparsha mudra, in which the figure is seated with the right hand reaching for the ground, palm facing inward.
This gilded statue of the Buddha has naturally slanted brows, slanted eyes and round hair bun characteristic of the style. Figure 28.28 Mandalay-style Buddha statue, Shwedagon pagoda, Yangon, Myammar

arches and vaulted chambers which became larger and grander during the Pagan period. Vaulting was an innovation that developed independently in Pagan itself around the 11th century, and the masonry of these vaulted buildings is astonishingly perfect and durable. Another architectural innovation arising in Pagan is the

The Innwa stylecontinued to be popular in Burma until the end of the 18th century, when a markedly new style of Buddha image, the Mandalay style, emerged under the Konbaung dynasty (1752 -

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1885). The face of the Buddha in the Mandalay style was natural and fleshy with realistically-slanted eyebrows, slightly slanted eyes, thicker lips, and a round hair bun. These statues were portrayed wearing flowing, draped robes. Three postures were commonly depicted: reclining, standing, or sitting. Another common style of Buddha image is the Shan style, inherited from the Shan people who inhabit the highlands of Burma. Buddhas in the Shan style have angular features, large and prominently-pointed noses, and small, thin mouths (Figure 28.28).
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Vietnam
Traditional Vietnamese art and architecture has been been formed by the interaction of local customs with Chinese and Indian inuences.
KEY POINTS

The art of Northern Vietnam was strongly influenced by Chinese domination (111 BC - 939 AD), reflecting Confucian and Mahayana Buddhist traditions. Southern and central Vietnam were a part of the kingdom of Champa (ca. 500 1500 AD), and produced Indianized Hindu-Buddhist art. During the millennium of Chinese domination (111 BC to 939 AD), artists in the north of Vietnam began to apply newlylearned Chinese techniques to art, specifically ceramics, in conjunction with art created using traditional indigenous methods, including advanced bronze-casting. The period of rule under the L" Dynasty (1009 - 1225) is commonly considered a golden age in Vietnamese art, and its ceramics became famous across Southeast Asia and the Far East. Champa was an Indic civilization that flourished along the coasts of central and southern Vietnam between 500 and 1500 AD, lying on important trade routes linking India, China, and the Indonesian islands.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

Chinese techniques to art, specifically ceramics, in conjunction with art created using traditional indigenous methods, including advanced bronze-casting. Chinese-influenced philosophies such as Confucianism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Taoism left lasting impressions on Vietnamese culture and art, which continued to flourish between the 10th and 15 centuries after Chinese dominance had waned. However, the ceramics from this period were considerably influenced by the Tang and Song dynasties of China. The period of rule under the L" Dynasty (1009 1225) is commonly considered a golden age in Vietnamese art, and its ceramics became famous across Southeast Asia and the Far East. Many Vietnamese landmarks were constructed during this period, including the Temple of Literature (a Confucian temple in Hanoi, built in 1070 and reconstructed
Built in 1070, this Confucian temple housed the Imperial Academy, Vietnam's rst national university. The temple layout is similar to that of the temple at Qufu, Shandong, Confuscius' birthplace. It covers an area of over 54,000 square meters, including the surrounding Lake of Literature, a park and the interior courtyards, which are enclosed by a brick wall. In front of the Great Gate are four tall pillars. On either side of the pillars are two stelae or stone tablets commanding horsemen to dismount. Figure 28.29 Temple of Literature, Main Gate, Hanoi

The artistic legacy of Champa consists of sandstone sculptures, both free-standing and in relief, and brick temples. Cham art and architecture synthesized from Hinduism, Buddhism, and different indigenous cults. The art and architecture of Champa was at its peak between the 7th and 10th centuries, after which it fell into a state of gradual decline. Worn out by external conflict, the kingdom fell in 1471 AD.

Vietnamese art and architecture has a long, rich history and has been shaped by the interaction of local customs with foreign cultures. The art of Northern Vietnam was strongly influenced by Chinese domination (2nd century BC - 10th century AD), and reflected Confucian and Mahayana Buddhist traditions. In contrast, southern and central Vietnam were a part of the Indic kingdom of Champa (ca. 500 - 1500 AD), and produced strongly Indianized HinduBuddhist art, with additional influences from Cambodia, China, and Java. The Art of Northern Vietnam During the millennium of Chinese domination (111 BC to 939 AD), artists in the north of Vietnam began to apply newly-learned

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between 1225 - 1400) and the One Pillar Pagoda (built in 1049 and widely regarded as one of Vietnam's most iconic Buddhist temples, (Figure 28.29). Vietnam was conquered and ruled by the Ming Dynasty of China between 1407 and 1427 AD. This period of Chinese domination was extremely harsh and many classical Vietnamese books were burnt as an extreme process of sinicization was enforced. Consequently, the art of this period was heavily influenced by the Ming Dynasty, a process which continued even after the liberation of Vietnam by the L Dynasty (1428 - 1788). The Nguy#n Dynasty, the last ruling dynasty of Vietnam, witnessed a renewed interest in ceramics and porcelain, which became famous and were imported to imperial courts across Asia.
The prole of this 13th century temple includes all the buildings typical of a Cham temple. From left to right one can see the kalan, the attached mandapa, the saddle-shaped kosgrha, and the gopura. Figure 28.30 Temple of Po Klaung Garai, Phanh Rang, Vietnam

The Art of Champa Champa was an Indic civilization that flourished along the coasts of central and southern Vietnam between 500 and 1500 AD, lying on important trade routes linking India, China, and the Indonesian islands. The artistic legacy of Champa consists primarily of sandstone sculptures, both freestanding and in relief, and brick buildings. Most of the surviving art expresses religious themes, synthesized from Hinduism, Buddhism, and different indigenous cults. The Cham built their temples from red brick. Temple complexes usually consisted of five parts: the kalan or sanctuary, usually in the form of a tower and used to house the deity, the mandapa or entry hallway, the kosagrha or fire-house, used to house the temple's valuables and to cook for the deity, and the gopura or gate-tower leading into the walled templed complex. This structure was typical for Hindu temples in general, not just in Champa but across Greater India. Some of the most significant temples of historical Champa include the temple of Yan Po Nagar, dedicated to the Hindu goddess Bhagavati outside Nha Trong, built between the 8th and 13th centuries, and Po Klaung Garai near Phan Rang (Figure 28.30). The Cham were famous for both their freestanding sandstone statues and their relief carvings, with some preference for the latter. The subject matter was mostly drawn from the legends and

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religious traditions of India and the sculptures feature Hindu and Buddhist deities, such as Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti (the divine feminine creative power in Hinduism), and Avalokiteshwara (the bodhisattva of compassion). Cham sculptors also erected numerous lingas or phallic posts connected with Shiva, and created some images that depart from Indian subject matter to reveal something of the lives and customs of the Cham. A few bronze sculptures and metal decorative items remain as well, dating from the 10th century AD. These include statues of Mahayana Buddhist deities such as Avalokiteshwara and Tara (a Buddhist female meditation deity), and bear a strong resemblance to the Indian Buddhist style of Amaravati (Figure 28.31). The art and architecture of Champa was at its peak between the 7th and 10th centuries, after which it fell into a state of gradual decline. The civilization tottered under persistent conflict with external
10th century Cham sculpture, sandstone. The gures are a dancing apsara (Hindu celestial nymph) and a gandharva (Hindu male nature spirit) musician. Figure 28.31 The Dancers' Pedestal of Tra Kieu

forces, culminating in 1471 AD with the conquest and obliteration of the capital Vijaya by the $%i Vi&t of northern Vietnam.
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Indonesia
Indonesian art has been shaped by interaction between indigenous customs and foreign inuences, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

By the fifteenth century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Indonesia and local mosques reflected both indigenous and Islamic influences. They lacked the Islamic dome and had tall timber-tiered roofs similar to the pagodas of Balinese Hindu temples.

KEY POINTS

Indonesia has a particularly rich tradition of Hindu-Buddhist sculpture and architecture, and was strongly influenced by India from the 1st century AD onward. Buddhist art in Indonesia reached its golden era under the Sailendra dynasty of the Sri Vijaya Empire between the 8th and 13th centuries. Sculpture flourished between the 8th and 10th centuries AD in Java and Bali, taking the form of free-standing statues or relief sculptures incorporated into temples. They are characterized by their delicacy and serenity of expression. A classic example of the architecture of Sri Vijaya is the 8thcentury Borobudur temple, the largest Buddhist temple in the world. Indonesian art enjoyed a golden age under the Majapahit Empire (1293 - 1500) during which a huge number of HinduBuddhist brick temples were built. They have tall, slenderroofed red brick gates, a strong geometrical quality and a sense of verticality achieved through many horizontal lines.

The culture and art of Indonesia has been shaped by interaction between local indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. Situated on the ancient maritime trading routes between the Near East and the Far East, it was exposed to a multitude of foreign cultural practices and religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. The result is a complex fusion of many different customs, expressed in Indian art forms. Indonesia has a particularly rich tradition of Hindu-Buddhist sculpture and architecture, and was strongly influenced by India from the 1st century AD onward. The earliest Buddhist structures in Indonesia to survive to the present day are the 4th-century Batujaya plastered brick stupas in West Java. However, Buddhist art reached its golden era under the Sailendra dynasty of the Sri Vijaya Empire. The islands of Sumatra and Java in western Indonesia were the seat of the Sri Vijaya Empire (8th - 13th centuries), which practiced

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Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism and were a major political and cultural influence in the Southeast Asian peninsula. Stone and bronze sculpture flourished between the 8th and 10th
Figure 28.32 Bronze Maitreya statue, South Sumatra, Indonesia, c. 9th-10th century.

unfolds from beginning to end. The last three levels simply contain stupas and statues of the Buddha. Borobudur is supposed to represent a map of the Buddhist cosmos and is a masterful combination of didactic narrative sculptures, spiritual symbolism, monumental design, and meditative serenity. The entire structure resembles a stupa, and when seen from above, looks like a mandala, a concentric diagram with spiritual significance in Buddhism (Figure 28.33).
Figure 28.33 Borobudur's main stupa, Java, Indonesia.

century AD under the Sailendra dynasty in Java and Bali. These sculptures were either freestanding statues or relief sculptures and friezes incorporated into temples, and are characterized by their delicacy and serenity of expression (Figure 28. 32). The most outstanding example of this classical Hindu-Buddhist sculpture in Indonesia is found in the temple of Borobudur in central Java. Built in the 8th century, Borobudur is the largest Buddhist temple in the world. It has, as part of its structure, 504 statues of the Buddha and 2672 relief panels depicting the life of the Buddha. As

This bronze Bodhisattva Maitreya is an example of Sri Vijayan sculpture. The statue's distinctive crown incorporates a stupa in its design.

a visitor ascends through the eight levels of the temple, the story

The main Stupa crowning the Borobudur built in the 8th century by the Sailendra dynasty. The uppermost terrace has rows of bell-shaped stupas and Buddha images. The main stupa itself is empty, symbolizing perfect enlightenment.

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Near Borobudur is the 9th-century temple complex of Prambanan, one of the oldest and largest Hindu temples in Southeast Asia. The complex consists of eight main shrines, surrounded by 224 smaller ones. The Indian influence on the building is unmistakable, not only in the architectural style but also in the stone reliefs featuring scenes from the Hindu epic Ramayana, which adorn the outer walls of the main temples. The decline of the Sri Vijaya Empire in the 11th century was accompanied by a corresponding decline in Buddhism and a shift of power to Eastern Java. The Majapahit Empire was established in 1293 and lasted until ca. 1500. The Majapahit rulers practiced a mix of Hinduism, Buddhism, and animism, and the religious architecture reflects this syncretism. Indonesian art enjoyed a golden age under Majapahit rule and an enormous number of Hindu-Buddhist temples or candi were built during this period. The building material of choice was brick and mortar of vine sap and palm sugar. Majapahit architecture is characterized by tall and slender roofed red brick gates, a strong geometrical quality and a sense of verticality, achieved through numerous horizontal lines. Majapahit influence can still be seen to the present day in Hindu temples in Bali. By the fifteenth century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, Indonesia's most populous islands. Islamic

cultural and artistic influences were absorbed and reinterpreted in the local landscape, resulting in mosques that reflected both Indonesian and Islamic background, with additional influences from Hindu, Buddhist, and Chinese architecture. Indonesian mosques lacked the ubiquitous Islamic dome until the 19th century, and had tall timber tiered roofs similar to the pagodas of Balinese Hindu temples. Indonesian painting before the 19th century was mostly restricted to the decorative arts, which were considered a religious and spiritual activity. These include the mural paintings on the long houses of the Kenyah people of Borneo, which are based on endemic natural motifs such as ferns and hornbills, and the geometric wood carvings of the Toraja people of South Sulawesi. There is also a tradition of Balinese painting that depicts scenes from Balinese legends and is usually found in Indonesian lontar or palm-leaf manuscripts and the roofs of Balinese temples.
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Section 3

Mughal Period

Architecture Painting Rajput Painting

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/south-and-southeast-asia-after-1200/mughal-period/
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Architecture
Mughal architecture is an Indo-Islamic architectural style that developed in India under the patronage of the Mughal Empire.
KEY POINTS

Persian, Turkish, and Indian architecture. The Mughals were also renowned for creating exquisite gardens in the Persian charbagh layout, in which the quadrilateral gardens were divided by walkways or flowing water into four smaller parts. Architecture Under Akbar Mughal architecture first developed and flourished during the reign of Akbar the Great (r. 1556 - 1605), who was an enthusiastic patron of the arts. The architecture of his age was a synthesis of Persian, Turkic, and Indian Hindu styles. Akbari architecture is also remarkable for its large-scale use of sandstone as a building material, evident both in the
Humayun's Tomb, seen from the main gateway. Figure 28.34 Humayun's Tomb

Mughal architecture is a remarkably symmetrical and decorative amalgam of Persian, Turkish, and Indian architecture. Mughal architecture first developed and flourished during the reign of Akbar the Great (ruled 1556 - 1605). Akbari architecture was known for its extensive use of red sandstone as a building material. Humayun's Tomb, the sandstone mausoleum of Akbar's father, was built during this period. Mughal architecture reached its peak in refinement and attention to detail under Shah Jahan (r. 1628 - 1658). Shah Jahan commissioned the famous Taj Mahal, a white marble mausoleum dedicated to his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Mughal architecture declined after the death of the emperor Aurangzeb in 1707.

Mughal architecture is the distinctive Indo-Islamic architectural style that developed in northern and central India under the patronage of the Mughal emperors from the 16th to the 18th century. It is a remarkably symmetrical and decorative amalgam of

construction of Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar's royal city, and Akbar's own tomb in Sikandra. The mosque at Fatehpur Sikri also boasts the Buland Darwaza, the largest gateway of its kind in India.

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Humayun's Tomb One of the most stellar accomplishments of Mughal architecture under Akbar is the tomb of his father Humayun, situated in Delhi, India (Figure 28.34). Commissioned by Humayun's wife Hamida Banu Begum in 1562, and designed by a Persian architect, Humayun's Tomb is the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent and first structure to use red sandstone on such a large scale. Humayun's Tomb is also the first Indian building to use the Persian double dome, with an outer layer supporting a white marble exterior, and the inner layer giving shape to the cavernous interior volume. The use of indigenous Rajasthani decorative elements is particularly striking, including the small canopies or chhatris surrounding the central dome. Humayun's Tomb is also remarkable in its use of the pietra dura technique, with marble and even stone inlay ornamentation in geometrical and arabesque patterns on the facade of the mausoleum, and its jali or latticed stone carving decoration. This style of decorative facade was an important addition to Mughal architecture and flourished in later Mughal mausolea, including the Taj Mahal. Architecture under Jahangir Under Jahangir (r. 1605 - 1627), Mughal architecture became more Persian than Indian. His great mosque at Lahore is a great example of the Persian style and is covered with enameled tiles. At Agra, the

tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula, completed in 1628, was built entirely of white marble and decorated in elaborate pietra duramosaic. Architecture under Shah Jahan The vision of Shah Jahan (r. 1628 - 1658) introduced a delicate elegance and detail to Mughal architecture, illustrated in the Jama Masjid in Delhi, the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) situated within the Agra Fort, and the Sheesh Mahal or Palace of Mirrors in the Lahore Fort, which makes
Pictured here is the Taj Mahal. Figure 28.35 The Taj Mahal

spectacular use of pietra dura and complex mirror work. His most famous achievement, however, is indisputably the Taj Mahal. The Taj Mahal Located in Agra, India, the Taj Mahal is a white marble mausoleum built between 1632 and 1648 by Shah Jahan in memory of his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal (Figure 28.35). Constructed by twenty thousand men, it is widely regarded as Mughal architecture's greatest achievement.

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The mausoleum rests in the middle of a large square plinth and has four almost identical facades, each with a large arch-shaped doorway. It is topped by a large double dome and a finial, an architectural device employed decoratively to emphasize the apex of a building. The finial combines both the traditional Islamic motif of the crescent moon and the Hindu symbol of the trident, associated with the god Shiva. The central dome is adorned with a lotus design and is surrounded by four smaller chhatris, each of which also has the same lotus motif. Four tall minarets extend from the corners of the plinth. The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal include calligraphy, abstract forms, and vegetable motifs, executed in paint, stucco, carvings, and pietra dura work. The interior decorations also feature inlay work featuring precious and semi-precious gemstones. Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves and the bodies of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal are interred in a plain crypt underneath the mausoleum. However, the inner tomb features two cenotaphs or false tombs that are richly decorated with
This is an example of pietra dura inlay work and lattice carvings from the interior of the Taj Mahal. Figure 28.36 Cenotaphs inside the inner tomb

inlays of semi-precious stones forming vines and flowers and surrounded by jali screens (Figure 28.36). Aurangzeb and Later Mughal Architecture During Aurangzeb's reign (r. 1658 - 1707), brick and rubble with stucco ornamentation replaced squared stone and marble as the building materials of choice. Aurangzeb was responsible for additions to the Lahore Fort and also built one of the thirteen gates, which was named for him, and the Badshahi mosque, a structure constructed from brick with red sandstone facades. In general, however, Mughal architecture had begun to decline during Aurangzeb's reign, a process that would accelerate after his death.
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Painting
Mughal miniature painting was a blend of Persian and Indian styles that developed in Mughal courts between the 16th-19th centuries.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Mughal painting essentially came to an end during the reign of Shah Alam II (1759 - 1806), and the artists of his disintegrated court contented themselves with copying masterpieces of the past.

KEY POINTS

Mughal painting is a style of South Asian miniature painting that developed in the courts of the Mughal Emperors between the 16th and 19th centuries. It emerged from the Persian miniature painting tradition with additional Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain influences. Mughal painting usually took the form of book illustrations or single sheets preserved in albums. There are four periods commonly associate with Mughal art, each named for the emperor under whom the art form developed: the Akbar Period, the Jahangir Period, the Shah Jahan Period, and the Aurangzeb Period. Origins Mughal painting was an amalgam of Ilkhanate Persian and Indian techniques and ideas. Under the Delhi Sultanate, the early 16th century had been a period of artistic inventiveness during which a previously formal and abstract style had begun to make way for a more vigorous and human mode of expression. After Mughal victory over the Sultanate in 1526, the tradition of miniature painting in India further abandoned the high abstraction of the

Mughal miniature painting emerged from the Persian miniature painting tradition with additional Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain influences. Mughal painting usually took the form of book illustrations or single sheets preserved in albums. There are four periods commonly associated with Mughal art, each named for the emperor under whom the art form developed: the Akbar Period, the Jahangir Period, the Shah Jahan Period, and the Aurangzeb and Later Mughal Period. The emperor Akbar set up a large atelier with artists from all parts of his empire. The atelier was responsible for illustrating books on a variety of subjects and developed the methods and techniques used by subsequent Mughal painters. The emperor Jahangir was influenced by European art and encouraged his atelier to emulate the single point perspective favored by European painters, unlike the flattened, multilayered style traditionally used in miniature painting.

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Persian style and began to adopt a more realistic style of portraiture and of drawing plants and animals. The Akbar Period (1556 - 1605) It was under the reign of Akbar that Mughal painting came into its own. Trained in painting in his youth by the Persian master 'Abdus-Samad, Akbar was responsible for setting up a large atelier of court painters, which he staffed with artists from all parts of India, and in whose work he took a keen interest. This atelier was chiefly responsible for illustrating books on a variety of subjects: histories, romances, poetry, legends, and fables, of both Persian and Indian origin. One of the greatest achievements of Mughal painting under Akbar may be found in the stupendously illustrated Hamzanama or Dastan-e-Amir Hamza, a narration of the legendary exploits of Amir Hamza, the uncle of Muhammad. The size of this manuscript was unprecedented: spanning fourteen volumes, it originally contained 1400 illustrations of an unusually large size (approx. 25" x 16"), although only about 200 survive today. It took fourteen years (1562 - 1577) and over a hundred men to complete.The paintings mark a significant departure from the Persian style in their bent towards naturalism, vigorous portrayal of movement and emotion, and bold color. Each form is individually modeled and the figures

are interrelated in closely unified compositions. Depth is indicated by a preference for diagonals (Figure 28.37). Methods and Techniques
Figure 28.37 The Battle of Mazandaran This painting is number 38 in the 7th volume of the Hamzanama. It depicts a battle scene in which the protagonists, Khwajah 'Umar and Hamzah, and their armies engage in erce battle. Originally clearly depicted, the faces were erased by iconoclasts, then repainted in more recent times. Only the face of the groom wearing an orange turban in the center of the left edge has been left untouched.

The methods most commonly used by Mughal painters were first developed in Akbar's great atelier. Illustrations were usually executed by groups of painters, including a colorist, who was responsible for the actual painting, and specialists in portraiture and the mixing of colours. Leading this group was the designer, an artist of the highest caliber, who formulated the composition and sketched the outline into the spaces in the manuscripts designated

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by the calligraphers for illustration. A thin wash of white was then applied, through which the outline remained visible. The colors were then applied in several thin laters, and rubbed down with an agate burnisher to produce a glowing, enamel-like finish. The colours used were mostly mineral but sometimes also vegetable dyes, and the fine brushes were made from squirrel's tail or camel hair. The Jahangir Period (1605 - 1627) Like his father Akbar, the emperor Jahangir showed a keen interest in painting and maintained his own atelier. The tradition of illustrating books assumed secondary importance to portraiture during Jahangir's reign because of the emperor's own preference for portraits. Among the finest works of his reign are elaborate court scenes, depicting him surrounded by his courtiers. These are largescale exercises in portraiture and the likeness of each figure is produced faithfully. The composition lacks the vigor and movement, as well as the vivid color characterized by the works of Akbar's reign. The figures are more formally ordered, the colors soft and harmonious, and the brushwork particularly fine. Mughal paintings during Jahangir's reign also boast magnificent floral and geometric borders. Jahangir was also deeply influenced by European painting, having come into contact with the English crown and received gifts of oil

paintings from England. He encouraged his atelier to emulate the single point perspective favored by European painters, unlike the flattened, multi-layered style traditionally used in miniature painting. These influences are evident in the illustrations of the Jahangirnama, a biographical account of Jahangir's own life (Figure 28.38). The Shah Jahan Period (1628 1658) While the artistic focus of the Mughal court shifted primarily to architecture under Shah Jahan, painting continued to flourish. The style became notably more rigid and portraits resembled abstract effigies. Paintings of this period were particularly opulent, as the colors used became jewel-like in
Illustration of a court scene from the Jahangirnama, c. 1620. Jahangir makes a public appearance on a balcony as a large group of courtiers stand below. Figure 28.38 Jahangir in darbar

their brilliance. Popular themes included musical parties, lovers in terraces and gardens-- sometimes locked in intimate embraces-and ascetics and holy men.

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The Aurangzeb and Late Mughal Period (1658 - 1809) The emperor Aurangzeb (r. 1658 - 1707) did not encourage Mughal painting, and only a few portraits survive from his court, accomplished in the cold, abstract style of Shah Jahan. While the art form had gathered sufficient momentum to invite patronage in other courts-- Muslim, Hindu, and Sikh alike-- the absence of strong imperial backing ushered in decline. A brief revival occurred during the reign of Muhammad Shah (1719 - 1748), who was passionately devoted to the arts, but was only temporary. Mughal painting essentially came to an end during the reign of Shah Alam II (1759 - 1806) and the artists of his disintegrated court contented themselves with copying masterpieces of the past.
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Rajput Painting
Rajput miniature painting developed in the courts of the Hindu Rajputs between the 16th and 19th centuries.
KEY POINTS

Rajput painting flowed primarily from the indigenous Western Indian style of manuscript illustration that had flourished in the 14th and 15th centuries, but was also greatly influenced by Mughal painting. Rajput painting usually took the form of miniatures in manuscripts or on single sheets kept in albums, although examples of this style can also be found on the walls of Rajput palaces, forts, and mansions. Popular themes include the life of the god Krishna; scenes from Hindu epics; pictorial representations of the ragamala (musical modes); women, lovers and romance; portraits; and court and hunting scenes. Rajput painting can be divided into two styles: the Rajasthani style, associated with the Rajput courts in Rajasthan, and the Pahari style, associated with the Rajput courts of the Himalayan foothills.

Rajput Painting Rajput painting, also known as Rajasthani painting, is the style of Indian miniature painting associated with the royal courts of the

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Rajputs, the independent Hindu states in western and northern India between the 16th and the 19th centuries. It flowed primarily from the indigenous Western Indian style of manuscript illustration that had flourished in the 14th and 15th centuries, but was also greatly influenced by Mughal painting. Rajput painting usually took the form of miniatures in manuscripts or on single sheets kept in albums, although examples of this style can also be found on the walls of Rajput palaces, forts, or havelis (mansions). Early Rajput painting was almost exclusively devoted to the life and deeds of Krishna, the Hindu cowherd god (Figure 28.39). Other popular themes included scenes from Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata; pictorial representations of the ragamala (musical modes); women, lovers and romance; portraits; and court and hunting scenes.
Figure 28.39 Krishna and Radha in a pavilion An 18th century Rajput painting by the artist Nihl Chand, chief painter at the court of Kishangarh. Krishna and his companions are by far the most popular theme of Rajput painting.

The colors used in Rajput painting were extracted from minerals, plant sources, conch shells, beetle wings, and sometimes even precious stones. Gold and silver were also used. The preparation of these colors was a lengthy process that could take weeks to accomplish. The brushes used were very fine, in keeping with the requirements of fine miniature painting. Rajput painting can be divided into two styles: the Rajasthani style, associated with the Rajput courts in Rajasthan, and the Pahari style, associated with the Rajput courts of the Himalayan foothills. The Rajasthani Style Emerging in the last decades of the 16th century, Rajasthani art is usually divided into four major schools, each centered on different courts and based on differences in artistic style. These four schools are the Mewar school, the Marwar school, the Hadoti school, and the Dhundar school.
Udaipur, Mewar, 1725-35. Opaque watercolor on paper, set with pearls and precious stones. This is a good example of portraiture in the Rajput style and of the Mewar School's work. Figure 28.40 Maharana Sangram Singh II of Mewar

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 The Mewar school is associated with the courts of Chavand, Nathwara, Devgarh, Udaipur, and Sawar, and is characterized by simplicity and vivid colours. It produced a large number of devotional paintings for the pilgrim trade (Figure 28.40). The Marwar school is associated with the courts of Kishangarh, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, and Ghanerao courts and is best known for its fine miniature portraits from the second half of the 17th century and a large body of highly stylized and colorful painting from the 19th century. The Hadoti school is associated with the courts of Kota, Bundi, and Jhalawar and is remarkable for its vivid portrayal of movement, strength, and vitality, best seen in depictions of hunting and sports scenes. The Dhundar school is associated with the courts of Amber, Jaipur, Shekhawati, and Uniara, and is characterized by
An example of Pahari painting from the Kangra school dating between 1775-1780. The subject matter--lovers and romance--is a popular theme in Rajput painting. Figure 28.41 Utka Nayika: A lady awaits her lover in the forest.

formal but rich portraits, very large paintings of the deeds of Krishna, and Western influences in the 19th century. The Pahari Style The Pahari style of miniature painting and book illustration developed in the independent states of the Himalayan foothills between the 17th and 18th centuries and began to decline after 1800. This style consists of two schools: the Basohli school and the Kangra school. The Basohli school flourished towards the close of the 17th century and is best known for its bold use of color, intense emotionality, stylized facial types shown in profile with prominent eyes, and distinctive depictions of jewelry. The Kangra school emerged in the mid-18th century as the Basohli style began to fade and is characterized by curving lines, calmer colors, and delicate lyricism (Figure 28.41).
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Section 4

India and the West

The British Contemporary Indian Art

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The British
The establishment of the British Empire greatly inuenced the art and culture of India and lead to a fusion of styles and techniques.

The establishment of the British Empire in the 18th century laid the foundation for modern India's contact with the West. Westernization paved the way for a radical change of artistic taste, and a style emerged that represented the adjustment of traditional artists to new fashions and demands. As a whole, the European advent was marked by a relative insensitivity to native art traditions; former Indian patrons of art became less wealthy and influential, and Western art more ubiquitous. However, rising nationalism attempted a conscious revival of Indian art toward the end of the 19th century. Architecture The Indo-Saracenic Revival (also known as Indo-Gothic, MughalGothic, Neo-Mughal, Hindoo or Hindu-Gothic) was an architectural style and movement by British architects in the late 19th century. It drew elements from native Indo-Islamic and Indian architecture and combined them with Gothic revival and Neo-Classical styles favored in Britain. Public and government buildings, such as clock
This municipal building in Mumbai reects the IndoSaracenic architecture of its time. Figure 28.42 Municipal Corporation Building, Mumbai

KEY POINTS

The Indo-Saracenic Revival was an architectural style and movement in the late 19th century, where public and government buildings were often rendered on an intentionally grand scale. In the 18th century the merchants of the East India Company provided a large market for native art, and a distinct genre of watercolor painting developed known as the "Company style". The attitude in the mid-19th century was one of general British disregard for Indian art, followed by the establishment of British schools and the propagation of Western values in art education. Raja Ravi Varma was among the first Indian painters to use Western techniques to illustrate Indian themes and traditions. The Bengal School of Art arose in the early 20th century as an avant garde and nationalist movement reacting against the Western academic art styles and promoting instead a return to paintings such as the Mughal miniatures.

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towers, courthouses, municipal buildings, colleges, and town halls, were often rendered on an intentionally grand scale, reflecting and promoting a notion of an invincible British Empire. Infrastructure was composed of iron, steel, and poured concrete, and included domes, overhanging eaves, pointed arches, vaulted roofs, pinnacles, open pavilions and pierced open arcading (Figure 28.42). Among the key architects of this time were Robert Fellowes Chisholm, Charles Mant, Henry Irwin, William Emerson, George Wittet, and Frederick Stevens. Painting In the 18th century, oil and easel painting brought many European artists to India in search of fame and fortune, including Thomas and William Daniel, Joshua Reynolds, George Chinnery, and others. The merchants of the East India Company provided a large market for native art in the 18th century, and a distinct genre of watercolor painting developed that depicted scenes of everyday life, regalia of princely courts, and native festivities and rituals. Referred to as the "Company style" or "Patna style," it flourished at first in Murshidabad and spread to other cities of British India. While the 18th century saw moderate British manifestations of Indian art, monuments, literature, and culture, the attitude in the mid-19th century shifted to one of disregard for Indian art. To

propagate Western values in art education along with the colonial agenda, the British established art schools in Calcutta and Madras in 1854 and in Bombay in 1857. After 1857, John Griffith and John Lockwood Kipling came out to India together and headed the Sir J. J. School of Art. Griffith was considered one of the finest Victorian painters to come to India, and Kipling went on to head the Mayo School of Arts in 1878. Raja Ravi Varma (18481906) was a remarkable self-taught Indian painter from the princely state of Travancore. He is considered the first of the modernists, and advocated for the use of Western techniques to develop a new aesthetic in the subjective interpretation of Indian culture. His work was considered to be among the best examples of the fusion of
Ravi Varma's work, such as this painting, used Western composition, perspective, and realism to illustrate Indian themes. Figure 28.43 Shakuntal by Ravi Varma

Indian traditions with the techniques of European academic art, and came to play an important role in the development of the Indian national consciousness (Figure 28.43).

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As more artists began using Western ideas of composition, perspective, and realism to illustrate Indian themes, others rebelled against these styles. The Bengal School of Art, commonly referred as Bengal School, arose in the early 20th century as an avant garde and nationalist movement reacting against the Western academic art styles previously promoted in India. Also known as "Indian style of painting" in its early days, it was led by Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951) and supported by British art teacher E. B. Havell. Following the influence of Indian spiritual ideas in the West, Havell attempted to reform the teaching methods at the Calcutta School of Art by encouraging students to imitate Mughal miniatures. This caused controversy among some who
Bharat Mata by Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951), a nephew of the poet Rabindranath Tagore, and a pioneer of the movement that led to the Bengal School. Figure 28.44 Bharat Mata, a painting by Abanindranath Tagore

spiritual qualities, as opposed to the "materialism" of the West. The best known painting by Tagore is Bharat Mata ("Mother India"), depicting a young woman with four arms in the manner of Hindu deities, holding objects symbolic of India's national aspirations (Figure 28.44). Other painters and artists of the Bengal school were Gaganendranath Tagore, Asit Kumar Haldar, M.A.R Chughtai, Sunayani Devi, Kshitindranath Majumdar, Nandalal Bose, Kalipada Ghoshal, Sughra Rababi and Sudhir Khastgir. The Bengal school eventually paved the way for future modernist movements, and its influence declined in the 1920s. In the following years Rabindranath Tagore established the university of Santiniketan, focused on the preservation and reclamation of Indian culture. The school established an Indian version of naturalism, distinct from the oriental and western schools, and replaced oil and easel painting for watercolors, wash, tempera, and ink on paper.
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considered it to be a retrogressive move; however, Havell and Tagore believed the technique to be expressive of India's distinct

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Contemporary Indian Art

Contemporary Indian art fuses multiple concepts and forms of media to express both traditional Indian and non-traditional themes.

past and bringing awareness to the heritage of Indian artists. As of 2012, there has been a resurgence of interest in the Bengal School of art among scholars and connoisseurs, and the School continues to produce some of the best artists of modern India today, including Ganesh Pyne, Manishi Dey, Nirmal Dutta, Nilima Dutta, Jahar Dasgupta, Bikash Bhattacharjee, Sudip Roy, Devajyoti Ray and Paresh Maiti. By the time India gained Independence in 1947, several schools of art in India provided access to modern techniques and ideas. This same year a group of six artists (K. H. Ara, S. K. Bakre, H. A. Gade, M. F. Husain, S. H. Raza, and F. N. Souza) founded the Progressive Artist's Group, a group aimed at establishing new ways of expressing Indian art in the post-colonial era. Though the group was dissolved in 1956, it was profoundly influential in changing the idiom of Indian art. Modern Indian art typically shows the influence of Western styles but is often inspired by Indian themes and images. For example, S.
Artist Souza uses an expressionistic style to capture aspects of Indian life in his paintings. Figure 28.45 F. N. Souza Balzac Etcetera, 1971

KEY POINTS

Toward the end of the 19th century, the Bengal School of Art helped to reconnect Indian artists with their heritage and past and helped pave the way for the modernist movement. After independence in 1947, a group of artists formed the Progressive Artist's Group, which profoundly changed Indian art. Often showing the influence of Western styles, modern Indian art tends to be inspired by Indian themes and images. After the economic liberalization of India in the 1990s, artists continued to introduce new concepts outside of previous academic traditions, such as the Pseudorealism of Devajyoti Ray.

Western and colonial influence replaced much of traditional Indian painting during the end of the 19th century until the Bengal School, established by Abanindranath Tagore and E. B. Havell, consciously attempted to reconnect Indian artists with their past. Paving way for the future modernist movement, the Bengal School did a great deal to reshape contemporary taste by drawing inspiration from the

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H. Raza's works are mainly abstracts in oil or acrylic with a very rich use of color, replete with icons from Indian cosmology as well as its philosophy. F. N. Souza uses an expressionistic style to illustrate both the highs and lows of Indian social life (Figure 28.45). M. F. Husain utilized a modified Cubist style to create narrative paintings. Jayasri Burman works mainly in watercolor, using rich, strong hues and bold themes to portray female figures or mythic elements such
Figure 28.46 Sitting Bridgette

From the 1990s onward, Indian artists began to increase the number forms they used in their work. After the economic liberalization of the country that occurred during that decade, Indian art began to introduce new concepts and to work both within and outside of previous academic traditions. For example, artist Devajyoti Ray introduced a new genre of art called Pseudorealism, in which he used offbeat colors and abstract shapes to create imagery depicting regular scenes of Indian life (Figure 28.46). Akbar Padamsee, a contemporary Indian artist
Contemporary artist Anish Kapoor utilizes postminimalism in sculptural work. Figure 28.47 "Turning the world upside down" by Anish Kapoor

as hybrid animals with human heads. Other well known artists associated with the groupand who continue to be influential todayinclude Bal Chabda, Manishi Dey, Mukul Dey, V. S. Gaitonde, Ram Kumar,

and painter, has worked with various mediums, from oil painting, plastic emulsion, water color, sculpture, and printmaking to computer graphics and photography. He has also worked as a filmmaker, sculptor, photographer, engraver, and lithographer. Other leading artists exploring radical new directions in both painting and sculpture include Subodh Gupta, Narayanan Ramachandran, Vivan Sundaram, and Jitish Kallat. The abstract painter Natvar Bhavsar and postminimalist sculptor Anish Kapoor (Figure 28.47) have gained attention in the international art

While not a work of Devajyoti Ray, this painting is a good example of the pseudorealistic style.

Tyeb Mehta, and Akbar Padamsee.

Outside of painting, the 1980s were marked by the growth of fashion schools in India, increased involvement of women in the fashion industry, and a widespread modification to Indian clothing as Indian and Western styles began to fuse.

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market. Major artists continue to gain international recognition, both among both the Indian diaspora and non-Indian audiences. Contemporary Indian architecture tends to be cosmopolitan, with extremely compact, densely populated cities. Mumbai's Nariman Point is famous for its Art Deco buildings; other notable works include the Lotus Temple in New Delhi (also known as the Bah' House, recognized for its flower-like shape) and modern urban developments like Chandigarh. The India Art Fair, previously known as the India Art Summit, is an Indian modern and contemporary art fair held annually in New Delhi, India. First held in 2008, it is India's largest art fair and includes paintings, sculptures, photography, mixed media, prints, drawings, and video art. Its fourth edition, held in 2012, canvassed 98 exhibitors from 20 countries. Over the years, the fair has showcased Indian modernists (including those from the Progressive Artists' Group), Indian diaspora artists, contemporary Indian art, international artists, and art from the subcontinent.
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Chapter 29

China and Korea After 1279

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Section 1

The Mongols

Introduction

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Introduction
The Mongol Empire emerged in Central Asia during the 13th and 14th centuries.
KEY POINTS

under the leadership of the legendary Genghis Khan, also known as Great Khan, meaning emperor. During his reign, Genghis Khan began a series of invasions known as the Mongol invasions, often accompanied by the large-scale massacre of civilian populations. This resulted in the conquest of most of Eurasia. By the end of Genghis Khan's life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China. The empire began to split as a result of wars between succession heirs, particularly concerning Kublai Khan and Ariq Boke. The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law instituted by Genghis, termed Yassa, meaning order. A notable aspect of this law was that those of rank shared many of the same hardships as common people, resulting in an empire that was generally highly disciplined, well-run and safe. Nevertheless, any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive and collective punishment. European travelers wrote of their amazement concerning the organization and discipline of the Mongol people. The society was one that practiced religious tolerance. Many religions found homes in the empire, and it is believed the Genghis Khan never persecuted anyone on religious grounds.

The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law instituted by Genghis, termed Yassa, which means order. Mongol society practiced religious tolerance. The Mongol Empire is notable for its extensive trade routes as well as its postal system, called "yam". The trade routes were known as the Silk Road and consisted of well-traveled and well-maintained roads that linked the land from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing trade throughout the area. The oldest surviving Mongolian work is The Secret History of the Mongols. The Shahnama or "Book fo Kings", is an illuminated manuscript noted for its innovative compositions that blended elements of Persian, Chinese and European painting traditions through lavish illustrations.

The Mongol Empire emerged in Central Asia during the 13th and 14th centuries as the largest land empire in history. A result of the unification of Mongol and Turkic tribes, the empire took form

The Mongol Empire is notable for its extensive trade routes as well as its postal system, which was called yam. This postal system was very advanced and was later replicated in the US, where it was

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known as the Pony Express. Many merchants and travelers from China, Europe and the Middle East used the postal system. The trade routes were known as the Silk Road and consisted of well-traveled and wellmaintained roads that linked the land from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing trade throughout the area. Genghis Khan is known to have encouraged trade during his reign as merchants provided information about neighboring cultures. These merchants were necessary for many needed goods since the Mongols produced little of their own. Taxes were heavy on the subjects of the Mongol Empire, but teachers, lawyers and
The Shahnama, an illuminated manuscript that is noted for its innovative compositions that blended elements of Persian, Chinese and European painting traditions in its lavish illustrations Figure 29.1 Illuminated manuscript from the Shahnama

epics exist from the empire. The oldest surviving Mongolian work is The Secret History of the Mongols which was written for the royal family sometime after Genghis Khans death in 1227, and serves as a detailed account of his life. Another important work from the empire is titled the Shahnama, an illuminated manuscript that is noted for its innovative compositions that blended elements of Persian, Chinese and European painting traditions in its lavish illustrations (Figure 29.1).
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artists were exempted from paying. The Mongols enjoyed the various art forms, and the ruling classes were active patrons. Many paintings, illuminated manuscripts and

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Section 2

China

Yuan Dynasty

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Yuan Dynasty
With the Yuan Dynasty, many artists retreated from social life and returned to nature, through landscape paintings.
KEY POINTS

With the fall of the Song dynasty in 1279 and the subsequent dislocation caused by the establishment of the Yuan dynasty by the Mongol conquerors, many court and literary artists retreated from social life. They returned to nature through landscape paintings and by renewing the "blue and green" style of the Tang era. Wang Meng was one such painter, and one of his most famous works is the Forest Grotto (Figure 29.2). Zhao Mengfu was a Chinese scholar, painter, and calligrapher during the Yuan Dynasty. His rejection of the refined, gentle brushwork of his era in favor of the cruder style of the 8th century is considered to have brought about a revolution that created the modern Chinese landscape painting. There was also the vivid and detailed works of art by Qian Xuan (12351305), who had served the Song court, and out of patriotism refused to serve the Mongols. Instead Qian Xuan turned to painting. He was
Wang Meng and the great masters of the Yuan Dynasty exclusively painted landscapes, which they believed to be the visible key to the invisible reality. Figure 29.2 Wang Meng, Forest Grotto in Juqu (1378)

Wang Meng was a leading painter of the Yuan Dynasty, and one of his most famous works is the Forest Grotto. Zhao Mengfu was a Chinese scholar, painter, and calligrapher during the Yuan Dynasty. His rejection of the refined, gentle brushwork of his era in favor of the cruder style of the 8th century is considered to have brought about a revolution that created the modern Chinese landscape painting. Among the Yuan Dynasty artists, there was also the vivid and detailed works by Qian Xuan, who had served the Song court, and out of patriotism refused to serve the Mongols, instead turning to painting. He was also famous for reviving and reproducing a more Tang Dynasty style of painting. The later Yuan dynasty is characterized by the work of the socalled "Four Great Masters". The most notable of these was Huang Gongwang whose cool and restrained landscapes were admired by contemporaries and by the Chinese literati painters of later centuries.

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also famous for reviving and reproducing a more Tang Dynasty style of painting. The later Yuan dynasty is characterized by the work of the so-called "Four Great Masters". The most notable of these was Huang Gongwang (12691354) whose cool and restrained landscapes were admired by contemporaries and by the Chinese literati painters of later centuries (Figure 29.3). Another man of great influence was Ni Zan (13011374), who frequently arranged his compositions with a
Figure 29.3 Huang Gongwang, Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains (c. 1350) Huang Gongwang rejected the landscape conventions of his era's Academy, but is regarded as one of the great literati painters.

included the areas of painting, calligraphy, poetry, and theater, with many great artists and writers being famous today. Due melding of painting, poetry, and calligraphy at this time, many artists practicing these different pursuits were the same individuals, though perhaps more famed for one area of their achievements than others. The Song Dynasty and the Yuan Dynasty are linked together through the development of landscape painting as well as the classical joining of the arts of painting, poetry, and calligraphy. There were many famous painters in the area of Chinese painting, during the Yuan Dynasty. Many of the great calligraphers were also from the Yuan Dynasty era. In Yuan poetry, qu was the main development, which was used among other poetic forms by most of the famous Yuan poets. Many of the poets were also involved in the major developments in the theater during this time, and the other way around, with people important in the theater becoming famous through the development of the sanqu type of qu. One of the key factors in the mix of the zaju variety show was the incorporation of poetry, both classical and of the newer qu form. One of the important cultural developments during the Yuan era was the consolidation of poetry, painting, and calligraphy into a unified piece which tends to come to mind when people think of classical Chinese art. Another important aspect of Yuan times is the increasing incorporation of the then current, vernacular Chinese into both the qu form of poetry and the zaju variety show. Another

strong and distinct foreground and background, but left the middleground as an empty expanse. This scheme was frequently to be adopted by later Ming and Qing dynasty painters. In the Yuan era China, various important developments in the arts occurred or continued in their development. These developments

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important consideration regarding Yuan Dynasty arts and culture is that so much of it has survived in China, relative to works from the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty, which have often been better preserved in places such as the Sh's'in in Japan.
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Section 3

Ming Dynasty

Court Painting Decorative Art Architecture and Urban Planning Literati Expressionism

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Court Painting
During the Ming Dynasty, Chinese painting developed greatly from the achievements of the earlier Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty.
KEY POINTS

attempts to marginalize and persecute the scholar class, this was seen as an attempt to banish the gentrys influence from the arts. The dominant style of the Ming court painters was called the Zhe School. However, following the ascension of the Yongle emperor (reg 1403-1424), the capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing, putting a large distance between imperial influence and the city of Suzhou. These new conditions led to the rise of the Wu School of painting, a somewhat subversive style that revived the ideal of the inspired scholar-painter in Ming China. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), Chinese painting developed greatly from the achievements in painted art during the earlier Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty. The painting techniques
A Chinese landscape painting using "atmospheric perspective" to show recession in space. Figure 29.4 Dai Jin, "Landscape in the Style of Yan Wengui", hanging scroll, ink on paper!(Early Ming Dynasty)

The Zhe school and Yuanti school began to prosper during the early Ming period while the painting schools of the Yuan dynasty began to decline. The Zhe and Yuanti schools declined during the mid-Ming period while the Wuman school prospered. The late Ming period witnessed the rise of the Songjiang School and Huating School.

Background Under the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368), painters had practiced with relative freedom, cultivating a more individualist, innovative approach to art that deviated noticeably from the more superficial style of the Song masters who preceded them. However, at the outset of the Ming, the Hongwu emperor (reg 1368-1398) decided to import the existing master painters to his court in Nanjing, where he had the ability to cultivate their styles to conform to the paintings of the Song masters. As Hongwu was notorious for his

which were invented and developed before the Ming period became classical during this period. (See, e.g., Dai Jin (Figure 29.4).) More

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colors were used in painting during the Ming Dynasty. Seal brown became much more widely used, and even over-used during this period. Many new painting skills/techniques were innovated and developed, calligraphy was much more closely and perfectly combined with the art of painting. Chinese painting reached another climax in the mid- to late- Ming Dynasty. The painting was derived in a broad scale, many new schools were born, and many outstanding masters emerged. Early Ming Period (1368~1505) The painting schools of the Yuan Dynasty still heavily influenced early Ming painting. But new schools of painting were also growing. In particular, the Zhe School and the Yuanti school were the dominant schools during the early Ming period. Indeed, the Yuanti school was organized and supported by the Ming central government to serve the Ming royal court. Both of these new schools were heavily influenced by the traditions of both the Southern Song painting academy and the Yuan scholar-artist. Mid Ming Period (1465~1566) The classical Zhejiang School and Yuanti School declined during this period. Meanwhile, the Wumen School became the most dominant school nationwide. Suzhou, the activity center for Wumen School painters, became the biggest center for the Chinese painting

during this period. The Wumen painters mainly inherited the Yuan scholar-artist style of painting and further developed this style into its peak. The painters Tang Yin, Wen Zhengming, Shenzhou and Qiu Ying were regarded as the "Big Four of the Ming Period" in Ming period painting. Late Ming Period (1567~1644) The Songjiang School and Huating School were born and developed during this time. During the late Ming Dynasty, the Songjiang School rivaled Wumen, particularly in generating new theories of painting. Both schools formed the basis for the later Shanghai School.
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Decorative Art
In Ming China, much of the nest work in decorative arts was produced in large workshops, especially in the eld of Chinese porcelain.
KEY POINTS

was produced over a long period by the various Imperial factories or workshops. As well as being used by the court, these works were also distributed internally and abroad on a huge scale to demonstrate the wealth and power of the Emperors. In contrast, the tradition of ink wash painting, practiced mainly by scholarofficials, and especially of landscapes, developed aesthetic values similar to those of the West, but long pre-dated their development there. As in earlier dynasties, the Ming Dynasty saw a flourishing in the arts, whether it was painting, poetry, music, literature, or dramatic theater. Carved designs in lacquerwares (Figure 29.6) and designs glazed onto porcelain wares displayed intricate scenes
One of the 340,000 pieces of ceramics and porcelain held at The Palace Museum of the Forbidden City. Figure 29.5 A blue and white porcelain vase with cloud and dragon designs, marked with the word "Longevity," Jiajing period of Ming Dynasty

In Ming China, carved designs in lacquerwares and designs glazed onto porcelain wares displayed intricate scenes similar in complexity to those in painting. Connoisseurship in the late Ming period centered around these items of refined artistic taste, which provided work for art dealers and even underground scam artists who made phony imitations of originals and false attributions to works of art. The major production centers for porcelain items in the Ming Dynasty were Jingdezhen in the Jiangxi province and Dehua in the Fujian province. The Dehua porcelain factories catered to European tastes by creating Chinese export porcelain by the 16th century.

The media that the post-Renaissance West called the decorative arts are extremely important in Chinese art. Most of the finest work was produced in large workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists, especially in the field of Chinese porcelain (Figure 29.5). Much of the best work in ceramics, textiles, and other techniques

similar in complexity to those in painting. These items could be found in the homes of the wealthy, alongside embroidered silks and wares of jade, ivory, and cloisonn. The houses of the rich were

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also furnished with rosewood furniture and feathery latticework. The writing materials in a scholar's private study, including elaborately carved brush holders made of stone or wood, were all designed and arranged ritually to give an aesthetic appeal.
Figure 29.6 A Ming Dynasty red lacquer box with intricate carving of people in the countryside, surrounded by a oral border design.

how to judge its sheen; porcelain wares from the Yongle era (1402 1424) could be judged authentic by their thickness. Some potters also became renowned for their artwork, such as He Chaozong in the early 17th century for his style of white porcelain sculpture. The major production centers for porcelain items in the Ming Dynasty were Jingdezhen in the Jiangxi province and Dehua in the Fujian province. The Dehua porcelain factories catered to European tastes by creating Chinese export porcelain by the 16th century. In The Ceramic Trade in Asia, Chuimei Ho estimates that about 16% of late Ming era Chinese ceramic exports were sent to Europe, while the rest were destined for Japan and South East Asia. From the Ming Dynasty, ivory began to be used for small statuettes of the gods and others.
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Connoisseurship in the late Ming period centered around these items of refined artistic taste, which provided work for art dealers and even underground scam artists who made phony imitations of originals and false attributions to works of art. This was noted even by the Jesuit Matteo Ricci while

Carved designs in lacquerwares and designs glazed onto porcelain wares displayed intricate scenes similar in complexity to those in painting.

staying in Nanjing, writing that Chinese scam artists were ingenious when it came

to making forgeries of artwork and made huge profits. However, there were guides to help the wary new connoisseur; in Liu Tong's (d. 1637) book (printed in 1635), he told his readers various ways to spot a fake and authentic pieces of art. He revealed that a Xuande era (14261435) bronzework could be authenticated if one knew

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Architecture and Urban Planning

Chinese urban planning and architecture are based on fengshui geomancy and numerology, as in the Forbidden City of the Ming Dynasty.
KEY POINTS

Figure 29.7 The Forbidden CIty

The Forbidden City was the Chinese imperial palace from the Ming Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty. It is located in the middle of Beijing, China, and now houses the Palace Museum. For almost 500 years, it served as the home of emperors and their households, as well as the ceremonial and political center of Chinese government.

Chinese urban planning is based on fengshui geomancy and the well-field system of land division. The Chinese axis is a line of privilege, usually built upon, regulating access - there are no vistas, but a series of gates and pavilions. Numerology heavily influenced Imperial Architecture, hence the use of nine in much of construction (nine being the greatest single digit number). The importance of the East (the direction of the rising sun) in orienting and siting Imperial buildings is a form of solar worship.

manner. Depending on the particular style of feng shui being used, an auspicious site could be determined by reference to local features such as bodies of water, stars, or a compass. Meanwhile, the wellfield system of land division is a system in which a square area of land was divided into nine identically-sized sections; the eight outer sections were privately cultivated by serfs and the center section was communally cultivated on behalf of the landowning aristocrat.The basic well-field diagram is overlaid with the luoshu, a magic square divided into 9 sub-squares, and linked with Chinese numerology. Beijing Beijing became the capital of China after the Mongol invasion of the 13th century, completing the easterly migration of the Chinese capital begun since the Jin dynasty. The Ming uprising in 1368

Chinese Architecture and Urban Planning After 1279 Chinese urban planning is based on fengshui geomancy and the well-field system of land division, both used since the Neolithic age. Fengshui geomancy is a way to orient buildings in an auspicious

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reasserted Chinese authority and fixed Beijing as the seat of imperial power for the next five centuries. The Emperor and the Empress lived in palaces on the central axis of the Forbidden City (Figure 29.7), the Crown Prince at the eastern side, and the concubines at the back (therefore the numerous imperial concubines were often referred to as "The Back Palace Three Thousand"). However, during the midQing Dynasty, the Emperor's residence was moved to the western side of the complex. It is misleading to speak of an
The yellow roof tiles and red walls in the Forbidden City (Palace Museum) grounds in Beijing, built during the Yongle era (14021424) of the Ming Dynasty. Figure 29.8 Ming architecture

number) and the reason why the Forbidden City in Beijing is said to have 9,999.9 rooms - just short of the mythical 10,000 rooms in heaven. The importance of the East (the direction of the rising sun) in orienting and siting Imperial buildings is a form of solar worship found in many ancient cultures, where there is the notion of Ruler being affiliated with the Sun (Figure 29.8).
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axis in the Western sense of a visual perspective ordering facades, rather the Chinese axis is a line of privilege, usually built upon, regulating access - there are no vistas, but a series of gates and pavilions. Numerology Numerology heavily influenced Imperial Architecture, hence the use of nine in much of construction (nine being the greatest single digit

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Literati Expressionism
Literati Expressionism in Chinese painting was produced by scholar-bureaucrats of the Southern School, rather than professional painters.
KEY POINTS

Under the Ming dynasty, Chinese culture bloomed. Narrative painting, with a wider color range and a much busier composition than the Song paintings, was immensely popular during the time. The Southern School (, pinyin: nanzhonghua) of Chinese painting, often called "literati painting" (, wenrenhua), is a term used to denote art and artists which stand in opposition to the formal Northern School of painting. Where professional, formal painters were classified as Northern School, scholar-bureaucrats, who had either retired from the professional world or who were never a part of it, constituted the Southern School. Never a formal school of art, in the sense of artists training under a single master in a single studio, the Southern School is more of an umbrella term spanning a great breadth across both geography and chronology. The literati lifestyle and
Shen Zhou paintings reveal a disciplined obedience to the styles of the Yuan dynasty, to Chinas history, and to the orthodox Confucianism that he embodied in his lial life. Figure 29.9 Shen Zhou, Lofty Mt.Lu () Hanging scroll, ink and light colors on paper (1467)

Under the Ming dynasty, Chinese culture bloomed. Narrative painting, with a wider color range and a much busier composition than the Song paintings, was immensely popular during the time. Generally, Southern School painters worked in monochrome ink, focused on expressive brushstrokes, and a somewhat more impressionistic approach than the Northern School's formal attention to detail, use of color, and highly refined traditional modes and methods. Literati paintings are most commonly of landscapes featuring men in retirement or travelers admiring and enjoying the scenery or immersed in culture. Figures are often depicted carrying or playing guqin (zithers) and residing in quite isolated mountain hermitages. Calligraphic inscriptions, either of classical poems or ones composed by a contemporary literati (the painter, or a friend), are also quite common.

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attitude, and the associated style of painting, can be said to go back quite far to early periods of Chinese history. However, classification of the "Southern School" as such, that is, the coining of the term, is said to have been made by the scholar-artist Dong Qichang (1555-1636), who borrowed the concept from Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism, which also has Northern and Southern Schools. Generally, Southern School painters worked in monochrome ink (Figure 29.10), focused on expressive brushstrokes (Figure 29.9), and a somewhat more impressionistic approach (Figure 29.11) than the Northern School's formal attention to detail, use of color, and highly refined traditional modes and methods. The stereotypical literati painter lived in retirement either in the mountains or other rural areas, not entirely isolated, but immersed in natural beauty and far from mundane concerns. They were also lovers of culture,
Dong Qichang created landscapes with intentionally distorted spatial features. Figure 29.10 Dong Qichang, Wanluan Thatched Hall (1597): hanging scroll, ink and light colors on paper

hypothetically enjoying and taking part in all Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar as touted by Confucianism, that is, painting, calligraphy, music, and games of skill and strategy. They would often combine these elements into their work and would gather with one another to share their interests. Literati paintings are most commonly of landscapes featuring men in retirement or travelers admiring and enjoying the scenery or immersed in culture. Figures are often depicted carrying or playing guqin (zithers) and residing in quite isolated mountain hermitages. Calligraphic inscriptions, either of classical poems or ones composed by a contemporary literati (the painter, or a friend), are also quite common. While this sort of landscape, with certain features and elements, is the standard stereotypical Southern School painting, the genre actually varied quite widely in rejecting the formal strictures of the Northern School. The painters sought the
Wen often chose painting subjects of great simplicity, like a single tree or rock. His work often brings about a feeling of strength through isolation, which often reected his discontent with o#cial life. Figure 29.11 Artwork by Wen Zhengming, a leading Ming dynasty painter

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freedom to experiment with subjects and styles. The scholars, scholarly civil servants, or literati of Imperial China, where all schooled in Confucianism known as the School of Literati. In early China the term refers to the class of people that went through traditional Chinese education. There were sets of Chinese civil service examinations, including Chinese literature and philosophy. Passing the exam was a requirement for many government positions. These individuals were the mandarins and referred to those who held government positions.
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Section 4

Qing Dynasty

Orthodox Confucian Painting Individualist Painting

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Orthodox Confucian Painting

The early Qing dynasty developed in two main strands: the Orthodox school, and the Individualist painters .
KEY POINTS

Under the Qing Dynasty, traditional forms of art flourished and many types of innovations were made at many levels. High levels of literacy, prosperous cities, a successful publishing industry, and the Confucian emphasis on cultivation all fed a lively and creative set of cultural fields. The early Qing dynasty developed in two main strands: the Orthodox school, and the Individualist painters, both of which followed the theories of Dong Qichang, though emphasizing very different aspects. The "Four Wangs", including Wang Jian (15981677) and Wang Shimin (1592 1680), were particularly renowned in the Orthodox school. They sought inspiration in recreating the past styles, especially the technical skills in brushstrokes and calligraphy of ancient masters. The younger Wang Yuanqi (16421715) ritualized the approach of engaging with,

Figure 29.12 Yun Shouping, Peonies, Hanging scroll; ink and color on silk (17th- 18th c.)

Under the Qing Dynasty, traditional forms of art flourished and innovations were made at many levels and in many types. High levels of literacy, prosperous cities, successful publishing industry, and the Confucian emphasis on cultivation all fed a lively and creative set of cultural fields. Both the Orthodox School and the Individualist painters followed the theories of Dong Qichang but stressed different aspects. The "Four Wangs", including Wang Jian (15981677) and Wang Shimin (15921680), were particularly renowned in the Orthodox school, and sought inspiration in recreating the past styles, especially the technical skills in brushstrokes and calligraphy of ancient masters. The Six Masters of the early Qing period was a group of major Chinese artists who worked in the 17th and early 18th centuries, whose art was generally conservative, cautious, subtle, and complex, in contrast to the vigorous and vivid painting of their individualist contemporaries.

Yun's style was vibrant and expressive; he attempted to display the inner vitality and spirit of his subjects in painting.

and drawing inspiration from, the work of an ancient master. His own works were often annotated with his theories of how his painting relates to the master's model.

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The Six Masters of the early Qing period was a group of major Chinese artists who worked in the 17th and early 18th centuries. Also known as orthodox masters, they continued the tradition of the scholar-painter, following the injunctions of the artist-critic Dong Qichang late in the Ming Dynasty.The Six Masters include the flower painter Yun Shouping (Figure 29.12) and the landscapists Wu Li and the Four Wangs: Wang Shimin, Wang Jian, Wang Yuanqi, and Wang Hui (Figure 29.13). The works of the Six Masters are generally conservative, cautious, subtle, and complex in contrast to the vigorous and vivid painting of their individualist contemporaries.

Figure 29.13 Wang Hui, Clearing Autum Sky over a Fishing Vilage, hanging scroll, ink and light colors on paper (1680)

Individualist Painting
During the Qing Dynasty, painters known as Individualists rebelled against many of the traditional rules of painting through free brushwork.
KEY POINTS

During the early Qing Dynasty (16441911), painters known as Individualists rebelled against many of the traditional rules of painting and found ways to express themselves more directly through free brushwork. The Individualist painters included Bada Shanren and Shitao, who drew more from the revolutionary ideas of transcending the tradition to achieve an original, individualistic style. The art created by Shitao was revolutionary in its transgressions of the rigidly codified techniques and styles that dictated what was considered beautiful.

Wang Hui and the three other Wangs, dominated orthodox art in China throughout the late Ming and early Qing periods. Of the Four Wangs, Wang Hui is considered to be the best-known today.

During the early Qing Dynasty (16441911), painters known as Individualists rebelled against many of the traditional rules of painting and found ways to express themselves more directly through free brushwork. The Individualist painters included Bada Shanren (16261705) (Figure 29.14) and Shitao (16411707, (Figure 29.15). They drew

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from the revolutionary ideas of transcending tradition to achieve an original style; in this way they were more faithfully following the way of Dong Qichang than the Orthodox school, who were his official direct followers. The paintings of Bada Shanren feature sharp brush strokes, which are attributed to the sideways manner by which he held his brush. The art created by Shitao was revolutionary in its transgressions of the rigidly codified techniques and styles that dictated what was considered beautiful. In his time, imitation was valued over innovation, and although Shitao was clearly influenced by his predecessors (namely Ni Zan and Li Yong), his art breaks with theirs in several new and fascinating ways. His formal innovations in depiction include drawing attention to the act of painting itself through his use of washes and bold, impressionistic brushstrokes, as well as an interest in subjective perspective and the use of
Bada Shanren paintings feature sharp brush strokes which are attributed to the sideways manner by which he held his brush. Figure 29.14 Bada Shanren, Two Birds (1650-1705)

negative or white space to suggest distance. The poetry and calligraphy that accompany his landscapes are just as beautiful, irreverent, and vivid as the paintings they complement. His paintings exemplify the internal contradictions and tensions of the literati or scholar-amateur artist, and they have been interpreted as an invective against art-historical canonization. "Reminiscences of Qin-Huai" is one of Shitao's unique paintings (Figure 29.16). Like many paintings from the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, it deals with man's place in nature. Upon first viewing, the craggy peak in this painting seems somewhat distorted. What makes this painting so unique is that, upon closer inspection, it appears to depict the mountain bowing. A monk stands placidly on a boat that floats along the Qin-Huai river, staring up in admiration at the genuflecting stone giant. The

Figure 29.15 Shi Tao, Pine Pavilion Near a Spring (1675)

Bada Shanren paintings feature sharp brush strokes which are attributed to the sideways manner by which he held his brush.

economy of respect that circulates between man and nature is

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explored here in a sophisticated style reminiscent of surrealism or magical realism and bordering on the absurd. Shitao himself had visited the river and the surrounding region

Figure 29.16 Shitao, Reminiscences of Qin-Huai Like many of the paintings from the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty, Shitao's Reminiscences of Qin-Huai deals with man's place in nature.

in the 1680s, but it is unknown whether the album that contains this painting depicts specific places. Re-presentation is the only way the feeling of mutual respect that Shitao depicts in this painting could be communicated; the subject of a personified mountain simply defies anything simpler.
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Section 5

The Modern Period

Modern Chinese Painting

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Modern Chinese Painting

Chinese painting is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world..

the twentieth century. Traditional painting involves essentially the same techniques as calligraphy and is done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink (oils are not used). As with calligraphy, the most popular materials on which paintings are made of are paper and silk. The finished work can be mounted on scrolls, such as hanging scrolls or handscrolls (Figure 29.17). Traditional painting can also be done on album sheets, walls, lacquerware, folding screens, and other media. The two main techniques in Chinese painting are Gong-bi and Shui-mo. Gong-bi (meaning "meticulous") uses highly detailed brushstrokes that outline details very precisely. It is often highly coloured and usually depicts figural or narrative subjects. It is mostly practiced by artists working for the
A wall scroll painted by Ma Lin on or before 1246. Ink and color on silk, 226.6x110.3 cm. Figure 29.17 Traditional Chinese Wall Scroll

KEY POINTS

Traditional painting involves the same techniques as calligraphy and is done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink. As with calligraphy, the most popular materials on which paintings are made of are paper and silk. During the early Qing Dynasty (16441911), painters known as Individualists rebelled against many of the traditional rules of painting and found ways to express themselves more directly through free brushwork. Beginning with the New Culture Movement, Chinese artists started to adopt Western techniques. However, by the early years of the People's Republic of China, artists were encouraged to employ socialist realism modeled on the Soviet Union.

Overview of Chinese Painting Chinese painting is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. Painting in the traditional style is known today in Chinese as gu hu, meaning 'national' or 'native painting', as opposed to Western styles of art which became popular in China in

court or in independent workshops. Shui-mo is ink and washing painting (also loosely termed watercolour or brush painting). It was

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known as "literati painting", as it was one of the "Four Arts" of the Chinese Scholar-official class. Theoretically, Shui-mo was an amateur art practised by gentlemen, popular during the Song dynasty (Figure -. -). This style is also referred to as "xie yi" or freehand style. Early Chinese Painting Beginning in the thirteenth

Figure 29.18 Loquats and a Mountain Bird

painting and found ways to express themselves more directly through free brushwork. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, great commercial cities such as Yangzhou and Shanghai became art centers where wealthy merchant-patrons encouraged artists to produce such bold new works. In the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Chinese painters were increasingly exposed to Western art. Some artists who studied in Europe rejected Chinese painting while others tried to combine the best of both traditions. Among the most beloved modern painters was Qi Baishi, who began

Loquats and a Mountain Bird, by an anonymous painter of the Southern Song Dynasty (11271279). Small album leaf paintings like this were popular amongst the gentry and scholar-o#cials of the Southern Song.

life as a poor peasant and became a great master. His best known works depict flowers and small animals. Chinese Painting in the Republic Beginning with the New Culture Movement, Chinese artists started to adopt Western techniques. However, by the early years of the People's Republic of China, artists were encouraged to employ socialist realism modeled on the Soviet Union. Some Soviet Union socialist realism was imported without modification, and painters were assigned subjects and expected to mass-produce paintings that depicted social issues, and ordered to cease traditional Chinese painting. This regimen was considerably relaxed in 1953, and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign of 1956-57, traditional Chinese painting experienced a significant revival. Along with these developments in professional art circles, there was a proliferation of

century, the tradition of painting simple subjectsa branch with fruit, a few flowers, or one or two horsesdeveloped. Narrative painting, with a wider color range and a much busier composition than Song paintings, was immensely popular during the Ming period (13681644).The first books illustrated with colored woodcuts appeared around this time, and as color-printing techniques were perfected, illustrated manuals on the art of painting began to be published. During the early Qing Dynasty (16441911), painters known as Individualists rebelled against many of the traditional rules of

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peasant art depicting everyday life in the rural areas on wall murals and in open-air painting exhibitions. During the Cultural Revolution, art schools were closed, and publication of art journals and major art exhibitions ceased. Major destruction was also carried out as part of the elimination of Four Olds campaign. Following the Cultural Revolution, art schools and professional organizations were reinstated. Exchanges were set up with groups of foreign artists, and Chinese artists began to experiment with new subjects and techniques. One particular case of freehand style (xieyi hua) may be noted in the work of the child prodigy Wang Yani -born 1975- who started painting at age 3 and has since considerably contributed to the exercise of the style in contemporary artwork.
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Section 6

Korea

Choson Ceramics Choson Painting

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Choson Ceramics
Korea's Choson Dynasty (13921910) was the golden age of Korean pottery.
KEY POINTS

driven wares, and so were a form of popular art. This was the golden age of Korean pottery, with a long period of growth in imperial and provincial kilns, and much work of the highest quality still preserved. Wares evolved along Chinese lines in terms of color, shape, and technique. Celadon, white porcelain (Figure 29.19), and storage pottery were similar, but with slight variations in glazes, incision designs, florality, and weight. The Ming influence in blue and white wares using cobalt-blue glazes existed, but without the pthalo blue range and the three-dimensional glassine color depth of Ming Dynasty Chinese works. Ceramics from the Joseon period differed from other periods because artists felt that each piece of art deserved its own uniquely cultivated personality. Simplified designs emerged early on. Buddhist designs still
White porcelains were preferred and praised more than any other porcelains during the Joseon period. Figure 29.19 Joseon white porcelain

During Korea's Joseon Dynasty, ceramic wares were considered to represent the highest quality of achievement from imperial, city, and provincial kilns, the last of which were export-driven wares, and so were a form of popular art. Wares evolved along Chinese lines in terms of color, shape, and technique. The Ming influence in blue and white wares using cobalt-blue glazes existed, but without the pthalo blue range and the three-dimensional glassine color depth of Ming Dynasty Chinese works. Buddhist designs still prevailed in celadon wares-- lotus flowers and willow trees, mostly. The form most often seen was that of pear-shaped bottles. Also notable were thinner glazes and colorless glazes for buncheong or stoneware. The rise of white porcelain occurred as a result of Confucian influence and ideals, resulting in purer, less pretentious forms lacking artifice and complexity.

During Korea's Choson Dynasty (13921910), ceramic wares were considered to represent the highest quality of achievement from imperial, city, and provincial kilns, the last of which were export-

prevailed in celadon wares-- lotus flowers and willow trees, mostly. The form most often seen was that of pear-shaped bottles. Also

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notable were thinner glazes and colorless glazes for buncheong or stoneware. After the prolonged fall of the Ming dynasty, immigration of some Chinese master potters occurred in southern coastal Korea. Qing coloring, brighter and almost Scythian in enamel imitation, was rejected by Korean potters in favor of simpler, less decorated wares in keeping with a new dynasty that built itself on military tradition. Generally, the ceramics of this dynasty is divided into early, middle, and late periods, changing every two centuries, approximately; thus, 1300 to 1500 is the early period, 1500 to 1700 the middle, and 1700 to 1910 the late period. The wares began to assume more traditional Korean glazes and more
The rise of white porcelain occurred as a result of Confucian inuence and ideals, resulting in purer, less pretentious forms lacking artice and complexity. Figure 29.20 White porcelain jar, 18th century, Korea

ideals, resulting in purer, less pretentious forms lacking artifice and complexity (Figure 29.20). In 1592 during the Japanese invasion of Korea, entire villages of Korean potters were forcibly relocated to Japan, permanently damaging the pottery industry as craftsmen had to relearn techniques since the masters were gone.
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specific designs to meet regional needs. This was to be expected, as the Scythian art influences were of the former dynasty. The rise of white porcelain occurred as a result of Confucian influence and

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Choson Painting
The art of the Joseon period considerably a!ected Korean art and has left a substantial legacy which inuenced Modern Korea.
KEY POINTS

In this period, the influence of Confucianism superseded that of Buddhism. However, Buddhist elements remained, and Buddhist art itself continued. Buddhist art was encouraged not by the imperial centers of art, or the accepted taste of the Joseon Dynasty publicly, but in private homes and in the summer palaces of the Choson Dynasty kings. The simplicity of Buddhist art was given great appreciation - but it was not seen as citified art.
Figure 29.21 A late Joseon painting.

The influence of Confucianism superseded that of Buddhism in the Joseon period. However Buddhist elements remained. The Mid-Joseon dynasty painting styles moved towards increased realism. A national painting style of landscapes called "true view" began - moving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to particular locations exactly rendered. The mid-to-late Joseon dynasty is considered the golden age of Korean painting. It coincides with the collapse of Ming dynasty links with the Manchu emperors accession in China, and the forcing of Korean artists to build new artistic models based on an inner search for particular Korean subjects.

This painting from the late Joseon period -- considered the golden age of Korean painting -- shows some inuences of the Western painting techniques introduced to Joseon.

The Choson period has left a substantial legacy to modern Korea. Much of modern Korean etiquette, cultural norms, societal attitudes towards current issues, and the modern Korean language and its dialects derive from the culture and traditions of Joseon.

While the Choson Dynasty began under military auspices, Goreyo styles were left to evolve, and Buddhist iconography (bamboo, orchid, plum, chrysanthemum and the familiar knotted good luck symbols) was still a part of genre paintings. Neither colors nor forms had any real change, and rulers stood aside from edicts on

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art. Ming ideals and imported techniques continued in early dynasty idealized works. The Mid-Choson dynasty painting styles moved towards increased realism. A national painting style of landscapes called "true view" began - moving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to exactly rendered particular locations. While not photographic, the style was academic enough to become established and supported as a standardized style in Korean painting. The mid-to-late Joseon dynasty is considered the golden age of Korean painting (Figure 29.21). It coincides with the shock from the collapse of Ming dynasty links with the Manchu emperors accession in China and the forcing of Korean artists to build new artistic models
Owon was the pen name for Jang Seung-eop (1843 - 1897), a painter of the late Joseon Dynasty in Korea. He was one of the few painters to hold a position of rank in the Joseon court. Figure 29.22 Joseon Dynasty painting by Owon

its own course and became increasingly distinctive from traditional Chinese painting (Figure 29.22).
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based on an inner search for particular Korean subjects. At this time, China ceased to have preeminent influence. Korean art took

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Modern Korean Art

Modern Korean art is inuenced by its historical roots, its recent tumultuous history, and various forms of Western art.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Art in North Korea is influenced by the country's political history and is characterized by patriotism and revolutionary images.

Modern Korean art is influenced by its historical roots (including

KEY POINTS

early Korean shamanist art, Korean Buddhist art and Korean Confucian art) and its recent tumultuous history, as well as various forms of Western art in the 20th century. From the 1880s onward, the Japanese invasion of Korea had a significant impact on Korean art. Works of art were looted and destroyed, schools of art were closed, and Korean styles were replaced with paintings of Japanese subjects in Japanese styles. In 1945 Korea was freed from Japan, and new and contemporary styles of art have emerged. In modern Korea, works in metal, jade, bamboo and textiles have had a limited resurgence. The South Korean government has tried to encourage the maintenance of cultural continuity through awards and scholarships for younger students in rarer Korean art forms. Korean fabric arts have a long history, and include many artforms such as embroidery (used in costumes and screenwork), knots (best represented in the work of Choe Eun-sun, and used in costumes and as wall-decorations), and lesser known weaving skills as indicated

From the 1880s onward, the Japanese invasion of Korea had a significant impact on Korean art. Works of art were looted and destroyed, schools of art were closed, and Korean styles were replaced with paintings of Japanese subjects in Japanese styles. In modern Korea, works in metal, jade, bamboo and textiles have had a limited resurgence, as seen in Korean fabric and paper arts. Korean paper art includes all manner of handmade paper (hanji), used for architectural purposes, for printing, artwork, and the Korean folded arts (paper fans, paper figures), and as well for Korean paper clothing, which has an annual fashion show in the city of Jeonju, attracting world attention. Contemporary Korean painting often resembles the textures and glazes of pottery, and emphasize the importance of brushstrokes. Manhwa, or Korean comics, were inspired by classic Asian arts and have been influenced by the dramatic modern history of Korea, resulting in a diversity of forms and genres.

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below in rarer arts. Korean paper art includes all manner of handmade paper (hanji), which is used for architectural purposes
Figure 29.23 Pre-Bell-Man, statue in front of the 'Museum fr Kommunikation', Frankfurt am Main, Germany

artists include Park Su-geun, Nam June Paik (Figure 29.23), Chang Ucchin, and Seund Ja Rhee. A new wave of Korean art includes the work of Lee Dong Youb and Suh Yongsun, while 21st century Korean artists include Amy Sol, David Choe, Seonna Hong, Tschoon Su Kim, and Junggeun Oh. Suh Yongsun was elected "Korea's artist of the year 2009," and makes paintings with heavy brushstrokes of subjects from both Korean history and urban scenes of Western cities like New York and Berlin. His artwork is a good example of the combination of Korean and Western subjects and painting styles. Manhwa (Figure 29.24) is the

Figure 29.24 The rst woodcut manhwa by an unidentied painter, printed in Gamgak Nodong Yahak Dokbon in 1908

(such as window screens and floor covering), printing, artwork, the Korean folded arts (such as paper fans and figures), and as well for Korean paper clothing. Contemporary paper artists are very active, and the art of Korean paper clothing has an annual fashion show in the city of Jeonju, attracting world attention. Korean calligraphy is seen as an art where brush-strokes reveal the artist's personality enhancing the subject matter that is painted. Contemporary Korean painting demands an understanding of Korean ceramics and Korean pottery. The glazes and textures of Korean

Nam June Paik (July 20, 1932 January 29, 2006) was a Korean American artist who worked with a variety of media. He is considered to be the rst video artist.

Manhwa, or Korean comics, were inspired by classic Asian arts and have"been inuenced by the dramatic modern history of Korea. In this cartoon, an"Adviser of Workers' Evening School Council says "Hello, we have to work for our country and people have to learn.""The worker"then replies, "Yes, thanks. I will do that."

paintings make them more similar to the tradition of ceramic art than of western painterly traditions, even if the subjects appear to be of Western origin. Brush-strokes as well are far more important than they are to the Western artist; paintings are judged on brushstrokes more often than pure technique. Major 20th century Korean

general Korean term for comics and print cartoons. Outside of Korea, the term usually refers specifically to South Korean comics. The term, along with manga, is a cognate of the Chinese manhua. Manhwa were inspired by classic Asian arts, especially Chinese, and

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have been influenced by the dramatic modern history of Korea, resulting in a diversity of forms and genres. Distinctive manhwa can be found in editorial comic strips, artistically-oriented works, and webcomics serials. North Korea In the north, changing political systems from Communism merging with the old yangban class of Korean nationalistic leaders have brought out a different kind of visual arts that is quite distinctive from the Socialist Realism common to Communist art. This is particularly seen in the patriotic films that dominated the culture from 1949 to 1994, and the reawakened architecture, calligraphy, fabric work and neo-traditional painting from 1994 to today.The impact could be seen on revolutionary posters, lithography and multiples, dramatic and documentary film, realistic painting, and grand architecture; it could also been seen to a lesser extent in areas of domestic pottery, ceramics, exportable needlework, and the visual crafts. Sports art and politically-charged revolutionary posters have been the most sophisticated, and are internationally collected by auction houses and specialty collectors.
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Chapter 30

Japan After 1333

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Section 1

Muromachi Period

Zen Ink Painting Zen Dry Rock Garden

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Muromachi Period
During the Muromachi period (1333 - 1578), Zen values had a major impact on the visual arts, which took the form of Zen ink painting.

During the Muromachi period (1333 - 1578), also called the Ashikaga period, a profound change took place in Japanese culture. The Ashikaga clan took control of the shogunate and moved its headquarters back to Kyoto, to the Muromachi district of the city. With the return of government to the capital, the popularizing trends of the Kamakura period came to an end, and cultural

KEY POINTS

expression took on a more aristocratic, elitist character. During the Muromachi Period, Zen Buddhism rose to prominence especially among the elite Samurai class, who embraced the Zen values of personal discipline, concentration and self development. The establishment of the great Zen monasteries in Kamakura and Kyoto had a major impact on the visual arts. Because of secular ventures and trading missions to China organized by Zen temples, many Chinese paintings and objects of art were imported into Japan and profoundly influenced Japanese artists working for Zen temples and the shogunate. Not only did these imports change the subject matter of painting, they also modified the use of color; the bright colors of Yamato-e yielded to the monochromes of painting in the Chinese manner of Sui-boku-ga () or sumi-e (). This style mainly used only black ink the same as used in East Asian calligraphy.

The development of the great Zen monasteries in Kamakura and Kyoto had a great influence on the visual arts of the Muromachi period. The foremost painter of the new Sumi-e style was Sessh( T'y' (14201506), whose most dramatic works are in the Chinese splashed-ink (Haboku) style. The Sumi-e style was highly influenced by calligraphy, employing the same tools and style as well as its Zen philosophy. By the end of the 14th century, monochrome landscape paintings (sansuiga) had found patronage by the ruling Ashikaga family and were the preferred genre among Zen painters, gradually evolving from its Chinese roots to a more Japanese style. Another style which developed in the Muromachi period is Shigajiku (). This is usually a painting accompanied by poetry and has its roots in China, where painting and poetry were seen as inherently connected.

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The foremost painter of the new Sumi-e style was Sessh( T'y' (14201506), a Rinzai priest who traveled to China in 14689 and
Figure 30.1 Haboku-Sansui, Sessh", 1495, ink on silk,

clear his mind and apply the brush strokes without too much thinking, termed mushin ( "no mind state"?) by the Japanese philosopher Nishida Kitaro. The concept of mushin is central to many Japanese arts including the art of the sword, archery and the tea ceremony. By the end of the 14th century, monochrome landscape paintings (sansuiga) had found patronage by the ruling Ashikaga family and was the preferred genre among Zen painters, gradually evolving from its Chinese roots to a more Japanese style. Another important painter in this period is Tensh' Sh(bun, a monk at the Kyoto temple of Sh'koku-ji who traveled to Korea and studied under Chinese painters. He returned to Japan in 1404 and settled in Kyoto, then the capital city. He became director of the court painting bureau, established by Ashikaga shoguns, who were influential art patrons. Sh(bun's best known landscape painting, designated as a National Treasure in Japan, is Reading in a Bamboo Grove, now kept in the Tokyo National Museum (Figure 30.2).
Tensh% Sh$bun's (14141463) best known landscape painting. Figure 30.2 Detail of "Reading in a Bamboo Grove", 1446, Sh"bun

studied contemporary Ming painting. Some of his most dramatic works are in the Chinese splashed-ink (Haboku) style. Upon returning to Japan, Sessh( built himself a studio and established a large following, painters that are now referred to as the Unkoku-rin school or "School of Sessh(". To make one of the calligraphic and highlystylized Haboku paintings, the

Splashed-ink style landscape by Sessh$ T%y% (14201506)

painter would visualize the image and then make swift

broad strokes onto the paper, resulting in a splashed and abstract composition, all done with meditative concentration. This impressionistic style of painting was supposed to capture the true nature of the subject (Figure 30.1). The Sumi-e style was highly influenced by calligraphy, using the same tools and style as well as its Zen philosophy. To paint in this style the practitioner had to

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Another style which developed in the Muromachi period is Shigajiku (). This is usually a painting accompanied by poetry and has its roots in China, where painting and poetry were seen as inherently connected. This style grew out of literary circles; an artist would usually be given a subject to paint and the poets would write accompanying verses to be written above the work. A famous example is the scroll "Catching a Catfish with a Gourd" (Hy'nen-zu ) located at Taiz'-in, My'shin-ji, Kyoto. Created by the priest-painter Josetsu (1386?-1428?), it includes 31 verses of many Zen priests inscribed above the painting. In the foreground of the painting a man is depicted on the bank of a stream holding a small gourd and looking at a large slithery catfish. Mist fills the middle ground, and the background mountains appear to be far in the distance. The painting was commissioned by the 4th Shogun of the Muromachi Period, Ashikaga Yoshimochi (1386-1428) and was based on the nonsensical riddle "How do you catch a catfish with a gourd?". The painting and accompanying poems capture both the playfulness and the perplexing nature of Zen buddhist Koans who was supposed to aid the Zen practitioner in his meditation; a central practice of the Rinzai school. In the late Muromachi period, ink painting had migrated out of the Zen monasteries into the art world in general. Artists from the Kano

school and the Ami school adopted the style and themes, but introduced a more plastic and decorative effect that would continue into modern times.
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Zen Dry Rock Garden

Zen dry rock gardens were created at temples of Zen Buddhism during the Muromachi Period to imitate the intimate essence of nature.
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KEY POINTS (cont.)

The invention of the zen garden was closely connected with developments in Japanese ink landscape paintings. Japanese painters such as Sessh( T'y' (14201506) and Soami (died 1525) greatly simplified their views of nature, showing only the most essential aspects of nature.

A zen garden is usually relatively small, surrounded by a wall, and is meant to be seen while seated from a single viewpoint outside the garden, such as the porch of the hojo, the residence of the chief monk of the temple or monastery. The Muromachi Period in Japan was characterized by political rivalaries that frequently led to wars, but also by an extraordinary flourishing of Japanese culture. It saw the beginning of Noh theater, the Japanese tea ceremony, the shoin style of Japanese architecture, and the zen garden. In Kyoto in the 14th and 15th century, a new kind of garden appeared at the important zen temples. These zen gardens were designed to stimulate meditation. The most famous of all zen gardens in Kyoto is Ry'an-ji, built in the late 15th century where for the first time the zen garden became purely abstract.

The Muromachi Period in Japan, which took place at roughly the same time as the Renaissance in Europe, was characterized by political rivalaries that frequently led to wars. However, it was also characterized by an extraordinary flourishing of Japanese culture. It saw the beginning of Noh theater, the Japanese tea ceremony, the shoin style of Japanese architecture, and the zen garden. Zen Buddhism was introduced into Japan at the end of the 12th century. It quickly achieved a wide following, particularly among the Samurai class and war lords, who admired its doctrine of selfdiscipline. The gardens of the early zen temples in Japan resembled Chinese gardens at the time, with lakes and islands. However, in Kyoto in the 14th and 15th century, a new kind of garden appeared at the important zen temples. These zen gardens were designed to stimulate meditation. "Nature, if you made it expressive by reducing it to its abstract forms, could transmit the most profound thoughts by its simple presence," Michel Baridon, a well know researcher,

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wrote. "The compositions of stone, already common China, became in Japan, veritable petrified landscapes, which seemed suspended in time, as in a certain moments of Noh theater, which dates to the same period." The first garden, to begin the transition to the new style, is considered by many experts to be Saih'-ji, "The Temple of the Perfumes of the West," popularly known as Koke-dera, the Moss Garden, in the western part of Kyoto. The Buddhist monk and zen master Mus' Kokushi transformed a Buddhist temple into a zen monastery in 1334 and built the gardens. The lower garden of Saih'-ji is in the traditional Heian Period style; a pond with several rock compositions representing islands. The upper garden is a dry rock garden which features three rock "islands." The first, called Kameshima, the island of the turtle, resembles a turtle swimming in a "lake" of moss. The second, Zazen-seki, is a flat "meditation rock," that is believed to radiate calm and silence; and the third is the kare-taki, a dry "waterfall" composed of a stairway of flat granite rocks. The moss that now surrounds the rocks and represents water, was not part of the original garden plan; it grew several centuries later when the garden was left untended. However, is now the most famous feature of the garden. Muso Kokushi built another temple garden at Tenry(-ji, the "Temple of the Celestial Dragon." This garden appears to have been

strongly influenced by Chinese landscape painting of the Song Dynasty which feature mountains rising in the mist, and a suggestion of great depth and height. The garden at Tenry(-ji has a real pond with water and a dry waterfall of rocks looking like a Chinese landscape. Saih'-ji and Tenry(-ji show the transition from the Heian style garden toward a more abstract and stylized view of nature.
Figure 30.3 Ry#an-ji (late 15th century) in Kyoto, Japan, a famous example of a zen garden The most famous of all zen gardens in Kyoto is Ry%an-ji, built in the late 15th century where for the rst time the zen garden became purely abstract

The gardens of Ginkaku-ji, also known as the Silver Pavilion, are also attributed to Muso Kokushi. This temple garden included a traditional pond garden, but it had a new feature for a Japanese garden; an area of raked white gravel with a perfectly shaped mountain of white gravel, resembling Mount Fuji, in the center. The scene was called ginshanada, literally "sand of silver and open sea." This garden feature became known as kogetsudai, or "small mountain facing the moon." There was also a similar small Mount

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Fujis made of sand or earth covered with grass appeared in Japanese gardens for centuries afterwards. The most famous of all zen gardens in Kyoto is Ry'an-ji, built in the late 15th century where for the first time the zen garden became purely abstract (Figure 30.3). The garden is a rectangle of 340 square meters. Placed within it are 15 stones of different sizes, carefully composed in five groups; one group of five stones, two groups of three, and two groups of two stones. The stones are
Figure 30.4 A mountain, waterfall, and gravel "river" at Daisen-in (15091513) The garden at Daisen-in (1509-1513) took a more literary approach than Ry%an-ji. There a "river" of white gravel represents a metaphorical journey through life; beginning with a dry waterfall in the mountains, passing through rapids and rocks, and ending in a tranquil sea of white gravel, with two gravel mountains.

surrounded by white gravel, which is carefully raked every day by the monks. The only vegetation in the garden is some moss around the stones. The garden is meant to be viewed from a seated position on the veranda of the h'j', the residence of the abbot of the monastery. The garden at Daisen-in (1509-1513) took a more literary approach than Ry'an-ji. A "river" of white gravel represents a metaphorical journey through life; beginning with a dry waterfall in the mountains, passing through rapids and rocks, and ending in a tranquil sea of white gravel with two gravel mountains (Figure 30. 4). Michel Baridon wrote, "The famous zen gardens of the Muromachi Period showed that Japan had carried the art of gardens to the highest degree of intellectual refinement that it was possible to attain."
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Section 2

Momoyama Period

Architecture Shoin Rooms The Tea Ceremony

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Architecture
The ornate castle architecture and interiors of the Momoyama period were a reection of both a daimyo's power and a new aesthetic sense.
KEY POINTS

Japan after an era of almost 100 years of warfare. Oda, a minor chieftain, acquired enough power to take de facto control of the government in 1568 and, five years later, to oust the last Ashikaga shogun. Hideyoshi took command after Oda's death, but his plans to establish hereditary rule were foiled by Ieyasu, who established the Tokugawa shogunate in 1603. The Momoyama period was a period of interest in the outside world, but also saw the development of large urban centers and the rise of the merchant class. The ornate castle architecture and interiors, adorned with painted screens embellished with gold leaf, were a reflection of both a daimyo's power and a new aesthetic sense that marked a clear departure from the somber monotones favored during the Muromachi period. A specific genre that emerged at this time was called the Namban styleexotic depictions of European priests, traders, and other "southern barbarians." )saki Hachiman-g( () is a Shinto shrine in Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan (Figure 30.5). The main shrine building ( shaden) is the oldest extant ishi-no-ma-zukuri () structure and an example of Momoyama architecture. It is a single-

The Momoyama period was a period of interest in the outside world, but also saw the development of large urban centers and the rise of the merchant class. The ornate castle architecture and interiors, adorned with painted screens embellished with gold leaf, marked a clear departure from the somber monotones favored during the Muromachi period. A specific genre that emerged at this time was the Namban styleexotic depictions of European priests, traders, and other "southern barbarians". )saki Hachiman-g( (?) is a Shinto shrine in Aobaku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan. The main shrine building ( shaden) is the oldest extant ishi-no-ma-zukuri (?) structure and an example of Momoyama architecture.

In the Momoyama period (15731603), a succession of military leaders, such as Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu, attempted to bring peace and political stability to

storied structure consisting of a main sanctuary (honden) and a worship hall (haiden), which are joined via a connecting passage

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Figure 30.5 $saki Hachiman-g" shrine in Sendai city

called ishi-no-ma. All three structures are under a single roof covered with shake shingles. The honden is a 5 ken by 3 ken structure with a hip-andgable, irimoya-style roof to which a simple gabled roof of the 1 ken by 1 ken ishi-no-ma connects. The

Shoin Rooms
Shoin ( drawing room or study) is a type of audience hall in Japanese architecture that was developed during the Muromachi period.

KEY POINTS

The main shrine building is an example of Momoyama architecture.

haiden is also 3 ken wide. The structure is 7 ken at

Shoin originally referred to a study and a place for lectures on the s(tra within a temple, but later it came to mean just a drawing room or study. The emerging architecture of the Muromachi period was subsequently influenced by the increasing use and appearance of shoin. One of the most noticeable changes in architecture to arise from the shoin came from the practice of lining their floors with tatami mats. The architecture surrounding and influenced by the shoin quickly developed many other distinguishing features. Since the guests sat on the floor instead of on furniture, they were positioned at a lower vantage point than their Chinese counterparts who were accustomed to using furniture. Another characteristic development to arise from the lower vantage point were the tokonoma (an elevated recess built into the wall to create a space for displaying the Chinese art) and chigaidana ("staggered shelves," shelving structures built into the tokonoma to display smaller objects).

the front and 5 ken at the back where the ishi-no-ma is attached. Its roof is like that of the honden of the hip-and-gable type. On the front it has an attached triangular dormer with a decorative bargeboard of strongly concave shape, a chidori hafu ( lit. "plover gable"). The entrance is covered by a 5 ken step canopy with an undulating karahafu gable at eave ends (nokikarahafu).
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The architecture surrounding and influenced by the shoin quickly

KEY POINTS (cont.)

developed many other distinguishing features. Since the guests sat on the floor instead of on furniture, they were positioned at a lower vantage point than their Chinese counterparts who were accustomed to using furniture. This lower vantage point generated such developments as suspended ceilings, which functioned to make the room feel less expansive and also resulted in the ceilings rafters being no longer visible as they were in China. The new suspended ceilings also allowed for more elaborate decoration, resulting in many highly ornate suspended ceilings in addition to the much simpler ones.
The Shiro-shoin at Hongan-ji Figure 30.6 The Shiro-shoin at Hongan-ji

Occurring at the same time as the development of the shoin architecture, the fusuma, or "sliding doors," were becoming a popular means to divide rooms.

Shoin ( drawing room or study) is a type of audience hall in Japanese architecture that was developed during the Muromachi period (Figure 30.6). The term originally referred to a study and a place for lectures on the s!tra within a temple, but later it came to mean just a drawing room or study. The shoin-zukuri style takes its name from these rooms. In a shoin-zukuri building, the shoin is the zashiki, a tatami-room dedicated to the reception of guests. The emerging architecture of the Muromachi period was subsequently influenced by the increasing use and appearance of shoin. One of the most noticeable changes in architecture to arise from the shoin came from the practice of lining their floors with tatami mats. Since tatami mats have a standardized size, the floor plans for shoin rooms had to be developed around the proportions of the tatami mat; this in turn affected the proportions of doors, the height of rooms, and other aspects of the structure. Before the shoin popularized the practice of lining floors with tatami mats, it had been standard to only bring out a single tatami mat for the highestranking person in the room to sit on.

Another characteristic development to arise from the lower vantage point were the tokonoma and chigaidana. The tokonoma was an elevated recess built into the wall to create a space for displaying the Chinese art, which was popular at the time at a comfortable eye level. The chigaidana, or "staggered shelves," were shelving structures built into the tokonoma to display smaller objects. Occurring at the same time as the development of the shoin

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architecture, the fusuma, or "sliding doors", were becoming a popular means to divide rooms. As a result columns began to be created that were square-shaped to accommodate the sliding doors. The asymmetry of the tokonoma and chigaidana pair, as well as the squared pillars, differentiated the shoin design with the Chinese design at the time, which preferred symmetric pairs of furniture and round pillars. Soon after its advent shoin architecture became associated with these evolving elements as it became the predominant format for formal gathering rooms.
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The Tea Ceremony

The art of the tea ceremony ourished during the Momoyama period and was inuenced by Zen principles of imperfection and transience.
KEY POINTS

The Momoyama period saw the budding of what is generally regarded as Japanese traditional culture as we know it today. The Japanese tea ceremony developed as a "transformative practice", and began to evolve its own aesthetic, in particular that of "wabi-sabi": a Japanese concept derived from Zen Buddhism that emphasizes simplicity, humility, impermanence, and intense appreciation of the immediate experience. Murata Juk' is known as the founder of the tea ceremony as a spiritual practice. He was the first to emphasize the concept of wabi-sabi in the aesthetic of the ceremony. By the 16th century, tea drinking had spread to all levels of society in Japan. Sen Riky( (1522 - 1591) is the most famous and revered tea master in the history of the tea ceremony. His teachings perfected many newly developed forms in architecture and gardens, art, and the full development of "the "way of tea".

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

By the 16th century, tea drinking had spread to all levels of society in Japan. Sen Riky( (1522 - 1591) is perhaps the most well-known
Figure 30.7 The tea ceremony ourished during the Momoyama period

Sen Riky( emphasized several key aspects of the ceremony, including rustic simplicity, directness of approach and honesty of self. His principles of harmony, respect, purity, and tranquility are still central to tea ceremony. He was also responsible for the creation of hand moulded Raku teabowls.

History of the Tea Ceremony The art of the tea ceremony flourished during the Momoyama period (ca. 1568 - 1603), and both Oda Nobunaga, the initiator of the unification of Japan under the shogunate in the late 16th century, and his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, lavished time and money on this pastime, collecting tea bowls, caddies, and other implements, sponsoring lavish social events, and patronizing acclaimed masters such as Sen no Riky(. The Muromachi Period gave rise to Kitayama Culture, centered around the gorgeous cultural world of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and his villa in the northern hills of Kyoto (Kinkaku-ji), and later during this period, gave the rise to Higashiyama Culture, centered around the elegant cultural world of Ashikaga Yoshimasa and his retirement villa in the eastern hills of Kyoto (Ginkaku-ji). This period saw the budding of what is generally regarded as Japanese traditional culture as we know it today.
An open tea house serving matcha (ippuku issen , right) and a peddler selling decoctants (senjimono-uri ja: , left). Ippuku issen's

monk clothing depicts the relationship between matcha culture, tea ceremony, and Buddhism.

and still revered figure in the history of the tea ceremony. He was driven by the concept of ichi-go ichi-e, a philosophy that each meeting should be treasured, for it can never be reproduced. His teachings perfected many newly developed forms in architecture and gardens, art, and the full development of "the "way of tea". He also reestablished and emphasized several key aspects of the ceremony, including rustic simplicity, directness of approach and honesty of self. The principles he set forwardharmony, respect,

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purity, and tranquilityare still central to tea ceremony (Figure 30. 7). Cultural Relevance of the Tea Ceremony The Japanese tea ceremony or chanoyu, also known as the Way of Tea, is a Japanese cultural ritual involving the cemeronial preparation and presentation of matcha or powdered green tea. Loose leaf green tea or sencha, is also used but far less commonly. Zen Buddhism was a formative influence in the development of the tea ceremony. The Japanese tea ceremony developed as a "transformative practice", and began to evolve its own aesthetic, in particular that of "wabi-sabi". Murata Juk' is known in chanoyu history as an early developer of the ceremony as a spiritual practice. He studied Zen under the monk Ikky(, who revitalized Zen in the 15th century, and this is considered to have influenced his concept of chanoyu. Indeed, he was responsible for use of the intensely Zen Buddhist concept of wabi-sabi in the aesthetic of the tea ceremony. "Wabi" represents the inner, or spiritual, experiences of human lives. Its original meaning indicated quiet or sober refinement, or subdued taste "characterized by humility, restraint, simplicity, naturalism, profundity, imperfection, and asymmetry" and "emphasizes simple, unadorned objects and architectural space, and celebrates the mellow beauty that time and care impart to materials." "Sabi," on

the other hand, represents the outer, or material side of life. Originally, it meant "worn," "weathered," or "decayed." Wabi-sabi emphasized simplicity, humility, consciousness of impermanence, and intense appreciation of the immediate experience, and this was reflected in the aesthetics of the tea ceremony. Tea Ceremony Vessels The pottery Sen Riky( used for the tea ceremony used was simple and natural in accordance with wabi-sabi, and came to transform the manner in which the Japanese viewed ceramic ware. He was involved in the innovation of Raku teabowls with the collaboration of a tile maker named Raku Ch'jir', prompted by his preference for simple, rustic items made in Japan rather than the expensive Chinese ware that was in fashion at the time. These hand moulded and glazed vessels have become intimately connected with the tea ceremony and are still in use to the present day.
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Section 3

Edo Period

Rinpa School Painting Naturalistic Painting Literati Painting Ukiyo-e Zen Painting Crafts

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Rinpa School Painting

In the early years of the Edo period, some of Japan's nest expressions in painting were produced by the Rimpa school.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Rimpa artists worked in various formats, notably screens, fans, hanging scrolls, woodblock printed books, lacquerware, ceramics, and kimono textiles. Many Rimpa paintings were used on the sliding doors and walls (fusuma) of noble homes.

KEY POINTS

The Edo Period ( Edo jidai), or Tokugawa period ( Tokugawa jidai), is the period between 1603 to 1868 in the history of Japan when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate. The period was characterized by economic growth, strict social orders, isolationist foreign policies, an increase in both environmental protection, and popular enjoyment of arts and culture. Japanese society during this period was controlled by the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional Daimyo. It was officially established in Edo on March 24, 1603 by Tokugawa Ieyasu. The period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration on May 3, 1868 after the fall of Edo. One of the dominant themes in the Edo period was the repressive policies of the shogunate and the attempts of artists to escape these strictures. The foremost of these strictures was the closing of the country to foreigners, the accoutrements of foreign cultures, the imposition of strict codes of behavior affecting every aspect of life,

Hon'ami K'etsu founded an artistic community of craftsmen supported by wealthy merchant patrons in northeastern Kyoto in 1615. These patrons favored arts which followed classical traditions, and K'etsu obliged by producing numerous works of ceramics, calligraphy, and lacquerware. K'etsu's collaborator, Tawaraya S'tatsu, maintained an atelier in Kyoto and produced commercial paintings such as decorative fans and folding screens. S'tatsu also specialized in making decorated paper with gold or silver backgrounds, to which K'etsu assisted by adding calligraphy. S'tatsu also pursued the classical Yamato-e genre as K'etsu, but pioneered a new technique with bold outlines and striking color schemes. The Rimpa school was revived in the Genroku era (1688 1704) by Ogata K'rin and his younger brother Ogata Kenzan. K'rin's innovation was to depict nature as an abstract using numerous color and hue gradations and mixing colors on the surface to achieve eccentric effects.

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the clothes one wore, the person one married, and the activities one could or should not pursue. In the early years of the Edo period, however, the full impact of Tokugawa policies had not yet been felt, and some of Japan's finest expressions in architecture and painting were produced: Katsura Palace in Kyoto and the paintings of Tawaraya S'tatsu, the pioneer of the Rimpa school. Hon'ami K'etsu founded an artistic community of craftsmen, supported by wealthy merchant patrons of the Nichiren Buddhist sect at Takagamine in northeastern Kyoto in 1615. Both the affluent merchant town elite and the old Kyoto aristocratic families favored arts which followed classical traditions, and K'etsu obliged by producing numerous works of ceramics, calligraphy, and lacquerware.
Portion of S%tatsu's F$jin Raijin-zu, Japanese wind god Fujin. 17th century. Figure 30.8 Early Rimpa school work

His collaborator, Tawaraya S'tatsu, maintained an atelier in Kyoto and produced commercial paintings such as decorative fans and folding screens. S'tatsu also specialized in making decorated paper with gold or silver backgrounds, to which K'etsu assisted by adding calligraphy. Both artists came from families of cultural significance. K'etsu came from a family of swordsmiths who had served the imperial court and the great warlords, Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, in addition to the Ashikaga sh'guns. K'etsu's father evaluated swords for the Maeda clan, as did K'etsu himself. However, K'etsu was less concerned with swords as opposed to painting, calligraphy, lacquerwork, and the Japanese tea ceremony (he created several Raku Ware tea bowls). His own painting style was flamboyant, recalling the aristocratic style of the Heian period. S'tatsu also pursued the same classical Yamato-e genre as K'etsu, but he pioneered a new technique with bold outlines and striking color schemes. One his most famous works is the folding screens Wind and Thunder Gods" ( F(jin Raijin-zu) located in Kennin-ji temple in Kyoto and "Matsushima" () at the Freer Gallery (Figure 30.8). The Rimpa school was revived in the Genroku era (16881704) by Ogata K'rin and his younger brother Ogata Kenzan, sons of a

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prosperous Kyoto textile merchant. K'rin's innovation was to depict nature as an abstract, using numerous color and hue gradations, mixing colors on the surface to achieve eccentric effects, and the liberal use of precious substances like gold and pearl. His masterpiece "Red and White Plum Trees" ( K'hakubai-zu) c. 1714/5, is now at the MOA Museum of Art in Atami, Shizuoka (Figure 30.9). As a dramatic composition, it established the direction of Rimpa for the remainder of its history. K'rin collaborated with Kenzan in painting designs and calligraphy on his brother's pottery. Kenzan remained as a potter in Kyoto until after K'rin's death in 1716 when he began to paint professionally. Other Rimpa artists active in this period were Tatebayashi Kagei, Tawaraya Sori, Watanabe Shiko, Fukae Roshu and Nakamura Hochu. Rimpa was revived in 19th century Edo by Sakai H'itsu (1761 1828), a Kan' school artist whose family had been one of Ogata
K%rin's "Red and White Plum Trees" (1714/15) established the direction of Rimpa for the remainder of its history. Figure 30.9 Portion of Ogata K#rin's K#hakubai-zu

K'rins sponsors. Sakai published a series of 100 woodcut prints based on paintings by K'rin, and his painting "Summer and Autumn Grasses" ( Natsu akikusa-zu) painted on the back of K'rins "Wind and Thunder Gods screen" is now at the Tokyo National Museum. Rimpa artists worked in various formats, notably screens, fans, hanging scrolls, woodblock printed books, lacquerware, ceramics, and kimono textiles. Many Rimpa paintings were used on the sliding doors and walls (fusuma) of noble homes. Subject matter and style were often borrowed from Heian period traditions of yamato-e, with elements from Muromachi ink paintings, Chinese Ming dynasty flower-and-bird paintings, and Momoyama period Kan' school developments. The stereotypical standard painting in the Rimpa style involves simple natural subjects such as birds, plants, and flowers with the background filled in with gold leaf. Emphasis on refined design and technique became more pronounced as the Rimpa style developed.
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Naturalistic Painting
The Kan% school ( Kan%-ha) was the dominant style of the Edo period (1603 - 1868).
KEY POINTS

art, "another family which in direct blood line produced so many men of genius... would be hard to find." The school began by reflecting a renewed influence by Chinese painting, but developed a brightly colored and firmly outlined style for large panels, which reflected distinctively Japanese traditions, while continuing to produce monochrome brush paintings in Chinese styles. It was supported by the Shogunate, effectively representing an official style of art, which "in the 18th century almost monopolized the teaching of painting." It drew on the Chinese tradition of literati painting by scholar-bureaucrats, but the Kan' painters were firmly professional artists: they were very generously paid if successful, and received formal workshop training in the family workshop (similar to European painters of the Renaissance or Baroque period).

Figure 30.10 Kano Tan'yu, Spring Landscape (1672)

The Kan' school reflected a renewed influence from Chinese painting, but developed a brightly colored and firmly outlined style for large panels, which drew from Japanese traditions, while continuing to produce monochrome brush paintings in Chinese styles. Kan' school artists worked mainly for the nobility, shoguns, and emperors, covering a wide range of styles, subjects, and formats. The Kan' school split into different branches in Kyoto and the new capital of Edo, which had three schools for much of this period: the Kajibashi, Nakabashi and Kobikcho, named after their locations in Edo.

The Kan" school ( Kan'-ha) was the dominant style of the Edo period. The Kan' family itself produced a string of major artists over several generations, not to mention the large number of unrelated artists trained in workshops of the school. Some artists married into the family and changed their names, while others were adopted. According to Robert Treat Paine, the historian of Japanese

Tan'y$ headed the Kajibashi branch of the Kan% school in Edo and painted in many castles and the Imperial palace. "He used a less bold but extremely elegant style, which tended to become sti! and academic in the hands of less-talented imitators.

They worked mainly for the nobility, shoguns, and emperors,

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covering a wide range of styles, subjects, and formats. While initially innovative, from the 17th century onward the artists of the school became increasingly conservative and academic in their approach (Figure 30.10). The range of forms, styles, and subjects that were established in the early 17th century continued to be developed and refined without major innovation for the next two centuries. Although the Kan' school was the most successful in Japan, the distinctions between the work of it and other schools tended to diminsh, as all the schools worked in a range of styles and formats, making the attribution of unsigned works often unclear. The Kan' school split into different branches in Kyoto and the new capital of Edo, which had three schools for much of this period: the Kajibashi, Nakabashi and Kobikcho, named after their locations in Edo.
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Literati Painting
An important art trend in the Edo period was Bunjinga (literati painting), also known as the Nanga school (Southern Painting school).

KEY POINTS

Bunjinga paintings, usually in monochrome black ink, sometimes with light color, and nearly always depicting Chinese landscapes or similar subjects, were patterned after Chinese literati painting. Due to the Edo period policy of sakoku, bunjin artists were left with an incomplete view of Chinese literati ideas. Bunjinga grew, therefore, out of what did come to Japan from China, including Chinese woodblock-printed painting manuals and an assortment of paintings widely ranging in quality. Japanese literati were not members of an academic, intellectual bureaucracy like their Chinese counterparts. While the Chinese literati were academics aspiring to be painters, the Japanese literati were professionally trained painters aspiring to be academics and intellectuals. Bunjinga paintings almost always depicted traditional Chinese subjects. Artists focused almost exclusively on landscapes, birds and flowers.

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traditional Chinese culture. Their paintings,

KEY POINTS (cont.)

usually in monochrome black ink, sometimes with light color, and nearly always depicting Chinese landscapes or similar subjects, were patterned after Chinese literati painting, called wenrenhua () in Chinese). The

As Japan became exposed to Western culture at the end of the Edo period, many bunjin began to incorporate stylistic elements of Western art into their own.

Figure 30.11 Fish in Spring by Ike no Taiga (1747)

Rise of Bunjinga An important trend in the Edo period was the rise of the Bunjinga (literati painting) genre, also known as the Nanga school (Southern Painting school). This genre started as an imitation of Chinese scholar-amateur painters of the Yuan dynasty, whose works and techniques came to Japan in the mid-18th century. Later bunjinga artists considerably modified both the techniques and the subject matter of this genre to create a blending of Japanese and Chinese styles. Exemplars of this style are Ike no Taiga, Uragami Gyokudo, Yosa Buson, Tanomura Chikuden, Tani Buncho, and Yamamoto Baiitsu (Figure 30.11). Nanga ( lit. "Southern painting"), also known as Bunjinga ( lit. literati painting"), was a school of Japanese painting which flourished in the late Edo period among artists who considered themselves literati, or intellectuals. While each of these artists was unique and independent, they all shared an admiration for

name nanga is an abbreviation of nansh(ga, referring to the Chinese Southern school of painting (nanzonghua in Chinese). China's Influence Chinese literati painting focused on expressing the rhythm of nature rather than the realistic depiction of it. However, the artist was encouraged to display a cold lack of affection for the painting, as if he, as an intellectual, was above caring deeply about his work. Ultimately, this style of painting was an outgrowth of the idea of the intellectual, or literati, as a master of all the core traditional arts - painting, calligraphy and poetry. Due to the Edo period policy of sakoku, Japan was cut off from the outside world almost completely. Its contact with China persisted, although this was greatly limited. What little did make its way into
Bunjinga paintings almost always depicted traditional Chinese subjects. Artists focused almost exclusively on landscapes, birds and owers.

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Japan was either imported through Nagasaki, or produced by Chinese living there. As a result, the bunjin (literati) artists who aspired to the ideals and lifestyles of the Chinese literati were left with a rather incomplete view of Chinese literati ideas and art. Bunjinga grew, therefore, out of what did come to Japan from China, including Chinese woodblock-printed painting manuals and an assortment of paintings widely ranging in quality. Bunjinga emerged as a unique art form for this reason, as well as due to the great differences in culture and environment of the Japanese literati as compared to their Chinese counterparts. The form was to a great extent defined by its rejection of other major schools of art like the Kano school and Tosa school. In addition, the literati themselves were not members of an academic, intellectual bureaucracy, as their Chinese counterparts were. While the Chinese literati were academics aspiring to be painters, the Japanese literati were professionally trained painters aspiring to be academics and intellectuals. Nanga or bunjinga paintings almost always depicted traditional Chinese subjects. Artists focused almost exclusively on landscapes, birds and flowers. Poetry or other inscriptions were also an important element of these paintings, and were often added by friends of the artist rather than the painter himself.

Unlike other schools of art which pass on their specific style to their students, nanga was always about the attitude espoused by the painter and his love of Chinese culture. Thus, as mentioned before, every bunjin artist displayed unique elements in his creations, and many diverged greatly from the stylistic elements employed by their forebears. As Japan became exposed to Western culture at the end of the Edo period, many bunjin began to incorporate stylistic elements of Western art into their own, though they usually stuck strictly to traditional Chinese elements. Ernest Fenollosa and Okakura Kakuz', two of the first to introduce Japanese art to the West, criticized nanga as trivial and derivative. As a result, the style has only attracted academic attention in the West in recent decades. A particular style of bonsai is called variously bunjin, bunjingi or "literati" and is intended to look like the trees portrayed in nanga art. Examples of the style are often elegantly elongated with few branches, being mainly a long, slim trunk surmounted by a very small mass of foliage.
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Ukiyo-e
With the rise of popular culture in the Edo period, a style of woodblock prints called ukiyo-e became a major art form.

first polychrome print in 1764.. Print designers of the next generation, including Torii Kiyonaga and Utamaro, created elegant and sometimes insightful depictions of courtesans. The best known work of ukiyo-e from the Edo period is the woodblock
Figure 30.12 "The Great Wave off Kanagawa," Hokusai's most famous print, the rst in the series 36 Views of Mount Fuji

KEY POINTS

print series. Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji ( Fugaku Sanj(roku-kei, c. 1831), which includes the internationally recognized print, The Great Wave off Kanagawa, was created during the 1820s by
Although it is often used in tsunami literature, there is no reason to suspect that Hokusai intended it to be interpreted in that way. The waves in this work are sometimes mistakenly referred to as tsunami (), but they are more accurately called okinami (), great o!-shore waves.

The school of art best known in the West is that of the ukiyo-e paintings and woodblock prints of the demimonde - the world of the kabuki theater and the brothel district. Ukiyo-e prints began to be produced in the late 17th century, with Harunobu producing !the first polychrome print in 1764. The dominant artistic figure!of the 19th century was Hokusai's contemporary, Hiroshige, a creator of romantic and somewhat sentimental landscape prints.

With the rise of popular culture in the Edo period, a style of woodblock prints called ukiyo-e became a major art form. Its techniques were fine tuned to produce colorful prints of everything from daily news to schoolbooks The school of art best known in the West is that of the ukiyo-e paintings and woodblock prints of the demimonde - the world of the kabuki theater and the brothel district. Ukiyo-e prints began to be produced in the late 17th century, with Harunobu producing the

Katsushika Hokusai ( , October 31, 1760

May 10, 1849, (Figure 30.12). Hokusai was influenced by such painters as Sesshu and other styles of Chinese painting. As historian Richard Lane concludes, "Indeed, if there is one work that made Hokusai's name, both in Japan and abroad, it must be this monumental print-series." While Hokusai's work prior to this series is certainly important, it was not until this series that he gained

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broad recognition. It was also The Great Wave print that initially received, and continues to receive, acclaim and popularity in the Western world.
Figure 30.13 Hiroshige's Upright T#kaid# depicts Hakone.

figures from life outside the strictures of the Tokugawa shogunate, Bunjin artists turned to Chinese culture. The exemplars of this style are Ike no Taiga, Yosa Buson, Tanomura Chikuden, and Yamamoto Baiitsu.
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The dominant artistic figure of the 19th century was Hokusai's contemporary, Hiroshige, a creator of romantic and somewhat sentimental landscape prints. The odd angles and shapes through which Hiroshige often viewed landscape, with its emphasis on flat planes and strong linear outlines, had a profound impact on such Western artists as Edgar Degas and Vincent van Gogh (Figure 30.13) Via artworks held

Print shows travelers and porters crossing a steep pass in the mountains at the Hakone station on the T%kaid% Road.

in Western museums, these same printmakers would later exert a powerful influence on the imagery

and aesthetic approaches used by early Modernist poets like Ezra Pound and Richard Aldington. Another style of ukiyo-e was Bunjinga, based on paintings executed by Chinese scholar-painters. Just as ukiyo-e artists chose to depict

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Zen Painting
Zenga is the Japanese term for the practice and art of Zen Buddhist painting and calligraphy, which developed in the Edo period.
KEY POINTS

merged within the same piece. The calligraphy denotes a poem, or saying, that teaches some element of the true path of Zen. The brush painting is characteristically simple, bold and abstract (Figure 30.14). Though Zen Buddhism had arrived in Japan at the end of the 12thcentury, Zenga art, as here described, didn't come into its own until the beginning of the Edo period, in 1600. In keeping with individual paths to enlightenment, nearly any subject matter can and has lent itself to Zenga. Everything from a cat, to a bamboo shoot, to a man defecating in a field has been used to illustrate a particular point - although Ens", sticks, and Mt. Fuji are the most common elements. The modern study of Japanese aesthetics in the Western sense only

Figure 30.14 Example of Zen painting, Edo period

Zenga is a style of Japanese ink-based calligraphy and painting. In many instances of Zenga, both calligraphy and image will be in the same piece. The calligraphy denotes a poem, or saying, that teaches some element of the true path of Zen. The brush painting in Zenga is characteristically simple, bold, and abstract. In keeping with individual paths to enlightenment, nearly any subject matter can lend itself to Zenga. Everything from a cat, to a bamboo shoot, to a man defecating in a field has been used to illustrate a particular point - although enso, sticks, and Mt. Fuji are the most common elements.

Zenga is the Japanese term for the practice and art of Zen Buddhist painting and calligraphy, and is associated with the Japanese tea ceremony and also the martial arts. As a noun, Zenga is a style of Japanese calligraphy and painting done in ink. In many instances, both calligraphy and image will be

This Japanese scroll calligraphy of Bodhidharma reads (from up to low, left to right) Zen points directly to the human heart, see into your nature and become Buddha. It was created by Hakuin Ekaku (1685 to 1768).

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started a little over two hundred years ago. But, by the term "Japanese aesthetic" we tend to mean not this modern study, but a set of ancient ideals that include wabi (transient and stark beauty), sabi (the beauty of natural patina and aging), and y(gen (profound grace and subtlety). These ideals and others underpin much of Japanese cultural and aesthetic norms on what is considered tasteful or beautiful. Thus, while seen as a philosophy in Western societies, the concept of aesthetics in Japan is seen as an integral part of daily life. Japanese aesthetics now encompass a variety of ideals; some of these are traditional, while others are modern and sometimes influenced from other cultures.
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Crafts
Traditional Japanese handicrafts associated with the Edo period are temari (a toy handball for children) and doll making.

KEY POINTS

One of the dominant themes in the Edo period was the repressive policies of the shogunate and the attempts of artists to escape these strictures. The craft of making temari or handballs evolved into an art in the early Edo Period. These balls were made from strips of old kimono silk and exquisitely embroidered with complex decorative stitching . Another craft that developed during the Edo period, when Japan was closed to most trade, was doll making as there was a market of wealthy individuals who would pay for the most beautiful doll sets for their homes or as gifts. Japanese lacquerwork reached its peak in the 17th century during the Edo period. Lacquer was used to decorate a range of everyday items, and the famous lacquerer Ogata Korin introduced greater use of pewter and mother of pearl in lacquerware. Other important Edo-period crafts include nishijin weaving, yuzen dying, and the production of wadokei or Japanese clocks.

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The Edo Period The Edo Period ( Edo jidai) is the period in Japanese history between 1603 to 1868 when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate. The period was characterized by economic growth, strict social orders, isolationist foreign policies, and an increase in both environmental protection and popular enjoyment of arts and culture. Japanese society during this period was controlled by the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional Daimyo. It was officially established in Edo on March 24, 1603 by Tokugawa Ieyasu. The period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration on May 3rd, 1868, after the fall of Edo. One of the dominant themes in the Edo period was the repressive policies of the shogunate and the attempts of artists to escape those strictures. The foremost of these was the closing of the country to foreigners and the accoutrements of foreign cultures, and the imposition of strict codes of behavior affecting every aspect of life, the clothes one wore, the person one married, and the activities one could not or should not pursue. Temari Of the many and varied traditional handicrafts of Japan, one closely associated with the Edo period is the ancient craft of temari. Temari means "handball" in Japanese. It is a folk craft born in

ancient Japan from the desire to amuse and entertain children with a toy handball. Temari is said to have its origins from Kemari (football), brought to Japan from China about 1400 years ago. These balls were constructed from the remnants of old kimonos. Pieces of silk fabric were wadded up to form a rough ball and this preliminary wad was then further wrapped in additional strips of fabric. Temari making gradually became an art, and the initially purely functional stitching assumed a decorative and detailed quality, displaying intricate embroidery. Making temari grew as a pastime for noble women in the early part of the Edo Period (16001868), with women of the aristocracy and upper class competing in creating increasingly more intricate and beautiful balls. Over the years, region by region, the women of Japan explored the craft and improved it. They added noisemakers to the inside to delight the ear. They added Japanese designs and copied the colors of nature around them, and they used the brilliant colors of kimono silk to stitch eye-catching patterns. Doll Making Another craft that developed during the Edo period, when Japan was closed to most trade, was doll making as there was a market of wealthy individuals who would pay for the most beautiful doll sets for display in their homes, or as valuable gifts. Sets of dolls came to include larger and more elaborate figures, and more dolls in total.

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The competitive trade was eventually regulated by the government, meaning that doll makers could be arrested or banished for breaking laws restricting materials and heights. Hina dolls are the dolls for Hinamatsuri, the doll festival on March 3rd. They can be made of many materials but the classic hina doll has a pyramidal body of elaborate, manylayered textiles stuffed with straw and/or wood blocks, carved wood hands (and in some cases feet) covered with gofun, and a head of carved wood or molded wood compo covered with gofun, with set-in glass eyes (though before about 1850 the eyes were carved into the gofun and painted), and human or silk hair. A full set comprises at least 15 dolls, representing specific characters, with many accessories (dogu), though the basic set is a male-female pair, often referred to as the Emperor and Empress (Figure 30.15).
Fine dollmaking developed during the Edo period (1603-1867). Figure 30.15 Hinamatsuri Hina Dolls, the Emperor with Two Handmaidens

Figure 30.16 Lacquered Writing Box by Ogata Korin, ca. 1700. This writing box made of black lacquered wood with gold, makie, abalone shells, silver, and corroded lead strip decorations dates from the 18th century and reects the skill of the Edo painter and lacquerer Ogata Korin.

Lacquerwork Japanese lacquerwork reached its peak in the 17th century during the Edo period, and lacquer was used both for solely decorative objects as well as everyday items such as combs, tables, bottles, headrests, small boxes, and writing cases. The most famous lacquerer-painter of the time was Ogata Korin, who was the first artist to use mother of pearl and pewter in larger quantities in lacquerware (Figure 30.16). Several techniques of Japanese weaving and dying thrived during the Edo period. These include Nishijin weaving, which involves weaving many different types of colored yarn together to form decorative designs, and also the Yuzen or paste-resist method of

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dying, where designs were applied to textiles using stencils and rice paste, resulting in the imitation of aristocratic brocades, which were forbidden to commoners by sumptuary laws. Another Edo period craft that reflected contemporary Japan's interest in electrical phenomena and mechanical sciences was the development of wadokei or Japanese clockwatches. These were typically made of brass or iron in the lantern clock design and driven by weights.
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Section 4

Modern Period&

Meiji Period Japan Post-WWII Showa Period

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/japan-after-1333/modern-period--2/
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Meiji Period
The art of the Meiji period (1868 - July 1912) was marked by the division into competing European, and traditional indigenous styles.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

In 1907, with the establishment of the Bunten under the aegis of the Ministry of Education, both competing groups -- Y'ga and Nihonga -- found mutual recognition and co-existence, and even began the process towards mutual synthesis.

KEY POINTS

The Meiji period ( Meijijidai), known as the Meiji era, is a period in Japanese history which extended from September 1868 through July 1912. This period represents the first half of Japan's time as an imperial power. Fundamental changes affected Japan's social structure, internal politics, economy, military, and foreign relations. Japanese society moved from being an isolated feudalism to its modern form. In art, this period was marked by the division into competing European and traditional indigenous styles.

The Meiji period (September, 1868 through July, 1912) represents the first half of the Empire of Japan, during which Japanese society moved from being an isolated feudalism to its modern form. During the Meiji period Western style painting (Y'ga) was officially promoted by the government, who sent promising young artists abroad for studies, and who hired foreign artists to come to Japan to establish an art curriculum at Japanese schools. After an initial burst for western style art, the pendulum swung in the opposite direction, and led by art critic Okakura Kakuzo and educator Ernest Fenollosa, there was a revival of appreciation for traditional Japanese styles (Nihonga). In the 1880s, western style art was banned from official exhibitions and was severely criticized by critics. Supported by Okakura and Fenollosa, the Nihonga style evolved with influences from the European pre-Raphaelite movement and European romanticism.

Figure 30.17 Y#ga style painting of the Meiji period by Kuroda Seiki (1893)

Y%ga in its broadest sense encompasses oil painting, watercolors, pastels, ink sketches, lithography, etching and other techniques developed in western culture. However, in a more limited sense, Y%ga is sometimes used specically to refer to oil painting.

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During the Meiji period, Japan underwent a tremendous political and social change in the course of the Europeanization and modernization campaign organized by the Meiji government. Western style painting (Y'ga) was officially promoted by the government, who sent promising young artists abroad for studies. The Y'ga style painters formed the Meiji Bijutsukai (Meiji Fine Arts Society) to hold its own exhibitions and to promote a renewed interest in western art. Foreign artists were also hired to come to Japan to establish an art curriculum at Japanese schools (Figure 30.17). However, after an initial burst for western style art, the pendulum swung in the opposite direction. Led by art critic Okakura Kakuzo
Figure 30.18 Nihonga style painting: "Black Cat" (Kuroki Neko, 1910) Nihonga ( Nihonga) or literally "Japanese-style paintings" are paintings that have been made in accordance with traditional Japanese artistic conventions, techniques and materials. While based on traditions over a thousand years old, the term was coined in the Meiji period of the Imperial Japan, to distinguish such works from Western-style paintings, or Y%ga ( Y%ga).

and educator Ernest Fenollosa, there was a revival of appreciation for traditional Japanese styles (Nihonga). In the 1880s, western style art was banned from official exhibitions and was severely criticized by critics. Supported by Okakura and Fenollosa, the Nihonga style evolved with influences from the European preRaphaelite movement and European romanticism (Figure 30.18). In 1907, with the establishment of the Bunten under the aegis of the Ministry of Education, both competing groups found mutual recognition and co-existence, and even began the process towards mutual synthesis.
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Japan Post-WWII
After World War II, Japanese artists became preoccupied with the mechanisms of urban life, and moved from abstraction to manga-inuenced art.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

There are also a number of contemporary painters in Japan whose work is largely inspired by anime subcultures and other aspects of popular and youth culture, such as the work of Takashi Murakami.

KEY POINTS

Welcoming the new post-World War II period of Japanese history, the government-sponsored Japan Art Academy (Nihon Geijutsuin) was formed in 1947, containing both nihonga and y'ga divisions. Government sponsorship of art exhibitions had ended, but was replaced by private exhibitions, such as the Nitten, on an even larger scale. Although the Nitten was initially the exhibition of the Japan Art Academy, since 1958 it has been run by a separate private corporation. Participation in the Nitten became almost a prerequisite for nomination to the Japan Art Academy, which in itself was almost an unofficial prerequisite for nomination to the Order of Culture. The arts of the Edo and prewar periods (1603-1945) had been supported by merchants and urban people, but were not as popular as the arts of the postwar period. After World War II, painters, calligraphers, and printmakers flourished in the big cities particularly Tokyoand became preoccupied with the mechanisms of urban life, reflected in the flickering lights, neon colors, and

In the post-World War II period of Japanese history, the government-sponsored Japan Art Academy (Nihon Geijutsuin) was formed in 1947, containing both nihonga and y'ga divisions. After World War II, painters, calligraphers, and printmakers flourished in the big cities, particularly Tokyo, and became preoccupied with the mechanisms of urban life, reflected in the flickering lights, neon colors, and frenetic pace of their abstractions. After the abstractions of the 1960s, the 1970s saw a return to realism strongly flavored by the "op" and "pop" art movements, embodied in the 1980s in the explosive works of Ushio Shinohara. By the late 1970s, the search for Japanese qualities and a national style caused many artists to reevaluate their artistic ideology and turn away from what some felt were the empty formulas of the West. Contemporary paintings began to make conscious use of traditional Japanese art.

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frenetic pace of their abstractions. All the "isms" of the New YorkParis art world were fervently embraced. After the abstractions of the 1960s, the 1970s saw a return to realism strongly flavored by the "op" and "pop" art movements, embodied in the 1980s in the explosive works of Ushio Shinohara. Many such outstanding avant-garde artists worked both in Japan and abroad, winning international prizes. These artists felt that there was "nothing Japanese" about their works, and that they belonged to the international school. By the late 1970s, the search for Japanese qualities and a national style caused many artists to reevaluate their artistic ideology and turn away from what some felt were the empty formulas of the West. Contemporary paintings within the modern idiom began to make conscious use of traditional Japanese art forms, devices, and ideologies. A number of mono-ha artists turned to painting to recapture traditional nuances in spatial arrangements, color harmonies, and lyricism. Japanese-style, or nihonga, painting continued in a prewar fashion, updating traditional expressions while retaining their intrinsic character. Some artists within this style still painted on silk or paper with traditional colors and ink, while others used new materials, such as acrylics. Many of the older schools of art were still practiced, most notably those of the Edo and prewar periods. For example, the decorative

Figure 30.19 Sculpture by Japanese artist Takashi Murakami at Versailles, France. 2007-2010 bronze and gold leaf.

naturalism of the rimpa school, characterized by brilliant, pure colors and bleeding washes, was reflected in the work of many artists of the postwar period in the 1980s art of Hikosaka Naoyoshi. The realism of Maruyama )kyo's school and the calligraphic and spontaneous Japanese style of the gentlemen-scholars were both widely practiced in the 1980s. At times, all of these schools (along with older

Takashi Murakami is perhaps the most famous and popular contemporary Japanese artist whose work is largely inspired by anime subcultures and other aspects of popular and youth culture.

ones, such as the Kano school ink traditions) were drawn on by contemporary artists in the Japanese style and in the modern idiom. Many

Japanese-style painters were honored with awards and prizes as a result of renewed popular demand for Japanese-style art beginning in the 1970s. More and more, the international modern painters also drew on the Japanese schools as they turned away from

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Western styles in the 1980s. The tendency had been to synthesize East and West. Some artists had already leapt the gap between the two, as did the outstanding painter Shinoda Toko. Her bold sumi ink abstractions were inspired by traditional calligraphy, but realized as lyrical expressions of modern abstraction. There are also a number of contemporary painters in Japan whose work is largely inspired by anime subcultures and other aspects of popular and youth culture. Takashi Murakami (Figure 30.19) is perhaps among the most famous and popular of these, along with and the other artists in his Kaikai Kiki studio collective. His work centers on expressing issues and concerns of postwar Japanese society through what are usually seemingly innocuous forms. He draws heavily from anime and related styles, but produces paintings and sculptures in media more traditionally associated with fine arts, intentionally blurring the lines between commercial, popular, and fine arts.
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Showa Period
In the Sh%wa period, Japan shifted toward totalitarianism until its defeat in World War II, when it led an economic and cultural recovery.
KEY POINTS

The Sh'wa period ( Sh'wa jidai, literally "period of enlightened peace/harmony"), or Sh'wa era, is the period of Japanese history corresponding to the reign of the Sh'wa Emperor, Hirohito, from December 25, 1926, through January 7, 1989. Japanese painting in the prewar Sh'wa period was largely dominated by Yasui Sotaro (1888 - 1955) and Umehara Ryuzaburo (1888 - 1986). During World War II, government controls and censorship meant that only patriotic themes could be expressed. Many artists were recruited into the government propaganda effort, and critical non-emotional review of their works is only just beginning.

The Sh'wa period ( Sh'wa-jidai, literally "period of enlightened peace/harmony"), or Sh'wa era, is the period of Japanese history corresponding to the reign of the Sh'wa Emperor, Hirohito, from December 25, 1926, through January 7, 1989. The

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Sh'wa period was longer than the reign of any previous Japanese emperor. During the pre-1945 period, Japan moved towards political totalitarianism, ultra-nationalism and fascism, culminating in Japan's invasion of China in 1937. This was part of an overall global period of social upheavals and conflicts such as the Great Depression and the Second World War. Defeat in the Second World War brought radical change to Japan. For the first and only time in its history, Japan was occupied by foreign powers. This occupation by the Allied Forces (the U.S., the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China) lasted seven years. Allied occupation brought forth sweeping democratic reforms. It led to the end of the emperor's status as a living god and the transformation of Japan into a democracy with a constitutional monarch. In 1952, with the Treaty of San Francisco, Japan became a sovereign nation once more. The post-war Sh'wa period also led to the Japanese economic miracle. In these ways, the pre-1945 and post-war periods regard completely different states: the pre-1945 Sh'wa period (19261945) concerns the Empire of Japan, while post-1945 Sh'wa period (19451989) was a part of the State of Japan. Japanese painting in the prewar Sh'wa period was largely dominated by Yasui Sotaro (1888 - 1955, Figure 30.20) and Umehara Ryuzaburo (1888 - 1986). These artists introduced the

Figure 30.20 Portraut of ChinJung (1934) by Yasui Sotaro Yasui S%tar% was strongly inuenced by the the realistic styles of the French artists JeanFranois Millet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and, in particular, Paul Czanne. He incorporated clear outlines and vibrant colors in his portraits and landscapes, combining western realism with the softer touches of traditional nihonga techniques.

concepts of pure art and abstract painting to the Nihonga tradition, and thus created a more interpretative version of that genre. This trend was further developed by Leonard Foujita and the Nika Society to encompass surrealism. To promote these trends, the Independent Art Association (Dokuritsu Bijutsu Kyokai) was formed in 1931.

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During World War II, government controls and censorship meant that only patriotic themes could be expressed. Many artists were recruited into the government propaganda effort, and critical nonemotional review of their works is only just beginning.
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Chapter 31

The Americas After 1300

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Section 1

Mesoamerica

The Mixteca-Puebla Tradition

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The Mixteca-Puebla Tradition

The Mixteca-Puelba tradition of artistry originates from the pre-Columbian Mixtec peoples from the region of Puebla, Mesoamerica.
KEY POINTS

Mexican states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and Puebla in the La Mixteca region. They are the fourth largest indigenous group in Mexico, although many have emigrated out of traditional Mixtec areas into other parts of
Figure 31.1 Mixtec-Puebla style Pipe with Bluebird, A.D. 1100-1400

the state, Mexico City and even the United States. The work of Mixtec artisans was wellregarded

The Mixtecs were one of the major indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica, and today inhabit the Mexican states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and Puebla. Primarily producing work in stone, wood and metal, the artistry of the Mixtecs was well-regarded throughout ancient Mesoamerica. Mixteca-Puebla art, which archaeologists classify as distinct from other Mixtec arts and crafts, is a variant of iconography and commonly found in pottery.
Mexico, Western Oaxaca or Puebla

throughout

ancient Mesoamerica. Primarily producing work in stone, wood,and metal, they are well known for their "Codices," or phonetic pictures in which was written their history and genealogies. They were also known for their exceptional mastery of jewelry, particularly gold and turquoise. Mixtec goldsmiths played an important role in the tributes paid to the Aztecs during the height of the Aztec Empire. (Figure 31.3) and (Figure 31.1) are examplesof Mixtec-Puebla work. Archeologists classify Mixteca-Puebla art as distinct from other Mixtec arts and crafts. This variant of artistic style and iconography,

The Mixteca-Puebla Tradition Puebla, a state located in East-Central Mexico, originated from the city of the same name founded by the Spanish in 1531. In preColumbian times, the region was inhabited by ethnicities including the Mixtecs. The term Mixtecs (or Mixteca) comes from the Nahuatl word mixtecah, meaning "cloud people." One of the major indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica, today they inhabit the

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commonly found in pottery, became associated with traits of the Toltec archaeological tradition in Mesoamerican culture during the early post-classic period (800-1000). Using vast trading networks, the MixtecaPuebla style of art spread from Cholula, a city located in the center west of Puebla, to other areas in the Valley of Mexico and eventually Mesoamerica (Figure 31.2).
Figure 31.2 Large Mixteca-Puebla style bowl

Figure 31.3 Mosaic Skull, 1400-1521

EXAMPLE

The ruins of a Pre-Columbian Mayan walled city are situated on 12-meter tall cliffs in Tulum in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico. A mural can still be seen on the eastern wall that resembles the Mixteca-Puebla style of art.

Bone/ivory/horn/shell/ bamboo, Human skull with turquoise, jadeite, and shell

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Preserved in the Museum of the Americas, Madrid, from the late Postclassic Mexico.

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Section 2

The Aztecs

Tenoctitlan Sculpture Featherwork Manuscripts

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Tenoctitlan
Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital city from 1325-1521, is one of the most magnicent architectural accomplishments of the Aztec empire.
KEY POINTS

in 1521. Today the ruins of Tenochtitlan are located in the central part of Mexico City. An ancient Aztec prophecy predicted that the wandering tribes would find the destined site for a great city. The Aztecs saw this vision on what was then a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco. Not to be deterred by the unfavourable terrain, they set about building their city and a thriving culture soon developed. The small natural island was perpetually enlarged as Tenochtitlan grew to become the largest and most powerful city in Mesoamerica, with the Aztec civilization coming to dominate other tribes all around Mexico. Tenochtitlan covered an estimated 3.1 to 5.2 square miles on the western side of the shallow Lake Texcoco. Built on a series of islets, the city plan was based on a symmetrical layout that was divided into four city sections called campans. Each campan was divided into 20 districts (calpullis) and each district was crossed by streets. Some of the major streets crossing the city are believed to have been wide enough for ten horses. The city was interlaced with canals used for transportation.

Founded in 1325, Tenochtitlan became the largest city in preColumbian Mesoamerica until it was captured by the Spanish in 1521. Built on a series of islets on the shores of Lake Texcoco, Tenochtitlan covered 3.1 to 5.2 square miles and was home to an estimated 212,500 people, which made it the 4th largest city in the world at the time. In the heart of the city were the massive Temple de Mayo, a palace, two zoos, a botanical garden, a ceremonial center, and some 45 public buildings. When the Spanish conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521, Hernan Corts ordered the destruction of the city and the rebuilding of the capital of New Spain atop its ruins. Today the ruins of Tenochtitlan are located in the central part of Mexico City.

Tenochtitlan was the capital city of the expanding Aztec empire during the 15th century. Founded in 1325, it became the largest city in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica until it was captured by the Spanish

At the heart of the city was the sacred precinct, home to about 45 public buildings, temples, and schools. Among the most famous of these buildings was the Templo Mayor, the twin pyramid dedicated to the Aztecs' patron deities, Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc. Other

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buildings included the temple of Quetzalcoatl, the tlachtli (ball game court), the tzompantli or rack of skulls, the temple of the sun, the platforms for the gladiatorial sacrifice, and some minor temples. Houses were made of wood and loam, and roofs were made of reed; pyramids, temples and palaces were generally made of stone. The palace of Moctezuma contained 100 rooms, each one with its own bath, which was used by the lords and ambassadors of allies and conquered people. Also contained within the palace were a botanical garden, an aquarium, and two zoos - one for birds of prey and another for other birds, reptiles, and mammals - with about 300 people dedicated to the care of the animals.
Figure 31.4 Ruins of Templo Mayor

The city center was also home to the ceremonial center, built inside of a 300-square meter walled square. It is well known that the Aztecs used human sacrifices as a part of their religious activities. Historians have estimated that anywhere between 10,600 and 250,000 people were sacrificed each year. Surrounding the city and floating on the shallow flats of Lake Texcoco were enormous chinampas - long raised plant beds set upon the shallow lake bottom. Misnamed "floating gardens," they were a very efficient agricultural system used to grow food for the city's many residents. Two double aqueducts, each more than 2.5 miles long and made of terracotta, provided the city with fresh water for cleaning and washing. The power of Tenochtitlan was maintained by tributes paid by

While the location of the ruins of Templo Mayor was rediscovered in the early 20th century, major excavations did not take place until 1978 to 1982.

conquered lands and the capital grew in influence, size, and population. When Spanish conquistador Hernn Corts arrived in Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519, he and his men were in awe at the sight of the splendid city. At this point it was the fourth largest city in the world - following Paris, Venice and Constantinople - with an estimated population of 212,500 people, although some popular sources put the number as high as 350,000. In 1521, the Spanish conquered Tenochtitlan, and Corts directed the systematic destruction of the city and the rebuilding of the capital of New Spain atop its ruins. The resulting weight of the

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structures caused the ruins of Tenochtitlan to sink into the sediment of the lake. The location of the dismantled Temple Mayor was rediscovered only in the early 20th century (Figure 31.4).
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Sculpture
The Aztecs excelled in sculptures made of stone and other material, ranging from small works of art to monumental buildings.

KEY POINTS

Aztec sculpture often represented gods and mythical creatures, and was commonly expressed through ceramics, architecture, freestanding three-dimensional stone works, and relief work. The grand city of Tenochtitlan contained some of the finest examples of Aztec sculpture, from its temples and pyramids to its elaborate stone palaces. A great deal of Aztec sculpture incorporated the skull motif what is today known in Mexico as "skull art". The Aztec calendar stone is a large monolithic sculpture that was excavated in Mexico City in 1790, and is believed to have served multiple purposes.

As with many Mesoamerican cultures, the Aztecs excelled in stone sculptures that ranged from small works of art to monumental buildings. Aztec sculpture often took the form of striking carvings of Aztec gods or mythical creatures, and was expressed through ceramics, architecture, freestanding three-dimensional stone

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works, and relief work. The grand city of Tenochtitlan contained some of the finest examples of Aztec sculpture, from its temples and pyramids to its elaborate stone palaces (Figure 31.5). A great deal of Aztec sculpture incorporated the skull motif; today this is known in Mexico as "skull art." In Aztec tradition, both death and life are worshiped together, and the skulla symbol of deathwas a promise of resurrection. The use of skulls and skeletons in Aztec art originated before the conquest, and the Aztecs often carved skulls into their stone

Figure 31.5 An Aztec Sculpture of the Mythological Serpent, Xiuhcoatl

Figure 31.6 Aztec Statue of Coatlicue, the Earth Goddess

dead. Aztec mirrors were originally held in wooden frames and were decorated with perishable ornaments, such as feathers. During the Spanish conquest, Hernn Corts was known to have sent obsidian mirrors back to the royal court in Spain where they became widely collected among the European aristocracy (Figure 31.7).

Xiuhcoatl, a mythological serpent in Aztec religion, was a common subject of Aztec art.

This sculpture is currently held in the Museo Nacional de Antropologa in Mexico City.

One of the most well known Aztec sculptures is the Calendar Stone. Also known as the Mexican Sun Stone, Stone of the Sun, or Stone of the Five Eras, it is a large monolithic sculpture that was excavated in the Zcalo,

Figure 31.7 Aztec Mirror This mirror was carved from obsidian on a modern wooden base, and is currently held in the Museum of the Americas, Madrid.

sculptures, monoliths of lava, and masks of obsidian and jade (Figure 31.6). A unique and versatile form of sculpture was the carved mirror. Obsidian mirrors in pre-Columbian times were fashioned from stone and served a number of uses, from decorative to spiritual. During the late Postclassic period (c.12001521) these mirrors, symbolizing rulership and power, were used in rituals to spiritually access the Aztec underworld and communicate with the realm of the

Mexico City's main square, on December 17, 1790. While the exact

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purpose of the stone is unclear, archaeologists and historians theorize that there could have been many functions to the stone, from spacial and time-related to political and spiritual.
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Featherwork
Featherwork, or the working of feathers into clothing and artifacts, was an especially elaborate practice among the Aztecs.
KEY POINTS

Endowed with sacred meaning, feathers were associated with the Aztec patron deity Huitzilopochtli and the mythical god of featherworkers, Coyotlinahual. Feathers were incorporated into many aspects of life, including traditional clothing, armor for warfare, elaborate headdresses, and beautiful works of art. One of the most famous featherwork artifacts is the elaborate feather headdress thought to be worn by Moctezuma II, the Aztec emperor at the time of the Spanish conquest. As Christianity spread through Mexico with the arrival of the Spanish, the use of feathers was adopted by Christians in the creation of religious objects.

Featherwork is the working of feathers into a cultural artifact, which was an especially elaborate art form among the Aztecs. Endowed with sacred meaning, feathers were associated with the Aztec patron deity Huitzilopochtli and the mythical god of featherworkers, Coyotlinahual. Feathers were incorporated into

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many aspects of life, including traditional clothing, armor for warfare, elaborate headdresses, and beautiful works of art. Artisans specializing in featherwork often worked full-time to produce fine luxury goods for noble patrons during the height of the Aztec empire.
Figure 31.8 Aztec feather headdress This Aztec headdress is often described as the crown of Moctezuma II. Today it is exhibited at the Museo Nacional de Antropologa e Historia, Mxico.

shields, or m*huizzoh chimalli, were often decorated with motifs made in featherwork. The huipil is the most common traditional garment worn today by indigenous women from central Mexico to Central America. It is the only garment in Mexico which uses the pre-Hispanic art of featherwork. The most complicated designs are generally known only to a few older master weavers. Designs are embedded into the fabric of the huipil, along with decorative elements such as embroidery, ribbon, feathers, lace, wax, and even gold thread. After the Aztec Empire was invaded and conquered by the Spanish, the huipil evolved to incorporate elements from Europe and even Asia. In the early years of evangelization, the Aztec's use of feathers was adopted by Christians in the creation of religious objects, including feather paintings with Christian subjects. The sacredness of feathers, which for the Aztecs stemmed back long before the conquest, became associated with Christian forms of veneration. They were used to adorn triumphal arches, the bases of crosses, and the litters and canopies in which the host was carried during the Corpus Christi festival.
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Perhaps the most well-known example of Aztec featherwork is the feather headdress (Figure 31.8), such as the one thought to be worn by Moctezuma II. As the Aztec emperor at the time of the Spanish conquest, his headdress was made of quetzal and other feathers and mounted in a base of gold and precious stone. Aztec warriors, or cu*uhoc+l'tl, were distinguished in bravery and skill by their helmets and uniforms. In particular, the Eagle Aztec warriors wore feathered helmets to mark their ability. Ornamental

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Manuscripts
Aztec codices, or pictorial manuscripts, are among the best primary sources of information on Aztec culture.
KEY POINTS

that they are largely pictorial and not meant to symbolize spoken or written narratives. The colonial-era codices not only contain Aztec pictograms, but also Classical Nahuatl (in the Latin alphabet), Spanish, and occasionally Latin. There are very few surviving codices from the pre-Columbian era. While the tradition of codex-painting endured over the transition to colonial culture, codex production declined under the control of Spanish authorities. This suggests Spanish influence or even censorship in codex production. Well-known Aztec Codices
The original page thirteen of the Codex Borbonicus shows the thirteenth trecena (or thirteen-day period) of the Aztec sacred calendar. This thirteenth trecena was under the auspices of the goddess Tlazolteotl, who is portrayed wearing a ayed skin, giving birth to Cinteotl. Figure 31.9 Page thirteen of the Aztec Codex Borbonicus

Serving as calendars, ritual texts, almanacs, maps, and historical manuscripts of the Aztec people, codices spanned from before the Spanish conquest throughout the colonial era. Pre-colonial codices were largely pictorial in nature, while colonial codices contain Classical Nahuatl, Spanish, and even Latin. Few pre-colonial codices have survived. Codices created after the conquest were heavily influenced and even censored by the Spanish. The Florentine Codex is perhaps the most useful source of information on pre-colonial Aztec life.

Aztec Codices The Aztec codicesare manuscripts written and painted by tlacuilos (codex creators). The codices and are among the best primary sources of information on Aztec culture. Serving as calendars, ritual texts, almanacs, maps, and historical manuscripts of the Aztec people, they spanned from before the Spanish conquest through the colonial era. The pre-colonial codices differ from colonial codices in

Scholars now have access to a body of around five hundred colonial-era codices, as well as a

limited number of pre-colonial codices.The Codex Borbonicus is a codex written by Aztec priests around the time of the Spanish conquest of Mexico. Like all pre-colonial codices, it was originally entirely pictorial in nature, although some Spanish descriptions

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were later added (Figure 31.9). The Boturini Codex was painted by an unknown Aztec author some time between 1530 and 1541, roughly a decade after the Spanish conquest of Mexico. It tells the story of the legendary Aztec journey from Aztln to the Valley of Mexico. Rather than employing separate pages, the author used one long, folded sheet of amatl (fig bark, Figure 31.10). The Codex Mendoza was composed around 1541. It is divided into three sections: a history of each Aztec ruler and their conquest, a list of the tribute paid by each tributary province, and a general description of daily Aztec life.The Florentine Codex is perhaps the most useful source of information on Aztec life in the years before the
The rst page of this Aztec codex depicts the departure from Aztln. Figure 31.10 Detail of rst page from the Boturini Codex.

surviving Aztec wise men and taught tlacuilos to write the original Nahuatl accounts using the Latin alphabet. Because of fear of the Spanish authorities, he maintained the anonymity of his informants, and wrote a heavily censored version in Spanish. The Codex Osuna is a set of seven separate documents created in early 1565 to present evidence against the government of Viceroy Luis de Velasco during the 1563-66 inquiry by Jernimo de Valderrama. In this codex, indigenous leaders claim non-payment for various goods and for various services performed by their people. These services include construction and domestic help. The Aubin Codex is a pictorial history of the Aztecs from their departure from Aztln through the Spanish conquest to the early Spanish colonial period, ending in 1607. Consisting of eighty-one leaves, it was most likely started in 1576. It is also known as the "Manuscrito de 1576" (The Manuscript of 1576). Among other topics, the Aubin Codex has a native description of the massacre at the temple in Tenochtitlan in 1520.The Codex Magliabechiano, named after 17th century manuscript collector Antonio Magliabechi, was created during the mid-16th century. Primarily a religious document, it depicts the twenty day-names of the tonalpohualli, the eighteen monthly feasts, the fifty-two-year cycle, various deities, indigenous religious rites, costumes, and cosmological beliefs.

Spanish conquest, even though the complete copy of the codex was not published until 1979. Prior to this, only a censored Spanish translation had been available. The codex is a set of 12 books created under the supervision of Bernardino de Sahagn between approximately 1540 and 1585. De Sahagn worked with the

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The Codex Cozcatzin,dated 1572, lists historical and genealogical information focused on Tlatelolco and Tenochtitlan. The final page consists of astronomical descriptions in Spanish. The Codex Ixtlilxochitl is an early 17th century codex fragment detailing, among other subjects, a calendar of the annual festivals and rituals celebrated by the Aztec teocalli during the Mexican year. Each of the eighteen months is represented by a god or historical character. The Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis ("Little Book of the Medicinal Herbs of the Indians") is an herbal manuscript describing the medicinal properties of various plants used by the Aztecs. The Libellus is also known as the Badianus Manuscript, the Codex de la Cruz-Badiano and the Codex Barberini.
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Section 3

South America

Introduction

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Introduction
South American art has a long and rich history, from indigenous roots and European colonization to the arrival of new immigrants from Asia.

Background The art of South America has a long and rich history, stemming from its indigenous roots and significantly shaped by the influence of Spanish, Portuguese and French conquests in the 16th century. Tensions between
Figure 31.11 South America

KEY POINTS

indigenous peoples and European colonizers shaped South America from the 16th through the 19th centuries. These tensions were channeled into the revolution for independence in the region during the 19th century, resulting in major social and political changes. The continent was also greatly influenced by the African diaspora through the European slave trade, while Asian and European ethnic groups arrived in the area over the
A map of the countries that make up South America today.

South America is made up of several regions, including what are today known as Brazil, the Andean States along the Andes mountains, the Guianas to the north, and the Southern Cone. Among the most important pre-Columbian cultures are the Inca civilization (1438-1533, Andes region), the Caaris (in south central Ecuador), the Chimu Empire (13001470, Peruvian northern coast), the Chachapoyas, and the Aymaran kingdoms. Artistic traditions in South America date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of pre-Inca cultures. Colonization in the 16th century brought with it warfare, disease, and slavery that led to significant disruptions in the production of art and craft. At the same time, European styles and techniques were introduced to the region, such as architecture, oil painting and Baroque work. In an effort to convert the region to Christianity, many native artworks that were considered pagan were destroyed by Spanish explorers.

19th and 20th centuries (Figure 31.11). The continent is made up of several regions, including what are today known as Brazil (home of the Amazon), the Andean States (along the Andes mountain range), the Guianas (the north-eastern

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region), and the Southern Cone (the southernmost areas of the continent). During the Late Intermediate period (1000 - 1476 CE), the regions were populated by a number of indigenous nations. Some of these include the Aymara in Bolivia; the Muisca, Nario, and Tairona in Colombia; Los Huancavilca, the Kingdom of Quito, Manteo, and Nario in Ecuador; and the Chim, Piura, Huarco, Ichma, Parinacota, Huarochiri, and Kheswa people in Peru. In the Late Horizon period (1576 - 1534 CE), the Inca Empire dominated the Andes region, including present-day Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, and Colombia. Art After Christopher Columbus Artistic traditions in South America date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of pre-Inca cultures (Figure 31.12). The Incas maintained these crafts along with significant architectural and artistic achievements, including metalwork, unmatched stonework, and highly developed cities. After Christopher Columbus led a major exploration to the Americas in 1492, European colonization of South America occurred quickly and extensively. Cities and artifacts were destroyed, and warfare, disease, and slavery led to significant disruptions in the production of art and craft. At the same time, European styles, techniques and technologies were introduced to the region, such as architecture and

oil painting. Baroque art dominated the region in colonial times, though it was modified by native traditions.
Figure 31.12 Estela

During this period, most art focused on religious subjects, as the Spanish sought to convert the indigenous people to Christianity. Quick to purge any indigenous

A detail of the Raimondi Stela. This stela was found out of its original placement at the ceremonial complex, Chavn de Huantar. It was cited by Pablo Picasso as an inspiration for his art.

cultural practices that hindered their missionary intentions, many native artworks

that were considered pagan were destroyed by Spanish explorers. This included a great number of gold and silver sculptures that were melted down before being transported back to Europe. Through the trans-Atlantic slave trade, South America (especially Brazil) became the home of millions of people in the African diaspora, and the mixing of races led to new social structures and artistic creations.
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Section 4

The Incas

Cuzco Machu Picchu Textiles Metalwork The Spanish Conquest and Its E!ects

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Cuzco
The Inca capital city of Cuzco is one of the nest examples of both traditional Inca and colonial architecture.
KEY POINTS

politics and religion, similar to a modern federal district like Washington, DC or Mexico City. The Inca created the city of Cuzco in the shape of a puma, a shape still visible in modern aerial photographs (Figure 31.13). Pizarro, the Spanish explorer and conquistador, sacked much of the city in 1535 and built a new city over precolonial foundations. Because of its antiquity and importance, the center of the city retains many buildings, plazas and streets from both pre-colonial and colonial periods. Remains of the
The puma shape of the city of Cusco is discernible, with the head at the upper left and the tail at the lower right. Figure 31.13 A map of Cuzco, by E.G. Squier, c. 1860.

The Kingdom of Cuzco was a small city-state of the Inca empire. It served as the preeminent center of politics and religion for the empire. In 1535, the Spanish explorer Pizarro sacked much of the Inca city and built a new city over pre-colonial foundations. Because of its antiquity and importance, the center of the city retains many buildings, plazas and streets from both precolonial and colonial times. These include the Temple of the Sun, the Cathedral of Santo Domingo, and the Plaza de Armas.

The Kingdom of Cuzco (sometimes spelled Cusco, Qosqo or Qusqu) was a small city-state in the Inca empire. Scholars have established that the Inca did not occupy the areapreviously inhabited by the indigenous people of the Killke cultureuntil after 1200 CE, under the leadership of Manco Cpac.

Palace of the Incas, the Temple of the Sun, and the Temple of the Virgins of the Sun still stand. In some cases, the Inca buildings and foundations have proved to be stronger than the foundations built in present-day Peru. Some of Cuzco's most noteworthy architectural sights include

The Inca empire was divided into four suyus, whose corners met at the capital of Cuzco. Cuzco served as the preeminent center of

(Figure 31.4):

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The Coricancha and Convent of Santo Domingo. The Coricancha

Figure 31.14 Images of Cuzco

Cathedral of Santo Domingo. This Spanish cathedral was built in phases between 1539 and 1664, on the foundations of the Inca Palace of Viracocha. The cathedral presents late-Gothic, Baroque, and Plateresque interiors. It also has a strong example of colonial goldwork and wood carving. It is well known for a Cuzco School painting of the Last Supper depicting Jesus and the twelve apostles feasting on guinea pig, a traditional Andean delicacy. Plaza de Armas. Known as the "Square of the warrior" in the Inca era, this plaza has been the scene of several important events in the history of this city, such as Pizarro's proclamation of conquest over the city and the scene of the death of Tpac Amaru II, the indigenous leader of the resistance. The Spanish built stone arcades around the plaza which endure to this day. Iglesia de la Compaa de Jesus. The Jesuits initially began construction on this church, over the foundations of the palace of the Inca ruler Huayna Capac. It is considered one of the best examples of the colonial baroque style in the Americas. Its faade is carved in stone, and its main altar is made of carved wood covered with gold leaf.
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("Golden Temple" or "Temple of the Sun," named for the gold plates covering its walls) was the most important sanctuary dedicated to the Inti (the Sun God) during the Inca Empire. Over the temple's foundation, Spanish colonists built the Convent of Santo Domingo in the Renaissance style. The Convent exceeds the height of many other buildings in the city. Barrio de San Blas. This neighborhood includes houses

Top: Plaza de ArmasMiddle left: Temple of Coricancha"Middle right: Aerial view of Cusco Bottom left: SacsayhuamnBottom right: Cathedral of Cusco

built over Incan foundations, along with the oldest parish church in Cuzco. The church, built in 1563, houses a carved wooden pulpit that is considered the epitome of colonial era woodwork in the city. Convent and Church of la Mercad. Founded in 1536, this Spanish complex was destroyed in an earthquake in 1650 and rebuilt in 1675. Modeling the Baroque Renaissance style, it contains choir stalls, paintings, and wood carvings from the colonial era.

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Machu Picchu
Often referred to as the "City of the Incas," Machu Picchu is one of the most signicant pre-Columbian Inca sites in Peru.
KEY POINTS

referred to as the "City of the Incas", most archaeologists believe that it was built as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti (1438 1472). The Incas started building the "estate" around 1400, but abandoned it as an official site for the Inca rulers a century later at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Because the site was never known to the Spanish during their conquest, it is highly significant as a relatively intact cultural site. Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide internet poll. Since it began drawing international attention in 1911, a long restoration process has been underway (and continues today) to reconstruct it to its original glory. The Inca The Inca absorbed much of their technical skill from the cultures they conquered. They disseminated this skill, along with standard shapes and patterns, throughout their area of influence. Many of the Inca's monumental structures deliberately echoed the natural environment around them; this is particularly evident in some of the structures at Machu Picchu.

Built in the 15th century, most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was created as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti, though other theories suggest it was a religious site. The site was abandoned by the Inca around the time of the Spanish Conquest and, because it was never known by the Spanish, it has remained a relatively intact cultural site. Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished dry-stone walls that fit to tightly together. It is said that not even a blade of grass can fit between the stones. The space is composed of 140 structures or features, including temples, sanctuaries, parks, fountains, residences and long flights of stone steps. The most prominent features include the Intihuatana, the Temple of the Sun and the Room of the Three Windows, all used to worship the Inca sun god.

Machu Picchu Machu Picchu is a pre-Columbian 15th-century Inca site located in the Cuzco Region of Peru, South America (Figure 31.15). Often

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Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished, dry-stone walls. The Incas were masters of this technique, called ashlar, in which blocks of stone are cut to fit together tightly without
Figure 31.15 The historical Incan site, Machu Picchu

one hundred flights of stone steps each often carved from a single block of granite and numerous water fountains. These were interconnected by channels and water-drains, perforated into the rock, that were designed for the original irrigation system. According to archaeologists, the urban sector of Machu Picchu was
Figure 31.16 Machu Picchu

mortar. Many junctions in the central city are so perfect that it is said not even a blade of grass fits between the stones. Peru is a highly seismic land, and mortar-free construction was more earthquakeresistant as it

Photo taken by Martin St-Amant.

divided into three great districts: The Sacred District contains the archaeological treasures of the Intihuatana, the Temple of the Sun and the Room of the Three Windows, all dedicated to Inti, their sun god and greatest deity. To the south, the Popular District (often referred to as the Residential District) is the place where lower-class people lived, and includes storage buildings and simple houses. The District of the Priests and the Nobility is a group of houses located in rows over a slope. The residence of the Amautas

Photography by Martin St-Amant.

allowed for the stones to move slightly and resettle without the walls collapsing. Other design details that protected against earthquakes included trapezoidal doors and windows that tilted inward from bottom to top; rounded corners; and "L"-shaped blocks used to tie outside corners of the structure together. The space is composed of 140 structures or features, including temples, sanctuaries, parks and residences. There are more than

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(wise persons) was characterized by its reddish walls, and the zone of the ustas (princesses) had trapezoid-shaped rooms. The Monumental Mausoleum is a carved statue with a vaulted interior and carved drawings, believed to have been used for rites or sacrifices. As part of their transportation system, the Incas built a road to Machu Picchu. Today, tens of thousands of tourists walk the Inca Trail to visit Machu Picchu each year (Figure 31.16). Sacred or Settlement? Some researchers believe Machu Picchu to be a sacred religious site, based on its location. The city was built on and around mountains that hold high religious importance in the Inca culture, as well as to previous cultures that occupied the land. Certain stylistic stonework points to the possible use of ritual. Other theorists maintain that Machu Picchu was an Inca llaqta, a settlement built to control the economy of conquered regions. Others assert that it may have been a prison, an agricultural testing station, an abode for the deities, or a site for the coronation of kings.
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Textiles
The Incas were highly regarded for textiles inuenced by the artistic works of the pre-Inca Chim culture.
KEY POINTS

Inca textiles were widely manufactured for practical use, trade, tax collection and decorative fashion. Cloth and textiles were divided by class, with llama wool used in more common clothing and the finer cloths of alpaca or vicua wool reserved for royal and religious use. Specific designs and ornaments marked a person's status and nobility. The weaving tradition was very important to Incas in the creation of elaborate woven headdresses. Textiles were widely prized within the empire - in part because they were somewhat easily transported - and were widely manufactured for tax collection and trade purposes. Cloth and textiles were divided among the classes in the Inca empire. Wealthy Inca men wore large gold and silver pendants hung on their chests, disks attached to their hair and shoes, and bands around their arms and wrists. Inca women adorned themselves with a metal fastening for their cloak called a tupu.

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The Incas were highly regarded for textiles influenced by the artistic works of the pre-Inca Chim culture. The Chim arose about 900 AD. The Inca ruler Tupac Inca Yupanqui led a campaign that conquered the Chim around 1470 AD. The Chim embellished their fabrics with brocades, embroidery, fabric doubles and painted fabrics. Textiles were sometimes adorned with feathers, gold or silver plates. Colored dyes were created from plants containing tannin, mole, or walnut. These dyes also came from animals like the cochineal and minerals like clay, ferruginosa and mordant aluminum. Garments were made of the wool of four animals - the guanaco, llama, alpaca and vicua. The people also used varieties of cotton that grew naturally in seven different colors.
An example of"Inca"textiles."Inca o#cials wore stylized tunics decorated with certain motifs, while soldiers of the Inca army had specic uniforms. Figure 31.17 Tupa Inca tunic from around 1550

Clothing consisted of the Chim loincloth, sleeveless shirts, small ponchos and tunics. Textiles were widely prized within the empire - in part because they were somewhat easily transported - and were widely manufactured for tax collection and trade purposes. Cloth and textiles were divided among the classes in the Inca empire. Awaska was used for common clothing and traditional household use, and was usually made from llama wool. Qunpi, a finer cloth, was divided into two classes - it would either be made of alpaca wool and collected as tribute for use by royalty, or woven from vicua wool and used for royal and religious purposes. The finest textiles were reserved for the rulers as markers of their status. For example, Inca officials wore stylized tunics decorated with certain motifs, and soldiers of the Inca army had specific uniforms (Figure 31.17). The Weaving Tradition The weaving tradition was very important to Incas in creation of beautiful and elaborate woven headdresses. Royalty was clearly distinguished through decorative dress. Inca emperors, for example, wore woven hats trimmed with gold and wool tassels or topped with plumes or showy feathers. Incas also created elaborate feather decorations for men like headbands made into crowns of feathers, collars and chest coverings. Wealthy Inca men wore large gold and silver pendants hung on their chests, disks attached to

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their hair and shoes, and bands around their arms and wrists. Inca women adorned themselves with a metal fastening for their cloak called a tupu. The head of their tupu was decorated with paint or silver, gold, or copper bells.
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Metalwork
The Inca were well-known for their use of gold, silver, copper, bronze, and other metals.
KEY POINTS

Drawing much of their metalworking style from Chim art, the Incas used metals for utilitarian purposes as well as ornaments and decorations. Copper and bronze were used for basic farming tools or weapons. Gold and silver were reserved for ornaments and decorations in temples and palaces of Inca royalty. Gold was especially revered for its sun-like reflective quality. Even though the Inca Empire contained many precious metals, the Incas did not value their metal as much as fine cloth. The Inca people's reverence of gold has much to do with their worship of the sun and the sun god, Inti.

Background The Inca were well known for their use of gold, silver, copper, bronze and other metals. Drawing much of their inspiration and style in metalworking from Chim art, the Incas used metals for

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utilitarian purposes as well as ornaments and decorations (Figure 31.18). As part of a tax obligation to the commoners, mining was required in all the provinces. Although the
Figure 31.18 Andean bronze bottle, ca. 1300-1532

and wood. Metal tools and weapons were forged by Inca metallurgists and then spread throughout the empire. Ornaments and Decorations in Metalwork Gold and silver were used for ornaments and decorations and reserved for the highest classes of Inca society, including priests, lords and the Sapa Inca, or emperor. Gold and silver were common themes throughout the palaces of Inca emperors. The temples of the Incas were also strewn with sacred and highly precious metal objects. Thrones were ornately decorated with metals, and royalty dined on golden-plated dishes inlaid with decorative designs. Headdresses, crowns, ceremonial knives, cups and ceremonial clothing were often inlaid with gold or silver. The Inca people's reverence of gold, in particular, has much to do with their worship of the sun and the sun god Inti. Gold's sun-like
The Incans adopted much of their metalworking characteristics from the metalwork of Chimu. Because of their expertise, "many metalworkers were taken back to the capital city of Cuzco to continue their metalworking for the emperor. Figure 31.19 Golden Plaque from Chim Culture

Inca Empire contained a lot of precious metals, the Incas did not value their metal as much as fine cloth. The Incas adopted much of their metalworking characteristics from the metalwork of Chim (Figure 31.19). With their expertise, many metalworkers were taken back to the capital city of Cuzco after the fall of Chim to continue their metalworking for the emperor. Copper, tin, gold and silver were all obtained from mines or washed from the river gravels.

While this bottle was most likely made by Chim artisans, Inca metalworkers adopted similar characteristics.

Copper and bronze were used for basic farming tools or weapons. Some common instruments included sharp sticks for digging, clubheads, knives with curved blades, axes, chisels, needles and pins. The Incas had no iron or steel, so their armor and weaponry consisted of helmets, spears and battle-axes made of copper, bronze

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reflective quality made the precious metal even more highly regarded.
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The Spanish Conquest and Its E!ects

After the fall of the Inca Empire, many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed or irrevocably changed by Spanish conquerors.
KEY POINTS

Following the Spanish Conquest, the Inca population suffered a dramatic and quick decline largely due to illness and disease. Many of those remaining were enslaved. Many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed as cities and towns were pillaged, resulting in the loss of vast amounts of traditional artwork, craft, and architecture. The introduction of Christianity greatly impacted the art of the region, which began to reflect Christian themes alongside and in place of traditional Inca designs. The Spanish also brought with them new techniques such as oil painting on canvas, which fused with the artistic traditions of the region.

The Spanish Conquest of the Inca Empire was catastrophic to the Inca people and culture. The Inca population suffered a dramatic and quick decline following contact with the Europeans. This decline was largely due to illness and disease such as smallpox,

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which is thought to have been introduced by colonists and conquistadors. It is estimated that parts of the empire, notably the Central Andes, suffered a population decline amounting to a staggering 93% of the pre-Columbian population by 1591. As an effect of this conquest, many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed or irrevocably changed. In addition to disease and population decline, a large portion of the Inca population - including artisans and crafts people - was enslaved and
Figure 31.20 The execution of the Inca Spaniards burning the Inca leader Atahualpa at the stake, following their conquest of the Inca people.

Beginning at the time of conquest, art of the central Andes region began to change as new techniques were introduced by the conquerors, such as oil paintings on canvas. The spread of Christianity had a great influence on both the Inca people and their artwork. As Pizarro and the Spanish subdued the continent and brought it under their control, they forcefully converted many to Christianity, and it wasn't long before the entire region was under Christian influence. As a result, early art from the colonial period began to show influences of both Christianity and Inca religious themes, and traditional Inca styles of artwork were adopted and altered by the Spanish to incorporate Christian themes.
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forced to work in the gold and silver mines (Figure 31.20). New buildings and cities were built by the Spanish on top of Inca foundations. Cities and towns were pillaged, along with a vast amount of traditional artwork, craft, and architecture.

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Section 5

North America

Woodlands in the East The Great Plains Northwest Coast and Alaska Southwest

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Woodlands in the East

The Eastern Woodlands cultures lived east of the Mississippi River, and are best known for their beadwork and pottery.
KEY POINTS

Northeastern Woodlands From the 12th century onward, the Iroquois and nearby coastal tribes fashioned wampum from shells and string. "Wampum" is a Wampanoag word referring to the shells themselves, which were used primarily as currency and were highly sought as a trade good
Figure 31.21 Wampum jewelry

throughout the Eastern Woodlands (Figure 31.21). Beadwork was very popular in this region, and Indigenous peoples produced barrelshaped and discoidal shell beads, as well as perforated small whole shells. Over time the use of more slender iron drills much improved the drilling of holes in small beads. Pendants carved from stone, wood, shells, and incised animal teeth especially bear teeth - were

The Eastern Woodlands cultures inhabited the regions of North America east of the Mississippi River. Much of their artwork was preserved in the earthen mounds where they buried their dead. Beadwork, pendants, and wood carvings were common among the tribes of the Northeastern Woodlands. The Mississippian Culture from 800 - 1500 CE included advanced pottery techniques, patchwork clothing, and wood carving and painting. The culture flourished throughout the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Fort Ancient culture flourished along the Ohio River from 1000 CE - 1750 CE, and included coiled pottery, beadwork, and silversmithing.
Wampum was commonly traded or used as currency by the Iroquois and nearby coastal tribes.

The Eastern Woodlands cultures inhabited the regions of North America east of the Mississippi River since 2500 BCE or earlier. Much of their artwork has been preserved through their shared tradition of burying their dead in earthen mounds along with artifacts and tools.

popular, and typically shaped as animals such as birds, turtles, or fish. Bird motifs were especially common, ranging from the stylized heads of raptors to ducks, as were images of human faces, believed

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by the Seneca and other tribes to be protective. Pearls were historically inlaid into bear teeth and incorporated into necklaces. Other arts from the Northeast Woodlands included wood carvings, such as False Face masks used by Iroquois people in healing rituals. Iroquois artists carved ornamental hair combs from antlers, making increasingly elaborate designs with the introduction of metal knives from Europe in the late 16th and 17th centuries. Europeans also introduced silversmithing to the northeast in the mid-17th century, and today there are several active Iroquois silversmiths. Mississippian Culture The Mississippian culture flourished from approximately 800 1500 CE, in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States. Pottery is one of the hallmark arts of this culture, which includes the Cahokia, Natchez, Caddo, Choctaw, Muscogee Creek, Wichita, and many other southeastern peoples (Figure 31. 22). One of the defining marks of Mississippian culture pottery is its
Figure 31.22 Mississippi pottery A human head e#gy pot from the Mississippian culture, on display at the Hampson Museum State Park in Wilson.

use of more advanced ceramic techniques, such as the use of ground mussel shell as a tempering agent in the clay paste. Textile making (such as the common patchwork clothing worn by indigenous people) and doll-making were also common crafts. Many artisans from this area were involved with the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, a pan-regional and pan-linguistic religious and trade network. The majority of the information known about the S.E.C.C. is derived from the elaborate artworks its participants left behind, including pottery, shell gorgets (Figure 31.23) and cups, stone statuaries, and copper plates. By the time of European contact the Mississippian societies were already experiencing severe social stress, and with the social upsets and diseases introduced by Europeans many of the societies collapsed and ceased to practice a Mississippian lifestyle. In 1896 more than 1,000 carved and painted wooden objects, including masks, tablets, plaques, and effigies, were excavated in Key Marco, southwestern Florida. They have since been described as some of the finest prehistoric native
A contemporary shell gorget carved by Bennie Pokemire (Eastern Band Cherokee) Figure 31.23 Cherokee shell gorget

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American art in North America. Spanish missionaries described similar masks and effigies in use by the Calusa late in the 17th century, although no examples of the Calusa objects from the historic period have survived. Fort Ancient Culture In addition to Mississippi culture, Fort Ancient was a Native American culture that flourished from 1000-1750 CE among a people who predominantly inhabited land along the Ohio River. Fort Ancient women used a technique known as coiling to make their pottery, in which they rolled clay into long, rounded strips. They then layered these strips one on top of another to mold the vessel, smoothing the inside of the vessel with a smooth round stone and the outside with a wooden paddle. Pottery from this period was distinguished by thinner walls than preceding Woodland pottery, and common shapes included large plain cooking jars with straps or loop handles. Fort Ancient pottery was often engraved with decorations on the rim and neck of the vessels, consisting of a series of interlocking lines, called guilloch. Much traditional dress incorporated elaborate designs and decorations. For example, Choctaw women's dance regalia incorporated ornamental silver combs and openwork beaded collars, and Caddo women wore hourglass-shaped hair ornaments called dush-tohs.

Clay, stone, and pearl beads were fashioned and worn by the people of the Southeastern Woodlands, often decorated with bold imagery. European contact introduced glass beads and silversmithing technology, and silver and brass armbands and gorgets became popular among Southeastern men in the 18th and 19th centuries. Sequoyah became one of the first well-known Cherokee silversmiths in the 18th and 18th centuries.
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The Great Plains

Great Plains Native Americans are well known for their bu!alo hide paintings, quillwork, and elaborate beadwork.
KEY POINTS

Ojibwe, Sarsi, Nakoda (Stoney), and Tonkawa; as well as the semisedentary tribes of the Arikara, Hidatsa, Iowa, Kaw (or Kansa), Kitsai, Mandan, Missouria, Omaha, Osage, Otoe, Pawnee, Ponca, Quapaw, Wichita, and the Santee, Yanktonai and Yankton Sioux. Buffalo hide has many uses in Great Plains art. Clothing made from buffalo hide was beautiful and elaborate, decorated with porcupine quill embroidery (using a traditional style known as porcupine quillwork), beads, and such prized materials as shells and elk teeth (Figure 31.24). Later, items such as coins and glass beads acquired from trading were incorporated into Plains art. Painting on buffalo hides was a common practice as well. Men painted narrative, pictorial designs recording personal exploits or visions as well as pictographic historical calendars known as Winter counts. Women painted geometric designs on tanned robes and rawhide,
Sioux dress with fully beaded yoke. Figure 31.24 Traditional Sioux dress

The people of the Great Plains are the indigenous peoples who live on the plains and rolling hills of the Great Plains of North America. Buffalo hide clothing was beautiful and elaborate, decorated with porcupine quill embroidery, beads, shells and teeth. Buffalo hide paintingsand its later counterpart, Ledger Art illustrated narratives, pictorial designs, calendars, and geometric designs. Great Plains Native Americans are perhaps most well known for their beadwork, used to decorate clothing, jewelry, breastplates, and ceremonial headdresses.

The people of the Great Plains are the indigenous peoples who live on the plains and rolling hills of the Great Plains of North America. During the Plains Village period (ca. 950-1850 CE), tribes included nomadic peoples, such as the Blackfoot, Arapaho, Assiniboine, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Lakota Sioux, Lipan, Plains Apache (or Kiowa Apache), Plains Cree, Plains

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which sometimes served as maps. During the Reservation Era of the late 19th century, buffalo herds were systematically destroyed by non-native hunters. Due to the scarcity of hides, Plains artists adopted new painting surfaces, such as muslin or paper, giving birth to Ledger Art. Ledger Art flourished from the 1860s to the 1920s and was named for the accounting ledger books that were a common source for paper for Plains Native Americans during the late 19th century. Great Plains Native Americans are most well known for their beadwork, which dates back to 8800 BCE and was used to decorate chokers, breastplates, clothing, jewelry, and ceremonial headdresses worn by women and men. Shells, such as marginella and olivella shells, were traded from the Gulf of Mexico and the coasts of California to the Plains beginning in 100 CE, and mussel shell gorgets, dentalia, and abalone were prized trade items for jewelry. Bones provided material for beads as well, especially long, cylindrical beads called hair pipes. Porcupine quillwork was also used in creating bracelets, hatbands, belt buckles, headdresses, hair roaches, and hairclips. Glass beads were first introduced to the Plains as early as 1700 and were used in decoration in a manner similar to quillwork, but they never fully replaced it. The Lakota, especially the members of the Standing Rock Sioux tribe in the Western Dakotas, became particularly adept at glass bead work. Several award-winning quillworkers are active in the art world

today, such as Juanita Growing Thunder Fogarty (AssiniboineSioux). Southern Plains Native Americans adopted metalsmithing in the 1820s, after metal jewelry was introduced through Spanish and Mexican metalsmiths and trade with tribes from other regions. Plains men began wearing metal pectorals and armbands, and in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, members of the Native American Church revealed their membership to others through pins with emblems of peyote buttons, water birds, and other religious symbols. Bruce Caesar (Sac and Fox-Pawnee) is one of the most prolific Southern Plains metalsmiths active today and was awarded the NEA's National Heritage Fellowship in 1998. U.S. Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell (Northern Cheyenne) is also an accomplished silversmith.
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Northwest Coast and Alaska

Art from the indigenous peoples of the Northwest Coast and Alaska is distinguished by its complex woodcarvings and its use of formline.
KEY POINTS

from pre-European-contact times up to the present. Art from this region is historically distinguished by complex woodcarvings, the use of formlines, and the use of characteristic shapes referred to as ovoids, "U" forms and "S" forms. Before European contact, the most common media were wood (often Western red cedar), stone, and copper; since European contact, paper, canvas, glass, and precious metals also have been used. If paint was used, the most common colors are red and black, but yellow was often used as well, particularly among Kwakwaka'wakw artists. Chilkat weaving applied formline designs to their textiles. Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian have traditionally produced Chilkat woven regalia from wool and yellow cedar bark, using them for civic and ceremonial events (Figure 31.25).
In the collection of the University of Alaska Museum, Fairbanks Figure 31.25 Chilkat blanket

Northwest Coast art refers to art created by the indigenous peoples of current-day Washington State, Oregon, British Columbia, and Alaska. Before European contact, the most common media were wood, stone, and copper; since, European contact, paper, canvas, glass, and precious metals also have been used. Northwest designs commonly included natural animals, legendary creatures, and abstract forms and shapes, and were often used to decorate traditional household items. Totem poles, masks, and canoes are examples of the complex woodcarvings of the peoples of the Northwest. After the arrival of Europeans in the late 18th century, traditional production of Northwest Coast art dropped significantly due to population loss and cultural assimilation.

Northwest Coast art is the term commonly applied to a style of art created primarily by artists from Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakwaka'wakw, Nuu-chah-nulth, and other First Nations and Native American tribes of the Northwest Coast of North America,

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The patterns depicted in most forms of art include natural forms, such as bears, ravens, eagles, orcas, and humans; legendary creatures, such as thunderbirds and sisiutls; and abstract forms made up of the characteristic Northwest Coast shapes. Northwest Coast designs were often used to decorate traditional household items, such as spoons, ladles, baskets, hats, and paddles; since European contact, the Northwest Coast art style has increasingly been used in gallery-oriented forms, such as paintings, prints, and sculptures. Woodcarving from this region is characterized by an extremely complex style. The most famous examples include Totem poles, Transformation masks, and canoes (Figure 31.26). After European contact in the late eighteenth century, the people who produced Northwest Coast art suffered huge population losses due to diseases, such as smallpox, and cultural losses due to assimilation into European-North American culture. The production of their art dropped off drastically as well. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, Northwest Coast artists began
Native American Totem Pole from Ketchikan, Alaska. Figure 31.26 Totem Pole from the Northwest

producing work for commercial sale, such as small argillite carvings. The end of the nineteenth century also saw large-scale export of totem poles, masks, and other traditional art objects from the region to museums and private collectors around the world. Some of this export was accompanied by financial compensation to people who had a right to sell the art, and some was not. In the early twentieth century, very few First Nations artists in the Northwest Coast region were producing art. A tenuous link to older traditions remained in artists, such as Charles Gladstone and Mungo Martin. The mid-twentieth century saw a revival of interest and production of Northwest Coast art due to the influence of artists and critics, such as Bill Reid, a grandson of Charles Gladstone. It also saw an increasing demand for the return of art objects that were illegally taken from First Nations communities. This demand continues to the present day. Today, there are numerous art schools teaching formal Northwest Coast art of various styles, and there is a growing market for new art in this style.
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Southwest
The indigenous peoples of the Southwest created magnicent works of pottery, jewelry, painting, weaving, and architecture.
KEY POINTS

The Southwest Prior to European exploration and contact with North America, the region of the Southwest was dominated by the Pueblo, Navajo, Apache, Hopi and Zuni peoples, among others. These peoples were rich in culture and history, creating magnificent works of pottery, jewelry, painting, weaving, and architecture. Pottery For hundreds of years the Ancestral Pueblo created utilitarian grayware and black-on-white pottery, incorporating reds and oranges toward the end of their era in the 13th century (Figure 31.28). Designs were painted on the exterior of black-on-white pottery and the interior of bowls, primarily with geometric shapes or representations of
The Navajo are well-known today for their use of turquoise in jewelry. Figure 31.27 Old and new Navajo bracelets

The Ancestral Pueblo created grayware and black-on-white pottery, decorated with geometric designs or representations of people, animals, and birds. Pueblo jewelry was often inlaid with pieces of turquoise, stone, or shell, and the Navajo incorporated silversmithing into their jewelry-making after this practice was introduced by the Mexicans in the 1850's. Sandpainting, the art of pouring colored sand onto a surface, was an aspect of Navajo healing ceremonies. Navajos learned to weave on upright looms from Pueblos and wove blankets and rugs that were highly regarded around the region. The Ancient Pueblo culture is perhaps best known for the stone and adobe dwellings built along cliff walls, the most elaborate of which is Chaco Canyon in New Mexico.

people, animals, and birds. Pottery making became an art form for individuals who specialized in distinctive styles made for trade. In historical times, Hopi created ollas, dough bowls, and food bowls of

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different sizes for daily use, but they also made more elaborate ceremonial mugs, jugs, ladles, seed jars and vessels for ritual use. These finer works were usually finished with polished surfaces and decorated with black painted designs. Jewelry and Silversmithing Jewelry and other ornaments were made by the Ancestral Pueblo using shells and stones bartered from the coasts of Mexico and California (Figure 31.27). Within the region, turquoise, soapstone, and lignite were attained through trade. Just as pottery from this period has received
Figure 31.28 Pottery of the Pueblo

jewelry with turquoise. Their hallmark jewelry piece known as the squash blossom necklace first appeared in the 1880s. Turquoise has been part of jewelry for centuries, but Navajo artists did not use inlay techniques to insert turquoise into silver designs until the late 19th century. Sikyatata became the first Hopi silversmith in 1898, and Hopi are renowned for their overlay silver work and cottonwood carvings. Zuni artists are admired for their cluster work jewelry, showcasing turquoise designs, as well as their elaborate, pictorial stone inlay in silver. The centuries old art of lapidary, preserved by clan and family tradition, remains an important element of design. Stone on stone mosaic inlay, channel inlay, cluster work, petite point, needle point, and natural cut or smoothed and polished cabochons fashioned from shells, coral, semi-precious, and precious gems commonly decorate these works of art with blue or green turquoise being the most common and recognizable material used. Navajo Sandpainting Sandpainting is an aspect of Navajo healing ceremonies that inspired an art form (Figure -.-). Sandpainting is the art of pouring colored sands, powdered pigments from minerals or crystals, and pigments from other natural or synthetic sources onto a surface to make a fixed, or unfixed sand painting. In the sandpainting of southwestern Navajo, the Medicine Man (or Hata,ii) paints loosely

world-wide recognition, work inlaid with shell and turquoise from this period was noteworthy for its artistry and sophisticated inlay techniques.

Ceramic bowl from Chaco Canyon in New Mexico, Pueblo III phase.

In the 1850s, Navajos

adopted silversmithing from the Mexicans. Atsidi Sani (Old Smith) was the first Navajo silversmith, and the technology quickly spread to surrounding tribes. Today thousands of artists produce silver

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upon the ground of a hogan, where the ceremony takes place, or on a buckskin or cloth tarpaulin, by letting the colored sands flow through his fingers.
Figure 31.29 Navajo Sandpainting

inexpensive, so Navajo weavers switched to producing rugs for trade for an increasingly non-Native audience. Rail service also brought in Germantown wool from Philadelphia, commercially dyed wool which greatly expanded the weavers' color palettes. Some early European-American settlers moved in and set up trading posts, often buying Navajo rugs by the pound and selling them back east by the bale. Architecture The Ancient Pueblo culture is perhaps best known for the stone and adobe dwellings built along cliff walls, particularly during the Pueblo II and Pueblo III eras. Adobe structures are constructed with bricks created from sand, clay, and water, with some fibrous or organic material, shaped using frames and dried in the sun. These villages, called pueblos by Spanish settlers, were often only accessible by rope or through rock climbing. One of the most

One of the four elaborate dry-paintings or sand altars employed in the rites of the Mountain Chant, a Navaho medicine ceremony of nine days' duration.

elaborate and largest ancient settlements is Chaco Canyon in New Mexico, which includes 15 major complexes of sandstone and timber connected by a network of roads.
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Weaving Navajos came to the southwest with their own weaving traditions; however they learned to weave on upright looms from Pueblos and wove blankets that were eagerly collected by Great Basin and Plains tribes in the 18th and 19th centuries. After the introduction of the railroad in the 1880s, imported blankets became plentiful and

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Chapter 32

Oceania

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/oceania/

Section 1

The Rise of Pacic Cultures

Introduction

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Introduction
The ancestors of modern-day Pacic Cultures, such as the Lapita, spread through Oceania from 1500 BC.
KEY POINTS

Polynesia, Micronesia, Australia, and Melanesia (Figure 32.1). The ancestors of the people of these islands came from Southeast Asia by two different groups at separate times. The first, an Australoid people and the ancestors of modern day Melanesians and Australian Aboriginals, came to New Guinea and Australia, with the Melanesians expanding as far as the northern Solomon Islands by 38,000 BC. The second wave of peoples came from Southeast Asia 30,000 years later, where they reached reached even the most remote Pacific islands. These early peoples lacked a writing system,
Figure 32.1 Major culture areas of Oceania: Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia

Oceania encompasses the people indigenous to Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands. The area is often broken down into four separate regions: Polynesia, Micronesia, Australia, and Melanesia. The Lapita, dating from about 1500 BC to 500 BC, are thought to be the ancestors of the modern day cultures of Polynesia, Micronesia, and some parts of Melanesia. The Lapita culture was formed by the second wave of Oceanic settlers coming from Southeast Asia. The period from 1000 BC to 1000 AD is characterized by increasing trade and interaction between the Pacific Islands and mainland Asia, as well as the settling of new areas. By 1500, the first European explorers reached Oceania. Although previous artistic and architectural traditions continued, the various regions began to diverge and record more distinct cultures.

Art of Oceania properly encompasses the artistic traditions of the people indigenous to Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands. The area is often broken down into four separate regions:

Oceania properly encompasses the people indigenous to Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacic Islands."The area is often broken down into four separate regions: Polynesia, Micronesia, Australia, and Melanesia.

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and made works on perishable materials, so few records of them exist from this time. By 1500 BC, descendants of the second wave began to expand and spread into the more remote islands. At around the same time, art began to appear in New Guinea, including the earliest examples of sculpture in Oceania. From around 1000 BC on, the Lapita people consolidated and began to create the contemporary Polynesian cultures of Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji. From there they ventured further out into the Pacific and settled the Marquesas and northern Cook Islands. The Lapita were an early culture with an influential artistic tradition. Dating from about 1500 BC to 500 BC, they are thought to be the ancestors of the modern day cultures of Polynesia, Micronesia, and some parts of Melanesia. The culture was formed by the second wave of Oceanic settlers, and the name comes from the site of Lapita in New Caledonia, which was among the first places its distinctive sculpture would be found. It is debated exactly where the culture developed, but the people themselves originally came from Southeast Asia. Their art is best known by their ceramics, which include elaborate geometric motifs and sometimes anthropomorphic imagery. It is thought some of the designs may be related to modern Polynesian tattoos and barkcloths. They were created by firing a comblike tool that stamped the designs on to wet

clay; each stamp would have one design and would be layered until an elaborate pattern was created. Their usage was primarily practical, used in cooking, serving, and storing food. The period from 1000 BC to 1000 AD is characterized by increasing trade and interaction between the Pacific Islands and mainland Asia. Starting around 600 BC, works of the Dongson culture of Vietnam - known for their bronze working - can be found in Oceania, and their imagery has a strong influence on the indigenous artistic tradition. New areas were also settled during this time, including Hawaii, Easter Island, Tahiti, and New Zealand. Starting around 1100 AD, the people of Easter Island began construction of nearly 900 moai (large stone statues, Figure 32.2). At about 1200 AD, the people of Pohnpei, a Micronesian island, embarked on another megalithic construction, building Nan Madol, a city of artificial islands and a system of canals. By 1500, the first European explorers reached Oceania.
Starting around 1100 AD, the people of Easter Island began construction of nearly 900 moai, or large stone statues. Figure 32.2 Moai at Rano Raraku, Easter Island

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Although previous artistic and architectural traditions continued, the various regions began to diverge and record more distinct cultures.
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Section 2

Australia

Art of Australia

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Art of Australia
The history of visual arts in Australia ranges from ancient Aboriginal rock paintings to the westerninuenced contemporary works of today.

Art in Australia The visual arts have a long history in Australia, from ancient Aboriginal rock paintings to colonial landscapes to contemporary movements of today. Aboriginal and Indigenous Art

KEY POINTS

Aboriginal art in Australia can be traced back at least 30,000 years; the rock art of Australian Aborigines is one of the longest continuously practiced artistic traditions in the world (Figure 32.3). Rock paintings are divided into three periods, based on the styles and content of the art:Pre-Estuarine(c. 40,000?6000 BCE), Estuarine(c. 6000 BC500 CE), and Fresh Water (c. 500 CEpresent). There are also three regional styles of cave art: the geometric style (known for its concentric circles, arcs and dots) found in Central
Aboriginal art in Australia can be traced back at least 30,000 years. Figure 32.3 Aboriginal Rock Art, Ubirr Art Site, Kakadu National Park, Australia

Aboriginal rock art can be traced back at least 30,000 years, and is one of the longest continuously practiced artistic traditions in the world. Europeans first began depicting the natural landscape and wildlife of the Australian continent during initial voyages in the late 1700; however the origin of distinctly Australian painting is associated with the Heidelberg School of the 1880s-1890s. In the mid-20th century a new generation of artists began experimenting with modernist styles such as surrealism, abstract expressionism, and cubism; at the same time Australian Tonalism movement rejected modernist art and promoted a unique theory of painting. As the years went on contemporary artists increasingly depicted socio-political issues of the time through performance, Feminist, and grunge art. Recent decades have seen a resurgence of indigenous influence in the arts, most famously through the Papunya Tula school and "dot art.".

Australia, Tasmania, the Kimberly and Victoria; the simple figurative style found in Queensland; and the complex figurative

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style found in Arnhem Land. Rock paintings are believed to have served several functions, from ceremonial to merely decorative. Today they are preserved in national parks throughout the
Figure 32.4 Golden Summer, Eaglemont (1889) oilon-canvas, 81.3 cm (h) x 152.6 cm (w), by Arthur Streeton (18671943)

John Lewin and Harriet and Helena Scott were among the first professional natural-history illustrators, while artists such as Augustus Earle focused on ethnographic portraiture of Aboriginal Australians. The colonial art market primarily desired landscape paintings, which are often described as making a gradual shift from a European sense of light to a more Australian one. Among the first Australian artists to gain a reputation overseas were the impressionist John Peter Russell and landscape painter Rupert Bunny. The origin of distinctly Australian painting is associated

continent and protected through organizations such as the Friends of Australian Rock Art. The influence of Aboriginal artwork in Australia carries over to the 19th and 20th centuries in the works of William

Artists such as Arthur Streeton attempted to capture the unique light and color that characterize the Australian landscape.

Figure 32.5 Shearing the Rams, 1888-1890, oil on canvas, Tom Roberts (1856 - 1931)

Barak, who recorded traditional aboriginal ways for the education of Westerners; Margaret Preston, a non-indigenous painter incorporating Aboriginal influences in her works; Albert Namatjira, an Arrernte artists whose landscapes inspired the Hermannsburg School of art; and Elizabeth Durack, notable for her fusion of Western and indigenous influences. Colonial Art (1770-1900) Europeans depicted the natural landscape, plant life, and wildlife of the Australian continent during initial voyages in the late 1700s.
Colonial artists such as Tom Roberts captured aspects of everyday life in Australia.

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with the Heidelberg School of the 1880s-1890s. Like European Impressionists, artists such as Arthur Streeton (Figure 32.4), Frederick McCubbin, Tom Roberts (Figure 32.5), and Charles Conder applied themselves to recreating a truer sense of light and color as seen in Australian landscape. Federation to Depression Eras The early 20th century saw many Australian artists making their careers in Europe, such as impressionist John Peter Russell, bohemian painters Rupert Bunny and Agnes Goodsir, printmaker Hall Thorpe, and sculptor Bertram Mackennal. Han Heyson won the Wynne Prize nine times, from 1904 to 1932, for his luminous watercolor paintings of rural Australia. The Archibald Prize, Australia's most famous art prize for portraiture, was founded in 1921. Art decomade its mark around this time in advertising posters, architecture such as the Sydney Harbour Bridge, and consumer goods, as well as fine art. Early proponents of modernist art in Australia included cubist influenced Roy de Maistre and Margaret Preston, and the post-impressionist Grace Cossington Smith. In the 1940s and 1950s a new generation of artists began experimenting with styles such as surrealism, abstract expressionism, and other techniques. Prominent artists of this time include James Gleeson, Robert Klippel, Jacqueline Hick, and Herbert McClintock.

Cubismhad an enduring influence on painting as well, such as in the works of Grace Crowley and Godfrey Miller. The advent of photography brought with it several prominent Australian photographers; David Moore's 1966 photograph Migrants Arriving in Sydney remains one of the most famous works of modern Australian photography. Max Meldrum led the Australian Tonalism movement, which rejected modernist art and promoted a unique form of painting in accordance with his own theories. He is thought by some historians to be the only Australian artist to develop and practice his own fully formulated theory of painting. Contemporary and Resurgent Indigenous Art Pop art, Feminist art, and other contemporary art forms emerged in Australia in the 1960s. The Power Institute of Fine Arts, established in 1968, eventually led to the establishment of the Museum of Contemporary Art in Sydney. The 1970s saw a growth in publicandperformance art;Burnum Burnum, an Aboriginal rights activist who protested the lack of legal recognition of Aboriginal land ownership, is famous for several works of performance art. A grunge art movement occurred in the 90s, mainly in Sydney. Contemporary artists increasingly depicted cultural phenomena and socio-political issues of the time.

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In 1971, Geoffrey Bardon encouraged the Aboriginal people of Papunya to paint their Dreamtime stories about creation, people, animals and customs on canvas. This led to the development of the Papunya Tulaschool, or dot art, now possibly Australia's most recognizable style of art worldwide. Clifford Possum Tjapaltjarri, Long Jack Phillipus Tjakamarra and William Sandy are some of the best known Papunya artists. Other Aboriginal artists have incorporated western mediums into their work, such as Emily Kngwarreye, Rover Thomas and Freddy Timms.
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Section 3

Melanesia

New Guinea New Ireland New Britain

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New Guinea
With its diverse cultural heritage, the island of New Guinea holds some of the most striking art in all of Oceania.
KEY POINTS

Islands and Australia. The earliest examples of art in New Guinea are thought to have appeared around 1500 BC in the form of early Oceanic sculptures. These sculptures, found throughout the island but mostly in the mountainous highlands, first appeared as stone figures that took the shape of mortars, pestles, or freestanding
Figure 32.6 Papau New Guinean wooden sculpture

figures. Imagery including birds, human heads, or geometric patterns was often carved onto the tops

The earliest examples of art in New Guinea are thought to have appeared around 1500 BC in the form of early Oceanic rock sculptures, found mainly in the highlands. The region is most famously known today for its elaborate wood carvings, including sculptures, masks, canoes, drums, and storyboards. The latter half of the 19th century saw a decline of some traditional art forms as westernization began taking its toll on the area. However, the 20th and 21st centuries have seen a comeback in traditional New Guinean art and a burgeoning movement of contemporary artists like Mathias Kauage.

A Papua New Guinean wooden sculpture, Stanford University New Guinea sculpture garden.

of pestles or mortars or into the freestanding figures. While the original significance of these pieces is unknown, they may have been used in the context of rituals. The region of New Guinea is perhaps most famously known for its tradition in wood carvings (Figure 32.6), which are especially prevalent along the Sepik River of Papau New Guinea. Elaborate carvings often took the form of sculptures, masks, canoes, drums (Figure 32.7), and storyboards, with many held today in overseas museums.

New Guinean art is many-sided and complex. The sheer diversity of cultural groups existing in the region have resulted in many unique styles of cultural expression, from art and architecture to music and weaponry. Traditional art of New Guinea falls under the greater classification of Oceanic art - art made by the native peoples of the Pacific

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New Guinean artistic tradition continued even with increasing trade and interaction with European explorers through the 17th and 18th centuries. The latter half of the 19th century saw a decline of some traditional art forms as westernization began taking its toll on the area. In the 20th century, however, New Guinean and other Oceanic art began making a comeback. The first wave of contemporary New Guinean artists included Mathias Kauage,Timothy Akis, Jakupa Ako and Joe Nalo. Kauage, whose work included drawing, painting and woodcuts, won Australia's Blake Prize for religious art; four
Papua New Guinea, East Sepik Province, Eastern Iatmul People, circa 1909 Figure 32.7 Hand drum, Papau New Guinea

New Ireland
New Ireland, a large island in Melanesia, is most known for its elaborate wooden carvings used in traditional rituals and ceremonies.
KEY POINTS

New Ireland has a rich cultural history heavily influenced by Oceanic art. The most well-known art from this region includes !Malagan carvings, tatanua masks, and kulip sculptures used in traditional ceremonies such as the funerary Malagan ritual. Wooden Malagan carvings used during the rituals they are named after are now world famous and held in museums around the world. Tatanua masks, carved from wood and elaborately painted and decorated, are often worn by ceremonial dancers during Malagan rituals. Kulap are small funerary sculptures believed to contain the soul of the deceased.

of his works are in the Glasgow Museum of Modern Art, and he had a solo show in 2005 at the Horniman Museum entitled "Kauage's Visions: Art from Papua New Guinea." Other noted Papua New Guinean visual artists include Larry Santana, Martin Morububuna and Heso Kiwi.
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New Ireland, a large island in Melanesia lying northeast of the island of New Britain, has a rich cultural history in the Oceanic arts. Art from this region was often highly decorative, portraying elaborate forms and often tied to themes of ancestry, hunting, or

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spiritual ceremonies. Some of the most well-known artworks of New Ireland are malagan carvings, tatanua masks, and kulap sculptures. Malagan Carvings Malagan ceremonies are large, intricate cultural events that are often funerary in nature, held by the family of the deceased to communicate with deities and to honor those that have passed. Malagan carvings (Figure 32.9), now world-famous, are the wooden carvings which are created for use in these ceremonies. Traditionally these were burnt at the conclusion of the event; in modern times most are now retained, as the carving tradition is known only by a few. Contemporary masters of Malagan form include Ben Sisia of Libba Village (northern New Ireland) and Edward Salle of Lava Village (Tatau, Tabar Islands, New Ireland). Many Malagan carvings are held today in museums around the world.
The tatuana masks of New Ireland were traditionally used in malagan ceremonies. Figure 32.8 Tatuana mask

Tatanua Masks A tatanua (Figure 32.8) is a type of traditional wooden mask worn by ceremonial dancers during the Malagan ritual. These masks are normally carved from lime wood, decorated with sugar cane fibers and wool or other animal hair, and painted using chalk and natural dyes. Kulap Scupltures Kulap are small funerary sculptures produced in the Punam region of southern New Ireland. They were believed to represent and contain the soul of the deceased, and would be ritually smashed
Malagan wood carvings are created for use in malagan ceremonies. Figure 32.9 Malagan carvings, Papua New Guinea

once their usefulness was outlived (although in more recent years some have been sold to Westerners). Kulap are carved from chalk limestone, native to the region, and often painted; they are expressly produced by artisans from the Rossel Mountains.
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New Britain
New Britain, one of the larger islands in Melanesia, is heavily inuenced by the Oceanic art of the region.

Works of art would commonly be used in the context of spiritual rituals, such as painted wooden masks. The 17th century, both here and in other regions of Oceania, brought with it increasing encounters with European explorers. These explorers witnessed a flourishing tradition of art and culture,

KEY POINTS

Similar to its neighboring islands in Melanesia, New Britain has perhaps the most striking art of all Oceania. Art from this region tends to be highly decorative, such as the creation of elaborate masks for use in spiritual ceremonies. While the arrival of European explorers in the 17th century led to a decline in some traditional art forms, in recent years traditional Melanesian art has grown in recognition and influenced some contemporary artists in the West.

Figure 32.10 Mask (lor)

such as the first record of the region's elaborate wood carving. It wasn't until the latter half of the 19th century, however, that westernization began to take its toll. Some traditional forms of art began to decline, though others like sculpture survived and even thrived in the region. It wasn't until more of the islands were explored that the sheer diversity of Melanesian art began to be

New Britain is the largest island of the Bismark Archipelago of Papau New Guinea. Similar to its fellow Melanesian islands, it is heavily influenced by Oceanic art. Oceanic art refers to the creative works made by the native peoples of the Pacific Islands and Australia. Melanesia, comprising New Britain and the surrounding islands, has perhaps the most striking art of all Oceania. Art from this region tends to be elaborate and highly decorative, and is often made in connection with ancestors.

The lor, or skull masks of New Britains Gazelle Peninsula, were made by the Tolai People from the regions available materials.

seen and appreciated by westerners. By the 20th century traditional Melanesian art began to find its way to the west, eventually having a profound impact on

contemporary artists. The second World War brought with it a great cultural disruption that led to another decline in traditional art; however, decades later a new appreciation for native art forms again began to emerge.

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EXAMPLE

The lor (Figure 32.10), or skull masks of New Britains Gazelle Peninsula were made by the Tolai People from the regions available materials. Made of human skulls or wooden boards, they were decorated with paint, animal hairs and other material and attached to sticks. The use of the lor became limited to New Britain, and the Tolai people would often use them in initiation rites and dances or to represent specific spirits. The use of these masks died out by the 19th century.

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Section 4

Micronesia

Caroline Islands

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Caroline Islands
The Caroline Islands boast a rich history of traditional art, including elaborate wood carvings, sculptures, textiles, and ornaments.
KEY POINTS

Among the most prominent works of the region is the megalithic floating city of Nan Madol, which today lies in ruin off the eastern shore of the island of Pohnpei. Construction on the city started in 1200 A.D., and was still underway when European explorers began to arrive around the year 1600. Often called the "Venice of the Pacific," Nan Madol consists of a series of small, artificial islands linked by a network of canals. Around the turn of the 19th century, during the Saudeleur dynasty, the city underwent a decline, and it was abandoned altogether by the 1820s. During the 19th century, the Caroline Islands were divided up among the colonial powers, but art continued to thrive. This work was typically gendered in the communities. Men in the Caroline Islands created elaborate wood
Dilukai are wooden gures of young women carved over the doorways of chiefs' houses (bai) to protect the villagers' health and crops and ward o! evil spirits. Figure 32.11 Dilukai from the Caroline Islands, Belau (Palau), 19th-early 20th century, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Belonging to the region of Micronesia,the Caroline Islands have a rich history of Oceanic art. Among the most prominent works of the region is the nowruined, megalithic, floating city of Nan Madol, which is often called the "Venice of the Pacific". Artwork in these communities was often gendered. Men created elaborate wood carvings and sculptures, while women created textiles and ornaments. While colonization threatened historical artistic traditions, independence from colonial powers has since allowed for a renewed interest in traditional arts, and a notable movement of contemporary art has begun to emerge in the region.

The Caroline Islands are a widely scattered archipelago of tiny islands in the western Pacific Ocean, to the north of New Guinea. Technically belonging to the region of Micronesia, these islands have a rich history of Oceanic art.

carvings, including stylized bowls, canoe ornaments, sculptured figures, ceremonial vessels, and richly decorated ceremonial houses (Figure 32.11). Women created textiles, ornaments, bracelets, and headbands. Stylistically, this art is streamlined with a practical simplicity, but is typically finished with a high standard of quality.

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During the first half of the 20th century, Western and Japanese imperialism began to affect the region. A number of historical artistic traditions simply ceased to be practiced, while others were maintained. By the second half of the century, however, when the Caroline Islands secured their independence from colonial forces, there was a resurgence of interest in traditional arts, and a new generation began to learn these forms. Toward the end of the 20th century, a notable, regional movement of contemporary art had emerged in Micronesia, to which artists from the Caroline Islands contributed.
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Section 5

Polynesia

Cook and Marquesas Islands Hawaii Easter Island Samoa Tonga New Zealand

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Cook and Marquesas Islands

The Cook and Marquesas Islands are located in the South Pacic, and are known for their woodcarving, weaving, quilts and tattooing.
KEY POINTS

small islands whose total land area is 92.7 sq miles. Although Cook Islanders are citizens of New Zealand, they have the status of Cook Islands nationals, which is not given to other New Zealand citizens. The Cook Islands were first settled in the 6th century CE by Polynesian people who migrated from nearby Tahiti, to the southeast. British navigator Captain James Cook arrived in 1773 and 1777 and named the islands the Hervey Islands; the name "Cook Islands", in honor of Cook, appeared on a Russian naval chart published in the 1820s. Woodcarving is a common art form in the Cook Islands (Figure 32.12). The proximity of islands in the southern group helped produce a homogeneous style of carving; however each island developed its own characteristics within this style. Rarotonga is known for its fisherman's gods and staff-gods; Atiu for its wooden seats; Mitiaro, Ma'uke and Atiu for mace and slab gods; and Mangaia for its ceremonial adzes. Most of the original wood carvings were either spirited away by early European collectors or were burned in large
The Cook Islands were regarded for their ne wood carvings, many of which were taken or destroyed by European missionaries. Figure 32.12 Cook Islands carved wood gure, British Museum

The Cook Islands, composed of 15 small islands whose total land area is 92.7 sq miles, are a parliamentary democracy in free association with New Zealand. Woodcarving, weaving, and tivaevae - the art of handmade Island scenery patchwork quilts - are well-known artistic traditions of the Cook Islands. The islands have also!produced several internationally recognized!contemporary artists. The Marquesas Islands are a group of volcanic islands in French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in the southern Pacific Ocean. The first recorded settlers prior to 100 AD were Polynesians, most likely from Tonga and Samoa. The Marquesas have a long history of complex geometric tattooing, covering the whole bodies of both men and women.

The Cook Islands The Cook Islands are a parliamentary democracy in the South Pacific Ocean in free association with New Zealand, composed of 15

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numbers by European missionaries. Today, carving is no longer the major art form with the same spiritual and cultural emphasis given to it by the Maori in New Zealand. However, there are continual efforts to interest young people in their heritage. The island Atiu, in particular, has a strong tradition of crafts both in carving and local fiber arts such as tapa. Mangaia is the source of many fine adzes carved in a distinctive, idiosyncratic style with the so-called doublek design. Mangaia also produces food pounders carved from the heavy calcite found in its extensive limestone caves. The outer islands produce traditional weaving of mats, basketware and hats. Particularly fine examples of rito hats are worn by women to church, which are made from the uncurled immature fibre of the coconut palm. The Polynesian equivalent of Panama hats, they are highly valued and are keenly sought by Polynesian visitors from Tahiti. Often, they are decorated with hatbands made of minuscule pupu shells which are painted and stitched on by hand. Although pupu are found on other islands the collection and use of them in decorative work has become a specialty of Mangaia. The weaving of rito is a specialty of the northern island of Penrhyn. Another popular art form in the Cook Islands is tivaevae - the art of handmade Island scenery patchwork quilts (Figure 32.13). Introduced by the wives of missionaries in the 19th century, the craft grew into a communal activity and is probably one of the main

reasons for its popularity. By custom, a tivaevae is not measured by monetary value nor production cost. Its value is said to be reflected by the love and patience that the creator(s) have put into making a stunning work of art. Cook Islands women often described their tivaevae as being "something from the heart." The Cook Islands has produced internationally recognized contemporary artists, especially in the main island of Rarotonga. Artists include painter (and photographer) Mahiriki Tangaroa,
Figure 32.13 Woman sewing a tivaevae, Rarotonga Tivaevae - the art o handmade patchwork quilts - is not measured by monetary"value nor production cost, but rather is valued for the love and patience that the creator(s) have put into making a stunning work of art.

sculptors Eruera (Ted) Nia (originally a film maker) and master carver Mike Tavioni, and community-project artist Ani O'Neil. Many of these artists have studied at university art schools in New Zealand and continue to enjoy close links with the New Zealand art scene.

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Marquesas Islands The Marquesas Islands are a group of volcanic islands in French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in the southern Pacific Ocean (Figure 32.14). The Marquesas Islands form one of the five administrative divisions (subdivisions administratives) of French Polynesia. In the history of Marquesas Islands, the first recorded settlers of the Marquesas were Polynesians, who, from arch-ological evidence, are believed to have arrived before 100 AD. Ethnological and linguistic evidence suggests that they likely arrived from the region of Tonga and Samoa. The islands were given their name by the Spanish explorer lvaro de Mendaa de Neira who reached them on 21 July 1595. Much of Polynesia, including the original settlers of Hawaii, Tahiti, Rapa Iti and Easter Island, was settled by Marquesans, believed to have departed from the Marquesas as a result of overpopulation and drought-related food shortages. Much of the rest of Polynesia was colonized by Marquesan descendants centered in Tahiti. These islands share similar artistic traditions of other Pacific Islands, including the art of tattooing. The Marquesas have a long history of complex geometric tattooing, covering the whole bodies of both men and women. Today, Marquesan culture is a mlange created by the layering of the ancient Marquesan culture, with

Figure 32.14 Major culture areas of Oceania: Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia

The Cook and Marquesas Islands are located in the Polynesian region of the South Pacic.

strong influences from the important Tahitian culture and the politically important French culture.
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Hawaii
Hawaiian art can be divided"into pre-European art, nonnative art, and art produced by Hawaiians incorporating western ideas.
KEY POINTS

Figure 32.15 Hawaiian kapa, 18th century

Hawaii represents the northernmost extension of the vast Polynesian triangle of the south and central Pacific Ocean. While traditional Hawaiian culture remains only as vestiges in modern Hawaiian society, there are reenactments of the ceremonies and traditions throughout the islands. Some of these cultural influences are strong enough to affect the United States at large, including the popularity (in greatly modified form) of luaus and hula. The Hawaiian archipelago consists of 137 islands in the Pacific Ocean

Some Hawaiian cultural influences are strong enough to affect the United States at large, such as the popularity of luaus and hula. Polynesians arrived in Hawaii one to two thousand years ago, and in 1778 Captain James Cook and his crew became the first Europeans to visit Hawaii, calling it the Sandwich Islands. Art existing prior to Cooks arrival includes wood carvings, feather work, petroglyphs, bark cloth (called kapa in Hawaiian) and tattoos. Some of the first westerners to visit Hawaii were artists, who sketched and painted Hawaiis people and landscapes using imported materials and concepts. The Volcano School was a group of non-native Hawaiian artists who painted dramatic nocturnal scenes of Hawaiis erupting volcanoes. Artworks produced by Hawaiis native born and long-term residents incorporating western materials and ideas include paintings on canvas and quilts. They may be distinctly Hawaiian in subject matter or as diverse as their places of origin.

Kapa is a kind of bark cloth, or fabric"made by Native Hawaiians"from the bast bers"of certain species of trees and shrubs.

that are far from any other land. Polynesians arrived there one to two thousand years ago, and in 1778 Captain James Cook and his crew became the first Europeans to visit Hawaii (which they called the Sandwich Islands). The art created in these islands may be divided into art existing prior to Cooks arrival; art produced by recently arrived westerners; and art produced by Hawaiians incorporating western materials and ideas.

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Art Prior to Cook's Arrival Art existing prior to Cooks arrival is very similar to the art of other Pacific Islanders. This art includes wood carvings, feather work, petroglyphs, bark cloth (called kapa in Hawaiian and tapa elsewhere in the Pacific; Figure 32.15) and tattoos. Native Hawaiians had neither metal nor woven cloth. Production of this art continued after Cooks arrival, and a few craftsmen still produce traditional Hawaiian arts, either to sell to tourists or to preserve native culture. Art Produced by Visitors Some of the first westerners to visit Hawaii were artistsboth professional and amateur. Many of the explorers ships had professional artists to record their discoveries. These artists sketched and painted Hawaiis people and landscapes using
Jules Tavernier was a member of the Volcano School, a group of non-native Hawaiian artists who painted dramatic nocturnal scenes of Hawaii's erupting volcanoes. Figure 32.16 Jules Tavernier's painting 'Full Moon over Kilauea', 1887

imported materials and concepts. Artists in this category include Alfred Thomas Agate (American 1812-1849), Jean Charlot (French 1898-1979), Robert Dampier (English 1800-1874), Joseph Henry Sharp (American 1859-1953), and many others. Night scenes of erupting volcanoes were especially popular giving rise to The Volcano School. The Volcano School was a group of non-native Hawaiian artists who painted dramatic nocturnal scenes of Hawaiis erupting volcanoes (Figure 32.16). Some of the artists also produced watercolors, which, by the nature of the medium, tended to be diurnal. Two volcanoes on the Island of Hawaii, Kilauea and Mauna Loa, were intermittently active during the 1880s and 1890s, when interest in Volcano School paintings peaked. Getting to Kilauea, the more frequently painted volcano required an arduous two or three day roundtrip journey on horseback. Printmaker and art educator HucMazelet Luquiens called this period a little Hawaiian renaissance. Art Produced by Hawaiians and Long-Term Residents Artworks produced by Hawaiis native born and long-term residents incorporating western materials and ideas include paintings on canvas and quilts. They may be distinctly Hawaiian in subject matter or as diverse as their places of origin. Most of the art currently produced in Hawaii falls into this third category. Notable artists in this category include sculptor Satoru Abe (born Hawaii

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1926-), ceramicist Sally Fletcher-Murchison (born Hawaii 1933-), Joseph Nawahi (born Hawaii 1842-1896), Reuben Tam (born Hawaii 1916-1991), and others. Hawaiian Art Today In 1967, Hawaii became the first state in the nation to implement a Percent for Art law. The Art in State Buildings Law established the Art in Public Places Program and designated one percent of the construction costs of new public schools and state buildings for the acquisition of works of art, either by commission or by purchase. Hawaii is also home to numerous cultural events. The annual Merrie Monarch Festival is an international Hula competition. The state is also home to the Hawaii International Film Festival, the premier film festival for Pacific rim cinema. Honolulu is also home to the state's long running GLBT film festival, the Rainbow Film Festival.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/oceania/polynesia/ hawaii/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

Easter Island
Easter Island is famous for its monumental statues, called"moai, created by the early Rapanui people.
KEY POINTS

Easter Island is a Polynesian island in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle. The Rapa Nui people of Easter Island had a Stone Age culture and made extensive use of several different types of local stone, including basalt, obsidian, red scoria, and tuff. The large stone statues, or moai, for which Easter Island is world-famous, were carved from 11001680 CE. A total of 887 monolithic stone statues have been inventoried. Ahu are stone platforms that often carried moai; of the 313 known ahu, Ahu Tongariki had the most and tallest moai. Easter Island has one of the richest collections of petroglyphs in all Polynesia, with over 4,000 petroglyphs cataloged. Tongorongo is an apparent script with glyphs that include pictographic and geometric shapes; the texts were incised in wood in reverse boustrophedon direction. Despite numerous attempts, the surviving texts have not been deciphered.

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Easter Island is a Polynesian island in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeastern most point of the Polynesian Triangle
Figure 32.17 Easter Island and the islands near South America.

The large stone statues, or moai, for which Easter Island is worldfamous, were carved from 11001680 CE. A total of 887 monolithic stone statues have been inventoried on the island and in museum collections so far. Although often identified as "Easter Island heads", the statues have torsos, most of them ending at the top of
Figure 32.18 Ahu Tongariki near Rano Raraku

(Figure 32.17). A special territory of Chile that was annexed in 1888, Easter Island is famous for its 887 extant monumental statues, called moai, created by the early Rapa Nui people. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, with much of the island protected within Rapa Nui National Park. In recent times the island has served as a warning of the cultural and environmental dangers of exploitation. Ethnographers and archaeologists also blame

the thighs, although a small number of them are complete, with the figures kneeling on bent knees with their hands over their stomachs. Almost all (95%) moai were carved out of distinctive, compressed, easily worked solidified volcanic ash or tuff found

Easter Island is a Polynesian island in the southeastern Pacic Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle.

Ahu Tongariki is a 15-moai ahu that was excavated and restored in the 1990s.

diseases carried by European sailors and Peruvian slave raiding of the 1860s for devastating the local peoples. Stone Work The Rapa Nui people had a Stone Age culture and made extensive use of several different types of local stone, including basalt, obsidian, red scoria, and tuff.

at a single site inside the extinct volcano Rano Raraku. The native islanders who carved them used only stone hand chisels; while many teams worked on different statues at the same time, a single moai took a team of five or six men approximately one year to complete. Each statue represented the deceased head of a lineage. Ahu are stone platforms, and of the 313 known ahu, 125 carried moai. Ahu Tongariki, one kilometer from Rano Raraku, had the most and tallest moai (Figure 32.18). Ahu evolved from the

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traditional Polynesian marae. In this context ahu referred to a small structure sometimes covered with a thatched roof where sacred objects, including statues, were stored. The ahu were usually adjacent to the marae or main central court where ceremonies took place, though on Easter Island ahu and moai evolved to much greater size. Ahu are found mostly on the coast, where they are distributed fairly evenly except on the western slopes of Mount Terevaka and the Rano Kau and Poike headlands. One of the highest-quality examples of Easter Island stone masonry is the rear wall of the ahu at Vinapu. Made without mortar by shaping hard basalt rocks of up to seven tons to match each other exactly, it has a superficial similarity to some Inca stone walls in South America. Two types of houses are known from the past: hare paenga, a house with an elliptical foundation, made with basalt slabs and covered with a thatched roof that resembled an overturned boat, and hare oka, a round stone structure. Related stone structures called Tupa look very similar to the hare oka, except that the Tupa were inhabited by astronomer-priests and located near the coast, where the movements of the stars could be easily observed. Settlements also contain hare moa ("chicken house"), oblong stone structures that were used to house chickens. The houses at the ceremonial village of Orongo are unique in that they are shaped like hare

paenga but are made entirely of flat basalt slabs found inside Rano Kao crater. The entrances to all the houses are very low, and entry requires crawling. Petroglyphs Easter Island has one of the richest collections of petroglyphs in all Polynesia, with over 4,000 petroglyphs cataloged. Designs and images were carved out of rock for a variety of reasons: to create totems, to mark territory or to memorialize a person or event. There are distinct variations around the island in terms of the frequency of particular themes among petroglyphs, with a concentration of Birdmen at Orongo. Other subjects include sea turtles, Komari (vulvas) and Makemake, the chief god of the Tangata manu or Birdman cult. Rongorongo Easter Island once had an apparent script called rongorongo. Glyphs include pictographic and geometric shapes; the texts were incised in wood in reverse boustrophedon direction. It was first reported by a French missionary, Eugne Eyraud, in 1864. At that time, several islanders said they could understand the writing, but according to tradition, only ruling families and priests were ever literate, and none survived the slave raids and subsequent epidemics. Despite numerous attempts, the surviving texts have not

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been deciphered, and without decipherment it is not certain that they are actually writing.
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Samoa
Samoa is known for its rich traditions of tattooing, siapo (bark cloth), and fale (architecture).
KEY POINTS

Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa and formerly known as Western Samoa, is a country encompassing the western part of the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific Ocean. Samoans have two gender specific and culturally significant tattoos: Pe'a for males, and malu for females, each consisting of intricate and geometrical patterns. Samoa is known for its 'ie toga (finely woven mats used in ceremony and gift exchanges) and siapo (bark-cloth made from beaten mulberry bark). Traditional Samoan architecture, known as fale, is characterized by openness, an oval or circular shape, and wooden posts holding up a domed roof with no walls.

Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa and formerly known as Western Samoa, is a country encompassing the western part of the Samoan Islands in the South Pacific Ocean. It became independent from New Zealand in 1962. The two main islands of Samoa are Upolu and one of the biggest islands in Polynesia,

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Savai'i. The capital city, Apia, and Faleolo International Airport are situated on the island of Upolu. As with other Polynesian cultures (Hawai'ian, Tahitian and M*ori) with significant and unique tattoos,
Figure 32.19 A traditional Samoan male tattoo

clothing, for wrapping objects or simply for decorative reasons. Ornaments, jewelry and hair accessories are made from naturally occurring materials such as sea shells, coconut and coir.
Figure 32.20 Samoan woman with a traditional Malu (tattoo). The traditional tattoo for females in Samoan society is called the malu, and it covers the area from just below the knees to the upper thighs.

Samoans have two gender specific and culturally significant tattoos. For males, it is called the Pe'a and consists of intricate and geometrical patterns tattooed that cover areas from the knees up towards the ribs (Figure 32.19). A male who possesses such a tattoo is called a soga'imiti. A Samoan girl or teine is given a malu, which covers the area from just below her knees to her upper thighs (Figure 32.20).

The architecture of Samoa is characterized by openness, with the Women play an important cultural role and contribute their skills in the making of such
The traditional tattoo for males is called the Pe'a, and it consists of intricate and geometrical patterns covering the knees up toward the ribs.

design mirroring the culture and life of the Samoan people. Architectural concepts are incorporated into Samoan proverbs, oratory and metaphors, as well as linking to other art forms in Samoa, such as tattooing. The spaces outside and inside of traditional Samoan architecture are part of cultural form, ceremony and ritual. Fale is the Samoan word for all types of houses, from small to large (Figure 32.21). In general, traditional Samoan architecture is characterized by an oval or circular shape, with wooden posts

items including 'ie toga, finely woven mats used in ceremony and gift exchanges. Other items include bark-cloth, siapo (equivalent to the Fijian tapa cloth), which is made from beaten mulberry bark. Patterns or

pictures are painted on with a natural brown dye, and typically depict fish, turtles, and hibiscus flowers. The siapo may be used for

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holding up a domed roof. There are no walls, and the base of the architecture is a skeleton frame. Before European arrival and the availability of Western materials, a Samoan fale did not use any metal in its construction.
Figure 32.21 Samoan fale construction 1896

Tonga
Tongan culture has changed dramatically over the centuries, and is known for its wood carvings, canoe building and tattooing traditions.

KEY POINTS

The Kingdom of Tonga is a sovereign state and an archipelago comprising 176 islands scattered over 270,000 sq mi of the southern Pacific Ocean. It is the only island nation in the region to have avoided formal colonization. Before the arrival of European explorers, the Tongans were in frequent contact with their nearest Oceanic neighbors, Fiji and Samoa. Tongan culture changed dramatically in the 19th century with the arrival of Western traders and missionaries. Tongan women traditionally made koloa, such as bark cloth and woven mats. Tongan men are known for their wood carvings, canoes, traditional architecture (known as fale) and tattooing.
Samoan fale are"characterized by an oval or circular shape, with wooden posts holding up a domed roof and no walls.

Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/oceania/polynesia/ samoa/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

The Kingdom of Tonga is a sovereign state and an archipelago comprising 176 islands scattered over 700,000 square kilometres (270,000 sq mi) of the southern Pacific Ocean. Fifty-two of these islands are inhabited. It is the only island nation in the region to have avoided formal colonization. In 2010, it took a decisive step

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towards becoming a fully functioning constitutional monarchy after legislative reforms paved the way for its first partial representative elections. The Tongan archipelago has been inhabited for perhaps 3000 years, since settlement in late Lapita times. Before the arrival of European explorers in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Tongans were in frequent contact with their nearest Oceanic neighbors, Fiji and Samoa. In the 19th century, with the arrival of Western traders and missionaries, Tongan culture changed dramatically. Some old beliefs and habits were thrown away and others adopted. Some accommodations made in the 19th century and early 20th century are now being challenged by changing Western civilization. Hence Tongan culture is far from a unified or monolithic affair, and Tongans themselves may differ strongly as to what it is "Tongan" to do, or not do. Traditional Women's Crafts

waist mats (ta'ovala), waist girdles (kiekie), and traditional dance clothing. Woven mats serve a variety of purposes, from the ordinary to the ceremonial. Many woven mats are passed down from generation to generation, acquiring greater status with the passage of time. Royal mats are displayed only on high state occasions such as the death of a member of the royal family or the coronation of a monarch.
Figure 32.22 Tonga war club brought back from the South Pacic during WWII

Men in Tongan culture traditionally carved wooden items such as this war club.

In pre-contact Tonga, women did not do the cooking (cooking in an earth oven was hard, hot work, the province of men) or work in the fields. They raised children, gathered shellfish on the reef, and made koloa, barkcloth and mats, which were a traditional form of wealth exchanged at marriages and other ceremonial occasions. An industrious woman thus raised the social status of her household. Among the typical koloa are: bark cloth (also called tapa), mats,

Traditional Men's Crafts Before Western contact, many objects of daily use were made of carved wood: food bowls, head rests (kali), war clubs and spears, and cult images. Tongan craftsmen were skilled at inlaying pearlshell and ivory in wood, and Tongan war clubs were treasured items in the neighboring archipelago of Fiji (Figure 32.22).

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Tongan craftsman were also adept at building canoes. Many canoes for daily use were simple p'paos, dug-out canoes, shaped from a single log with fire and adze and outfitted with a single outrigger. Due to a dearth of large trees suitable for building large war canoes, these canoes were often imported from Fiji. Traditional Tongan architecture, known as fale, consisted of a curved roof (branches lashed with sennit rope, or kafa, thatched with woven palm leaves) resting on pillars made of tree trunks. Woven screens filled in the area between the ground and the edge of the roof. The traditional design was extremely well adapted to surviving hurricanes. If the winds threatened to shred the walls and overturn the roof, the inhabitants could chop down the pillars, so that the roof fell directly onto the ground. Because the roof was curved, like a limpet shell, the wind tended to flow over it smoothly. The inhabitants could ride out the storm in relative safety. There are a many surviving examples of Tongan stone architecture, notably the Ha.amonga .a Maui and mound tombs (langi) near Lapaha, Tongatapu. Tongan males were often heavily tattooed. In Captain Cook's time only the Tu.i Tonga (king) was not, because he was too high ranked for anybody to touch him. Later it became the habit that a young Tu.i Tonga went to Samoa to be tattooed there. The practice of T*tatau disappeared under heavy missionary disapproval, but was

never completely suppressed. It is still very common for men (less so, but still some for women), to be decorated with some small tattoos. Domestication of Western Arts and Crafts Tonga has evolved its own version of Western-style clothing, consisting of a long tupenu, or sarong, for women, and a short tupenu for men. Women cover the tupenu with a kofu, or Westernstyle dress; men top the tupenu either with a T-shirt, a Western casual shirt, or on formal occasions, a dress shirt and a suit coat. A few Tongan village churches are decorated with freehand murals or decorations done in house paint, which may mix crosses, flowers, and traditional barkcloth motifs.
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New Zealand
New Zealand art"includes traditional M'ori art, and more recent forms taking inspiration from M'ori, European and other traditions.

New Zealand is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses ! that of the North and South Islands ! and numerous smaller islands. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. Polynesians settled New Zealand in 12501300 CE and developed a distinctive M#ori culture, and Europeans first made contact in 1642 CE. The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced M*ori culture, particularly with the introduction of Christianity. More recently American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. New Zealand art includes traditional M*ori art, which was developed in New Zealand from Polynesian art forms, and more recent forms which take their inspiration from M*ori, European and other traditions. Prehistoric Art Charcoal drawings can be found on limestone rock shelters in the center of the South Island, with over 500 sites stretching from Kaikoura to North Otago. The drawings are estimated to be between 500 and 800 years old, and portray animals, people and fantastic creatures. Some of the birds pictured are long extinct, and were drawn by early M*ori; however by the time Europeans arrived, local inhabitants did not know the origins of the drawings.

KEY POINTS

Polynesians settled New Zealand in 12501300 CE and developed a distinctive M*ori culture, and Europeans first made contact in 1642 CE. Charcoal drawings, estimated between 500 and 800 years old, can be found on limestone rock shelters in the center of the South Island, with over 500 sites stretching from Kaikoura to North Otago. M*ori visual art of New Zealand consists primarily of four forms: carving, tattooing (ta moko), weaving and painting. Europeans began producing art in New Zealand as soon as they arrived, and landscape art and painting became very popular. From the late 19th century, many P*keh* (New Zealanders not of Maori origin, usually of European ancestry) attempted to create a distinctive New Zealand style of art, sometimes appropriating Maori artistic styles. From the early 20th century, politician Apirana Ngata fostered a renewal of traditional M*ori art forms.

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Traditional M#ori art M*ori visual art consists primarily of four forms: carving, tattooing (ta moko), weaving and painting (Figure 32.23). Traditional M*ori art was highly spiritual and conveyed information about ancestry and other culturally important topics. Most traditional M*ori art was highly stylized and featured motifs such as the spiral, the chevron and the koru. The colors black, white and red dominated. Carving was done in wood, bone, and stone. Wood carvings were used to decorate houses, fencepoles, containers and other objects. Both stone and bone were used to
This portrait shows traditional jewelry (known as hei-tiki), woven cloth, and chin moko, or tattooing. Figure 32.23 Portrait of Hinepare of Ng%ti Kahungunu by Gottfried Lindauer, showing chin moko, pounamu hei-tiki and woven cloak

stone and bone fish hooks and other tools to become purely decorative. Ta moko is the art of traditional M*ori tattooing, done with a chisel. Men were tattooed on many parts of their bodies, including faces, buttocks and thighs. Women were usually tattooed only on the lips and chin. Moko conveyed a person's ancestry. The art declined in the 19th century following the introduction of Christianity, but in recent decades has undergone a revival. Weaving was used to create numerous things, including wall panels in meeting houses and other important buildings, as well as clothing and bags (kete). While many of these were purely functional, others were true works of art taking hundreds of hours to complete, and often given as gifts to important people. In preEuropean times the main medium for weaving was flax, but following the arrival of Europeans cotton, wool and other textiles were also used. In 'classical' M*ori art, painting was not an important art form. It was mainly used as a minor decoration in meeting houses, in stylized forms such as the koru. Europeans introduced M*ori to their more figurative style of art, and in the 19th century less stylized depictions of people and plants began to appear in place of traditional carvings and woven panels.

create jewelry such as the hei-tiki. The introduction of metal tools by Europeans allowed more intricacy and delicacy, and caused

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European Influence Europeans began producing art in New Zealand as soon as they arrived, with many exploration ships including an artist to record newly discovered places, people, flora and fauna. Landscape art was popular among early colonizers, with prints used to promote settlement in New Zealand. Notable landscape artists included Augustus Earle and William Fox. However the most successful artists of this period, Charles Goldie and Gottfried Lindauer were noted primarily for their portraits of M*ori. From the late 19th century, many P*keh* (New Zealanders not of Maori origin, usually of European ancestry) attempted to create a distinctive New Zealand style of art. Many, such as Rita Angus, continued to work on landscapes, with attempts made to depict New Zealand's harsh light. Others appropriate M*ori artistic styles; Gordon Walters created many paintings and prints based on the koru. New Zealand's most highly regarded 20th century artist was Colin McCahon, who attempted to use international styles such as cubism in New Zealand contexts. From the early 20th century, politician Apirana Ngata fostered a renewal of traditional M*ori art forms, for example establishing a school of M*ori arts in Rotorua. The visual arts flourished in the later decades of the 20th century, with the increased cultural sophistication of many New Zealanders. Many M*ori artists became

highly successful blending elements of M*ori culture with European modernism. Ralph Hotere is New Zealand's highest selling living artist, and others include Shane Cotton and Michael Parekowhai.
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Section 6

Modern Oceanic Art

Pacic Arts Festival

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Pacic Arts Festival

The Pacic Arts Festival celebrates the arts of indigenous cultures in the Oceanic region.
KEY POINTS

Figure 32.24 Map of Oceania

The Festival of Pacific Arts, or Pacific Arts Festival, is a traveling festival hosted every four years by a different country in Oceania. The Pacific Arts Festival was conceived by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community as a means to stem erosion of traditional cultural practices by sharing and exchanging culture at each festival. The major theme at each festival is traditional song and dance.
Nations of the Oceanic region.

The Pacific Cultural Council, former Pacific Arts Council or Council The Festival of Pacific Arts, or Pacific Arts Festival, is a traveling festival hosted every four years by a different country in Oceania (Figure 32.24). It was conceived by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, former South Pacific Commission, as a means to stem erosion of traditional cultural practices by sharing and exchanging culture at each festival. The major theme of the festival is traditional song and dance. The 2012 Festival of Pacific Arts was hosted by the Soloman Islands from July 1-14. It was the 11th Festival of Pacific Arts, and its theme was "Culture in Harmony with Nature." of Pacific Arts and originally South Pacific Arts Festival Council, selects the host country and recognizes that each participating country desires the opportunity to showcase its unique indigenous culture by hosting the festival. Host selection is based on principles of equity and preference is given to countries which have not yet hosted. The festival's host country pays participants' costs of local travel, accommodation, meals, and other forms of hospitality. Entry to all artistic events is free to the public, thereby maximizing cultural outreach and inclusion.

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By its vastness, the Pacific Ocean inhibits social and cultural interchange between the inhabitants of its island countries. The festival is not a competition but a cultural exchange, and it reunites people and reinforces regional identity and mutual appreciation of Pacific-wide culture. Participating countries select artist-delegates to represent the nation at this crossroads of cultures, which is considered a great honor. About 2,000 artists attended the 2008 Festival of Pacific Arts from these participating countries: American Samoa, Australia, Cook Islands, Easter Island, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Norfolk Island, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Pitcairn Islands, S*moa, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Wallis and Futuna. Taiwan was allowed to send a delegation of 80 performers and artists, most of whom were Taiwanese aborigines, to the Festival of Pacific Arts for the first time in 2008.
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Chapter 33

Africa in the Modern Period

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Section 1

Traditional and Contemporary African Culture: A Comparison

Domestic Architecture The Rite of Passage The Spirit World Leadership Death

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Domestic Architecture
African architecture is exceptionally diverse from region to region, and has been subject to numerous external inuences.
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the history of Africa have had their own architectural traditions. As with most architectural traditions elsewhere, African architecture has been subject to numerous external influences from the earliest periods for which evidence is available. The Islamic conquest of North Africa saw Islamic architecture develop in the region; western architecture has had an impact on coastal areas since the late 15th century, and is now an important source for many buildings, particularly in major cities. One common theme in much traditional African architecture is the use of fractal scaling: small parts of the structure tend to look similar to larger parts, such as a circular village made of circular houses. Vernacular architecture uses a wide range of materials. One finds structures in thatch, stick/wood, mud, mudbrick, rammed earth, and stone, with a preference for materials varying by region. North Africa primarily used stone and rammed earth; West Africa mud/adobe; Central Africa thatch/wood and more perishable materials; Southern African stone and thatch/wood; and in East Africa the materials varied. Ten broad categories of traditional hut and house structures have been identified throughout Africa: 1. Domical (beehive)

Traditional African architecture uses a wide range of materials, including thatch, stick/wood, mud, mudbrick, rammed earth, and stone, with a preference for materials varying by region. During the early modern period, new and diverse influences such as Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati Indian style began to be absorbed into African architecture. By the late 19th century, most buildings reflected the European preference for eclectic and mixed styles, taking from Mediterranean and Northern European influence. The revival of interest in traditional styles can be traced back to the 19th and 20th centuries, as colonial buildings began to mix European and vernacular African styles of architecture. Modern architecture expanded through the 1920s and 1930s, while today a great deal of domestic architecture reflects a fusion between modern and neo-vernacular styles.

The architecture of Africa, like other aspects of the culture of Africa, is exceptionally diverse. Many ethno-linguistic groups throughout

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2. Cone on cylinder 3. Cone on poles and mud cylinder 4. Gabled roofed 5. Pyramidal cone 6. Rectangle with roof rounded and sloping at ends 7. Square 8. Dome or flat roof on clay box 9. Quadrangular, surrounding an open courtyard 10.Cone on ground (Figure 33.1) displays Lunda dwellings, an example of the Square and the Cone On Ground type of African Vernacular Architecture. Early Modern Period During the early modern period, the absorption of new diverse influences such as Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati Indian style began with the arrival of Portuguese Jesuit missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries. Castles were built by arriving colonizers, at times as defensive fortresses during times of war. Early European colonies developed around the West African coast, building large

forts, as can be seen at Elmina Castle, Cape Coast Castle, Christiansborg, Fort Jesus and elsewhere. Living conditions changed for many indigenous African communities under colonial rule. The tradition of building houses out of mud walls, thatched roofs and other traditional materials decreased while houses started being built with cement blocks and zinc roofs. Roads for vehicles were built. Buildings such as hospitals and schools were erected in many areas. Along with these changes came electricity and running water to many areas in the early 20th century. By the late 19th century, most buildings reflected the European preference for eclectic and mixed styles, taking from Mediterranean and Northern European influence. Examples of colonial towns from this era survive at Saint-Louis, Senegal, GrandBassam and elsewhere. A few buildings were pre-fabricated in
Lunda dwellings display the Square and the Cone On Ground type of African Vernacular Architecture Figure 33.1 Lunda Street and Houses

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Europe and shipped over for erection. This European tradition continued well into the 20th century with the construction of European-style manor houses, such as Shiwa Ng'andu in what is now Zambia, or the Boer homesteads in South Africa (Figure 33.2). The revival of interest in traditional styles can be traced to Cairo in the early 19th century. Afterward it spread to Algiers and Morocco by the early 20th century, and soon colonial buildings across the
Figure 33.2 Shiwa Ngandu, Zambia

the Eastgate Centre, Harare in Zimbabwe (Figure 33.3). With an advanced form of natural air conditioning, this building was designed to respond precisely to Harare's climate and needs, rather than import less suitable designs. Neo-vernacular architecture continues, for instance with the Great Mosques of Nioro or New Gourna.

continent began to mix European and traditional African styles of architecture. The impact of modern architecture began to be felt in the 1920s and 1930s. Le Corbusier (Algeria), Steffen Ahrens (South Africa), and Ernst May (Nairobi and Mombasa) were influential

Figure 33.3 Eastgate Centre, Harare, Zimbabwe The pink-hued Eastgate Centre, with its distinctive chimneys

Main house on the estate at Shiwa Ngandu, built by Stewart Gore-Browne.

architects at the time. Villages in Libya and Italian East Africa began to incorporate modern Italian designs. A number of new cities were built following the end of colonialism, while others were greatly expanded. In the city of Abidjan the majority of buildings were still designed by high-profile non-African architects. Experimental designs have also appeared, most notably

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The Rite of Passage

The rite of passage, still practiced by some Africans today, is a traditional ceremony in which a person enters into a new phase of life.

Rites of passage in African culture have undergone many changes from pre-colonial to contemporary times. The rite of passage is typically a ceremonial event in which a person enters into a new phase of life, such as puberty or marriage. While many rituals and ceremonies are still practiced today, many Africans - especially those in more urban areas - no longer practice them.

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In many cultures, a child goes through several graduation stages which recognize his or her growth and assign him or her a place in the community. For the Xhosa, each stage is marked by a specific ritual, such as the imbeleko performed at birth to introduce a newborn to its ancestors or the umphumo in which a boy becomes a man. One traditional ritual that is still regularly practiced by the Xhosa is the secret rite of Ulwaluko, which marks the transition from boyhood to manhood with ritual circumcision and weeks of isolation. Another rite of the Xhosa is the seclusion of mothers for ten days after giving birth and the burial of the afterbirth and umbilical cord near the village. Zulus historically performed the ritual circumcision of boys as well, but the ritual was stopped by King Shaka in the war of 1810. In 2009, it was reintroduced by King Goodwill Zwelithini Zulu, not as a custom this time but as a medical procedure to curb HIV infections and other sexually transmitted infections.

Many cultures such as the Xhosa and Balanta!have initiation rites to mark each phase of a person's life and their progressive entrance into a new social category. Male circumcision, prolonged periods of isolation, and tests of endurance are common in the rites of passage marking a boy's transition into manhood. While some cultures ceased the custom of male circumcision, it has been reintroduced in some areas as a medical procedure to curb HIV infections and other sexually transmitted infections. Scarification has been widely used to mark milestone stages in both men and womens lives or communicate messages about one's identity or role. Female genital mutilation (FGM) originates as a rite of passage for girls and is the subject of much controversy. Still practiced in 28 African countries, there is a wide movement both in Africa and internationally to end the practice.

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Scarification has been widely used by many West African tribes to mark milestone stages in both men and womens lives, such as puberty and marriage. It is also used to transmit complex messages about identity, such as social, political, and religious roles (Figure 33.4). Similar to the Xhosa, the Balanta have initiation rites to mark each phase of a person's life and his or her progressive entrance into a new social category. From early childhood up to age 15, the child belongs to the category of Nwatch; around age 18 to 20 the individual enters the Fuur, then enters the Nghaye around age 25. An important rite is the Fanado initiation, in which men can be chosen to belong to the Council of Elders. A two-month process that involves circumcision and various tests of endurance, it represents the ultimate transition into maturity and wisdom. Clothing is an important marker of the tradition; the initiate ritual.
Many cultures used scarication to mark a rite of passage such as puberty. Figure 33.4 A picture of an Igbo man with facial scarications, known as Ichi, early 20th century

Female circumcision has also existed in many traditional cultures as a rite of passage for girls and is much more controversial due to its health risks. Often referred to as female genital mutilation (FGM), it can be carried out on girls from a few days after birth to puberty. According to the World Health Organization, it is still practiced in 28 countries in western, eastern, and north-eastern Africa. Opponents to FGM argue that it is a human rights violations that poses grave health risks, such as fatal hemorrhaging, cysts, recurrent infections, chronic pain, and obstetrical complications. Since 1979, there have been concerted efforts by both African activists and international bodies to end the practice. Several African countries have enacted legislation against it, including Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Togo, and Uganda. However the issue is complex, and some Africans argue that international interference with the custom infringes upon cultural tradition and women's decisions about their own rituals.
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wears a bright red hat to show that he has completed the Fanado

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The Spirit World

Beliefs about the spirit world are deeply embedded in traditional African culture, but were heavily inuenced by Christianity and Islam.
KEY POINTS

sculptures. In some societies, artistic talents were themselves seen as ways to please higher spirits. Wooden masks, which often take the form of animals, humans, or mythical creatures, are one of the most commonly found forms of art in western Africa. These masks are often used to depict deities or represent the souls of the departed. They may be worn by a dancer in ceremonies for celebrations, deaths, initiations, or crop harvesting. In many traditional mask ceremonies, the dancer goes into deep trance, and during this state of mind he or she is believed to communicate with ancestors in the spirit world. The masks themselves often represent an ancestral spirit, which is believed to possess the wearer of the mask. Most African masks are made with wood and can also be decorated precious gems *(Figure 33.5). Statues and sculptures are also used to represent or connect to spiritual forces. For example, Bambara statuettes, such as the
This is a traditional African mask. Figure 33.5 Mask from Gabon

Most traditional African cultures include beliefs about the spirit world, which is widely represented through art such as masks, statues, and sculptures. Wooden masks are often used to depict deities or ancestors. When worn by ceremonial dancers, they are believed to channel spirits. Statues and sculptures are also used to represent, connect to, or communicate with spiritual forces. Today Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, the most common of which are Christianity and Islam; perhaps less than 15% still follow traditional African religions.

Like all human cultures, African folklore and religion is diverse and varied. Culture and spirituality share space and are deeply intertwined in most African cultures, which have been heavily influenced by the introduction of Christianity and Islam. Most traditional African cultures include beliefs about the spirit world, which is widely represented through art such as masks, statues, and

with ivory, animal hair, plant fibers, pigments, stones, and semi-

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Chiwara, are used as spiritually charged objects during ritual. During the annual ceremonies of the Guan society, a group of up to seven figures, some dating back to the 14th century, are removed from their sanctuaries by the elder members of the society. The wooden sculptures, which represent a highly stylized animal or human figure, are washed, re-oiled and offered sacrifices. The Kono and Komo societies use similar statues to serve as receptacles for spiritual forces. The Igbo would make clay altars and shrines of their deities, usually featuring various figures. In the Kingdom of Kongo, nkisi were objects believed to be inhabited by spirits. Often carved in the shape of animals or humans, these "power objects" were believed to help aid in the communication with the spirit world.
Figure 33.6 Modern Makonde carving in ebony

Today Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by. Christianity and Islam make up the largest religions in contemporary Africa, and some sources say that less than 15% still follow traditional African religions. Despite the drastic decrease in native African religions, some modern art in Africa has worked to reincorporate traditional spiritual beliefs. For example, Modern Makonde Art has turned to abstract figures in which spirits, or Shetani, play an important role (Figure 33.6).
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Modern Makonde sculptures often depict spirits, or Shetani.

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Leadership
Traditional African leadership structures underwent drastic changes under colonial rule and continue to evolve today.
KEY POINTS

Traditional leadership structures in Africa are as diverse as the continent itself, making it impossible to describe an "African" style of leadership. Pre-colonial Africa possessed as many as 10,000 different states characterized by many kinds of political organization and rule. These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers as well as larger, heavily structured clan groups and autonomous city-states and kingdoms. Some traditional leadership systems were relatively egalitarian. Traditional Igbo society, with the exception of a few towns, was based on a quasi-democratic republican system of government. Unlike a feudalistic system, in which a king rules over subjects, the Igbo leadership system consisted of a consultative assembly of common people. Other kingdoms were ruled by kings or priest kings: for example the Yoruba city-state of Ife established its government under a priestly oba ("king") called the Ooni of Ife. Still others had kings that were elected in some form. When the Kongo Kingdom was at its political apex in the 16th and 17th centuries, the king was elected from among a noble class of descendants of former kingsusually the holders of important offices. The activities of the court were supported by an extensive system of civil servants, and the court itself usually consisted of numerous relatives or clients of the king. The many provinces were often governed by lesser relatives of the

Pre-colonial Africa had as many as 10,000 different states characterized by different sorts of leadership; these included small family groups of hunter-gatherers, larger, structured clan groups, and autonomous city-states and kingdoms. While some communities were relatively egalitarian, like the Igbo, others were ruled by a king and were highly stratified. Many African communities continue to be governed by a council of elders, which is responsible for mediating conflict and making all important decisions within the community. Leadership was reflected through various artforms, such as masks worn by Elders or sculptures of important leaders. Colonial rule drastically transformed traditional African leadership structures, drawing arbitrary boundaries between tribes and imposing new structures of leadership. Today, most African states are republics operating under a presidential system, though the legacy of colonialism has resulted in many cases of instability and political violence.

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king, and sub-provinces were governed by royal appointees or locally dominant families. Societies like Great Zimbabwe show a high degree of social stratification, which is common of centralized states. Archaeologists and historians have determined
Figure 33.7 Maasai Elder

African communities today (Figure 33.7). Like most leadership structures around the world, traditional African communities were often patriarchal in power structure. In Igbo culture, for example, law began with the male line of descent, and closely related families were headed by the eldest male member. Leadership was often reflected in the artwork of a culture. For example, the Yoruba people in present-day Nigeria depicted important leaders in their community as sculptures with large heads because the artists believed that the Ase, or inner power of a person, was held in the head. Their rulers were also often depicted with their mouths covered so that the power of their speech would not be too great. Elders in Dan society often wore masks that served as agents of social control, enforcing the council's rules and orders. The masked figures were believed to
Here, the nearly closed eyes and small mouth contrast with those of other masks and probably indicate that this mask served in a peacemaking function and generally created harmony in the community. Other masks with projecting eyes or exaggerated features may have been designed to be deliberately frightening. Figure 33.8 Dan mask worn by the Council of Elders

that for many societies, the elite held a great deal of wealth in the form of elaborate pottery, sculptures, beads, jewelry, and pendents made of copper, gold, bronze, ivory, and other revered materials. Common people, on the other hand, would have supported the elite through farming and labor. Many African communities were governed and administered by a

Village elder of the Maasai tribe in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania

council of elders. The council would be responsible for

mediating conflict, governing the town, and making all important decisions within the community. For many tribes, such as the Balanta people, a person would be initiated into the Council through a ceremony. Elders still play an important function in many

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be incarnate spiritual beings capable of rendering unbiased judgments (Figure 33.8). Colonialism and Independence In the late 19th century, the European imperial powers occupied and colonized most of the continent, leaving Ethiopia and Liberia as the only two fully independent states. Colonial rule drastically transformed traditional African leadership structures. In places where traditional rule had been fairly decentralized and egalitarian, such as regions inhabited by the Igbo, the British introduced new centralized leadership systems and incorporated their own "traditional leaders." In most cases, European colonizers disregarded native political and cultural systems, influencing current systems or imposing new systems upon people under their military control. Arbitrary borders were drawn with little concern for the pre-existing ethnic, cultural, or political groups. With independence from colonial rule in the mid-20th century came further changes in leadership. Today, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries, several of which have been hampered by instability, violence, and authoritarianism as native populations fought to capture territory and regain what had been lost during colonialism. Great instability was mainly the result of the marginalization of ethnic groups, some of which had been exacerbated, or even created, by colonial rule. Today, the vast

majority of African states are republics that operate under some form of the presidential system of rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basis, and many have instead cycled through a series of coups, producing military dictatorships. Fortunately, the 21st century has seen the number of armed conflicts in Africa steadily decline. The African Union (AU) is a 54-member federation consisting of all of Africa's states except Morocco. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as the African Union Government, consisting of legislative, judicial, and executive organs, which is led by the African Union President and Head of State. The aim of the African Union is to facilitate greater cooperation and peace between the continent's many countries.
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Death
For many African societies, death holds a great deal of meaning and is highly symbolized through art.
KEY POINTS

for a uniform "African culture" regarding death and its meaning; however similarities exist among the types of art created. Death and Grave Markers Art related to death is represented in sculptures, masks, carvings, and urns. Graves are often marked and decorated by fine works of art. Pole sculptures in Eastern Africa are carved in human shapes and decorated with geometric forms, while the tops are carved with figures of animals, people, and various objects. These poles are then placed next to graves to to serve as symbols of death and the ancestral world. The stelae of Aksum are enormous stone towers and grave markers (some up to 33 meters high) that are engraved with patterns and emblems representing the rank of the deceased. The Dogon people of Mali place kneeling statues of protective spirits at the head of the dead, in order to absorb spiritual strength and to accompany the deceased into the world of the dead. Death In The Broader World The Dogon people also continue an ancient masquerading tradition, which commemorates the origin of death. According to their myths, death came into the world as a result of primeval mans transgressions against the divine order. Dama memorial ceremonies, consisting of the performance of up to 400 masqueraders, are held to accompany the dead into the ancestral

Traditional art related to death is represented through sculptures, masks, carvings, and urns. Pole sculptures in Eastern Africa, the stelae of Aksum, and the statues of the Dogon people are examples of both ornamental and symbolic grave markers. Masks are used in many traditional burial ceremonies, often representing ancestors or spirits. Decorated boxes, baskets, and other objects are used to hold the remains of ancestors; some, like the nkisi of Kongo, are used as powerful methods of communication with the dead. The introduction of Christianity and Islam to much of Africa has influenced traditional art and burial customs. Today many bury their dead in traditional western ways, although it is not uncommon to find a fusion of traditions.

A Complex Theme For many African societies, death holds a great deal of meaning and is highly symbolized through art. Because Africa consists of thousands of diverse ethnic groups, generalizations cannot be made

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realm and restore order to the universe. Dogon masks often take the form of animals associated with their mythology, and their particular significance is known only by the highest ranking individuals. The timing, types of masks involved, and other ritual elements are often specific to each village (Figure 33.9). Myeneart is also reflected in traditional rituals for death, in which male relatives wear white painted masks that symbolize female ancestors. Bieri are boxes used by the Fang people to hold the remains of ancestors, and are carved with protective figures; the Bekota use baskets to hold ancestral remains. People of the Kongo empire were known for their nkisi, objects believed to be inhabited by spirits. Kongo religion held great importance on communication with the dead, believing that exceptional human powers could result from this communication. Nkisi were containers such as ceramics
Dama memorial ceremonies can include performances of hundreds of masqueraders. Figure 33.9 Dogon people, Mali

animals. Sometimes considered "portable graves," they are made to hold spiritually-charged substances and may include earth or relics from the grace of a powerful individual. The powers of the dead thus infuse the object, which is used in divination or healing rituals. The introduction of religions such as Christianity and Islam to much of Africa has influenced many burial customs and perceptions of death. Many communities in contemporary Africa bury their dead in the western way, although it is not uncommon for burials to be practiced in the traditional ways or with a fusion of styles.
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vessels, gourds, animal horns, or shells, made often in the shape of

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Section 2

The 1800s

San Fang and Kota Kalabari Ijaw Bamum Fon Kongo Dogon Baule

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-the-modern-period/the-1800s/
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San
San is the center of production for bglanni, a traditional Malian fabric.

Background San is an urban commune, town and capital of the Cercle of San in the Sgou Region of Mali. The town lies 10 km south of the Bani River. In the 2009 census the commune had a population of 68,078. San is the center of bglanfini production, a traditional

KEY POINTS

Malian fabric. Bglanfini Bglanfini or bogolan ("mud cloth") is a handmade Malian cotton fabric traditionally dyed with fermented mud. It has an important place in traditional Malian culture and has; more recently, become a symbol of Malian cultural identity. The cloth is being exported worldwide for use in fashion, fine art and decoration. Traditional Production In traditional bglanfini production, men weave the cloth and women dye it. On narrow looms, strips of cotton fabric about 15 centimeters (5.9 in.) wide are woven and stitched into cloths about 1 meter (3 ft.) wide and 1.5 meters (5 ft.) long. The dyeing (a "strange and cumbersome technique", according to the opinion of J.B. Donne in 1973) begins with a step invisible in the finished product: The cloth is soaked in a dye bath made from mashed and boiled, or soaked, leaves of the n'gallama tree

Bglanfini or bogolan ("mud cloth") is a handmade Malian cotton fabric traditionally dyed with fermented mud. It has an important place in traditional Malian culture and has; more recently, become a symbol of Malian cultural identity. The cloth is being exported worldwide for use in fashion, fine art and decoration. In traditional bglanfini production, men weave the cloth and women dye it. On narrow looms, strips of cotton fabric about 15 centimeters (5.9 in.) wide are woven and stitched into cloths about 1 meter (3 ft.) wide and 1.5 meters (5 ft.) long. In Mali, the cloth is worn by people of all ethnicities, including prominently in Malian cinema and by Malian musicians, either as an expression of national or ethnic identity or as a fashion statement. Several Malian artists, notably by the Groupe Bogolan Kasoban, also produce Bglanfini as fine art six artists collaborating since 1978. These paintings are produced with vegetable dyes and mud, but often feature designs unrelated to those of traditional fabrics.

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(Anogeissus leiocarpa). Now yellow, the cloth is sun-dried and then painted with designs using a piece of metal or wood. The paint, carefully and repeatedly applied to outline the intricate motifs, is a special mud, collected from riverbeds and fermented for up to a year in a clay jar. Thanks to a chemical reaction between the mud and the dyed cloth, the brown color remains after the mud is washed off. Finally, the yellow n'gallama dye is removed from the unpainted parts of the cloth by applying soap or bleach, rendering them white. After long use, the very dark brown color turns a variety of rich tones of brown, while
A Bogolanni shirt. Figure 33.10 Mudcloth

an expression of national or ethnic identity or as a fashion statement. Particularly popular among young people, Bglanfini is made into a wide range of clothes, Western miniskirts and jackets as well as traditional flowing robes (boubous). The Malian fashion designer Chris Seydou has been credited with popularizing bglanfini in international fashion. In Art Several Malian artists, notably by the Groupe Bogolan Kasoban, also produce Bglanfini as fine art six artists collaborating since 1978. These paintings are produced with vegetable dyes and mud, but often feature designs unrelated to those of traditional fabrics; their newer motifs are also often found on clothing. Traditional Bglanfini designs are also used for on a wide range of commercial products, such as coffee mugs, curtains, towels, sheets, book covers and wrapping paper.
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the unpainted underside of the fabric retains a pale russet color. Uses Bglanfini has become a popular Malian export, notably to the United States. There, it is marketed as mud cloth (Figure 33.10), either as a symbol of African American culture or as a generically ethnic decorative cloth. In Fashion In Mali, the cloth is worn by people of all ethnicities, including prominently in Malian cinema and by Malian musicians, either as

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Fang and Kota

The Bakota (or Kota) are a Bantu ethnic group from the northeastern region of Gabon.
KEY POINTS

Background The Bakota (or Kota) are a Bantu ethnic group from the northeastern region of Gabon. The language they speak is called iKota, but is sometimes referred to as Bakota, ikuta, Kota, and among the Fang, they are known as Mekora. The language has several dialects, which include: Ndambomo, Mahongwe, Ikota-lahua, Sake, Menzambi, Bougom. Some of these dialects themselves include regional variations of some kind. The Kota are traditionally a patriarchal society, however some of the sub-groups such as the Mahongwe have over time adopted a matrilineal system of lineage (Mahongwe means, "from your father"). The true meaning of Bakota is unclear, however it may be derived from the word kota, which means to bind/to attach/to link, hereby suggesting they view themselves as a united people bound by a common fate. Estimates indicate that there are at least 43,500 Kota speakers in the world, of whom 34,442 people (79%) live in the Ogouee-Ivindo province of northeastern Gabon, and 9055 people (21%) in neighboring Congo-Brazzaville. Kota Art They are noted for their copper and brass reliquary guardian figures (Figure 33.11), which are part of a powerful religious and

They are noted for their copper and brass reliquary guardian figures, which are part of a powerful religious and mystical order known as Bwete. Another key feature of the Kota people are the originality of its circumcision and widowpurification rituals, which are generally kept secret. The Kota are traditionally a patriarchal society, however some of the sub-groups such as the Mahongwe have over time adopted a matrilineal system of lineage (Mahongwe means, "from your father"). Politically, the Kota has been classified under the disputed stateless societies category. They have a strong egalitarian background, which in some instances cuts across age and gender lines. In Central West Africa, reliquaries used in the Bwete rituals contain objects considered magical, or the bones of ancestors, and are commonly constructed with a guardian figure attached to the reliquary.

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mystical order known as Bwete. In Central West Africa, reliquaries used in the Bwete rituals contain objects considered magical, or the bones of ancestors, and are commonly constructed with a guardian figure attached to the reliquary. Another key feature of the Kota people are the originality of its circumcision and widowpurification rituals, which are generally kept secret. Politically, the Kota has been classified under the disputed stateless societies category. They have a strong egalitarian background, which in some
Gabon, Kota people. Wood, covered with sheets of brass and copper. Figure 33.11 Reliquary Figure

Government. Alexandre Sambat, a long-time ambassador to the United States who later ran for president in 1993, was of Kota origin. Pascal Desire Misongo, another Kota, has served as minister of Justice in Gabon.
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instances cuts across age and gender lines. Kota children are taught to value tradition, respect for the elderly, and the concept of "Ewele" (loosely translated as 'pride'). The Kotas are not considered big players in Gabonese politics, however some Kota has been appointed to key positions in the

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Kalabari Ijaw
Culture and artistic festivities involve masquerades and the wearing of elaborate outts and carved masks to dance to the beat of drums.
KEY POINTS

Niger River Delta. Today it is recognized as a traditional state in what is now Rivers State, Nigeria. The people of Elem Kalabari originally worshipped the goddess Owemenakaso (or Awamenakaso, Akaso), the mother of all the deities of the Kalabari clan. Her role was central even when individual settlements had their own local gods and goddesses. Owemenakaso was opposed war and bloodshed; the Kalabari later claimed she was the sister of the British goddess Britannia, who ruled the seas. Among their neighbors, because of their civilized and generally peaceful behavior, the Kalabari were called "Englishmen." The Ijaw were among the first of Nigeria's peoples to have contact with Westerners, and were active as go-betweens in the slave trade between visiting Europeans and the peoples of the interior. This was particularly true in the era before the discovery of quinine, when West Africa was known as the "White Man's Graveyard" because of the endemic presence of malaria. Some of the kin-based trading lineages that arose among the Ijaw developed into substantial corporations, which were known as houses. Each house had an elected leader. Houses also maintained a fleet of war canoes for use in protecting trade and fighting rivals. As well as participating in trade, the Ijaw have traditionally been a fishing and farming culture.

The Kalabari Kingdom, also called Elem Kalabari (New Shipping Port), or New Calabar by the Europeans, was an independent trading state of the Kalabari people, an Ijaw ethnic group, in the Niger River Delta. Today it is recognized as a traditional state in what is now Rivers State, Nigeria. The role of prayer in the traditional Ijaw system of belief is to maintain the living in the good graces of the water spirits among whom they dwelt before being born into this world. Each year the Ijaw hold celebrations!lasting for several days!in honor of the spirits. Masquerades are central to the festivities. Ijaw men wearing elaborate outfits and carved masks dance to the beat of drums and manifest the influence of the water spirits through the quality and intensity of their dancing.

Elem Kalabari The Kalabari Kingdom, also called Elem Kalabari (New Shipping Port), or New Calabar by the Europeans, was an independent trading state of the Kalabari people, an Ijaw ethnic group, in the

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Being a maritime people, many Ijaw were employed in the merchant shipping sector in the early and mid-20th century (preNigerian independence). With the advent of oil and gas exploration in their territory, some are employed in that sector. Other main occupation are in the civil service of the Nigerian States of Bayelsa and Rivers where they are predominant. Culture and Art Ijaw religious beliefs hold that water spirits are like humans, having personal strengths and shortcomings, and that humans dwell among the water spirits before being born. The role of prayer in the traditional Ijaw system of belief is to maintain the living in the good graces of the water spirits, among whom they dwelt before being born into this world. Each year the Ijaw hold celebrations lasting for several days in honor of the spirits. Central to the festivities is the role of masquerades, in which men wearing
Mask, Kalabari Ijo peoples, Nigeria, Early 20th century, Wood, pigment (National Museum of African Art). Figure 33.12 ljo Mask

manifest the influence of the water spirits through the quality and intensity of their dancing (Figure 33.12). Particularly spectacular masqueraders are believed to be possessed by the particular spirits on whose behalf they are dancing. The Ijaw are also known to practice ritual acculturation (enculturation), whereby an individual from a different, unrelated group undergoes rites to become Ijaw.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1800s/kalabari-ijaw/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

elaborate outfits and carved masks dance to the beat of drums and

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Bamum
Bamum people developed a great art of dyes and created six dye pits containing various colors which were applied to cloths and sculptures.
KEY POINTS

ethnic group from northeast Cameroon, founded it. Its capital was the ancient walled city of Fumban. Writing System The Bamum people have an indigenous writing system, known as Bamum script or Shu Mom. The script was developed by Sultan Ibrahim Njoya in 1896, and is taught in Cameroon by the Bamum Scripts and Archives Project. The German Empire claimed the territory as the colony of Kamerun in 1884 and began a steady push inland. They initiated projects to improve the colony's infrastructure, relying on a harsh system of forced labor. With the defeat of Germany in World War I, Kamerun became a League of Nations mandate territory and was
This life-size male gure from the kingdom of Bamum in Cameroon is a visually compelling example of the splendid beaded sculptures Bamum artists created for the royal court in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Figure 33.13 Bamum Sculpture

The Bamum people have an indigenous writing system, known as Bamum script or Shu Mom. The script was developed by Sultan Ibrahim Njoya in 1896, and is taught in Cameroon by the Bamum Scripts and Archives Project. Little is known about the kingdoms material and social culture during this time. Originally, the language of state in the Bamum kingdom was that of the Tikar. This apparently did not last long, and the language of the conquered, Mben, was adopted. The Bamun developed an extensive artistic culture at their capital of Foumban at the beginning of the 20th century. During Njoyas reign six dye pits containing various colors were maintained.

Background The kingdom of Bamum or Bamoum, also known as Bamun or Bamoun or Mum (13941884), was a pre-colonial West African state in what is now northwest Cameroon. The Mbum, a part-Bantu

split into French Cameroun and British Cameroons in 1919. France integrated the economy of Cameroun with that of France and improved the infrastructure with capital investments, skilled workers, and continued forced labor.

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Culture and Art Little is known about the kingdoms material and social culture during this time. Originally, the language of state in the Bamum kingdom was that of the Tikar. This apparently did not last long, and the language of the conquered, Mben, was adopted. The economy was largely agricultural, and slave owning was practiced on a small scale. The Bamum kingdom also traded with neighboring populations. They imported salt, iron, beads, cotton goods and copper objects. The Bamun developed an extensive artistic culture at their capital of Foumban at the beginning of the 20th century. During Njoyas reign six dye pits containing various colors were maintained. The Mbum also imported indigo-dyed raffia-sewn cloth from the Hausa as royal cloth. This royal cloth was called Ntieya, and Hausa craftsmen were kept at palace workshops to supply nobles and teach the art of dyeing. At the same time, during the 19th and early 20th century, Bamum artists created splendid beaded sculptures (Figure 33.13) for the royal court. Colorful beadwork attached to a fabric base covers most of the carved wooden figures.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1800s/bamum/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

Fon
Much of the art work of the Fon revolved around the royalty.
KEY POINTS

Each of the palaces at the Royal Palaces of Abomey contained elaborate bas-reliefs (noundid/ in Fon) providing a record of the king's accomplishments. Each king had his own palace within the palace complex and within the outer walls of their personal palace was a series of clay reliefs designed specific to that king. In addition to the royal depictions in the reliefs, royal members were depicted in power sculptures known as bocio which incorporated mixed materials (including metal, wood, beads, cloth, fur, feathers, and bone) onto a base forming a standing figure.

Background The Fon people, or Fon nu, are a major West African ethnic and linguistic group in the country of Benin, and southwest Nigeria, made up of more than 3,500,000 people. The Fon language is the main language spoken in Southern Benin, and is a member of the Gbe language group. The Fon are said to originate from Tado, a village in south east Togo, near the border with Benin. The culture

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is patrilineal and allows polygamy and divorce. Funerals (and anniversaries of deaths) are among the most important cultural events, with mourning activities including drumming and dancing often lasting for days. The Fon believe that part of the person dies and part is reincarnated. Most Fon today live in villages and small towns in mud houses with corrugated iron gable roofs. Cities built by the Fon include Abomey, the historical capital city of Dahomey, and Ouidah on the Slave Coast. These cities were major commercial centers for the slave trade. The Kingdom of Dahomey was an important regional power that had an organized domestic economy, significant international trade with European powers, a centralized administration, significant taxation systems, and an organized military. Notable in the kingdom were significant artwork, all-female military units known as the Dahomey Amazons, and elaborate religious practices of Vodun with the large festival of the Annual Customs of Dahomey. The Kingdom of Dahomey serves as the context for a number of works of fiction dealing with West African ideas and the slave trade. While many Fon identify as Christian, the majority practice Benin's national religion Vodun. The Fon name for a god or spirit is "Vodu". Practice can involve drumming to induce possession by one of these gods or spirits. Fon religion is polytheistic, with a supreme (but not omnipotent) deity known as Nana Buluku.

Fon in Art Much of the art work revolved around the royalty. Each of the palaces at the Royal Palaces of Abomey contained elaborate basreliefs (noundid/ in Fon) providing a record of the king's accomplishments. Each king had his own palace within the palace complex and within the outer walls of their personal palace was a series of clay reliefs designed specific to that king. These were not solely designed for royalty and chiefs, temples, and other important buildings had similar reliefs. The reliefs would present Dahomey kings often in
Zoomorphic representation of Bhanzin as a shark. Figure 33.14 Homme-Requin Dahomey

military battles against the Oyo or Mahi tribes to the north of Dahomey with their opponents depicted in various negative depictions (the king of Oyo is depicted in one as a baboon eating a cob of corn). Historical themes dominated representation and characters were basically designed and often assembled on top of

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each other or in close proximity creating an ensemble effect. In addition to the royal depictions in the reliefs, royal members were depicted in power sculptures known as bocio which incorporated mixed materials (including metal, wood, beads, cloth, fur, feathers, and bone) onto a base forming a standing figure. The bocio are religiously designed to include different forces together to unlock powerful forces. In addition, the cloth appliqu of Dahomey depicted royalty often in similar zoomorphic representation (Figure 33.14) and dealt with matters similar to the reliefs, often the kings leading during warfare. A distinctive tradition was the casting of small brass figures of animals or people which were worn as jewelry or displayed in the homes of the relatively well-off. These figures, which continue to be made for the tourist trade, were relatively unusual in traditional African art in having no religious aspect, being purely decorative, as well as indicative of some wealth. Also unusual, by being so early and clear of provenance is a carved wooden tray (not dissimilar to much more recent examples) in Ulm, Germany, which was brought to Europe before 1659, when it was described in a printed catalogue. Fon Influence in the New World Many descendants of the Fon now live in the Americas as a result of the Atlantic slave trade. Together with other cultural groups from the Fon homeland region such as the Yoruba and Bantu, Fon

culture merged with French, Portuguese or Spanish to produce distinct religions (Voodoo, Mami Wata, Candombl and Santera), dance and musical styles (Arar, Yan Valu).
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1800s/fon/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

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Kongo
Kongo art can be known for their "nail fetishes" because users often hammered nails into the sculptures.
KEY POINTS

Luanda, Angola. They are primarily defined by the speaking of Kikongo, a common language. Before the early twentieth century, there was no single name in Africa for the group; in the earliest documented ethnonyms of the seventeenth century, those residing in the Kingdom of Kongo called themselves Esikongo (singular Mwisikongo); those in the Kingdom of Loango called themselves Bavili (singular Muvili), and in other parts of the Kikongo-speaking world they had different names as well. Late nineteenth century missionaries sometimes applied the term Bafiote (singular M(a)fiote) to the group, though it is unclear whether the term was ever used by local people to describe their own identity. Since the early twentieth century, Bakongo (singular MKongo or Mukongo) as an ethnonym for all members of the Kikongo-speaking community has gained popularity. The group is identified largely by speaking a cluster of mutually intelligible dialects rather than by large continuities in their history or even in culture. The term Congo was more widely deployed to identify Kikongo-speaking people enslaved in the Americas. Nail Fetishes in Kongo Art

Nkondi (plural minkondi, zinkondi or nkondi with miconcords, according to dialect) religious objects, frequently called "nail fetishes" because users often hammered nails into them, made by the Kongo people of West Central Africa. Nkondi are a subclass of minkisi that are considered aggressive. Nkondi, like other minkisi, are constructed by religious specialists, called nganga (plural nganga, also zinganga and banganga according to dialect). Human figures ranged in size from small to life-size, and contained bilongo (singular longo often translated as "medicine"), usually hidden by resin-fixed mirrors. Nkondi in the form of wooden figures were often carved with open cavities in their bodies for these substances.

Background The Bakongo, or the Kongo people (Kongo: hunters), also referred to as the Congolese, are a Bantu ethnic group who live along the Atlantic coast of Africa from Pointe-Noire (Congo Brazzaville) to

Nkondi (plural minkondi, zinkondi or nkondi with mi-concords, according to dialect) religious objects (Figure 33.15), frequently called "nail fetishes" because users often hammered nails into them, were made by the Kongo people of West Central Africa.

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Nkondi are a subclass of minkisi that are considered aggressive. The name nkondi derives from the verb -konda, meaning "to hunt" and thus nkondi means "hunter" because they can hunt down and attack wrong-doers or witches, or in some cases, also enemies. Construction Nkondi, like other minkisi, are constructed by religious specialists, called nganga (plural nganga, also zinganga and banganga according to dialect). The nganga gathers materials, called nlongo (plural bilongo, milongo, or concord with mi-), which when assembled, will become the home of a spirit. Often these materials include a carved human figure into which the other bilongo are placed. The nganga then either becomes possessed with the spirit or places the finished nkondi in a graveyard or other place where spirits frequent. Once it is
Because they are aggressive, many nkondi with human gures are carved with their hands raised, sometimes bearing weapons. Figure 33.15 Nail Fetishes

charged, the nkondi can then be handed over to the client. According to Kongo testimony of the early twentieth century, people drive nails into the figures as part of a petition for help, healing, or witness-particularly of contracts and pledges. The purpose of the nailing is to "awaken" and sometimes to "enrage" the nkisi to the task in hand. Nkondi figures could be made in many forms, including pots or other containers, which were described and sometimes illustrated in early twentieth century Kikongo texts, but those that used human images (kiteke) were most often nailed, and thus attracted collectors' attention and thus are better known today. Human figures ranged in size from small to life-size, and contained bilongo (singular longo often translated as "medicine"), usually hidden by resin-fixed mirrors. Nkondi in the form of wooden figures were often carved with open cavities in their bodies for these substances. The most common place for storage was the belly, though such packs are also frequently placed on the head or in pouches surrounding the neck.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1800s/kongo/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

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Dogon
Dogon art is primarily sculpture that revolves around religious values, ideals, and freedoms.
KEY POINTS

made to be seen publicly, and are commonly hidden from the public eye within the houses of families, sanctuaries, or kept with the hogon (a spiritual leader of the Dogon people). The importance of secrecy is due to the symbolic meaning behind the pieces and the process by which they are made. Themes found throughout Dogon sculpture (Figure 33.16) consist of figures with raised arms, superimposed bearded figures, horsemen, stools with caryatids, women with children, figures covering their faces, women grinding pearl millet, women bearing vessels on their heads, donkeys bearing cups, musicians, dogs, quadruped-shaped troughs or benches, figures bending from the waist, mirror-images, apron-wearing figures, and standing figures. Signs of other contacts and origins are evident in Dogon art. The Dogon people were not the first inhabitants of the cliffs of Bandiagara; influence from Tellem art is evident in Dogon art because of its rectilinear designs. Funeral Masquerade Due to the expense, the traditional funeral rituals (or damas) are becoming very rare. They may be performed years after the death. Damas that are still performed today are not usually performed for their original intent, but instead are done as a source of entertainment for tourists interested in the Dogon way of life. The Dogon use this entertainment to make money by charging tourists

Dogon sculptures are not made to be seen publicly, and are commonly hidden from the public eye within the houses of families, sanctuaries, or kept with the hogon (spiritual leader). Due to the expense, their traditional funeral rituals (or damas) are becoming very rare. They may be performed years after the death. The traditional dama consists of a masquerade that essentially leads the souls of the departed to their final resting places through a series of ritual dances and rites. The Sirigie mask is a tall mask that is only used in funerals for the men that were alive during the holding of the Sigui ceremony. The Kanaga masqueraders, at one point, dance and sit next to the bundkamba, which represents the deceased.

Background Dogon art is primarily sculpture. Dogon art revolves around religious values, ideals, and freedoms. Dogon sculptures are not

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for which masks they want to see and for the ritual itself. The traditional dama consists of a masquerade that essentially leads the souls of the departed to their final
Figure 33.16 Dogon Sculpture

deceased's home in the family compound is decorated with ritual elements. Masks used during the yincomoli ceremony include the Yana Gulay mask, the Satimbe mask, the Sirigie mask, and the Kanaga mask. The Yana Gulay masks purpose is to impersonate a Fulani woman and is made from cotton cloth and cowell shells. The Satimbe mask represents the women ancestors who are said to have discovered the purpose of the masks by guiding the spirits of the deceased into the afterlife. The Sirigie mask is a tall mask that is only used in funerals for the men that were alive during the holding of the Sigui ceremony. The Kanaga masqueraders, at one point, dance and sit next to the bundukamba, which represents the deceased. The yingim and the danyim rituals each last a few days. These events are held annually to honor the elders that have died since the last dama. The yingim consists of the sacrifice of cows, or other valuable animals, and large mock battles performed in order to help chase the spirit, known as the nyama, from the deceased body and the village, and towards the path to the afterlife. The danyim then takes place a couple of months later. During the danyim, masqueraders perform dances every morning and evening for up to six days. The masqueraders dance on the deceaseds rooftops, throughout the village, and the area of fields around the village. Until the masqueraders have completed their dances and every

resting places through a series of ritual dances and rites. Dogon damas include the use of many masks, which they wear by securing them in their teeth, and statuettes. Each Dogon village may differ in the designs of the masks used in the dama ritual. Every village may have their own way of performing the dama rituals. The dama consists of an event, known as the halic, immediately after the death of a person and lasts for one day. According to Shawn R. Davis, a particular ritual incorporates the

Dogon wood sculpture, probably an ancestor gure

elements of the yingim and the danyim. During the yincomoli

ceremony, a gourd is smashed over the deceaseds wooden bowl, hoe, and bundukamba (burial blanket), announcing the entrance of the masks used in this ceremony, while the entrance to the

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ritual has been performed, it is said that any misfortune can be blamed on the remaining spirits of the dead.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1800s/dogon/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

Baule
Baoul"sculptures are renowned for their renement, form, diversity, and labor they represent.
KEY POINTS

The Baoul (or Baule) are an Akan people and are one of the largest groups in Cte d'Ivoire. They are farmers who live in the eastern side of the Cte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast). The Baoule people are represented by religion, art, festivals, and equal society. Baoul sculptures are renowned for their refinement, their form and diversity, and for the labor they represent. The sculptures are executed in a range of media, including gold, bronze, and ivory. The works include face masks and human figurines. The bonu amuen is a dance performed as a protection from threats and is performed at the commemoration of the deaths of notable persons. The Baoul wear a wooden helmet that represents a buffalo.

Background The Baoul (or Baule) are an Akan people, and are one of the largest groups in Cte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast). The Baoul are farmers; they are distinguished by their religion, art, festivals, and their equal

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society. There are more than sixty-five different Akan-speaking subgroups. They live essentially in the middle of Cote d'Ivoire between the Como River and the Bandama River. One of the favorite Baoul pastimes is the game Att, which is similar to the North American version of marbles. The Baoul use nuts as playing pieces, rather than marbles. An odd number of nuts are placed in a circular pattern in the central space between two opposing teams. The two teams, placed roughly 30 meters apart, take turns throwing nuts at the circle of nuts. Once a nut has been hit, it is eliminated, and the team that hit the respective nut gains a point. The game ends when all the nuts have been eliminated; the team with the most nuts at the end of the game wins. Baule Art The Baoul people are talented artists. Their sculptures are renowned for their refinement, their form and diversity, and for the labor they represent. The sculptures are executed in a range of
Masque baoul de Cte d'Ivoire. Figure 33.17 Baule Mask

media, including gold, bronze, and ivory. The works include face masks and human figurines (Figure 33.17). Bonu Amuen Dance The bonu amuen is a dance performed as a protection from threats; it is performed at the commemoration of the deaths of notable persons. For this dance the Baoul wear a wooden helmet that represents a buffalo. They wear suits with raffia and metal bracelets for the ankles. The snout of the costume has teeth.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1800s/baule/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

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Section 3

The 1900s

Benin Asante Yoruba Senufo Dogon Mende Kuba Samburu Igbo

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-the-modern-period/the-1900s/
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Benin
The Benin Bronzes are a collection of more than 3000 brass plaques from the royal palace of the Kingdom of Benin, located in now Nigeria.

Expedition of 1897 and given to the British Foreign Office. Around 200 of these were then passed on to the British Museum in London, while the remainder was divided among a variety of collections, with the majority being purchased by Felix von Luschan on behalf of the Knigliches Museum fr Vlkerkunde in Berlin (the presentday Ethnological Museum). In 1936, Oba Akenzua II began the movement to return the art now known in modern discourse as the Benin Bronzes. The seizure of Benin art and particularly the Bronzes led to a greater appreciation in Europe for African culture. Bronzes are now believed to have been cast in Benin since the thirteenth century, and some in the collection date from the 15th and 16th centuries. Strangely the creation of bronze plaques is thought to have been revived by the arrival of European traders in Benin. The traders brought brass bracelets known as manillas, which were exchanged for spices, ivory, or slaves. This metal was melted down and used to create the plaques that decorated the palace in Benin. Depictions of Benin Bronzes

KEY POINTS

The Benin Bronzes are a collection of more than 3000 brass plaques from the royal palace of the Kingdom of Benin, located in present day Nigeria. They were seized by a British force in the Punitive Expedition of 1897 and given to the British Foreign Office. The seizure of Benin art and particularly the "Bronzes" led to a greater appreciation in Europe for African culture. Bronzes are now believed to have been cast in Benin since the thirteenth century, and some in the collection date from the 15th and 16th centuries. The Bronzes depict a variety of scenes, including animals, fish, humans and scenes of court life. They were cast in matching pairs (although each was individually made).

Background The Benin Bronzes are a collection of more than 3000 brass plaques from the royal palace of the Kingdom of Benin, located in present day Nigeria. They were seized by a British force in the Punitive

The Bronzes depict a variety of scenes, including animals, fish, humans and scenes of court life. They were cast in matching pairs (although each was individually made). It is thought that they were

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originally nailed to walls and pillars in the palace as decoration, some possibly also offering instructive scenes of protocol. The plaque shown at top right shows the Oba (Figure 33.18) who was the supreme ruler of Benin heading both religious and secular affairs. Two attendants waited on him, which shows his importance. Also in the picture are two Europeans who show the trade that was going on with Benin. The Europeans would have been Portuguese; their hats and long hair show their nationality. Nigeria, which includes the area of the Kingdom of Benin, bought around 50 Bronzes from the British Museum between the 1950s and 1970s, and has parallels that of the Elgin Marbles.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1900s/benin/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource
The Oba of Benin with attendants and Europeans. Figure 33.18 Benin Brass Plaque

Asante
Asante art is a subgroup of the Akan people and are known for their strong connection between visual and verbal expressions.
KEY POINTS

Akan art is an art form that originated among the Akan people of West Africa. Akan art is known for Akan goldweights, as well as cultural jewelry. The Akan people are known for their strong connection between visual and verbal expressions. The main cloth of the Ashanti was the kente cloth, known locally as nwentoma. Clothing production was typically gender specialized. The Golden Stool is the royal and divine throne of the Ashanti people. According to legend, Okomfo Anokye, High Priest and one of the two chief founders of the Asante Confederacy, caused the stool to descend from the heavens and land on the lap of the first Asante king, Osei Tutu. The Golden Stool is a curved seat 46 cm high with a platform 61 cm wide and 30 cm deep. Its entire surface is inlaid with gold, and hung with bells to warn the king of impending danger.

repeatedly called for the return of the remainder, in a case which

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Background Akan political organization centered on clans headed by a paramount chief or Amanhene. One such clan, the Oyoko, settled in Akanland's sub-tropical forest region and established a center at Kumasi. The Ashanti became tributaries of another Akan state, Denkyira; but in the mid-17th century the Oyoko, under Chief Oti Akenten started consolidating the Ashanti clans into a loose confederation against the Denkyira. Akan Art Akan art is an art form that originated from the Akan people of West Africa. Akan art is known for Akan goldweights, as well as cultural jewelry. The Akan people are known for their strong connection between visual and verbal expressions. Akan culture values gold above all other metals, so the artwork and jewelry made of gold is of great worth to them, whether it be made for appearance, artistic expression, or more practical trading purposes. Clothing The main cloth of the Ashanti was the kente cloth (Figure 33.19), known locally as nwentoma. Clothing production was typically gender specialized. The Covering of the State, is made of camel's hair and wool. An ornamental figurine, plated with gold or silver, topped all ceremonial umbrellas.

The Golden Stool The Golden Stool (Asante: Sika 'dwa) is the royal and divine throne of the Ashanti people. According to legend, Okomfo Anokye, High Priest and one of the two chief founders of the Asante Confederacy, caused the stool to descend from the heavens and land on the lap of the first Asante king, Osei Tutu. Such seats were traditionally symbolic of a chieftain's leadership, but the Golden Stool is believed to house the spirit of the Asante nationliving, dead and yet to be born. Each stool is understood to be the seat of the owner's soul and when not in use is propped against a wall so that other souls passing by may relax on it. The royal throne must never touch the ground; as such it is placed on a blanket. During inauguration, a new king is raised and lowered over the stool without Asantehene himself is allowed to handle it.
Figure 33.19 Kent Wove

Kente weaving is a traditional craft among the Ashanti people of Ghana. A kente cloths is sewn together from many narrow (about 10 centimetres (3.9 in) wide) kente stripes. This image shows di!erent patterns of typical Ashanti Kente stripes.

touching it. A throne is carried to the king on a pillow, as only the

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Appearance and Craftsmanship The Golden Stool is a curved seat 46 cm high with a platform 61 cm wide and 30 cm deep. Its entire surface is inlaid with gold, and hung with bells to warn the king of impending danger. Many have not seen it and only the king, queen, true prince Ofosu Sefa Boakye, and trusted advisers know the hiding place. Replicas have been produced for the chiefs and at their funerals are ceremonially blackened with animal blood, a symbol of their power for generations. The stool is one of the focal points of the Asante tradition today because it still shows succession and power. Each stool is made from a single block of wood and carved with crescent-shaped seats, flat bases and complex support structure. The many designs and symbolic meanings signify that every stool is unique; each has a different meaning for the person whose soul it seats. Some designs contain animal shapes or images that recall the person who used it. The general shape of Asantes stools has been copied by other cultures and sold worldwide
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Yoruba
Over the years, many Yoruban artists have come to merge foreign ideas of artistry and contemporary art with the traditional art forms found in West Africa.
KEY POINTS

The transAfrican style was manifest in Donaldsons individual work as well, as is demonstrated in the 1971 piece entitled Victory in the Valley of Eshu. The work depicts an elderly black couple holding what appears to be an eyeshaped pinwheel. The work is filled with Yoruba and traditional African references, including the Yoruba Sango dance wand in the right hand of the man, references to deified ancestors (a Yoruba belief), the name Esu, which is the Yoruba god of fate, and others. The notion of shine is conveyed through the collection of small dots of color in the figures hair and surrounding their bodies. Additionally, the afros of the couple seem to mimic halos.

Background Over the years, many have come to merge foreign ideas of artistry and contemporary art with the traditional art forms found in West

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Africa (Figure 33.20). The traditional art forms among the Yoruba include but are not limited to: beading, braiding, tattooing, clay molding and ceramic work, bronze casting, weaving and dyeing, sculpting, etc. There is also a vibrant form of customary theatre known as Alarinjo that has its roots in the medieval period and that has given much to the contemporary Nigerian film industry.

Figure 33.20 Yoruba Art

references, including the Yoruba Sango dance wand in the right hand of the man, references to deified ancestors (a Yoruba belief), the name Esu, which is the Yoruba god of fate, and others. The newly prominent element of shine, an aesthetic effect mimicking or displaying physical shine in order to reflect the bright, star-like quality of ordinary African Americans, is visible in this piece. This effect achieves the celebration aspect of black art: an art that, as stated by Donaldson, defines, glorifies, and directs black peoplean art for the peoples sake. The notion of shine is conveyed through the collection of small dots

Europeans in Africa; wood, paint; Yoruba people, West Nigeria; 1st half of 20th century.

of color in the figures hair and surrounding their bodies. Additionally, the afros of the couple seem to mimic halos. These elements, in combination with the couples bright white clothing, complete the celebration of the ordinary in this African diasporic work. The little splotches and dots of color seem to emanate from the bodies and to dance their way around the edges of the portrait, conveying that notion of a rhythmic motion, which was integral in transAfrican work.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1900s/yoruba/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

The TransAfrican Style in Yoruba Art The transAfrican style was manifest in Donaldsons individual work as well, as is demonstrated in the 1971 piece entitled Victory in the Valley of Eshu. The work depicts an elderly black couple holding what appears to be an eye-shaped pinwheel. The pinwheel is actually an African American symbol of freedom, the six-legged star. In addition to displaying national diasporic symbols, Victory in the Valley of Eshu incorporates many elements of traditional African culture, paying homage to the common heritage of diaspora members. The work is filled with Yoruba and traditional African

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Senufo
Much of the Senufos sculpted art work is made in the poro, or school.
KEY POINTS

ancestor spirits are responsible for all events that occur, and if they are not appeased through proper ritual they may cause drought, infertility, and illness. The Senufo are known as excellent farmers, and are mainly a farming society. They live by a strict caste system, where the farmer is top and the musicians are at the bottom, everyone else filling in between. One of the highest possible honors given in the Senefou culture is the sambali (champion cultivator), who is respected throughout the region and in his old age is typically given a strong leadership role. Even for those who do not belong to the farmer caste, farming is
They are expert mask makers, but since farming is the highest profession possible, artists and musicians are low in the caste system (musicians are bottom). Figure 33.21 Senufo Mask

Brass sculptures, woodcarvings, and masks are mostly made there, and sold to local artisans. They are expert mask makers, but since farming is the highest profession possible, artists and musicians are low in the caste system (musicians are bottom). The Poro has its special ritual and language, tattooing and symbols, but details are scarce, due to an oath of secrecy. It meets usually in the dry season, between the months of October and May. There are three grades, the first for chiefs and big men, the second for fetish-priests and the third for the crowd. The ceremonies of the Purrah are presided over by the Poro devil, a man in fetish dress, who addresses the meeting through a long tube of wood.

Background The Senufo people (Figure 33.22) inhabit northern Ivory Coast and Mali. The Senufo are made up of a number of different groups who migrated south to Mali and the Ivory Coast in the 15th and 16th centuries. They are a very animistic society; they believe that the

huge in the Senefou culture. The society is very community centered; people often take turns working each others lands, trading off and on. There is usually a group in each village made up of men from ages 15 to 35, who are in charge of working in the fields and providing a huge festival during the dry season. To make

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farming and chores fun, local games to see how fast a man can hoe a field are held. Another society for men is the poro, or school for young men, usually located in the forest. For Senefou women, the greatest ability is the ability to cook well; if a woman or girl cannot, it is a shame to the family. The womens society, sandogo, is responsible mainly for
Figure 33.22 Senufo Languages

phrase may also refer to the finished product, from individual sculptures, to hand-worked moldings composing part of a tracery. The Poro has its special ritual and language, tattooing and symbols, but details are scarce, due to an oath of secrecy. It meets usually in the dry season, between the months of October and May. The rendezvous is in the bush, at an enclosure, separated into apartments by mats and roofed only by the overhanging trees, serving as a clubhouse. There are three grades, the first for chiefs and big men, the second for fetish-priests and the third for the crowd. The ceremonies of the Purrah are presided over by the Poro devil, a man in fetish dress, who addresses the meeting through a long tube of wood.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1900s/senufo/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

divination. Senufo Art Much of the Senufos sculpted work is made in the poro, or school. Brass sculptures, woodcarvings, and masks are mostly made there, and sold to local artisans. They are expert mask makers (Figure 33.21), but

Map of the Senufo language area showing the major groups and some neighboring languages.

since farming is the highest profession possible, artists and musicians are low in the caste

system (musicians are bottom). Woodcarving is a form of working wood by means of a cutting tool (knife) in one hand or a chisel by two hands or with one hand on a chisel and one hand on a mallet, resulting in a wooden figure or figurine, or in the sculptural ornamentation of a wooden object. The

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Dogon
Dogon art revolves around religious values, ideals, and freedoms.
KEY POINTS

made to be seen publicly, and are commonly hidden from the public eye within the houses of families, sanctuaries, or kept with the hogon (a spiritual leader of the Dogon people). The importance of secrecy is due to the symbolic meaning behind the pieces and the process by which they are made. Themes found throughout Dogon sculpture consist of figures with raised arms, superimposed bearded figures, horsemen, stools with caryatids, women with children, figures covering their faces, women grinding pearl millet, women bearing vessels on their heads, donkeys bearing cups, musicians, dogs, quadruped-shaped troughs or benches, figures bending from the waist, mirror-images, aproned figures, and standing figures. Signs of other contacts and origins are evident in Dogon art. The Dogon people (Figure 33.23) were not the first inhabitants of the cliffs of Bandiagara. Influence from Tellem art is evident in Dogon art because of its rectilinear designs. Funeral Masquerade Due to the expense, the traditional funeral rituals (or damas) are becoming very rare. They may be performed years after the death. Damas that are still performed today are not usually performed for their original intent, but instead are done as a source of entertainment for tourists interested in the Dogon way of life. The Dogon use this entertainment to make money by charging tourists for which masks they want to see and for the ritual itself. The

Dogon sculptures are not made to be seen publicly, and are commonly hidden from the public eye within the houses of families, sanctuaries, or kept with the Hogon. The importance of secrecy is due to the symbolic meaning behind the pieces and the process by which they are made. The Dogon people were not the first inhabitants of the cliffs of Bandiagara; influence from Tellem art is evident in Dogon art because of its rectilinear designs. Due to the expense, their traditional funeral rituals or damas are becoming very rare. They may be performed years after the death. The Yana Gulay masks purpose is to impersonate a Fulani woman and is made from cotton cloth and cowell shells. The Satimbe mask represents the women ancestors who are said to have discovered the purpose of the masks by guiding the spirits of the deceased into the afterlife.

Background Dogon art is primarily sculpture. Dogon art revolves around religious values, ideals, and freedoms. Dogon sculptures are not

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traditional dama consists of a masquerade that essentially leads the souls of the departed to their final resting places through a series of ritual dances and rites. Dogon damas include the use of many masks, which they wear by securing

Figure 33.23 Dogon People in Mali The Dogon are an ethnic group living in the central plateau region of the country of Mali, in the West of the Continent of Africa, south of the Niger bend, near the city of Bandiagara, in the Mopti region.

deceased's home in the family compound is decorated with ritual elements. Masks used during the yincomoli ceremony include the Yana Gulay mask, the Satimbe mask, the Sirigie mask, and the Kanaga mask. The Yana Gulay masks purpose is to impersonate a Fulani woman and is made from cotton cloth and cowell shells. The Satimbe mask represents the women ancestors who are said to have discovered the purpose of the masks by guiding the spirits of the deceased into the afterlife. The Sirigie mask is a tall mask that is only used in funerals for the men that were alive during the holding of the Sigui ceremony. The Kanaga masqueraders, at one point, dance and sit next to the bundukamba, which represents the deceased. The yingim and the danyim rituals each last a few days. These events are held annually to honor the elders that have died since the last dama. The yingim consists of the sacrifice of cows, or other valuable animals, and large mock battles performed in order to help chase the spirit, known as the nyama, from the deceased body and the village, and towards the path to the afterlife. The danyim then takes place a couple of months later. During the danyim, masqueraders perform dances every morning and evening for up to six days. The masqueraders dance on the deceaseds rooftops, throughout the village, and the area of fields around the village. Until the masqueraders have completed their dances and every

them in their teeth, and statuettes. Each Dogon village may differ in the designs of the masks used in the dama ritual. Every village may have their own way of performing the dama rituals. The dama consists of an event, known as the halic, immediately after the death of a person and lasts for one day. According to Shawn R. Davis, a particular ritual incorporates the elements of the yingim and the danyim. During the yincomoli ceremony, a gourd is smashed over the deceaseds wooden bowl, hoe, and bundukamba (burial blanket), announcing the entrance of the masks used in this ceremony, while the entrance to the

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ritual has been performed, it is said that any misfortune can be blamed on the remaining spirits of the dead.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1900s/dogon--2/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

Mende
Much of Mand art is in the form of jewelry and carvings.
KEY POINTS

The masks associated with the fraternal and sorority associations of the Marka and the Mend are probably the best known, and finely crafted in the region. The Mand also produce beautifully woven fabrics, which are popular throughout western Africa, and gold and silver necklaces, bracelets, armlets, and earrings. Masks are the collective Mind of Mende community; viewed as one body, they are the Spirit of the Mende people. The features of a Mende mask convey Mende ideals of female morality and physical beauty. They are unusual because women wear the masks. Learning dance is a harsh discipline that every Mende girl must tackle. Girls practice for hours at a time until they drop from exhaustion.

Background Much Mand art is in the form of jewelry and carvings. The masks associated with the fraternal and sorority associations of the Marka and the Mend are probably the best known, and finely crafted in

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the region. The Mand also produce beautifully woven fabrics, which are popular throughout western Africa, and gold and silver necklaces, bracelets, armlets, and earrings. The bells on the necklaces are of the type believed capable of being heard by spirits, ringing in both worlds, that of the ancestors and the living. Mand hunters often wear a single bell that can be easily silenced when stealth is necessary. Women, on the other hand,
Helmet masks of the Mende, Vai, Gola, Bassa and other peoples of the sub-region are the best documented instance of womens masking in Africa. These masks are used by the Sande association, a powerful organization with social, political and religious signicance. Although worn only by women, these masks, as is the case elsewhere in Africa, are carved by men. Figure 33.24 Helmet Mende Mask

often wear multiple bells, referring to concepts of community, since the bells ring harmoniously together. Mende masks Masks are the collective Mind of Mende community; viewed as one body, they are the Spirit of the Mende people (Figure 33.24). The Mende masked figures are a reminder that human beings have a dual existence; they live in the concrete world of flesh and material things and the spirit world of dreams, faith, aspirations and imagination. The features of a Mende mask convey Mende ideals of female morality and physical beauty. They are unusual because women wear the masks. The bird on top of the head represents a woman's natural intuition that lets her see and know things those others can't. The high or broad forehead represents good luck or the sharp, contemplative mind of the ideal Mende woman. Downcast eyes symbolize a spiritual nature and it is through these small slits that a woman wearing the mask would look out of. The small mouth signifies the ideal woman's quiet and humble character. The markings on the cheeks are representative of the decorative scars girls receive as they step into womanhood. The scars are a symbol of her new, harder life. The neck rolls are an indication of the health of ideal women. They have also been called symbols of the pattern of concentric, circular ripples the Mende spirit makes when emerging

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from the water. In the Mende culture full-figured women are beautiful. The intricate hairstyles reveal the close ties within a community of women. The holes at the base of the mask are where the rest of the costume is attached. A woman who wears these masks must not expose any part of her body or a vengeful spirit may take possession of her. Women often cover their bodies with masses of raffia or black cloth. When a girl becomes initiated into the Sande society, the village's master woodcarver creates a special mask just for her. Helmet masks are made from a section of tree trunk, often of the kpole (cotton) tree, and then carved and hollowed to fit over the wearers head and face. The woodcarver must wait until he has a dream that guides him to make the mask a certain way for the recipient. A mask must be kept hidden in a secret place when no one is wearing it. These masks appear not only in initiation rituals but also at important events such as funerals, arbitrations and the installation of chiefs. Examples of these masks appear in museums. Dancing Learning dance is a harsh discipline that every Mende girl must tackle. Girls practice for hours at a time until they drop from exhaustion. Ndoli jowei, the expert in dancing, is in charge of teaching young Mende girls to dance. When girls make a mistake in

the steps, they are whipped with a switch until they get it right. Often girls are awoken in the middle of the night to practice the dance; sometimes they are forced to stay awake for nearly 48 hours dancing almost the entire time. By the end of their brutal training, the girls have transformed into young woman who are tough and confident even in the harshest of conditions. They are in great physical shape and have endurance and stamina.
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Kuba
Kuba have"been described as a people who cannot bear to leave a surface without ornament.
KEY POINTS

approximately 1625, an individual from outside the area known as Shyaam a-Mbul a Ngoong usurped the position of one of the area rulers and united all the chiefdoms under his leadership. Tradition states that Shyaam a-Mbul was the adopted son of a Kuba queen. He left the Kuba region to find enlightenment in the Pende and Kongo kingdoms to the west. After learning all he could from these states, he returned to Kuba to form the empire's political, social and economic foundations. The Kuba Kingdom reached its apex during the mid 19th century. Europeans first reached the area in 1884. Because of the kingdom's relative isolation, it was not as affected by the slave trade as were the Kongo and Ndongo kingdoms on the coast. Toward the end of the 19th century, the kingdom was invaded by the Nsapo people. The weakened Kingdom never recovered, and it was fragmented into chiefdoms once again by the time the area became a Belgian colony. The current reigning monarch, Kot-a-Mbweeky III, has been on the throne since 1969. Kuba Art The Kuba are known for their raffia embroidered textiles, fiber and

Toward the end of the 19th century, the kingdom was invaded by the Nsapo people. The weakened Kingdom never recovered, and it was fragmented into chiefdoms once again by the time the area became a Belgian colony. The current reigning monarch, Kot-a-Mbweeky III, has been on the throne since 1969. The Kuba are known for their raffia embroidered textiles, fiber and beaded hats, carved palm wine cups and cosmetic boxes, but they are most famous for their monumental helmet masks, featuring exquisite geometric patterns, stunning fabrics, seeds, beads and shells. The African art collection covers 2,500 years of human history and includes sculpture, jewelry, masks, and religious artifacts. This collection include a carved ndop figure of a Kuba king, believed to be among the oldest extant ndop carvings, and a Lulua mother-and-child.

Background The kingdom began as a conglomeration of several chiefdoms of various ethnic groups with no real central authority. In

beaded hats, carved palm wine cups and cosmetic boxes, but they are most famous for their monumental helmet masks, featuring exquisite geometric patterns, stunning fabrics, seeds, beads and

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shells. They have been described as a people who cannot bear to leave a surface without ornament. Boxes, known as Kuba Boxes and called ngedi mu ntey by the Kuba, are generally used to hold tukula powder and paste. The boxes are usually in the shape of a square with a faceted lid, a semicircle (sometimes referred to as "half moon"), a rectangle or the shape of a mask. Sometimes they were used for holding razors for cutting raffia, hairpins or ritual objects. Tukula (called twool by the Kuba) is a red powder made of ground cam wood. The color red is essential to the Kuba concept of beauty and was therefore used to ornament the face, hair and chest during dances and
A carved ndop gure of a Kuba king, believed to be among the oldest extant ndop carvings. Figure 33.25 Bushoong Kuba Ndop Portrait

After 1700, King Misha mi-Shyaang a-Mbul introduced wooden sculptures called ndop figures that were carved to resemble the king and represent his individual reign. These figures always included the king's ibol or personal symbol, akin to a personal standard. The carved palm-wine drinking cups and ornately carved boxes are identified with competition between titled court members among the Kuba. With half of all Bushoong men holding titles in the 1880s, competition for influence was sometimes fierce, and it found expression in the elaboration of these essentially commonplace household objects into works of extraordinary beauty. The African art collection covers 2,500 years of human history and includes sculpture, jewelry, masks, and religious artifacts from more than one hundred African cultures. Noteworthy items in this collection include a carved ndop figure of a Kuba king (Figure 33. 25), believed to be among the oldest extant ndop carvings, and a Lulua mother-and-child.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1900s/kuba/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

important ceremonies, as well as to anoint bodies for burial. Tukula was also mixed with other pigments to dye raffia cloth.

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Samburu
Clothing and body ornaments are part of "Samburu artistic tradition.
KEY POINTS

Background The Samburu are a Nilotic people of north-central Kenya that are related to but distinct from the Maasai. The Samburu are seminomadic pastoralists who herd mainly cattle but also keep sheep, goats and camels. The name they use for themselves is Lokop or Loikop, terms that may have a variety of meanings which Samburu themselves do not agree on. Many assert that it refers to them as "owners of the land" ("lo" refers to ownership, "nkop" is land) though others present a very different interpretation of the term. The Samburu speak Samburu, which is a Nilo-Saharan language. There are many game parks in the area; one of the most well known is Samburu National Reserve.
Samburu warriors near Lake Turkana, Kenya. Figure 33.26 Samburu Warriors, August 1999.

The Samburu speak Samburu, which is a Nilo-Saharan language. There are many game parks in the area; one of the most well known is Samburu National Reserve. They adorn themselves with necklaces, bracelets and anklets, like the Maasai. Members of the moran age grade (i.e. "warriors") typically wear their hair in long braids, which they shave off when they become elders. It may be colored using red ochre. Some men may wear the 1980s-90s style of red tartan cloth or they may wear a dark green/blue plaid cloth around their waists called 'kikoi', often with shorts underneath. Marani (warriors) wear a cloth that may be floral or pastel. Women keep their hair shaved and wear numerous necklaces and bracelets. In the past decade, traditional clothing styles have changed. As Western style education has increased, and interaction with non-Samburu has become increasingly common, wearing pants no longer bears the same stigma, although clothing deemed traditional by Samburu is still the norm, and is expected to be worn in many everyday and ceremonial contexts.

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Art in Clothing They adorn themselves with necklaces, bracelets and anklets, like the Maasai. Members of the moran age grade (i.e. "warriors") typically wear their hair in long braids, which they shave off when they become elders. It may be colored using red ochre. Their bodies are sometimes decorated with ochre, as well. Women wear two pieces of blue or purple cloth, one piece wrapped around the waist, the second wrapped over the chest (Figure 33.26). Women keep their hair shaved and wear numerous necklaces and bracelets. In the past decade, traditional clothing styles have changed. Some men may wear the 1980s-90s style of red tartan cloth or they may wear a dark green/blue plaid cloth around their waists called 'kikoi', often with shorts underneath. Marani (warriors) wear a cloth that may be floral or pastel. Some women still wear two pieces of blue or red cloth, but it has become fashionable to wear cloths with animal or floral patterns in deep colors. Women may also often wear small tank tops with their cloths, and plaid skirts have also become common. As Europeans introduced Western style clothing, it was initially shunned by Samburu. As recently as the 1990s, wearing pants was considered by most to be a rather unmanly abandonment of cultural traditions, which would be done only when travel outside of home areas or some official business (e.g. with government offices) made

it appropriate. However, as Western style education has increased, and interaction with non-Samburu has become increasingly common, it no longer bears the same stigma, although clothing deemed traditional by Samburu is still the norm, and is expected to be worn in many everyday and ceremonial contexts.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1900s/samburu/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

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Igbo
Customs and traditions include the Igbo people's visual art, music and dance forms, as well as their attire, cuisine and language dialects.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Igbo art is generally known for various types of masquerade, masks and outfits symbolizing people animals or abstract conceptions.

KEY POINTS

Background Igbo culture includes the various customs, practices and traditions of the Igbo people. It comprises archaic practices as well as new traditions introduced to the Igbo culture either through evolution or outside influences. These customs and traditions include the Igbo people's visual art, music and dance forms, as well as their attire, cuisine and language dialects. Because of their various subgroups, the variety of their culture is further heightened. Language and literature Things Fall Apart, written by by Chinua Achebe, is perhaps the most popular and renowned novel that deals with the Igbo and their traditional life. The Igbo language was used by John Goldsmith as an example to justify deviating from the classical linear model of phonology as laid out in The Sound Pattern of English. It is written in the Roman script as well as the Nsibidi formalized ideograms, which is used by the Ekpe society and Okonko fraternity, but is no longer widely used. Nsibidi ideography existed among the Igbo

Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe is the most popular and renowned novel that deals with the Igbo and their traditional life. The Igbo language was used by John Goldsmith as an example to justify deviating from the classical linear model of phonology as laid out in The Sound Pattern of English. In 1939, Dr. Ida C. Ward led a research expedition on Igbo dialects that could possibly be used as a basis of a standard Igbo dialect, also known as Central Igbo. This dialect included that of the Owerri and Umuahia groups, including the Ohuhu dialect. The Igbo people have a musical style into which they incorporate various percussion instruments: the udu, which is essentially designed from a clay jug; an ekwe, which is formed from a hollowed log; and the ogene, a hand bell designed from forged iron. Masking is one of the most common art styles in Igboland and is linked strongly with Igbo traditional music. A mask can be made of wood or fabric, along with other materials including iron and vegetation.

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before the 16th century, but died out after it became popular among secret societies, who made Nsibidi a secret form of communication. Igbo is a tonal language and there are hundreds of different Igbo dialects and Igboid languages such as the Ikwerre and Ekpeye languages. In 1939, Dr. Ida C. Ward led a research expedition on Igbo dialects that could possibly be used as a basis of a standard Igbo dialect, also known as Central Igbo. This dialect included that of the Owerri and Umuahia groups, including the Ohuhu dialect. Missionaries, writers and publishers gradually accepted the dialect. Performing arts The Igbo people have a musical style into which they incorporate various percussion instruments: the udu, which is essentially designed from a clay jug; an ekwe, which is formed from a hollowed log; and the ogene, a
Igbo Wooden Complex, currently in the British Museum. Figure 33.27 Igbo Wooden Complex

hand bell designed from forged iron. Other instruments include opi, a wind instrument similar to the flute, igba, and ichaka. Another popular musical form among the Igbo is Highlife. A widely popular musical genre in West Africa, Highlife is a fusion of jazz and traditional music. The modern Igbo Highlife is seen in the works of Dr. Sir Warrior, Oliver De Coque, Bright Chimezie, and Chief Osita Osadebe, who were among the most popular Igbo Highlife musicians of the 20th century. Masking is one of the most common art styles in Igboland and is linked strongly with Igbo traditional music. A mask can be made of wood or fabric, along with other materials, including iron and vegetation. Masks have a wide variety of uses, mainly in social satires, religious rituals, secret society initiations (such as the Ekpe society) and public festivals, which now include Christmas time celebrations. Best known are the Agbogho Mmuo (Igbo: Maiden spirit) masks of the Northern Igbo, which represent the spirits of deceased maidens and their mothers with masks, symbolizing beauty. Visual Art and Architecture It is almost impossible to describe a general Igbo art style because the Igbos are heavily fragmented. This has added to the development of a great variety of art styles and cultural practices. Igbo art is generally known for various types of masquerades, masks

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and outfits symbolizing people, animals or abstract conceptions (Figure 33.27). Bronze castings found in the town of Igbo Ukwu from the 9th century, constitute the earliest sculptures discovered in Igboland. Here, the grave of a well-established man of distinction and a ritual store, dating from the 9th
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/africa-in-themodern-period/the-1900s/igbo/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

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Section 4

Contemporary Art

Contemporary African Art

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Contemporary African Art

Africa is home to a great and thriving contemporary arts culture.
KEY POINTS

artists include El Anatsui, Marlene Dumas, William Kentridge, Karel Nel, Kendell Geers, Yinka Shonibare, Zerihun Yetmgeta, Odhiambo Siangla, Olu Oguibe, Lubaina Himid, Bili Bidjocka, and Henry Tayali. Art biennials are held in Dakar, Senegal, and Johannesburg, South Africa. Many contemporary African artists are represented in museum collections, and their art may sell for high prices at art auctions. Despite this, many contemporary African artists tend to have difficult times finding a market for their work. Many contemporary African arts borrow heavily from traditional predecessors. Ironically, this emphasis on abstraction is seen by Westerners as an imitation of European and American cubist and totemic artists, such as Pablo Picasso, Amedeo Modigliani, and Henri Matisse, who, in the early twentieth century, were heavily influenced by traditional African art. This period was critical to the evolution of Western modernism in visual arts, symbolized by Picasso's breakthrough painting "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" (Figure 33.28).
Figure 33.28 Wood sculpture attributed to Zimbabwean artist Gideon Chidongo, 4th quarter of 20th century. Wood carving has a long history in Zimbabwe.

Many contemporary African artists are represented in museum collections, and their art may sell for high prices at art auctions. Despite this, many contemporary African artists tend to have difficult times finding a market for their work. Many contemporary African arts borrow heavily from traditional predecessors. Ironically, this emphasis on abstraction is seen by Westerners as an imitation of European and American cubist and totemic artists. Contemporary African art was pioneered in the 1950s and 1960s in South Africa by artists like Irma Stern, Cyril Fradan, Walter Battiss, and through galleries like the Goodman Gallery in Johannesburg. A wide range of more-or-less traditional forms of art, or adaptations of traditional style to contemporary taste, are made for sale to tourists and others, including so-called "airport art".

Africa is home to a great and thriving contemporary arts culture. This has been sadly understudied until recently, due to scholars' and art collectors' emphasis on traditional art. Notable modern

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Contemporary African art was pioneered in the 1950s and 1960s in South Africa by artists like Irma Stern, Cyril Fradan, Walter Battiss, and through galleries like the Goodman Gallery in Johannesburg (Figure 33.29). More
Figure 33.29 Gilbert G. Groud, "Childsoldier in the Ivory Coast", 2007, mixed materials: tusche and wax crayon

haunt Contemporary African art. The appointment of Nigerian Okwui Enwezor as artistic director of Documenta 11, and his African-centered vision of art propelled the careers of countless African artists onto the international stage. A wide range of more-or-less traditional forms of art, or adaptations of traditional style to contemporary taste, are made for sale to tourists and others, including so-called "airport art." A number of vigorous popular traditions assimilate Western influences into African styles such as the elaborate fantasy coffins in shapes like airplanes, cars, or animals of West African cities, and the banners of clubs.
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recently European galleries like the October Gallery in London and collectors such as Jean Pigozzi, Artur Walther, and Gianni Baiocchi in Rome have helped expand the interest in the subject. Numerous exhibitions at the Museum for African Art in New York and the African Pavilion at the 2007 Venice Biennale, which showcased the Sindika Dokolo African Collection of Contemporary Art, have gone a long way to countering many of the myths and prejudices that

Groud is active against the military use of children in his homeland Ivory Coast and the world in general. He is working on the preparation of several exhibitions and writes a comic book about the topic to increase awareness on the topic. One of the pictures of the exhibition he has released on creative commons license in the hope that it will be also used in ghting the use of children in the war.

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Chapter 34

Europe and America in the 1700s and Early 1800s

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Section 1

Revolution

A Restructuring of Society: Industrial, Intellectual, and Political

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A Restructuring of Society: Industrial, Intellectual, and Political

Neoclassicism was a revival of the styles and spirit of classic antiquity that coincided with the developments of the Age of Enlightenment.
KEY POINTS

the light of science and reason on the world in order to question traditional ways of thinking. The scientific revolution (based on empirical observation and not on metaphysics or spirituality) gave the impression that the universe behaved according to universal and unchanging laws. This provided a model for looking rationally at human institutions as well as nature. The Enlightenment was a period of profound optimism, a sense that with science and reasonand the consequent shedding of old superstitionshuman beings and human society would improve.

European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c. 1760 in opposition to the decadence of Baroque and Rococo styles. The austerity and sobriety of Neoclassicism echoed the spirit of the French Revolution. The French painter Nicholas Poussin was a master of the Neoclassical style. Neoclassicism was especially strong in those areas where classical examples were most abundant, such as in architecture and sculpture. Painting, in contrast, had fewer classical antecedents to reference.

The Enlightenment encouraged criticism of the corruption of Louis XVI and the aristocracy in France, leading to the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789. In 1792, Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were beheaded along with thousands of other aristocrats believed to be loyal to the monarchy. During this period, Rococo art was condemned for being immoral and indecent, and a new kind of moral, instructive art was called for: Neoclassicism. In opposition to the frivolous sensuality of Rococo painters like Jean-Honor Fragonard and Franois Boucher, the Neoclassicists looked to the artist Nicolas Poussin for their inspiration (Figure 34.1). Poussin's work predominantly features clarity, logic, and order, plus it favors line over color. His work served as an alternative to the dominant Baroque style of the 17th century. Poussin was the major inspiration for such classically

Toward the middle of the 18th century, a shift in thinking occurred, known as the Enlightenment. The thinkers of the Enlightenment, including Rousseau, Diderot, and Voltaire, influenced by the scientific revolutions of the previous century, believed in shedding

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oriented artists as Jacques-Louis David, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, and Paul Czanne. Neoclassicism is characterized by clarity of form, sober colors, shallow space, and strong horizontals. Its verticals render the subject matter timeless, instead of temporal, as in the dynamic Baroque works, and depicts classical subject matteror classicizes contemporary subject matter. Neoclassicists believed that strong drawing was rational, and therefore morally superior, and that art should be cerebral, not sensual. The Neoclassicists wanted to express rationality and sobriety that was fitting for their times. Artists like David supported the rebels in the French Revolution through an art that asked for clear-headed thinking, self-sacrifice to the State (as in Oath of the Horatii), and an austerity reminiscent of Republican Rome (Figure 34.2).
Poussin came to dene Neoclassical artwork. Figure 34.1 Et in Arcadia Ergo, by Nicholas Poussin, c. 1630s

Neoclassicism was strongest in architecture, sculpture, and the decorative arts, where classical models in the same medium were relatively numerous and accessible. Rococo architecture emphasizes grace,
Figure 34.2 Oath of the Horatii, by Jacques-Louis David, 1784

ornamentation, and asymmetry; Neoclassical architecture is based on the principles of simplicity and symmetry, which were seen as virtues in the

This work brings together the thematic and formal ideals of Neoclassicism.

arts of Rome and Ancient

Greece, and were more immediately drawn from 16th century Renaissance Classicism.
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Section 2

Rococo

Salons Painting and Sculpture Church Decoration and Architecture

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Salons
Rococo salons are known for their elaborate detail, serpentine design work, asymmetry, predisposition to lighter, pastel, and gold-based color palettes.

In 18th century Europe, the Rococo style became prevalent in interior design, painting, sculpture, and the decorative arts. A reaction to the rigidity of Baroque style, the frivolous and playful Rococo first manifested itself with interior design and decorative
Figure 34.3 Bureau Danton de l'Htel de Bourvallais

work. In French, the word salon simply means living room or parlor'; therefore, Rococo salons are central rooms that are designed in the Rococo style. In addition, the notion of the salon is an Enlightenment-era ideal that transformed the

KEY POINTS

After the reign of Louis XIV, the wealthy and aristocratic moved back to Paris from Versailles and began decorating their homes in the new Rococo style that was associated with King Louis XV. The notion of the salon is an Enlightenment-era ideal that transformed the salon, or living room, into the central space for aristocracy to entertain guests and engage in intellectual conversation. Rococo interiors are highly unified in nature, and represent the coming together of a number of decorative arts. As with other Rococo art forms, the color palette is lighter, the lines are curvaceous ('S' curve), and the decoration is excessive. Furniture rose to new heights in the period and emphasized lighthearted frivolity. Furniture, friezes, sculpture, metalwork, wall, and ceiling decoration are woven together stylistically in the Rococo salon.

Example of a Rococo salon

salon, or living room, into

the central space for aristocracy to entertain guests and engage in intellectual conversation. The idea that ones architectural surroundings should encourage a way of life, or reflect ones values, was the philosophy of the time. The Rococo interior reached its height in the total art work of the salon. Rococo salons are characterized by their elaborate detail, intricate patterns, serpentine design work, and asymmetry, plus a predisposition to lighter, pastel, and gold-based color palettes (Figure 34.3).

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After the reign of Louis XIV, the wealthy and aristocratic moved back to Paris from Versailles and began decorating their homes in the new Rococo style that was associated with King Louis XV.
Figure 34.4 Salon de la Princesse

As another means of reflecting status, furniture rose to new heights in the period dominated by the Rococo salon. Rococo furniture emphasizes the lighthearted frivolity that was prized by the style. It is meant to be comfortable and versatile. During this time, furniture design became lighter, so to be easily moved around for gatherings, and many specialized pieces came to prominence, such as the fauteuil chair, the voyeuse chair, and the berger et gondola.' Furniture in the Rococo period was freestandingas opposed to wall-basedto accentuate the lighthearted and versatile atmosphere that was desired by the aristocracy. Mahogany became the most widely used medium due to its strength, and mirrors also became increasingly popular. Rococo salons often employed the use of asymmetry in design, which was termed contraste. Interior ornament included the use of sculptured forms on ceilings and walls, often somewhat abstract or employing leafy or shell-like textures. Two excellent examples of French Rococo are the Salon de Monsieur le Prince in the Petit Chteau at Chantilly, decorated by Jean Aubert; and the salons in the Hotel Soubise, Paris, by Germain Boffrand (Figure 34.4). Both of these salons exhibit typical Rococo style with walls, ceilings, and molding decorated with delicate interlacings of curves based on the fundamental shapes of the 'S,' as well as with shell forms and other natural shapes.

Rococo interior from the Hotel de Soubise, Paris.

Rococo interiors are highly unified in nature, and represent a coming together of a number of the decorative arts. Furniture, friezes, sculpture, metalwork, wall and ceiling decoration are woven together stylistically in the Rococo salon. As with other Rococo art forms, the color palette is lighter, the lines are curvaceous and the decoration is excessive.

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In France, the style began to decline by the 1750s. Criticized for its triviality and excess in ornament, Rococo style had already become more austere by the 1760s, as Neoclassicism began to replace the Rococo in France and the rest of Europe.
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Painting and Sculpture

Rococo style, employing more ornate elements, originated as a reaction against the strict rigidity of the Baroque style in the 18th century.
KEY POINTS

Rococo style developed first in the decorative arts and interior design, and its influence later spread to architecture, sculpture,!theater!design, painting, and music. Rococo style is characterized by elaborate ornamentation, asymmetrical values, pastel color palette, and curved or serpentine lines. Rococo art works often depict themes of love, classical myths, youth, and playfulness. Antoine Watteau is considered to be the first great Rococo painter who influenced later Rococo masters such as Boucher and Fragonard. In sculpture, the work of Etienne-Maurice Falconet is widely considered to be the best representative of Rococo style. Rococo sculpture makes use of very delicate porcelain instead of marble or another heavy medium.

The Rococo style originated in Paris, France during the mid-late 18th century. It was a playful, highly decorative style that manifested as a reaction against the strict rigidity of the Baroque.

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Rococo style developed first in the decorative arts and interior design, and its influence later spread to architecture, sculpture, theater design, painting, and music. The name Rococo comes from the French word rocaille, a popular form of ornamentation using shells and pebbles, as shells feature prominently in Rococo motifs. Though Rococo originated in the decorative arts, its influence is felt strongly in painting as well. Painting during the Rococo period has many of the same qualities as other Rococo art forms. The Rococo style is ornate and often employs a gold and pastel-based palette. Forms are often asymmetrical and the themes are playful, even witty, rather than political, as in the case of Baroque art. The reaction against the strict symmetrical values of early Baroque style manifests in the curvaceous, florid, and graceful motifs evident in Rococo painting and in furniture design, sculpture, and architecture. The use of a light color palette, curved line, and themes relating to myths of love
Watteau's signature"soft application of paint, dreamy atmosphere and depiction of classical themes that often revolve around youth and love is evident in 'Pilgrimage to Cythera.' Figure 34.5 'Pilgrimage to Cythera' by Antoine Watteau

typify Rococo painting. Portraits and idyllic landscapes also became quite popular. Antoine Watteau is considered to be the first great Rococo painter. His influence is visible in the work of later Rococo painters such as Francois Boucher and Honore Fragonard. Watteau is known for his soft application of paint, dreamy atmosphere, and depiction of classical themes that often revolve around youth and love, exemplified in the painting Pilgrimage on the Isle of Scythia' (Figure 34.5). Francois Boucher became a master of Rococo painting somewhat later than Watteau. His work exemplifies many of the same characteristics, though with a slightly more mischievous and suggestive tone. Boucher had an illustrious career, and became court painter to King Louis XV in 1765. There was controversy later in his career as Boucher underwent some moral criticism from people such as Diderot for the themes present in his work. 'The Blonde Odalisque' was particularly controversial, as it supposedly illustrated the extra marital affairs of the King (Figure 34.6).
'Blond Odalisque' was a highly controversial work by Francois Boucher. Figure 34.6 'Blond Odalisque' by Francois Boucher

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In sculpture, the work of Etienne-Maurice Falconet is widely considered to be the best representative of Rococo style. Generally, Rococo sculpture makes use of very delicate porcelain instead of marble or another heavy medium. Falconet was the director of

Figure 34.7 'Pygmalion and Galatee' by Etienne-Maurice Falconet 'Pygmalion and Galatee' is indicative of Etienne Maurica Falconet's Rococo style.

Church Decoration and Architecture

18th century Rococo architecture was a lighter, more graceful and decorative version of Baroque architecture.
KEY POINTS

a famous porcelain factory at Sevres. The prevalent themes in Rococo sculpture echoed those of the other mediums, with the display of classical themes, cherubs, love, playfulness, and nature being depicted most often as exemplified in the sculpture Pygmalion and Galatee (Figure 34.7).
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In architecture, Rococo is often referred to as Late Baroque, as it came into existence during the final period of the Baroque style, and there is often some overlap between the two styles during this time. Rococo style emphasizes asymmetry, extreme ornamentation, light colors, frivolity, and numerous curves. Among the best examples of Rococo architecture are the Benedictine Ottobeuren Abbey, the Weltenberg Monastery, and Asam Church in Munich. The greatest examples of Rococo church decoration are seen in the churches of southern Germany, Bohemia and Austria. Rococo church interiors are flamboyantly decorated, with bright painting on the walls and ceiling and a great deal of ornamental sculpture.

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Introduction Rococo architecture, popular during the 18th century in Europe, was a lighter, more graceful and decorative version of Baroque architecture. The styles are, however, quite similar and can be difficult to tell apart. In architecture, Rococo is often referred to as Late Baroque. It came into existence during the final period of the Baroque style, and there is often some overlap between the two styles during this time. Differing use of symmetry is a notable distinction between Rococo and Baroque; the Rococo style emphasized asymmetry, while Baroque emphasized perfectly balanced and symmetrical forms. Rococo style can also be recognized by its many curves and elaborate decoration, as well as the use of lighter colors than we see in the Baroque style. Thematically, Baroque architecture was based in religion, and therefore more serious than Rococo, which was concerned with notions of frivolity and jocular themes. Italian architects of the early 18th century were brought to Catholic Germany, Bohemia, and Austria by local princes and bishops. Their work represents the height of Rococo church interiors, characterized by a prevalence of cherubs and the interaction of painting, sculpture, and the elaborate and delicate detailing on the walls and ceiling. There are numerous examples of Rococo architecture throughout Europe. Prominent buildings include the Queluz National Palace in

Portugal and the Charlottenburg Palace in Germany. The Charlottenburg Palace is the largest palace in Berlin, Germany, and was built and decorated using both the Rococo and Baroque styles. The Sanssouci Palace, which was built as the summer palace for Frederick the Great, was also created in the Rococo style. Its very name, "sans souci," means "without worries" or "carefree," which indicates the core values of the Rococo ideology. Another indication that the palace is Rococo in style is its relatively intimate size and highly ornate decoration (Figure 34.8).
Figure 34.8 Sans Souci Palace

Exterior of the Sans Souci Palace.

Religions Decoration The greatest examples of Rococo church decoration are seen in southern Germany. There has been some controversy regarding the frivolity and excess of the Rococo style as being inappropriate for the sacredness of a church. Rococo style was generally thought to be inappropriate for the outside of a church, but it was considered

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acceptable at times for the church interior, though that style choice is seen most often in Southern Germany. Rococo church interiors often feature multiple vaults and structures within structures, abstract shell designs, natural motifs, frescoes, and stucco-work. Among the best examples are the Benedictine Ottobeuren Abbey, the Weltenberg Monastery, and the Asam Church in Munich (Figure 34.9). The interiors of these churches are flamboyantly decorated with bright painting

Figure 34.9 Asam Church in Munich, Germany

The"interior of the Asam Church is amboyantly decorated with bright painting on the walls and ceiling, and there is an excess of ornamental sculpture.

on the walls and ceiling, and there is an excess of ornamental sculpture.

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Section 3

Neoclassicism in Italy

The Grand Tour and its Portraits Rome

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The Grand Tour and its Portraits

The Grand Tour was a customary trip to Europe undertaken by wealthy Europeans and some Americans.
KEY POINTS

The Grand Tour was a customary trip to Europe undertaken by wealthy Europeans and some Americans that flourished as a tradition from about 1660 to 1840. The trip was viewed as an educational rite of passage typically for young men, but sometimes women as well. It was intended for culturally broadening purposes and associated with a fairly standard itinerary. The Grand Tour tradition was extended to include the middle class when railroad and ship travel became more widespread in the second half of the 18th century. The travel itinerary typically began in Dover, England and crossed the English Channel to Ostend or to Calais in France. From here the tourist and bear-leader, or tutor, and possibly a troupe of servants, could rent a coach and travel to Paris. From Paris they would travel to Switzerland, then Spain, and Northern Italy. Once in Italy, the tourist would visit Turin, and might spend a few months in Florence and Venice, which was the epitome of the Grand Tour for most British tourists. From Venice they would go to Rome to study the ruins and masterpieces and possibly to the archaeological sites at Pompeii. Next was the German section of Europe, such as Vienna, Dresden, Berlin, and Potsdam, and finally to Holland and Flanders before making the trip home. The journey generally involved the study of art at museums and universities, private collections, and notable architectural sites.

The trip was viewed as an educational rite of passage typically for young men, but sometimes women as well. The Grand Tour tradition was extended to include the middle class when railroad and ship travel became more widespread in the second half of the 18th century. The Grand Tour generally involved the study of art at museums and universities, private collections, and notable architectural sites. Souvenirs and mementos became an important element as they could demonstrate the specifics of which location was visited and what was seen or acquired. The artist Pompeo Batoni made a career of painting portraits of English tourists posed among Roman antiquities and became very popular in Rome. Batoni's paintings made it into numerous private collections in Britain, thus ensuring the genres popularity in the United Kingdom.

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The pilgrimage was popularized further by the advent of tour guides, such as Thomas Cook, which became synonymous with the Grand Tour. Grand Tourists were known to travel with an entourage that included valets, coachmen, scholarly guide and
Figure 34.10 A portrait by Pompeo Batoni

English tourists posed among Roman antiquities. He became very popular in Rome and his portraits of the British traveling through the city were in very high demand. There are records of over 200 portraits of visiting British patrons standing amidst ruins and great works of art by Batoni. These paintings made it into numerous private collections in Britain, thus ensuring the genres popularity in the United Kingdom.
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possibly a cook. Souvenirs and mementos became an important element as they could demonstrate the specifics of which location was visited and what was seen or acquired. Their popularity created an industry of sorts, and prices rose with the growth of the trend. Some Grand Tourists invited artists from home to accompany them throughout their travels, painting views specific to their

A popular souvenir of the Grand Tour was a portrait of the tourist themselves, often painted amidst the architecture, or famous art works of a particular European location.

personal itineraries. A popular souvenir of the Grand Tour was a portrait of

the tourist themselves, often painted amidst the architecture, or famous art works of a particular European location (Figure 34.10). The artist, Pompeo Batoni, made a career of painting portraits of

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Rome
Romes connections to classical antiquity made it an important site for the Neoclassical movement during the 18th century.

particular interest to the increasingly widespread Neoclassical movement. Neoclassical Rome was also a time of political change. The French Revolution of 1789-99 had a major impact on France as well as the rest of Europe. The Roman Republic was proclaimed on February 15, 1798, after a general of Napoleon had invaded the city. The Roman Republic was short lived, lasting only until October 1799. Despite the political upheaval, 18th-century Rome remained a desirable destination. It became an absolute necessity for people of means to spend time in Rome as part of their "Grand Tour," or educational pilgrimage. The city became a nexus for these tourists as well as the merchants and industries that resulted from their patronage. Artists including Pompeo Batoni and Giovanni Piranesi essentially based their entire careers upon catering to tourists.The increasing popularity of the Grand Tour, and the related desire for visitors to collect "classical" souvenirs, quickly spread the Neoclassical style throughout Europe. It became a symbol of wealth and freedom to go on the Grand Tour and to have something to show for it displayed in your home. In addition to the upper class, it was not uncommon for young

KEY POINTS

The French Revolution of 1789-99 had a major impact on France as well as the rest of Europe. The Roman Republic was proclaimed on February 15, 1798, after a general of Napoleon invaded the city. Rome became a nexus for "grand tourists" as well as the various merchants and industries that resulted from their patronage. The preeminent painters of the Neoclassical movement, Jaques-Louis David and Jean Ausguste Dominique Ingres, both spent extended time in Rome. The French Academy in Rome was the ultimate place of study for select French artists, including David and Ingres. Napoleon moved the Academy to the Villa Medici in 1803 to preserve it from being threatened by the French Revolution.

Throughout history, Rome has been an important location for artistic production and development. In the 18th century, the citys longstanding connections to classical antiquity made it a site of

artists to head to Rome to study the great masters. The preeminent painters of the Neoclassical movement, Jaques-Louis David and Jean Ausguste Dominique Ingres, both spent extended time in

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Rome. Their work nearly always featured an ancient Roman ruin, frieze or object situated prominently in the image (Figure 34.11). The French Academy in Rome, founded in 1666, was the ultimate place of study for select French artists. Winners of the Prix de Rome (Rome Prize) were awarded a three-, four- or five-year scholarship to study at the prestigious institution. Both David and Ingres won the award. Artists studying the classics in Rome would send back to Paris their envois de Rome;" the results of the inspiration and technique they had acquired in the city. Napoleon
Figure 34.11 "The Coronation of Emperor Napoleon" by Jaques-Louis David

moved the Academy to the Villa Medici in 1803 with intention of preserving it from being threatened by the French Revolution.
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The preeminent painters of the Neoclassical movement, Jaques-Louis David and Jean Ausguste Dominique Ingres, both spent extended time in Rome. Their works nearly always featured an ancient Roman ruin, frieze or object situated prominently in the image.

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Section 4

Neoclassicism in Britain

The Classical Revival The Gothic Revival Artistic Conventions in Painting

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The Classical Revival

Neoclassicism refers to movements in the arts that draw inspiration from the classical art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome.
KEY POINTS

The height of Neoclassicism coincided with the 18th century Enlightenment era, and continued into the early 19th century. With the increasing popularity of the Grand Tour, it became fashionable to collect antiquities as souvenirs. This tradition of collecting laid the foundations for many great art collections and spread the classical revival throughout Europe and America. Neoclassicism spanned all of the arts including painting, sculpture, the decorative arts, theatre, literature, music and architecture. Generally speaking, Neoclassicism is defined stylistically by its use of straight lines, minimal use of color, simplicity of form and, of course, an adherence to classical values and techniques. The dominant styles during the 18th century were Baroque and Rococo. The latter, with its emphasis on asymmetry, bright colors, and ornamentation is typically considered to be
This piece of art is a typical example of neoclassical sculpture. Figure 34.12 Rinaldo Rinaldi, Chirone Insegna Ad Achille a Suonare La Cetra

The height of Neoclassicism coincided with the 18th century Enlightenment era, and continued into the early 19th century. With the increasing popularity of the Grand Tour, it became fashionable to collect antiquities as souvenirs, which spread the Neoclassical style through Europe and America. Neoclassicism spanned all of the arts including painting, sculpture, the decorative arts, theatre, literature, music and architecture. Generally speaking, Neoclassicism is defined stylistically by its use of straight lines, minimal use of color, simplicity of form and, of course, an adherence to classical values and techniques. Rococo, with its emphasis on asymmetry, bright colors, and ornamentation is typically considered to be the direct opposite of the Neoclassical style.

The classical revival is also known as Neoclassicism, which refers to movements in the arts that draw inspiration from the classical art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome.

the direct opposite of the Neoclassical style, which is based on order, symmetry and simplicity.

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In music, the period saw the rise of classical music and in painting, the works of Jaques-Louis David became synonymous with the classical revival. However, Neoclassicism was felt most strongly in architecture, sculpture and the decorative arts, where classical models in the same medium were fairly numerous and accessible. Sculpture in particular, had a great wealth of ancient models from which to learn, however, most were Roman copies of Greek originals (Figure 34.12). Neoclassical architecture was modeled after the classical style and in many ways it was a reaction against the exuberant Rococo style. The architecture of the Italian architect Andrea Palladio became very popular in the mid 18th century. Archaeological ruins found in Pompeii and Herculaneum informed many of the stylistic values of Neoclassical interior design based on the ancient Roman rediscoveries.
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The Gothic Revival

The Gothic Revival was an architectural movement that began in England during the 1740s.
KEY POINTS

Also termed Victorian Gothic and Neo-Gothic, the Gothic Revival sought to revive medieval forms, much like the Neoclassical style sought to revive works from classical antiquity. The Gothic Revival occurred as industrialization progressed, in part because there was a reaction against the use of machinery and factory production. The Gothic Revival style is characterized by its stone and brick structures, many of which are religious in nature, as well as having heavy decoration, pointed arches, steep gables, and large windows. Gothic revival cottages and smaller buildings, called "Carpenter Gothic," also became popular. A. W. N. Pugin was a prominent architect, designer, artist, and critic who was involved in the Gothic Revival style.

The Gothic Revival was a primarily architectural movement that began in 1740s England. Also termed Victorian Gothic and NeoGothic, the style sought to revive medieval forms, much like the Neoclassical style sought to revive works from classical antiquity.

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Gothic architecture of the medieval period began in 1140 and ended in the 16th century. Ruined castles began to receive newfound appreciation during the 18th century, after having been relatively dismissed in the overall history of architecture. Some critics believe there was a kind of nostalgia for an enchanted, less rational world that was linked to the perceived superstitions of medieval Catholicism. The Gothic Revival was
A. W. N. Pugin designed the Palace of Westminster, and was an architect, designer, artist, and critic deeply involved in the Gothic Revival. Figure 34.13 Palace of Westminster

Supporters of medievalism criticized industrial society, believing the pre-industrial model to be a golden age. The Gothic Revival style is characterized by its stone and brick structures, many of which are religious in nature, as well as heavy decoration. The most fundamental element of the Gothic style of architecture is the pointed arch. Columns that support arches are smaller in Gothic buildings, and continue all the way to the roof, where they become part of the vault. In the vault, the pointed arch can be seen in three dimensions where the ribbed vaulting meets in the center of the ceiling of each bay. This ribbed vaulting is another distinguishing feature of Gothic architecture. The slender columns and lighter systems of thrust allowed for larger windows and more light in Gothic structures. The windows, tracery, carvings, and ribs make up a bewildering display of decoration where almost every surface is decorated with a profusion of shapes and patterns. Gothic revival cottages and smaller buildings also became popular and are referred to as Carpenter Gothic. These structures are defined by their use of Gothic elements such as pointed arches and steep gables. A. W. N. Pugin was a prominent architect, designer, artist, and critic who was deeply involved in the Gothic Revival. The height of his work is seen in the interior design of the Palace of Westminster (Figure 34.13). Pugin designed many churches in England during

based in England and associated with a re-awakening of Catholicism that was concerned with the growth of religious nonconformism that had been present during the Enlightenment. While the Neoclassical style of the 18th century was associated with radical and liberal perspectives, the Gothic Revival was associated with traditional sensibilities, such as conservatism and the monarchy. As industrialization progressed, there was an increasing reaction against the use of machinery and factory production.

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his career and published a series of volumes of architectural drawings entitled Examples of Gothic Architecture and Specimens of Gothic Architecture that remained in print and were the standards for the Gothic Revival for the next century.
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Artistic Conventions in Painting

Neoclassicism was a movement in the arts that drew inspiration from the classical art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome.
KEY POINTS

The height of Neoclassicism coincided with the 18th century Enlightenment era, and continued into the early 19th century. Neoclasical painting is characterized by the use of straight lines, a smooth paint surface, the depiction of light, a minimal use of color, and the clear, crisp definition of forms. The works of Jaques-Louis David are widely considered to be the epitome of Neoclassical painting. Jean Auguste Dominique ingress, a Neoclassical painter of history and portraiture, was one of David's students. "Oath of the Horatii" defined David as the quintessential painter of the Neoclassical movement.

Looking to the Greeks and Romans Neoclassicism is the term for movements in the arts that draw inspiration from the classical art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome. The height of Neoclassicism coincided with the 18th

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century Enlightenment era and continued into the early 19th century. With the advent of the Grand Toura much enjoyed trip around Europe intended to introduce young men to the extended culture and people of their worldit became fashionable to collect antiquities as souvenirs. This tradition laid the foundations of many great collections

Figure 34.14 "Oath of the Horatii" by JaquesLouis David

Jaques-Louis David are widely considered to be the epitome of Neoclassical painting; many painters combined aspects of Romanticism with a vaguely Neoclassical style before David's success, but these works did not strike any chords with audiences. Typically, the subject matter of Neoclassical painting consisted of the depiction of events from history, mythological scenes, and the architecture and ruins of ancient Rome. David and Ingress, Key Painters of the Movement Neoclassical painting gained new momentum with the great success of Jaques-Louis Davids Oath of the Haratii at the Paris Salon of 1785 (Figure 34.14). The painting had been commissioned by the

Neoclassical painting gained new momentum with the great success of Jaques-Louis Davids Oath of the Haratii at the Paris Salon of 1785.

royal government and was created in a style that was the perfect combination of idealized structure and dramatic affect. The painting created an uproar, and David was proclaimed to have perfectly defined the Neoclassical taste in his painting style, He thereby became the quintessential painter of the movement. In Oath of the Haratii, the perspective is perpendicular to the picture plane. It is defined by a dark arcade behind several classical heroic figures. There is an element of theatre, or staging, that evokes the grandeur of opera. David soon became the leading French painter and enjoyed a great deal of government patronage Jean Auguste Dominique ingress, a Neoclassical painter of history and portraiture, was one of David's students. Deeply devoted to

and ensured the spread of the Neoclassical revival throughout Europe and America. Characteristics of the Style Neoclasical painting is characterized by the use of straight lines, a smooth paint surface hiding brush work, the depiction of light, a minimal use of color, and the clear, crisp definition of forms. The softness of paint application that was typical of Rococo painting is recognized as the opposite of the Neoclassical style. The works of

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classical techniques, Ingres is known to have believed himself to be a conservator of the style of the ancient masters, as opposed to an innovator of any sort. Examples of his work include the paintings Virgil reading to Augustus, and Oedipus and the Sphinx." Both David and Ingres make use of the highly organized imagery, straight lines and clearly defined forms that are typical of Neoclassical painting during the 18th century.
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Section 5

France in the Late 1700s

Architecture Painting and Sculpture

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Architecture
In its purest form, neoclassicism is a style principally derived from the architecture of Classical Greece and Rome.
KEY POINTS

architectural formulas as an outgrowth of some classicizing features of Late Baroque. In its purest form, neoclassicism is a style principally derived from the architecture of Classical Greece and Rome. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro, and maintains separate identities to each of its parts.
Figure 34.15 Chateau of the Petit Trianon Chteau of the Petit Trianon in the park at Versailles, designed by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, demonstrating the neoclassical architectural style under Louis XVI.

Neoclassical architecture was produced by the neoclassical movement in the mid-eighteenth century. It manifested in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulas as an outgrowth of the classicizing features of Late Baroque. The first phase of neoclassicism in France is expressed in the "Louis XVI style" of architects like Ange-Jacques Gabriel (Petit Trianon, 176268) while the second phase is expressed in the late eighteenth-century Directoire style. Neoclassical architecture emphasizes its planar qualities, rather than sculptural volumes. Projections and recessions and their effects of light and shade are more flat, while sculptural bas-reliefs are flatter and tend to be enframed in friezes, tablets or panels.

The first phase of neoclassicism in France is expressed in the "Louis XVI style" of architects like Ange-Jacques Gabriel (Petit Trianon, 176268). Ange-Jacques Gabriel was the Premier Architecte at Versailles, and his neoclassical designs for the royal palace dominated mid eighteenth-century French architecture (Figure 34. 15). After the French Revolution, the second phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the late eighteenth-century Directoire style. The

Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style that was produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-eighteenth century. This movement manifested in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its

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Directoire style reflected the Revolutionary belief in the values of republican Rome: "The stoic virtues of Republican Rome were upheld as standards not merely for the arts but also for political behaviour and private morality... In fact Neo-classicism became fashionable." The Directoire style was a period in the decorative arts, fashion, and especially furniture design, concurrent with the post-Revolution French Directory (November 2, 1795 - November 10, 1799). The style uses Neoclassical architectural forms, minimal carving, planar expanses of highly grained veneers, and applied decorative painting.
The Arc de Triomphe, although nished in the early nineteenth century, is emblematic of French neoclassical architecture that dominated the Directory period. Figure 34.16 Arc de Triomphe of Place de l'toile

The Directoire style was primarily established by the architects and designers Charles Percier (17641838) and Pier Franois Lonard Fontaine (17621853), who collaborated on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, which is considered emblematic of French neoclassical architecture (Figure 34.16). Though neoclassical architecture employs the same classical vocabulary as Late Baroque architecture, it tends to emphasize its planar qualities rather than its sculptural volumes. Projections, recessions and their effects on light and shade are more flat. Sculptural bas-reliefs are flatter and tend to be framed in friezes, tablets or panels. Its clearly articulated individual features are isolated rather than interpenetrating, autonomous, and complete in themselves. Intellectually, Neoclassicism was symptomatic of a desire to return to the perceived "purity" of the arts of Rome. The movement was also inspired by a more vague perception ("ideal") of Ancient Greek arts and, to a lesser extent, sixteenth-century Renaissance Classicism, which was also a source for academic Late Baroque architecture. There is an anti-Rococo strain that can be detected in some European architecture of the earlier eighteenth century. This strain is most vividly represented in the Palladian architecture of Georgian Britain and Ireland. It is also recognizable in the classicizing vein of Late Baroque architecture in Paris. It is a robust

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architecture of self-restraint, academically selective now of "the best" Roman models. These models were increasingly available for close study through the medium of architectural engravings of measured drawings of surviving Roman architecture. French Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in academic art through the nineteenth century and beyond a constant antithesis to Romanticism or Gothic revivals.
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Painting and Sculpture

Eighteenth-century French painting and sculpture was dominated by the Rococo and Neoclassical styles of art.

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Rococo artists opted for a more jocular, florid and graceful approach to Baroque art and architecture. Rococo was ornate and made strong usage of creamy, pastel-like colors, asymmetrical designs, curves, and gold. Unlike the more politically focused Baroque, the Rococo had more playful and often witty artistic themes. For example, Rococo painters used delicate colors and curving forms, playfully decorating their canvases with cherubs and myths of love. The middle of the eighteenth century saw a turn to Neoclassicism in France, that is to say a conscious use of Greek and Roman forms and iconography as opposed to the light pastels of the Rococo style.

Eighteenth-century French art was dominated by the Rococo and Neoclassical art. In France, the death of Louis XIV led to a period of licentious freedom commonly called the Rgence, when painting

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turned toward "ftes galantes," theater settings, and the female nude.
Figure 34.17 Pilgrimage on the Isle of Cythera Antoine Watteau, Pilgrimage on the Isle of Cythera (1717, Louvre) captures the frivolity and sensuousness of Rococo painting.

forms, playfully decorating their canvases with cherubs and myths of love. Portraiture was also popular among Rococo painters. Some works show a sort of naughtiness or impurity in the behavior of their subjects, showing the historical trend of departing away from the Baroque's church and state orientation. Landscapes were pastoral and often depicted the leisurely outings of aristocratic couples. (Figure 34.17) Other Rococo portraiture included members of the French royal family in Versailles settings. (Figure 34.18)
Figure 34.18 Marie Antoinette

Rococo, also referred to as Late Baroque, is an eighteenth-century artistic movement and style, which developed in Paris as a reaction against the grandeur, symmetry and strict regulations of the Baroque, especially that of the Palace of Versailles. In such a way, Rococo artists opted for a more jocular, florid and graceful approach to Baroque art and architecture. Rococo was ornate and made strong usage of creamy, pastel-like colors, asymmetrical designs, curves, and gold. Unlike the more politically focused Baroque, the Rococo had more playful and often witty artistic themes. Though Rococo originated in the decorative arts, the style showed clearly in painting. Rococo painters used delicate colors and curving

Sculpture was another area where the Rococo was widely adopted. In general, this style was best expressed through delicate porcelain sculpture rather than imposing marble statues. As in painting, the themes of love and gaiety (often symbolized with cherubs) were reflected in (Figure 34.19)
lisabeth Vige-Lebrun, Marie Antoinette la Rose, 1783.

sculpture, as were elements of nature, curving lines and asymmetry.

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The middle of the eighteenth century saw a turn to Neoclassicism in France, that is to say a conscious use of Greek and Roman forms and iconography as opposed to the light pastels of the Rococo style. In painting, the greatest representative of this style is Jacques Louis David who, mirroring the profiles of Greek vases, emphasized the use of the profile; his subject matter often involved classical history. The French neoclassical style would greatly contribute to the monumentalism of the French Revolution, as typified in the structures La Madeleine Church, which is in the form of a Greek temple, and the mammoth Panthon (1764-1812) modeled on the ancient Roman Pantheon. The rationalism and simplicity of classical architecture was seen by contemporaries in the Age of Enlightenment as the antithesis of the backward-looking Gothic aesthetic style. During the French
Cupid fashioning his bow from Hercules' club, by Edm Bouchardon, 174750: Rococo in subject and treatment Figure 34.19 Rococo Cupid

Revolution, the Greek and Roman subject matters were also often chosen to promote the values of republicanism over the frivolous Rococo art of the nobility. Hence, there are many paintings that glorify the heroes and martyrs of the French Revolution, such as David's iconic painting of the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat, that are inspired by classical aesthetic forms.
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Section 6

Spanish Art

Goya Spanish Art in the Americas

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Goya
Francisco Goya (1746-1828) was a prominent Spanish painter and printmaker from the Romantic period.
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Crown; to political, evocative paintings that date from later in his life, Goya's work is renowned for its expressive line, color and brushwork as well as its distinct subversive commentary. Goyas paintings and drawings were highly influential to painters of later generations. Early Years Born in Fuendetodos, Spain, Goya started working as an apprentice under painter Jose Luzan at the age of fourteen. He later moved to Madrid where he studied with another painter, Anton Raphael Mengs, who was popular with Spanish royalty. In 1763 and 1766, Goya tried unsuccessfully to get into the Royal Academy of Fine Art. He relocated to Rome and eventually got a position as the painter of tapestry designs for the Royal Tapestry Factory. He worked as tapestry designer for five years. Many of his designs were used to decorate the walls of the newly built residences of the Spanish monarchs, a fact which brought his talents to the attention of Spanish monarchy.

Goya's work is renowned for its expressive line, color and brushwork as well as its distinct subversive commentary. In 1789, Goya was made court painter to Charles IV, during which time he painted numerous portraits for Spanish royalty and nobility. Goya completed some of his most well-known paintings in reference to the Peninsular War. '"The Nude Maha" was the first so-called pornographic painting. Goya created his "Black Paintings," intense works with themes of fear and madness, after he became deaf and moved to the country later in life.

Francisco Goya Francisco Goya (1746-1828) was a prominent Spanish painter and printmaker from the Romantic period known for the breadth of subject matter and influential nature of his work. From royal portraits completed while he was court painter to the Spanish

A Rising Star During the 1780s, Goya began to procure numerous patrons. He was commissioned to paint portraits of the Count of Floridablanca, the Duke and Duchess of Osuna and Crown Prince Don Luis. In 1786, Goya was given a salaried position as painter to Charles III,

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but it was not until the reign of Charles IV that Goya would reach his peak popularity. In 1789, Goya was made court painter to Charles IV. During this time, he painted numerous portraits for Spanish royalty and nobility which have been noted for their
Figure 34.20 Charles IV of Spain and His Family

Goya's Later Years Around 1793, Goya suffered from an illness that caused him to become profoundly deaf, a fact which was to influence both his nature and career. After his illness, he began to work on a series of
Figure 34.21 The Third of May, 1808

tendency not to flatter their subjects. Art historians have pointed to the fact that the faces of royalty depicted by Goya are often very plain or flawed in appearance. "Charles IV of Spain and His Family" has been interpreted by art historians as a satire. The work is thought to reveal Goyas sentiments about the corruption of the family through its iconography (Figure 34.20). In this painting, Goya himself is visible in the back left

experimental paintings, drawings and etchings which were later published in a collection titled "Caprichos." The themes present in Goyas later experimental work were decidedly dark, violent and political. He continued his work for royalty while also working on this personal collection of politically charged and haunting painting and print work.

Goya's painting is thought to reveal his sentiments about the family.

corner of the painting, staring out at the viewer. The

'The Third of May, 1808' is an example of Goya's paintings from the Peninsular War.

In 1808, the French invaded Spain, leading to the Peninsular War from 1808-1814. Goya was

affected deeply by the war, and completed some of his most wellknown paintings in reference to it. These works included "The Charge of the Mamelukes," "The Disasters of War" and "The Third of May 1808" (Figure 34.21). The paintings entitled "The Nude Maha" and "The Clothed Maha" respectively depict a nude woman

atmosphere is cold, and the family appears as if on a stage, seemingly on display for judgment. The placing of the kings wife in the center of the image is thought to indicate her true power.

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reclining and the same woman clothed. They are important works as they represent the first so-called pornographic paintings. Before "The Nude Maha," no painting had ever depicted a womans pubic hair. In 1819, Goya moved to the country and became increasingly reclusive. He lived just outside of Madrid in a house called Quinta del Sordo (House of the Deaf Man). It was here that he created his "Black Paintings", a number of intense works with themes of fear and madness. Several of these were painted directly on his walls, including "Saturn Devouring His Son" (Figure 34.22). The themes expressed in Goyas "Black Paintings" perhaps reflect his own personal inner turmoil of his later life.
'Saturn Devouring His Son' is one work amongst Goya's 'Black Paintings.' Figure 34.22 Saturn Devouring His Son

Spanish Art in the Americas

Art in the Americas during the 18th century is characterized by a synthesis of European and Indigenous styles.

KEY POINTS

During the 1700s and early 1800s, the Spanish Baroque aesthetic was transplanted to central and South America and became especially influential, developing its own variations in different regions. The Cuzco School was a Roman Catholic art movement that began in Cuzco, Peru started by the Spanish to train local artists in the European tradition for the purpose of proselytizing, the style soon spread through Latin America. Cuzco is considered to be the first location where there was an effort to systematically teach European artistic techniques such as oil painting and perspective to Indigenous people in the Americas. The Quito School (Escuela Quitena) developed in the territory of the Royal Audience of Quito during the colonial period. The Chilote School of religious imagery is another artistic manifestation developed in the Americas during the colonial period by Jesuit missionaries.

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purpose of proselytizing, the style soon spread through Latin

KEY POINTS (cont.)

America to places as distant as the Andes, as well as to the places we now know as Bolivia and Ecuador. Cuzco is considered to be the first location where the Spanish systematically taught European artistic techniques such as oil painting and perspective
Figure 34.23 Example of Cuzco painting

In the 18th century, schools of painting in the Americas can be recognized by their Catholic imagery, Spanish Baroque style and inclusion of local flora, fauna and landscape.

Blended Styles Artistic production in the Americas during the 1700s and early 1800s reflects the influence of Spanish colonization on Indigenous cultures that was in effect at the time. Following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, art in the Americas became a complex interaction and synthesis of the traditions of Europe and those of native populations. The majority of artistic efforts after the initial conquest were directed at evangelism; a number of schools of painting emerged which exemplify this. Indigenous artists were taught European techniques but retained styles that were representative of their local sensibilities. During the 1700s and early 1800s, the Spanish Baroque aesthetic was transplanted to central and South America and became especially influential, developing its own variations in different regions. The Cuzco School was a Roman Catholic art movement that began in Cuzco, Peru during the early colonial period. Initially developed by the Spanish to train local artists in the European tradition for the

to Indigenous people in the Americas. Bishop Manuel de Lollinedo y Angulo, a collector of European art was a major patron of the Cuzco School. He acted as a patron to such prominent Cuzco artists as Basilio Santa Cruz Puma Callao, Antonio Sinchi Roca Inka, and Marcos Rivera. Cuzco painting is characterized by exclusively religious subject matter, warped perspective, frequent use of the colors red, yellow and earth tones, as well as an abundance of gold leaf (Figure 34.23). Artists often adapted the subject matter of paintings to include native flora and fauna. Most of the paintings were
Cuzco painting is characterized by exclusively religious subject matter, warped perspective, frequent use of the colors red, yellow and earth tones, as well as an abundance of gold leaf.

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completed anonymously, a result of Pre-Columbian traditions that viewed art as a communal undertaking. The Quito School (Escuela Quitena) developed in the territory of the Royal Audience of Quito during the colonial period. The artistic production of this period was an important means of income for the area at the time. The Quito school was founded in 1552 by the Franciscan priest Jodoco Ricke, who transformed a seminary into an art school to train the first artists. The work of this period represents a long process of mixed-heritage blending of indigenous people and Europeans, culturally and genetically. Quito School art works are known for their combination of European and Indigenous stylistic features, including Baroque, Flemish, Rococo, and Neoclassical elements. The technique of "encarnado," or the simulation of the color of human flesh, was used on sculptures to make them appear more realistic (Figure 34.24). Another unique characteristic of the style was the application of "aguada," or watercolor paint, on top of gold leaf or silver paint, giving it a unique metallic sheen. The racial blending of the time is reflected aesthetically in Quito school art works in figures with mixed European and Indigenous traits, both in features and clothing. Artists included local plants and animals instead of traditional European foliage, and scenes were located in the Andean countryside and cities.

The Chilote School of religious imagery is another artistic manifestation developed during the colonial period by Jesuit missionaries with the purpose of evangelizing. The works of this style or movement reflect the aesthetics of interbreeding and blending typical of other schools in the Americas. Examples of this again include the combination of European, Latin American, and Indigenous features, local flora and fauna and landscape.
Figure 34.24 Example of 'Encarnado' Sculpture The technique of "encarnado," or the simulation of the color of human esh, was used on sculptures to make them appear more realistic.

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Section 7

Neoclassicism and Romanticism

Foundations of Romanticism France and Spain Landscape Painting Gothic Architecture and Sculpture Painting

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Foundations of Romanticism
Romanticism, fueled by the French Revolution, was a reaction to the scientic rationalism and classicism of the Age of Enlightenment.

The Influence of the French Revolution Though influenced by other artistic and intellectual movements, the ideologies and events of the French Revolution created the primary context from which both Romanticism and the CounterEnlightenment emerged. Upholding the ideals of the Revolution, Romanticism was a revolt against the aristocratic social and

KEY POINTS

political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and also a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature. Romanticism elevated the achievements of what it perceived as heroic individualists and artists, whose pioneering examples would elevate society. It also legitimized the individual imagination as a critical authority, which permitted freedom from classical notions of form in art. The Passion of the German Sturm und Drang Movement Romanticism was also inspired by the German Sturm und Drang movement (Storm and Stress), which prized intuition and emotion over Enlightenment rationalism. This proto-romantic movement was centered on literature and music, but also influenced the visual arts. The movement emphasized individual subjectivity. Extremes of emotion were given free expression in reaction to the perceived constraints of rationalism imposed by the Enlightenment and associated aesthetic movements.

The ideals of the French Revolution created the context from which both Romanticism and the Counter-Enlightenment emerged. The Industrial Revolution also influenced Romanticism, which was in part about escaping from modern realities. Romanticism was also influenced by Sturm und Drang, a German Counter-Enlightenment movement that emphasized subjectivity and intense emotion.

Overview Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century. In most areas the movement was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 CE to 1840 CE. Romanticism reached beyond the rational and Classicist ideal models to elevate a revived medievalism.

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Sturm und Drang in the visual arts can be witnessed in paintings of storms and shipwrecks showing the terror and irrational destruction wrought by nature (Figure 34.25). These pre-romantic works were fashionable in Germany from the 1760s on through the 1780s, illustrating a public audience for emotionally charged artwork. Additionally, disturbing visions and portrayals of nightmares were gaining an audience in Germany as evidenced by Goethe's possession and admiration of paintings by Fuseli, which were said to be capable of "giving the viewer a good fright." Notable artists included Joseph Vernet, Caspar Wolf, Philip James de Loutherbourg, and Henry Fuseli. The Industrial Revolution also had an influence on Romanticism, which was in part an escape from modern realities of population growth, urban sprawl, and industrialism. Indeed, in the second half
Vernet participated in the proto-Romantic Sturm und Drang movement. Figure 34.25 Shipwreck by Claude Joseph Vernet, 1759

of the 19th century, "Realism" was offered as a polarized opposite to Romanticism.

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France and Spain

Neoclassicism and Romanticism were competing artistic movements in France and Spain in the 18th and 19th centuries.
KEY POINTS

initially a reaction against the excesses of the preceding Rococo style. While the movement is often described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism, this is a great over-simplification that tends not to be sustainable when specific artists or works are considered. Ingres, the supposed main champion of late Neoclassicism, demonstrates this especially well. Neoclassicism's Big Names Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the success of Jacques-Louis David's "Oath of the Horatii" at the Paris Salon of 1785. David became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of much government patronage in art. He managed to retain his influence in the Napoleonic period, turning to explicitly propagandistic works. David's many students included Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, who saw himself as a classicist throughout his long career. This despite a mature style that has an equivocal relationship with the main current of Neoclassicism, and many later diversions into Orientalism and the Troubadour style that are hard to distinguish from those of his unabashedly Romantic contemporaries. Profoundly respectful of the past, Ingres assumed the role of a guardian of academic orthodoxy against the ascendant Romantic style represented by his nemesis Eugne Delacroix. He described

French painter Jacques Louis David defined the Neoclassical style with works like "Oath of the Horatii". Ingres was a student of David's and was similarly committed to Neoclassical principles, although his work has come to be seen as embodying Romantic values as well. "History painting," traditionally referring to technically difficult narrative paintings of multiple subjects, became more frequently focused on recent historical events. Gericault and Delacroix were leaders of French romantic painting, and both produced iconic history paintings. The Spanish artist Francisco Goya is considered perhaps the greatest painter of the Romantic period; his oeuvre reflects the integration of many styles.

Neoclassicism Neoclassicism was a revival of the styles and spirit of classic antiquity inspired directly from the classical period. This movement coincided with and reflected the Age of Enlightenment, and was

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himself as a "conservator of good doctrine, and not an innovator." Nevertheless, modern opinion has tended to regard Ingres and the other Neoclassicists of his era as embodying the Romantic spirit of his time, while his expressive distortions of form and space make him an important precursor of modern art (Figure 34.26).
Figure 34.26 The Envoys of Agamemnon, by Ingres, 1801 Ingres, though rmly committed to Neoclassical values, is seen as expressing the Romantic spirit of the times.

(17891799) followed by the Napoleonic Wars until 1815, meant that war, and the attending political and social turmoil that went along with them, served as the background for Romanticism. History Painting Since the Renaissance, history painting was considered among the highest and most difficult forms of art. History painting is defined by its subject matter rather than artistic style. History paintings usually depict a moment in a narrative story rather than a specific and static subject. In the Romantic period, history painting was extremely popular and increasingly came to refer to the depiction of historical scenes, rather than those from religion or mythology. Thodore Gricault (17911824) had his first success with "The Charging Chasseur," a heroic military figure derived from Rubens. However, his next major completed work, "The Raft of the Medusa", remains the greatest achievement of Romantic history painting, which in its day had a powerful anti-government message. Eugne Delacroix (17981863) had great success at the Salon with works like "The Barque of Dante (1822)," "The Massacre at Chios" (1824) and "Death of Sardanapalus" (1827). Delacroix's "Liberty Leading the People"(1830) remains, with the Medusa, one of the best known works of French Romantic painting. Both of these

Romanticism While the arrival of Romanticism in French art was delayed by the hold of Neoclassicism on the academies,it became increasingly popular during the Napoleonic period. Its initial form was the history paintings propagandizing for the new regime. The key generation of French Romantics born between 17951805,in the words of Alfred de Vigny, had been "conceived between battles, attended school to the rolling of drums". The French Revolution

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works reflected current events and appealed to public sentiment (Figure 34.27). Spanish Involvement Spanish artists were also influenced by Neo-classicism and Romanticism. The
Figure 34.27 Liberty Leading the People, by Delacroix, 1830

Spanish painter Francisco Goya is today generally regarded as the greatest painter of the Romantic period (Figure 34.28). However, in many ways he remained wedded to the classicism and realism of his training. However, more than any other artist of the period, Goya exemplified the Romantic expression of the artist's feelings and his personal imaginative world. He also shared with many of the Romantic painters a more free handling of paint, emphasized in the new prominence of the brushstroke and impasto, which tended to be repressed in neoclassicism under a self-effacing finish.
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Though he worked in a variety of styles, Goya is remembered as perhaps the greatest painter of the Romantic period. Figure 34.28 The Milkmaid of Bordeaux, by Goya, ca. 1825-1827

Neoclassicism of the French painter David was very influential in Spain; his impact is visible in works by Jose de Madrazo (1781 1859). His son, Federico de Madrazo (1781 1859), was a leading figure in Spanish

The history paintings of Eugene Delacroix epitomized the Romantic period.

Romanticism, together with Leonardo Alenza

(18071845), Valeriano Dominguez Becquer and Antonio Maria Esquivel. Romanticism was strongly represented during the latter part of the century in history paintings in the works of Antonio Gisbert (18341901), Eduardo Rosales (18361873) and Francisco Pradilla (18481921). In these works, the techniques of Realism were frequently used with Romantic subjects.

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Landscape Painting
Landscape painting in Europe and America greatly increased in prominence in the 18th and particularly the 19th century.
KEY POINTS

Dutch and English Landscape Painting Landscape painting depicts natural scenery such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests, in which the main subject is typically a wide view and the elements are arranged into a coherent composition. During the Dutch Golden Age of painting, in the 17th century, this type of painting grew in popularity, and many artists specialized in the genre. In particular, painters of this era were known for developing extremely subtle, realist techniques for depicting light and weather. The popularity of landscape painting in this region, during this time, was in part a reflection of the virtual disappearance of religious art in the Netherlands, which was then a Calvinist society. In the 18th and 19th centuries, religious painting declined across all of Europe, and the movement of Romanticism spread, both of which provided important historical ingredients for landscape painting to ascend to a more prominent place in art.
Constable was a popular English Romantic Painter. Figure 34.29 The Hay Wain, by John Constable, 1821

The decline of explicitly religious works, a result of the Protestant Reformation, contributed to the rise in the popularity of landscapes. English painters, working in the Romantic tradition, became well known for watercolor landscapes in the 18th century. Artists in the Barbizon School brought landscape painting to prominence in France, and were inspired by English landscape artist John Constable. The Barbizon school was an important precursor to Impressionism. The glorified depiction of a nation's natural wonders, and the development of a distinct national style, were both ways in which nationalism influenced landscape painting in Europe and America. The Hudson River School was the most influential landscape art movement in 19th Century America.

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In England, landscapes had initially only been painted as the backgrounds for portraits, and typically portrayed the parks or estates of a landowner. This changed as a result of Anthony van Dyck, who, with other Flemish artists living in England, began a national tradition. In the 18th century, watercolor painting, mostly of landscapes, became an English speciality. The nation had both a buoyant market for professional works of this variety, and a large number of amateur painters. By the beginning of the 19th century, the most highly-regarded English artists were all, for the most part, dedicated landscapists, including John Constable, J.M.W. Turner, and Samuel Palmer (Figure 34.29). French Landscape Painting French painters were slower to develop an interest in landscapes, but in 1824, the Salon de Paris exhibited the works of John Constable, an extremely talented English landscape painter. His rural scenes influenced some of the younger French artists of the time, moving them to abandon formalism and to draw inspiration directly from nature. During the revolutions of 1848, artists gathered in Barbizon to follow Constable's ideas, making nature the subject of their paintings. They formed what is referred to as the Barbizon School. During the late 1860s, the Barbizon painters attracted the attention of a younger generation of French artists studying in Paris. Claude

Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley and Frdric Bazille among others, practiced plein air painting and developed what would later be called Impressionism, an extremely influential movement. In Europe, as John Ruskin noted, and Sir Kenneth Clark confirmed, landscape painting was the "chief artistic creation of the nineteenth century," and "the dominant art." As a result, in the times that followed, it became common for people to "assume that the appreciation of natural beauty and the painting of landscape was a normal and enduring part of our spiritual activity." Nationalism in Landscape Painting Nationalism has been implicated in the popularity of 17th century Dutch landscapes, and in the 19th century, when other nations, such as England and France, attempted to develop distinctive national schools of their own. Painters involved in these movements
Thomas Cole was a founding member of the pioneering Hudson School. Figure 34.30 The Oxbow, by Thomas Cole, 1836

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often attempted to express the unique nature of the landscape of their homeland. The Hudson River School In the United States, a similar movement, called the Hudson River School, emerged in the 19th century and quickly became one of the most distinctive worldwide purveyors of landscape pieces. American painters in this movement created works of mammoth scale in an attempt to capture the epic size and scope of the landscapes that inspired them. The work of Thomas Cole, the school's generally acknowledged founder, seemed to emanate from a similar philosophical position as that of European landscape artists. Both championed, from a position of secular faith, the spiritual benefits that could be gained from contemplating nature (Figure 34.30). Some of the later Hudson River School artists, such as Albert Bierstadt, created less comforting works that placed a greater emphasis (with a great deal of Romantic exaggeration) on the raw, terrifying power of nature.
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Gothic Architecture and Sculpture

Gothic Revival began in England the the 1740s, swept through Europe, and drew from medieval roots.
KEY POINTS

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Gothic Revival architecture was in part a reactionary response to the ideology of Neoclassicism, which was committed to republicanism. Gothic Revivalism represented a turn toward traditional Christian values and support of the monarchy. Nostalgia for a medieval golden age also contributed to the spread of Gothic Revivalism. Sculptural elements were key features of Gothic Revival architecture.

The Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Its popularity grew rapidly in the early 19th century, when increasingly serious and learned admirers of NeoGothic styles sought to revive medieval Gothic architecture, in contrast to the Neoclassical styles that were prevalent at the time.

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In England, the center of the Gothic revival, the movement was intertwined with philosophical trends associated with a reawakening of Christian traditions in response to the growth of religious nonconformism. Ultimately, the Gothic style became widespread in the third quarter of the 19th century (Figure 34.31). Paralleling the ascendancy of NeoGothic styles in 19th century England, interest spread rapidly to Europe, Australia, South Africa, and the Americas. Indeed, the number of Gothic Revival and Carpenter Gothic structures built in the 19th and 20th centuries may exceed the number of authentic Gothic structures that had been built in Gothic's original era. The Gothic Revival was supported by medievalism, which had its
These illustrations depict popular Gothic architectural elements. Figure 34.31 Gothic Architecture and Arch Elements in England from Charles Knight's Pictorial Gallery of Arts, 1858

production and factories. Proponents of the picturesque, such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin, took a critical view of industrial society and portrayed pre-industrial medieval society as a golden age. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialization. Gothic Revival also took on political connotations. With the "rational" and "radical" Neoclassical style being seen as associated with republicanism and liberalism (as evidenced by its use in the United States and to a lesser extent in Republican France), the more "spiritual" and "traditional" Gothic Revival became associated with the monarchy and conservatism, which was reflected by the choice of styles for the rebuilt Palace of Westminster in London and Parliament Hill in Ottawa. Sculpture was also an important component of Gothic Revival structures, including at Cardiff Castle in Scotland and the St. Nicholas Roman Catholic Cathedral in Ukraine.
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roots in antiquarian concerns of survivals (practices that continue from earlier times) and curiosities (unique or unusual objects). As industrialization progressed, there was a reaction against machine

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Painting
Neoclassicism and Romanticism were major, interrelated artistic movements in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

an equivocal relationship with the main current of Neoclassicism.. He exhibited at the Salon for over 60 years, from 1802 into the beginnings of Impressionism, but his style, once formed, changed little. In the visual arts, Romanticism first showed itself in landscape

KEY POINTS

painting, where from as early as the 1760s British artists began to turn to wilder landscapes and storms and Gothic architecture.
Figure 34.32 Oath of the Horatii, by Jacques-Louis David, 1784

French painter David was a major proponent of Neoclassicism and a powerful figure in the Parisian art world. In England, Romanticism initially emerged in landscape painting. In France, Romanticism primarily took the form of didactic history paintings with strong political themes.

Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the sensational success of Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785 (Figure 34.32). David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of much government patronage in art. He managed to retain his influence in the Napoleonic period, turning to frankly propagandistic works, but had to leave France for exile in Brussels at the Bourbon Restoration. David's many students included Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, who saw himself as a classicist throughout his long career, despite a mature style that had
David was an extremely inuential gure in the Neoclassical movement.

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Other groups of artists expressed feelings that verged on the mystical, many largely abandoning classical drawing and proportions. These included William Blake, Samuel Palme,r and the other members of the Ancients in England, and in Germany Philipp Otto Runge. The Rome-based Nazarene movement of German artists, active from 1810, took a very different path, concentrating on medievalizing history paintings with religious and nationalist themes. The arrival of Romanticism in French art was delayed by the strong hold of Neoclassicism on the academies. From the Napoleonic period it became increasingly popular, initially in the form of history paintings propagandizing for the new regime, of which Girodet's Ossian Receiving the Ghosts of the French Heroes was one of the earliest.
This work, critical of the government, is among the most important to the Romanticism movement. Figure 34.33 The Raft of the Medusa, by Gericault, 18181819

A new generation of the French school developed personal Romantic styles while still concentrating on history painting with a political message. Thodore Gricault's The Raft of the Medusa of 1821 remains the greatest achievement of the Romantic history painting, which in its day had a powerful anti-government message (Figure 34.33). Eugne Delacroix was also an extremely successful French romantic painter. Francisco Goya is today generally regarded as the greatest painter of the Romantic period, "the last great painter in whose art thought and observation were balanced and combined to form a faultless unity." However, Goya also maintained a connection to classicism, and as well as foreseeing the Realism of the later 19th century.
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Section 8

The Enlightenment

Philosophy and Science Naturalism

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Philosophy and Science

The Enlightenment movement promoted knowledge through science, reason, and intellectual exchange.
KEY POINTS

Rationalism The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a movement that began during the 18th century in Europe and the American colonies. The key figures of the movement sought to reform society using the power of reason. Started by the preeminent philosophers of the day, the Enlightenment era lasted from about 1650 to 1800, promoting science, reason and intellectual exchange. The idea of advancing knowledge through reason emerged in response to new technology and the ability to exchange information easily thanks to mass printing, and also out of a backlash against previous systems, which valued the church and tradition above all else. The authority of science and empirical thought increasingly displaced religious authority, and the disciplines of alchemy and astrology lost credibility, leaving the more easily confirmed chemistry and astronomy. Scientific thought became more and more developed. The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. Philosophers, Salons, and Publications: Engines of a Movement The leading philosophers of the 18th century were engaged in the movement, and the ideas were found in most countries, though with specific local variations. Great thinkers such as John Locke, Isaac Newton, Francis Bacon, Voltaire, Thomas Hobbes, Diderot, Kant,

The authority of science and empiricism increasingly displaced religious authority during this time. Leading philosophers of the 18th century such as John Locke, Isaac Newton, Francis Bacon, Voltaire, Thomas Hobbes, Diderot, Kant and Goethe were engaged in the discourse of the movement. The 'Encyclopedie', (Encyclopedia), (1751-72), edited by Denis Diderot, with contributions from hundreds of leading philosophers and intellectuals, sought to reform society by disseminating knowledge. The Republic of Letters was an Enlightenment ideal that fostered long-distance communication through writing among the intellectuals and philosophers of the time. The increasing value of science and empirical thought fueled the establishment of many scientific academies and societies, as well as scientific publications, which helped to popularize scientific thought.

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and Goethe were engaged in the discourse of the movement. In 1784, Immanuel Kant wrote a well-known essay entitled What Is Enlightenment?, in which he described the necessity of abolishing church and state paternalism, in order for enlightenment to be possible. He argued that people need to be given the freedom to use their own intellects. France was an important centre of the Enlightenment. Here, the movement was grew out of salons (gatherings for intellectual discussion) and was led by philosophes (philosophers or intellectuals). Perhaps the most renowned publication of the Enlightenment era was the Encyclopedie
The Encyclopedie held"contributions from hundreds of leading philosophers and intellectuals and was one of the most renowned publications of the Enlightenment era. Figure 34.34 Cover of the 'Encyclopedie'

(Encyclopedia), published between 1751-72). This was edited by Denis Diderot, with contributions from hundreds of leading philosophers and intellectuals (Figure 34.34). According to Diderot, the purpose of the Encyclopedie was to disseminate knowledge to all of society and future generations, and in this way change the way people think." Thousands of copies were sold, many outside of France, as the new intellectual class migrated across Europe. Across the ocean, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were also influenced significantly by Enlightenment thought and ideals, which in turn played a role in the American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence, and the United States Bill of Rights. The Republic of Letters was an Enlightenment ideal that fostered long-distance communication through writing among the intellectuals and philosophers of the time. It was envisioned as a realm of ideas governed by knowledge that could bypass political boundaries and characterized by questioning and discussion through written communication. Important Enlightenment philosophers such as Kant, Diderot and Voltaire took part in the Republic of Letters. The increasing value of science and empirical thought and the evergrowing questioning of religious orthodoxy fueled the establishment of many scientific academies and societies which became centers for scientific research and development. The century saw many

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advances in the areas of medicine, mathematics, and physics, and also saw the establishment of the foundation for modern chemistry. Natural history in particular became very popular as a discipline. The increasing spread of literacy during the 18th century led to another important development; a growing amount of scientific literature was produced for an audience of passionate and excited new readers. Fueling the popularity of the new modes of scientific thought, many journals and periodicals were published, mostly based on work coming out of scientific academies and societies. Print culture expanded during this time, popularizing and disseminating information to societies throughout Europe and the American colonies.
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Naturalism
Naturalism is an 18th century artistic movement concerned with the depiction of realistic subjects in natural settings.
KEY POINTS

Naturalism emerged in opposition to the dominant Romantic and Rococo movements of the 18th century and favored direct, objective, realistic and moral painting. Romantic art is known for its elevation of the emotions and the imagination of the individual, as well as for placing emphasis on elaborate decoration, ornamentation and idealized forms. Important Naturalist painters of the period include Jules Bastien-Lepage (1848-1884), Jean-Francois Millet (1814-1875) and Albert Charpin (1842-1924). In philosophy, Naturalism asserts that the laws of nature, as opposed to supernatural laws, are responsible for governing the universe.

In philosophy, Naturalism asserts that the laws of nature, as opposed to supernatural laws, are responsible for governing the universe.

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During the Enlightenment era philosophers, including Francis Bacon and Voltaire, argued that supernatural forces should be removed from the study of the natural world in favor of non-theistic explanations for biology, geology, physics and the other natural sciences. This secularization of science went hand-in-hand with the general displacement of religious authority prevalent in Enlightenment thinking, which in turn affected the artistic movements of the time. Naturalism in art refers to an 18th century movement that emerged as a reaction to the Romantic art of the period and was concerned with the depiction of realistic subjects in natural settings. Evolving at the same time as the Realist movement, Naturalism shares with it a deep interest in the realistic depiction of the world. However, Realism was ultimately concerned with the depiction of moralistic imagery and rejected conventional beauty. In this way, Realism favored the depiction of idealized forms whereas Naturalism can be distinguished by its strict adherence to depicting things accurately and objectively. Romanticism, including the Rococo style, was the predominant artistic movement of the 18th century in Europe, and was itself a backlash against the scientific rationalization of nature indicative of the Enlightenment period. Romantic art is known for its elevation of the emotions and the imagination of the individual, as well as for

placing emphasis on elaborate decoration, ornamentation and idealized forms. A common theme in Romantic painting is the portrayal of human terror and awe in the face of the sublimity of unbridled nature. Whereas Naturalism, as well as Realism, favoured direct, objective, realistic and moral painting. Important Naturalist painters of the period include Jules Bastien-Lepage (1848-1884),
Figure 34.35 Jules Bastien-Lepage, Haymaking

Jean-Francois Millet (1814-1875) and Albert Charpin (1842-1924). Jules Bastien-Lepage was a French painter who received a great deal of acclaim during his lifetime. Raised in a small village in France, BastienLepage studied art in Paris and soon received honors such as an award at the Prix de Rome and the cross of the Legion of Honour. His work

The painting Haymaking is a good example of the Naturalist style evident in BastienLepage's work.

is believed to have influenced the Impressionists in its tonal qualities and brushwork. The painting Haymaking is a good example of the Naturalist style evident in his work (Figure 34.35).

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Figure 34.36 JeanFrancois Millet, The Gleaners Jean-Francois Millet was one of the most important Naturalist painters of the period.

form. A well-known member of the Barbizon school is Albert Charpin, a painter of natural landscapes, which often included a shepherdess taking care of animals. His paintings feature distinctly natural poses and often depict morning light with cloudy skies, as seen in Woman with Lambs (Figure 34.37).
Figure 34.37 Albert Charpin, Woman with Lambs

Jean Francois Millet is known for his paintings of peasant farmers as well as for founding the Barbizon school, and his work falls into both the Naturalist and Realist movements. His painting The Gleaners (1857), portrays three peasant women gathering what is left from a field after a harvest (Figure 34.36). The wealthy owners are seen in the distance, while the three women are central to the painting. The focus of the subject is thus shifted from the wealthy and prominent to the lower class. The landscape is of great importance to the work, and it is a major highlight of the painting. The Barbizon school of painters belonged to a movement towards Realism and Naturalism, which rejected the excess and ornamentation of Romanticism. Prominent from about 1830-1870, the name is taken from Barbizon, France, where the artists of the school gathered. The aesthetic features of this style include complex tonal qualities, a pastel palette, loose brushwork and softness of
Charpin's paintings often include"a shepherdess taking care of animals. His paintings also feature distinctly natural poses and often depict morning light with cloudy skies.

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Chapter 35

Europe and America in the 1800s

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Section 1

Napoleon

Art in the Rule of Napoleon

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Art in the Rule of Napoleon

The Empire style refers to art created under the rule of Napoleon, where it was intended to idealize the French Empire.

Napoleon I in the First French Empire and it was intended to idealize Napoleon's French state. The Empire style developed and elaborated the Directoire style of the immediately preceding period, which aimed at a simpler but still elegant evocation of the virtues of the Ancient Roman Republic. Empire style architecture was based on aspects of the Roman Empire and its many archaeological treasures which had been rediscovered starting in the 18th century. The style was considered to have "liberated" and
glise de la Madeleine in Paris, a Temple to the Glory of the Napoleon's Grande Arme, reects the Empire style of architecture in its emulation of ancient Greco-Roman facades, especially in its extensive use of Greek columns.

KEY POINTS

Figure 35.1 The Madeleine

The Empire style developed and elaborated the Directoire style of the immediately preceding period, which aimed at a simpler but still elegant evocation of the virtues of the Ancient Roman Republic. Inspiration for architectural designs drew heavily on symbols and ornaments borrowed from the ancient Greek and Roman empires. Buildings typically had simple timber frames and box-like constructions, veneered in expensive mahogany imported from the newly-acquired colonies. In Napoleonic painting, themes often revolved around the military and glorifying Napoleon's campaigns. Battle paintings were increasingly produced for large public buildings and grew larger than ever before.

"enlightened" architecture just as Napoleon "liberated" the peoples of Europe with

his Napoleonic Code. Inspiration for architectural designs drew The Empire style of art, largely considered as the second phase of Neoclassicism, is an early-19th-century design movement in architecture, furniture, and other decorative arts in Europe and America until around 1830. The style originated in the rule of heavily on symbols and ornaments borrowed from the ancient Greek and Roman empires. Buildings typically had simple timber frames and box-like constructions, veneered in expensive mahogany imported from the newly-acquired colonies.

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After Napoleon lost power, the Empire style continued to be in favor for many decades, with minor adaptations. The most famous Empire-style structures in France are the grand neoclassical Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, Vendme column, and La Madeleine (Figure 35.1), which were built in Paris to emulate the edifices of the Roman Empire.
Figure 35.2 Bataille dAboukir, 25 juillet 1799, 1806

Napoleon and his victories (Figure 35.2), but his 1808 painting of the Battle of Eylau does not neglect the suffering of the dead and wounded on the frozen battlefield. In contrast, Goya's large paintings The Second of May 1808 and The Third of May 1808 emphasized the brutality of the French forces during the Peninsular War in Spain.
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By Antoine-Jean Gros, representative of Empire-style art, which depicted Napoleon on the battle as a conquering victor.

In Napoleonic painting, themes often revolved around the military and glorifying Napoleon's campaigns. Battle paintings were increasingly produced for large public buildings and grew larger than ever before. Baron Gros painted mostly glorifications of

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Section 2

Europe and America in the Second Half of the 1800s

Introduction

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Introduction
Europe and to a lesser extent America in the second half of the 19th century was in the throes of tremendous artistic innovation.
KEY POINTS

Figure 35.3 douard Manet, The Luncheon on the Grass (Le djeuner sur l'herbe), 1863

The date perhaps most commonly identified as marking the birth of modern art is 1863, the year that douard Manet exhibited his painting Le djeuner sur l'herbe. The pioneers of modern art were Romantics, Realists and Impressionists. By the late 19th century, additional movements which were to be influential in modern art had begun to emerge: post-Impressionism as well as Symbolism. The Impressionists argued that people do not see objects but only the light which they reflect, and therefore advocated that painters should paint in natural light (en plein air) rather than in studios and should capture the effects of light in their work.

The painting depicts the juxtaposition of a female nude and a scantily dressed female bather on a picnic with two fully dressed men in a rural setting. Rejected by the Salon jury of 1863, Manet seized the opportunity to exhibit this and two other paintings, in the 1863 Salon des Refuss, where the painting sparked public notoriety and controversy.

Although modern sculpture and architecture are reckoned to have emerged at the end of the 19th century, the beginnings of modern painting can be located earlier. The birth of modern art can be traced back to 1863, the year that douard Manet exhibited his painting Le djeuner sur l'herbe (Figure 35.3) in the Salon des

Refuss in Paris. Earlier dates have also been proposed, among them 1855 (the year Gustave Courbet exhibited The Artist's Studio) and 1784 (the year Jacques-Louis David completed his painting The Oath of the Horatii). In the words of art historian H. Harvard Arnason: "Each of these dates has significance for the development

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of modern art, but none categorically marks a completely new beginning .... A gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years." The strands of thought that eventually led to modern art can be traced back to the Enlightenment, and even to the 17th century. For instance, the important modern art critic, Clement Greenberg, called Immanuel Kant "the first real Modernist" but also drew a distinction: "The Enlightenment criticized from the outside .... Modernism criticizes from the inside." The French Revolution of 1789 uprooted assumptions and institutions that had for centuries been accepted with little question and exposed the public to vigorous political and social debate. This gave rise to what art historian Ernst Gombrich called a "self-consciousness that made people select the style of their building as one selects the pattern of a wallpaper."
The painting that gave name to a movement. Figure 35.4 Claude Monet, Impression, Sunrise (Impression, soleil levant), 1872

The pioneers of modern art were Romantics, Realists and Impressionists. By the late 19th century, additional movements which were to be influential in modern art had begun to emerge: post-Impressionism as well as Symbolism. Influences upon these movements were varied: from exposure to Eastern decorative arts, particularly Japanese printmaking, to the coloristic innovations of Turner and Delacroix, to a search for more realism in the depiction of common life, as found in the work of painters such as Jean-Franois Millet. The advocates of realism stood against the idealism of the tradition-bound academic art that enjoyed public and official favor. The most successful painters of the day worked either through commissions or through large public exhibitions of their own work. There were official, governmentsponsored painters' unions, while governments regularly held public exhibitions of new fine and decorative arts. The Impressionists argued that people do not see objects but only the light which they reflect, and therefore painters should paint in natural light (en plein air) rather than in studios and should capture the effects of light in their work (Figure 35.4). Impressionist artists formed a group, Socit Anonyme Cooprative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs ("Association of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers") which, despite internal tensions, mounted a series of independent exhibitions. The style was adopted by artists in

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different nations, in preference to a "national" style. These factors established the view that it was a "movement". These traits establishment of a working method integral to the art, establishment of a movement or visible active core of support, and international adoptionwould be repeated by artistic movements in the Modern period in art.
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Section 3

Academic Art in France

Academic Architecture Painting and Sculpture in Academia

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Academic Architecture
Beaux-Arts architecture expresses the academic neoclassical architectural style taught at the cole des Beaux-Arts in Paris.
KEY POINTS

royale d'architecture (16711793), then, following the French Revolution, the Architecture section of the Acadmie des BeauxArts. The style of instruction that produced Beaux-Arts architecture continued without major interruption until 1968. The Beaux-Arts style had widespread influence outside of France, including on the architecture of the United States in the period from 1880-1920. Beaux-Arts academic training emphasized the mainstream examples of Imperial Roman architecture, Italian Renaissance, and French and Italian Baroque models. Beaux-Arts training made great use of agrafes (clasps that links one architectural detail to another), interpenetration of forms, "speaking architecture" (architecture parlante) in which supposed appropriateness of symbolism could be taken to literal-minded extremes. Beaux-Arts training also emphasized the production of quick conceptual sketches, highlyfinished perspective presentation drawings, close attention to the program, and knowledgeable detailing. Site considerations tended toward social and urbane contexts. All architects-in-training passed through the obligatory stages--studying antique models, constructing analos, analyses reproducing Greek or Roman models, "pocket" studies and other conventional steps--in the long competition for the few desirable places at the Acadmie de France Rome.

"Beaux Arts" describes the architectural style of over two centuries of instruction under academic authority: first, of the Acadmie royale d'architecture (16711793), then, following the French Revolution, the Architecture section of the Acadmie des Beaux-Arts. Beaux-Arts academic training emphasized the mainstream examples of Imperial Roman architecture, Italian Renaissance, and French and Italian Baroque models. Beaux-Arts architecture depended on sculptural decoration along conservative modern lines, combined with an impressionistic finish. Slightly overscaled details, bold sculptural supporting consoles, rich deep cornices, swags and lavish sculptural enrichments, all flourished in the BeauxArts style.

Beaux-Arts architecture expresses the academic neoclassical architectural style taught at the cole des Beaux-Arts in Paris. "Beaux Arts" describes the architectural style of over two centuries of instruction under academic authority: first, of the Acadmie

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Beaux-Arts architecture depended on sculptural decoration along conservative modern lines, employing French and Italian Baroque and Rococo formulas, combined with an impressionistic finish and realism. Slightly overscaled details, bold sculptural supporting consoles, rich deep cornices, swags and lavish sculptural enrichments, all flourished in the Beaux-Arts style, as demonstrated in the Opera Garnier in Paris (Figure 35.5). Though the Beaux-Arts style embodies an approach to a regenerated spirit within the grand traditions rather than a set of motifs, principal
Figure 35.5 Opera Garnier

coordinated in theme to assert the identity of the building in BeauxArts Architecture (Figure 35.6). After centuries of dominating architectural schools and training processes, the Beaux-Arts style began fade in favor of Modernist architecture and the International Style on the eve of World War I.
Figure 35.6 Diana and Pomona

characteristics of Beaux-Arts architecture included: rusticated and raised first stories, hierarchy of spaces (from "noble spaces"grand entrances and
Beaux-Arts building decoration presenting images of the Roman goddesses Pomona and Diana. Note the naturalism of the postures and the channeled rustication of the stonework.

The Palais Garnier (1861-75) is an exemplar of the Beaux Arts style.

staircases to utilitarian ones) arched

windows, arched and pedimented doors, classical details, references to a synthesis of historicist styles, and tendency to eclecticism. Statuary, sculpture (including bas-relief panels, figural sculptures, sculptural groups), murals, mosaics, and other artwork, all

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Painting and Sculpture in Academia

Academic art is a style of painting and sculpture produced under the inuence of European academies of art.

"academism", "academicism", "L'art pompier", and "eclecticism", and sometimes linked with "historicism" and "syncretism." Background The Acadmie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture was founded in France in 1648, and later became the Acadmie des Beaux-Arts. After the Acadmie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture was reorganized in 1661 by Louis XIV, a controversy occurred among the members that dominated artistic attitudes for the rest of the century. This "battle of styles" was a conflict over who was a suitable model to followPeter Paul Rubens or Nicolas Poussin. Followers of Poussin, called "poussinistes", argued that line (disegno) should dominate art because of its appeal to the intellect, while followers of Rubens, called "rubenistes", argued that color (colore) should dominate art because of its appeal to emotion. The debate was revived in the early nineteenth century, under the movements of neoclassicism typified by the artwork of Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, and romanticism typified by the artwork of Eugne Delacroix. Debates also occurred over whether it was better to learn art by looking at nature, or to learn by looking at the artistic masters of the past. Academies using the French model formed throughout Europe, and imitated the teachings and styles of the French.

KEY POINTS

The Acadmie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture had a considerable impact on the subjects and styles of academic art for several centuries. The trend in academic art was towards greater idealism, contrary to realism, so that figures could represent the ideals they stood for. Academic Art exhibitions were held often, and the most popular exhibition was the Paris Salon and beginning in 1903, the Salon d'Automne.

Academic art is a style of painting and sculpture produced under the influence of European academies of art: more specifically, it is the art and artists influenced by the standards of the French Acadmie des Beaux-Arts. which practiced under the movements of Neoclassicism and Romanticism. In this context it is often called

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Subject Matter The trend in academic art was towards greater idealism: contrary to realism, figures were made simpler and more abstractidealized in order to represent the ideals they stood in for. Hence, many paintings by academic artists are simple nature allegories with titles like Dawn, Dusk, Seeing, and Tasting, where these ideas are personified by a single nude figure, composed in such a way as to bring out the essence of the idea. This would involve both generalizing forms seen in nature, and subordinating them to the unity and theme of the artwork. Because history and mythology were considered as plays or dialectics of ideas and were a fertile ground for important allegory, using themes from these subjects was considered the most serious form of painting (Figure 35.7). A hierarchy of genres, originally created in the seventeenth century, was valued, where history paintingclassical, religious, mythological, literary, and allegorical subjectswas placed at the top. Next came genre painting, then
Birth of Venus, Alexandre Cabanel, 1863. Academic Art, especially in the Neoclassical period, typically used Roman and Greek allegories and simple nudes to depict idealized forms. Figure 35.7 Birth of Venus

portraiture, still-life, and landscape. History painting was also known as the "grande genre." During the reign of academic art, the paintings of the Rococo era that had previously been held in low favor were revived to popularity, and themes often used in Rococo art such as Eros and Psyche were popular again. The academic art world also idolized Raphael for the ideality of his work. Salons Academic Art exhibitions were held often, and the most popular exhibition was the Paris Salonand, beginning in 1903, the Salon d'Automne. These salons were sensational events that attracted crowds of visitors, both native and foreign. As much a social affair as an artistic one, 50,000 people might visit on a single Sunday, and as many as 500,000 could see the exhibition during its two-month run. Thousands of pictures were displayed, hung from just below eye level all the way up to the ceiling in a manner now known as "Salon style." A successful showing at the salon was a seal of approval for an artist, making his work saleable to the growing ranks of private collectors. Criticisms Academic art was first criticized by realist artists for its use of idealism: based on idealistic clichs and representing mythical and legendary motives while contemporary social concerns were being

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Figure 35.8 "This Year, Venuses Again."

Caricature (French bourgeoisie): This Year Venuses Again Always Venuses!. Honor Daumier, No. 2 from series in Le Charivati, 1864. A caricature mocking Academic Art's use of idealized form and mythical allegories, while ignoring contexts of daily or modern life.

ignored (Figure 35.8). Another criticism by realists was the "false surface" of paintings: the objects depicted looked smooth, slick, and idealized, showing no real texture. Similarly, perspective was constructed geometrically on a flat surface and was not really the product of sight.
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Section 4

Photography

Europe and the United States

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Europe and the United States

Camera photography was invented in the rst decades of the 19th century.
KEY POINTS

Camera photography was invented in the first decades of the 19th century, and even at this early point, it was able to capture more information, and with greater speed, than painting or sculpture. There are a number of important prescursors to photography. In the 5th century BCE, before the first camera was ever invented, Chinese and Greek philosophers described the pinhole camera, a lightproof box with a tiny hole in one side that light passes through while projecting an inverted image one side. Also termed a camera obscura, which is an early process employing paper sensitized with a cyanide. Painters such as Leonardo Da Vinci were known to have used this technique to create his paintings. The process of photography was effectually engaged in creating a permanent image from the process outlined originally by the camera obscura (Figure 35.9).
Figure 35.9 Illustration of Camera Obscura Illustration of camera obscura from "Sketchbook on military art, including geometry, fortications, artillery, mechanics, and pyrotechnics."

A photograph is created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface. Before the first camera was ever invented, Chinese and Greek philosophers described the pinhole camera". Nicephore Niepce was a French inventor known for producing the first permanent photoetching in 1822. Daguerre invented the Daguerrotype in 1837. Many different chemical and physical photographic variations were made in the mid-19th century including the invention of the cyanotype, ambrotype, tintype, and negative on albumen. Photography represents the first instance of an artistic medium being used widely by the masses as a mode of visual expression.

Background A photograph is created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface. The word photograph is based on the Greek phos meaning light and graphe meaning drawing, together meaning drawing with light.

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Nicephore Niepce was a French inventor known for producing the first permanent photoetching in 1822. However, this process took a great deal of time, nearly up to eight hours to expose a single image. Niepce began to work with Louis Daguerre and the two conducted experiments with silver compounds, based on a theory of Johann Heinrich Schultz, who proved that the mixture of silver and chalk darkens when it is exposed to light. Niepce died in 1833 but Daguerre continued on this path and eventually invented the Daguerreotype in 1837. The Daguerreotype was an incredibly important discovery for photography due to its speed and ease of use. It represents the first commercially successful photographic process. Eventually, France agreed to pay Daguerre for his formula in exchange for announcing his discovery as the gift of France, which he did in 1839. The Earliest Photography The earliest photography consisted of monochromatic or black and white shots. Even after color photography was invented, black and white photography still prevailed due to its lower cost and preferable appearance. During the mid-19th century, many scientists and inventors began working on the development of photography. Many different chemical and physical photographic variations were made in the mid-19th century including the

invention of the cyanotype, ambrotype, tintype, and negative on albumen. John Herschel was an important figure to the development of photography. He is credited with creating the first glass negative, and among the first to use the terms photography, negative, and positive. In addition, he discovered a solution that could be used to fix photographs in order to make them more permanent. William Fox Talbot worked to refine Daguerres process in order to make the new photographic medium more available to the masses. He also invented the calotype process, which creates negative images. Talbots print of the Oriel window in Lacock Abbey is the oldest negative in existence. Since the earliest photographic developments many scientists and artists have taken great interest in its inherent abilities. Artists have used photography to study movement and motion, details which before this point could not be seen by the naked eye, as we see in Eadweard Muybridges studies from 1887. Photography represents the first instance of an artistic medium being used widely by the masses as a mode of visual expression.
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Section 5

Realism

Revolution in France Manet Germany and the United States Pre-Raphaelites

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Revolution in France
Revolutionary French art was dominated by neoclassicism, as opposed to Rococo inuences.]
KEY POINTS

French revolution, the academic system continued to produce artists, but some, like Jean-Honor Fragonard and Jean-Baptiste Simon Chardin, explored new and increasingly impressionist styles of painting with thick brushwork. Although the hierarchy of genres continued to be respected officially, genre painting, landscape, portrait and still life were extremely fashionable in the aftermath of the revolutionary period.
Figure 35.10 Panthon in Paris Inside panoramic view of the Panthon. Note the use of Greek and Roman columns and domes.

Before the onset of the French Revolution, the middle of the eighteenth century saw a turn to Neoclassicism in France; that is to say, a conscious use of Greek and Roman forms and iconography. The rationalism and simplicity of classical architecture was seen as the antithesis of the backward-looking Gothic style. The Greek and Roman subject matters were also often chosen to promote the values of French republicanism during the revolutionary period. David was an influential French painter in the Neoclassical style. His cerebral brand of history painting marked a change in taste away from Rococo frivolity toward a classical austerity and severity. This attitude matched the republican moral climate of the radical phase of the French Revolution.

Before the onset of the French Revolution, the middle of the eighteenth century saw a turn to Neoclassicism in France, that is to say a conscious use of Greek and Roman forms and iconography. The French neoclassical style would greatly contribute to the monumentalism of the French revolution. This monumentalist tendency is typified in the structure of La Madeleine church, which is in the form of a Greek temple, and the mammoth Panthon (1764-1812) which today houses the tombs of prominent Frenchmen (Figure 35.10). The rationalism and simplicity of classical architecture was seen in the Age of Enlightenment as the antithesis of the backward-looking Gothic. The Greek and

Revolutionary French art was dominated by neoclassicism, as opposed to Rococo influences. The latter half of the eighteenth century continued to see French preeminence in Europe, particularly through the arts and sciences, and the French language was the lingua franca of the European courts. During and after the

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Roman subject matters were also often chosen to promote the values of French republicanism during the revolutionary period. In painting, the greatest representative of this style is Jacques Louis David who emphasized the use of the profile, mirroring the profile of Greek vases. His subject matter often involved classical history such as The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons (Figure 35.11). David was an
David's 1789 painting uses Roman themes in the neoclassical style. Figure 35.11 The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons

Marat, for instance, depicts the revolutionary leader as a republican martyr (Figure 35.12). The French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars brought great changes to the arts in France. For instance, under Napoleon, the artists increasingly turned towards a program of exaltation and
Figure 35.12 The Death of Marat

myth-making (as in the paintings of Gros and Gurin). In the early nineteenth century, elements of Romanticism such as Orientalism, Egyptian motifs, the tragic anti-hero, the wild landscape, the historical novel, and scenes from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, created a vibrant period of art that defies easy classification.

influential French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the Ancien Regime and revolutionary eras. In the 1780s, his cerebral brand of history painting marked a change in taste away from Rococo frivolity toward a classical austerity and severity, which matched the republican moral climate of the radical phase of the French Revolution. David's paintings are representative not only of the break between Rococo and Neoclassicalism, but also the glorification of republican virtues and revolutionary figures throughout the course of the French Revolution. David's painting of the assassination of Jean-Paul
David's The Death of Marat uses neoclassical elements (such as the emphasized prole), to depict Marat as a revolutionary republican martyr.

These Romantic tendencies continued throughout the century. Both idealized

landscape painting and Naturalism have their seeds in Romanticism. The work of Gustave Courbet and the Barbizon

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school are logical developments from it, as is the late nineteenth century Symbolism of such painters as Gustave Moreau, the professor of Henri Matisse and Georges Rouault.
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Manet
douard Manet, a French painter, was a pivotal gure in the transition from Realism to Impressionism.
KEY POINTS

His early masterworks, The Luncheon on the Grass (Le djeuner sur l'herbe) and Olympia, engendered great controversy and served as rallying points for the young painters who would create Impressionism. Today, these are considered watershed paintings that mark the genesis of modern art. His style in this period was characterized by loose brush strokes, simplification of details and the suppression of transitional tones. Manet's works were seen as a challenge to the Renaissance works that inspired his paintings. Manet's work is considered "early modern," partially because of the black outlining of figures, which draws attention to the surface of the picture plane and the material quality of paint.

douard Manet (18321883) was a French painter. One of the first nineteenth-century artists to approach modern and postmodern-life subjects, he was a pivotal figure in the transition from Realism to Impressionism. His early masterworks, The Luncheon on the Grass (Le djeuner sur l'herbe) and Olympia, engendered great

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controversy and served as rallying points for the young painters who would create Impressionism. Today, these are considered watershed paintings that mark the genesis of modern art. Manet opened a studio in 1856. His style in this period was characterized by loose brush strokes, simplification of details, and the suppression of
Figure 35.13 Music in the Tuileries, 1862

juxtaposition of fully dressed men and a nude woman was controversial, as was its abbreviated, sketch-like handling, an innovation that distinguished Manet from Courbet. At the same time, this composition reveals Manet's study of the old Renaissance masters. One work cited by scholars as an important precedent for Le djeuner sur l'herbe is Giorgione's The Tempest.
Figure 35.14 douard Manet, The Luncheon on the Grass (Le djeuner sur l'herbe), 1863 One of Manet's earliest controversial paintings for its depiction of a nude juxtaposed with dressed gures.

transitional tones. Adopting the current style of realism initiated by Gustave Courbet, he painted The Absinthe Drinker (185859) and other contemporary subjects such as beggars, singers, Gypsies, people in cafs, and bullfights. Music in the Tuileries is

One of Manet's earliest works that demonstrates his interests in loose bush strokes and the leisurely social activities of 19th-century Parisians.

an early example of Manet's painterly style. Inspired by Hals and Velzquez, it is a harbinger of his lifelong interest in the subject of leisure (Figure 35.13). The Paris Salon rejected The Luncheon on the Grass (Figure 35.14) for exhibition in 1863. Manet exhibited it at the Salon des Refuss (Salon of the Rejected) later in the year. The painting's

As he had in Luncheon on the Grass, Manet again paraphrased a respected work by a Renaissance artist in his painting Olympia (1863), a nude portrayed in pose that was based on Titian's Venus of Urbino (1538). Manet created Olympia in response to a challenge to give the Salon a nude painting to display. His subsequently frank depiction of a self-assured prostitute was accepted by the Paris

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Salon in 1865, where it created a scandal (Figure 35.15). The painting was controversial partly because the nude is wearing some small items of clothing such as an orchid in her hair, a bracelet, a ribbon around her neck, and mule slippers, all of which accentuated her nakedness, sexuality, and comfortable courtesan lifestyle. The orchid, upswept hair, black cat, and bouquet of flowers were all recognized symbols of sexuality at the time. This modern Venus' body is thin, counter to prevailing standards, and this lack of physical idealism rankled viewers. Olympia's body as well as her gaze is unabashedly confrontational. She defiantly looks out as her servant offers flowers from one of her male suitors. Although her hand rests on her leg, hiding her pubic area, the reference to traditional female virtue is ironic: female modesty is notoriously absent in this work. As with Luncheon on the Grass, the painting raised the issue of prostitution within contemporary France and the roles of women within society. The roughly painted style and photographic lighting in these two controversial works was seen by contemporaries as modern: specifically, as a challenge to the Renaissance works Manet copied or used as source material. His work is considered "early modern," partially because of the black outlining of figures, which draws attention to the surface of the picture plane and the material quality of paint.

Figure 35.15 Olympia

Another of Manet's controversial nude paintings.

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Germany and the United States

Realism is the attempt to depict subjects as they are considered to exist in an objective reality, without embellishment or interpretation.
KEY POINTS

the approach inherently implies a belief that such reality is ontologically independent of man's conceptual schemes, linguistic practices, and beliefs, and thus can be known to the artist, who can in turn represent this "reality" faithfully. Truth and accuracy became the goals of many Realists, and their paintings usually depicted people at work, underscoring the changes wrought by the Industrial Revolution. More generally, realist works of art are those that, in revealing a truth, may emphasize the ugly or sordid, such as works of social realism. In general, realists render everyday characters, situations, dilemmas, and objects, all in a "true-to-life" manner and tend to discard theatrical drama, lofty subjects and classical forms of art in favor of commonplace themes. The term is applied to, or used as a name for, various art movements or other groups of artists in art history. For example, in Germany and the United States, Realism adopted many different forms. Realism in Germany In German Realism, Biedermeier refers to a style in literature, music, the visual arts, and interior design in the period between 1815-1848. Biedermeier art appealed to the prosperous middle classes with detailed but polished realism, often celebrating domestic virtues (Figure 35.16). This middle-class Realist style came to dominate over French-leaning aristocratic tastes, as well as

Truth and accuracy became the goals of many Realists, and their paintings depicted people at work, underscoring the social changes of the Industrial Revolution. Realist works of art are therefore those that, in revealing a truth, may emphasize the ugly or sordid, such as works of social realism. In general, realists render everyday characters, situations, dilemmas, and objects, all in a "true-to-life" manner and tend to discard theatrical drama, lofty subjects, and classical forms of art in favor of commonplace themes. The term "Realism" is applied to, or used as a name for, various art movements or other groups of artists in art history. For example, in Germany and the United States, Realism adopted many different forms.

Realism in the visual arts and literature is the general attempt to depict subjects as they are considered to exist in third person objective reality, without embellishment or interpretation. As such,

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the Romantic artistic movement elsewhere in Europe. In the second half of the nineteenth century, a number of styles developed, paralleling trends in other European counties, though the lack of a dominant capital city
Figure 35.16 Biedermeier Style

colors, mostly for religious murals, with a medievalist interest in pattern that drew from Les Nabis and in some ways looked forward to Art Nouveau or the Jugendstil ("Youth Style"). Realism in America American realism was an early twentieth-century idea in art, music, and literature that depicted a contemporary view of what was happening: an attempt at defining what was real. Many early twentieth-century American painters were interested in creating new and more urbane works that reflected city life and a population that was more urban than rural in America as it entered the new century.
Robert Henri (a member of the Aschan School), Snow in New York 1902, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.

probably contributed to even more diversity of styles than in other countries. In the "Munich School," Karl von Piloty was a leading academic painter of history subjects in the latter part of the century who taught in Munich. Among Piloty's more famous pupils were Hans

Figure 35.17 Snow in New York

The family of the painter Carl Begas, 1808, celebrating domesticity in Biedermeier style

Makart, Franz von Lenbach, Franz Defregger, Gabriel von Max, and Eduard von Grtzner. The Berlin Secession was a group founded in 1898 by painters including Max Liebermann, who broadly shared the artistic approach of Manet and the French Impressionists. Despite splits, the group survived until the 1930s, and its regular exhibitions helped launch the next two generations of Berlin artists without imposing a particular style. Near the end of the century, the Benedictine Beuron Art School developed a style in rather muted

While some scholars have argued that American Realism was a Neoclassical movement borrowing from ancient classical

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interpretations of art and architecture, American Realists were less reflective on the antiquities than they were attempting to record the grit and urban life of the early twentieth century in America. From the late nineteenth to the early twentieth centuries, the United States experienced enormous industrial, economic, social, and cultural changes. A continuous wave of European immigration and the rising potential for international trade brought increasing growth and prosperity to America. Through art, American Realism attempted to portray the exhaustion and cultural exuberance of the figurative American landscape and the life of ordinary Americans at home. Artists used the feelings, textures, and sounds of the city to influence the color, texture, and look of their creative projects (Figure 35.17). The Ashcan School was one of the founding movements that created the core of the new American Modernism in the visual arts. Ashcan School was a group of New York City artists who sought to capture the feel of turn-of-the-twentieth-century New York City, through
Figure 35.18 Shinn Henri Sloan Ashcan School artists, c. 1896. Left to right: Everett Shinn, Robert Henri, John French Sloan.

realistic portraits of everyday life (Figure 35.18). These artists not only depicted the rich and promising Fifth Avenue socialites, but the immigrants and working classes in richly textured ways.
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Pre-Raphaelites
The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (also known as the Pre-Raphaelites) was a group of English painters, poets, and critics, founded in 1848.
KEY POINTS

Stephens and Thomas Woolner to form a seven-member "brotherhood." The group's intention was to reform art by rejecting an approach that they considered mechanistic, one that was first adopted by the Mannerist artists who succeeded Raphael and Michelangelo. Its members believed the Classical poses and elegant compositions of Raphael in particular had been a corrupting influence on the academic teaching of art, hence the name "PreRaphaelite". The Pre-Raphaelites wanted a return to the abundant detail, intense colours and complex compositions of Quattrocento Italian and Flemish art. The Pre-Raphaelites defined themselves as a reform movement, created a distinct name for their form of art, and published a periodical, The Germ, to promote their ideas. The brotherhood's early doctrines emphasized the personal responsibility of individual artists to determine their own ideas and methods of depiction. Influenced by romanticism, the PreRaphaelites thought freedom and responsibility were inseparable. Nevertheless, they were particularly fascinated by medieval culture, believing it to possess a spiritual and creative integrity that had been lost in later eras. The emphasis on medieval culture clashed with principles of realism, which stress the independent observation of nature. In its early stages, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood believed its two interests were consistent with one another, but in later years the movement divided and moved in two directions. The realists were led by Hunt and Millais, while the medievalists were

The group's intention was to reform art by rejecting what it considered the mechanistic approach first adopted by the Mannerist artists who succeeded Raphael and Michelangelo. They believed the Classical poses and elegant compositions of Raphael in particular had been a corrupting influence on the academic teaching of art, hence the name "Pre-Raphaelite". !They wanted a return to the abundant detail, intense colours and complex compositions of Quattrocento Italian art. Influenced by romanticism, the Pre-Raphaelites thought freedom and responsibility were inseparable. Nevertheless, they were particularly fascinated by medieval culture, believing it to possess a spiritual and creative integrity that had been lost in later eras.

The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (also known as the PreRaphaelites) was a group of English painters, poets, and critics, founded in 1848 by William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. The three founders were soon joined by William Michael Rossetti, James Collinson, Frederic George

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led by Rossetti and his followers, Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris. The split was never absolute, since both factions believed that art was essentially spiritual in character, opposing their idealism to the materialist realism associated with Courbet and impressionism. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was greatly influenced by nature and its members used great detail to show the natural world using bright and sharp focus techniques on a white canvas. In attempts to revive the brilliance of colour found in
Ophelia, by John Everett Millais reects the Pre-Raphaelite use of brilliance of color in composition. Figure 35.19 Ophelia

1849) were exhibited at the Royal Academy. Rossetti's Girlhood of Mary Virgin was shown at a Free Exhibition on Hyde Park Corner. As agreed, all members of the brotherhood signed their work with their name and the
Figure 35.20 Christ in the House of His Parents

initials "PRB." In 1850 the PreRaphaelite Brotherhood became the subject of controversy after the exhibition of Millais's painting, Christ in the House of His Parents, considered to be blasphemous by many reviewers, notably Charles

Quattrocento art, Hunt and Millais developed a technique of painting in thin glazes of pigment over a wet white ground in the hope that the colours would retain jewel-like transparency and clarity. Their emphasis on brilliance of color was a reaction to the excessive use of bitumen by earlier British artists (Figure 35.19). Bitumen produces unstable areas of muddy darkness, an effect the Pre-Raphaelites despised. The first exhibitions of Pre-Raphaelite work occurred in 1849. Both Millais's Isabella (18481849) and Holman Hunt's Rienzi (1848

Pre-Raphaelite Millais's painting, Christ in the House of His Parents, was considered to be blasphemous by many reviewers, notably Charles Dickens, who said"Millais made the Holy Family look like alcoholics and slum-dwellers, adopting contorted and absurd "medieval" poses.

Dickens. The brotherhood's medievalism was attacked as backwardlooking and its extreme devotion to detail was condemned as ugly and jarring to the eye. According to Dickens, Millais made the Holy Family look like alcoholics and slum-dwellers, adopting contorted and absurd "medieval" poses (Figure 35.20)

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After 1856, Dante Gabriel Rossetti became an inspiration for the medievalising strand of the movement. He was the link between the two types of Pre-Raphaelite painting (nature and romance) after the PRB became lost in the late 1800s. Rossetti, although the least committed to the brotherhood, continued the name and changed its style. He began painting versions of women using models like Jane Morris, in paintings such as Proserpine, after the Pre-Raphaelites had disbanded. Since the Pre-Raphaelites were fixed on portraying subjects with near-photographic precisionthough with a distinctive attention to detailed surface-patternstheir work was devalued by many painters and critics. For instance, after the First World War, British Modernists associated Pre-Raphaelite art with the repressive and backward times in which they grew up.
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Section 6

Impressionism

Landscape Figure Modern Life

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Landscape
Impressionists painted outdoors, capturing the shifting conditions of landscapes exposed to the natural elements, mainly sunlight.
KEY POINTS

colors that took precedence over lines and contours. They typically painted scenes of modern life and often painted outdoors. The impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air. Typically, they portrayed overall visual effects instead of details, and used short, "broken" brush strokes of mixed and unmixed color to achieve an effect of intense color vibration. Impressionist painting is characterized by the following traits: Short, thick strokes painted quickly to capture the essence of a subject, rather than its details Colors applied side by side with as little mixing as possible, creating a vibrant surface, in which the optical mixing of colors occurs in the eye of the viewer Open composition Emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time)

The term "impressionism" is derived from the title of Claude Monet's painting, Impression, soleil levant ("Impression, Sunrise"). Alfred Sisley's landscapes capture the transient effects of sunlight and strongly invoke a sense of atmosphere. Camille Pissarro championed the depiction of the French countryside and captured the daily reality of village life without idealizing it. Claude Monet's "series" paintings depict the same subject in varying light and weather conditions, depending on the time of day.

Impressionism Impressionism is a nineteenth century art movement that was originated by a group of Paris-based artists, including Claude Monet, August Renoir, Edgar Degas, Camille Pissarro, and Alfred Sisley. These artists constructed their pictures with freely brushed

Close attention is paid to the reflection of colors from object to object Common, ordinary subject matter Inclusion of movement as a crucial element of human perception and experience

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 Unusual visual angles inspired by photography Landscape Painting The genre of landscape painting dates back well over a thousand years. The term refers to the depiction of natural scenery, such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests, and especially to art where the main subject is a wide view in which natural elements are arranged in a coherent composition. In other genres, the landscape behind figures can still be an important part of the work. In landscape painting, the sky is almost always included in the view, as are weather phenomena. Within the Western tradition of painting, impressionists transformed the landscape genre significantly. By painting en plein air, they used spontaneity, sunlight, and color to capture the shifting conditions of a vista exposed to the natural elements.
Camille Pissarro (18301903)"Oil on canvas, 32.1 ( 39.4 in Figure 35.21 Pontoise, 1867

Camille Pissarro Camille Pissarro was a stylistic forerunner of Impressionism, especially in his depiction of landscapes. After a year in Paris, he began to leave the city to paint scenes in the countryside and to capture the daily reality of village life. He found the French countryside worthy of being painted and approached the scenery in a simple and natural way, without idealizing the life of country people. As a result, some of his paintings showed scenes of muddy, dirty, and unkempt settings (Figure 35.21). Alfred Sisley Alfred Sisley concentrated on landscapes more consistently than
Figure 35.22 Les rgates Moseley, 1874

any other impressionist painter, but he has been overshadowed by the work of Claude Monet. Sisley was dedicated to painting landscape en plein air and never deviated into figure painting, like some of his

Alfred Sisley (18391899)"Oil on canvas

fellow impressionists. His

work captures the transient effects of sunlight and his skies were always impressive. Sisley's landscapes strongly invoke a feeling of

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atmosphere, as can be seen in his work, Les rgates Moseley (1874, Figure 35.22). Claude Monet Claude Monet is considered the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the Impressionist philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature, especially as applied to plein air landscape painting. The term, "impressionism," is derived from the title of his painting Impression, soleil levant ("Impression, Sunrise"). Monet's technique was intuitive and spontaneous. His landscapes are filled with sunlight and his water vistas, full of reflections, offer a wide range of visual effects. Monet, along with fellow artist Auguste Renoir, took Impressionism to its maturity. In the late 1860s, through the practice of painting light and water en plein air, both artists discovered that the color of
Claude Monet (18401926) Oil on canvas, 32.1 ( 36.4 in Figure 35.23 London, Houses of Parliament. The Sun Shining through the Fog, 1904

shadows is not brown or black, but the reflected color of the objects surrounding them, an effect today known as diffuse reflection. Several pairs of paintings exist in which Renoir and Monet, working side by side, depicted the same scenes. Beginning in the 1880s and 1890s, through the end of his life in 1926, Monet worked on "series" paintings, in which a subject was depicted in varying light and weather conditions, depending on the time of day. His first series in this method was of haystacks, painted from different points of view and at different times of the day. He later produced several series of paintings including Rouen Cathedral, Poplars, Parliament (Figure 35.23), Mornings on the Seine, and Water Lilies, all of which were painted on his property at Giverny, France.
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Figure
Impressionist painters portrayed ordinary subjects in a simple, natural, and realistic style, breaking the traditional canon of painting.
KEY POINTS

Impressionism Impressionism is a 19th-century art movement originated by group of Paris-based artists, including Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir, Edgar Degas, Camille Pissarro, and Alfred Sisley. These artists constructed their pictures from freely brushed colors that took precedence over lines and contours. They also painted scenes of modern life, and often painted outdoors. The impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air. They portrayed overall visual effects instead of details, and used short "broken" brush strokes of mixed and pure unmixed color to achieve an effect of intense color vibration. Impressionist painting is characterized by: Short, thick strokes of paint quickly capture the essence of the subject, rather than its details. Colors are applied side-by-side with as little mixing as possible, creating a vibrant surface. The optical mixing of colors occurs in the eye of the viewer. Open composition. Emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of

Impressionism is a late 19th-century French art movement dedicated to defining transitory visual impressions painted directly from nature, with light and color of primary importance. Artist Edouard Manet insisted that a painter be "resolutely of his own time" and that he paint what he sees. Edgar Degas' work offered an original observation of the human figure in contemporary life by his mastery in the depiction of movement, by cropping subjects awkwardly and choosing unusual or off-center viewpoints, and by using a naturalistic style. Auguste Renoir's paintings are notable for their vibrant light and saturated color, most often focusing on people in intimate and candid compositions, and especially in his mastery of the female nude.

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time). Close attention is paid to the reflection of colors from object to object. Common, ordinary subject matter. Inclusion of movement as a crucial element of human perception and experience. Unusual visual anglesinspired by photography. Painting the Human Figure Impressionist painters championed the depiction of contemporary subjects, such as dancers and women in the entertainment industry, the bourgeoisie in cafs, and casual spectators of the modern life. Captured in a realistic fashion, as they-were-seen by the artists, the portrayal of these ordinary subjects represents one of the main breaks with the traditional canon of painting campaigned by the rebellious impressionists. Edouard Manet Edouard Manet is consider by most a transitional figure from Realism to Impressionism. His early masterworks, like Olympia (Figure 35.24), engendered great controversy and served as rallying points for the young painters who would create Impressionism. Today, these are considered watershed paintings that mark the genesis of modern art.

Manet insisted that a painter be "resolutely of his own time" and that he paint what he sees. In Olympia he purposefully deviates from the academic canon in its style, characterized by broad, quick brushstrokes, studio lighting that eliminates mid-tones, large color surfaces and shallow depth. Instead of a smooth idealized nude, Manet harsh light. Olympia's body as well as her gaze is unabashedly confrontational. She defiantly looks out as her servant offers flowers from one of her male suitors. Although her hand rests on her leg, hiding her pubic area, the reference to traditional female virtue is ironic; a notion of modesty is notoriously absent in this work. A number of details identify her as a courtesanthe orchid in her hair, her bracelet, pearl earrings and the oriental shawl on which she lies, symbols of wealth and sensuality.
Edouard Manet (18321883) Figure 35.24 Olympia 1863

painted a woman whose nakedness is starkly emphasized by the

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Besides nude female figures, he painted other contemporary subjects such as beggars, singers, Gypsies, people in cafs, and bullfighters. Edgar Degas Edgar Degas is regarded as one of the founders of Impressionism although he rejected the term, and preferred to be called a realist. A superb draftsman, he is especially identified with the subject of dance, and over half of his works depict dancers. These display his
Figure 35.25 Woman in the Bath, 1886

milliners, and laundresses, and at times blur the distinction between portraiture and genre pieces. Auguste Renoir Auguste Renoir was a French artist who was a leading painter in the development of the impressionist style. Renoir's paintings are
Figure 35.26 Seating girl, 1883

notable for their vibrant light and saturated color, most often focusing on people in intimate and candid compositions, such as women bathing. The female nude was one of his primary subjects (Figure 35.26). In characteristic impressionist style, Renoir suggested the details of a scene through freely brushed touches of color, so that his figures softly fuse with one another and their

mastery in the depiction of movement, as do his racecourse subjects and female nudes (Figure 35.25). His portraits are notable for their psychological complexity and depiction of human isolation.In his early paintings, he already evidenced the mature style that he would later develop more fully by cropping subjects awkwardly
Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841-1919)

surroundings. The warm sensuality of

Renoir's style made his paintings some of the most well-known and frequently reproduced works in the history of art.
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Edgar Degas"(18341917)

and by choosing unusual or off-center viewpoints. With meticulous naturalism, his work offered an original observation of the human figure in contemporary life. He would paint women at work,

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Modern Life
Impressionist painters captured genre scenes of contemporary life, demolishing the traditional hierarchy of subject matter in painting.

precedence over lines and contours. They also painted scenes of modern life, and often painted outdoors. The impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air. They portrayed overall visual effects instead of details, and used short "broken" brush strokes of mixed and pure unmixed color to achieve an effect of intense color vibration (Figure 35.27).

KEY POINTS

Impressionism is a late 19th-century French art movement dedicated to defining transitory visual impressions painted directly from nature, with light and color of primary importance. Impressionists, a group of Paris-based artists, challenged traditional standards of painting held by the Acadmie des Beaux-Arts by organizing their independent exhibitions. Photography inspired impressionists to represent momentary action, not only in the fleeting lights of a landscape, but also in the day-to-day lives of people.

Impressionist painting is characterized by: Short, thick strokes of paint quickly capture the essence of the subject, rather than its details. Colors are applied side-by-side with as little mixing as possible, creating a vibrant surface. The optical mixing of colors occurs in the eye of the viewer. Open composition. Emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time). Close attention is paid to the reflection of colors from

Impressionism Impressionism is a 19th-century art movement originated by group of Paris-based artists, including Claude Monet, August Renoir, Edgar Degas, Camille Pissarro, and Alfred Sisley. These artists constructed their pictures from freely brushed colors that took

object to object. Common, ordinary subject matter. Inclusion of movement as a crucial element of human perception and experience.

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 Unusual visual anglesinspired by photography. A Group of Rebels: Breaking with the Acadmie Radicals in their time, early impressionists violated the rules of academic painting. In 19th-century France the Acadmie des BeauxArts ("Academy of Fine Arts") dominated French art. The Acadmie was the preserver of traditional French painting standards of content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued (landscape and still life were not), and the Acadmie preferred carefully finished images that looked realistic when examined closely.
Camille Pissarro (18301903) Oil on canvas, 29.1 ( 36.5 in. Figure 35.27 Boulevard Montmartre,!1897

Anonyme Cooprative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs ("Cooperative and Anonymous Association of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers") to exhibit their artworks independently. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874
Figure 35.28 Dancer Taking a Bow (The Star), 1878

at the studio of the French photographer and caricaturist Nadar. The critical response was mixed. Critic and humorist Louis Leroy wrote a scathing review in the newspaper Le Charivari in which, making wordplay with the title of Claude Monet's Impression, soleil levant ("Impression, Sunrise"), he gave the

Color was somber and conservative, and traces of brush strokes were suppressed, concealing the artist's personality, emotions, and working techniques. Impressionist painters could not afford to wait for France to accept their work, so they established their own exhibitionapart from the annual salon organized by the Acadmie. During the latter part of 1873, Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, and Sisley organized the Socit

Edgar Degas (18341917) Pastel and gouache on paper, 31.9 0 26 in

artists the name by which they became known. The term "impressionists"

quickly gained favor with the public. It was also accepted by the artists themselves, even though they were a diverse group in style and temperament, unified primarily by their spirit of independence and rebellion. They exhibited together eight times between 1874

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and 1886. The individual artists achieved few financial rewards from the impressionist exhibitions, but their art gradually won a degree of public acceptance and support. Their dealer, Paul Durand-Ruel, played a major role in this as he kept their work before the public and arranged shows for them in London and New York. The impressionists challenged the Academys category codes. The Academy deemed that only history painting was great painting, but these young artists opened the door to dismantling this hierarchy of subject matter. They believed that landscapes and genres scenes were worthy and important. Common Subjects: Contemporary Life The Impressionists captured ordinary subjects, specially the pastimes of modern life. Scenes from the bourgeois care-free lifestyle, as well as from the world of entertainment, such as cafs, dance halls, and theaters were among their favorite subjects (Figure 35.28). In their genre scenes of contemporary life, these artists tried to arrest a moment in their fast-paced lives by pinpointing specific atmospheric conditionslight flickering on water, moving clouds, city lights falling over dancing couples (Figure 35.30). Their technique tried to capture what they saw.

Figure 35.29 douard Manet (18321883) Oil on canvas, 37.8 & 51.2 in

douard Manet (18321883) Oil on canvas, 37.8 ( 51.2 in

Impressionist artists relaxed the boundary between subject and background so that the effect of an impressionist painting often resembles a snapshot, a part of a larger reality captured as if by chance. Photography was gaining popularity, and as cameras became more portable, photographs became more candid. Photography inspired impressionists to represent momentary action, not only in the fleeting lights of a landscape, but also in the day-to-day lives of people (Figure 35.29).

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The development of Impressionism can be considered partly as a reaction by artists to the challenge presented by photography, which seemed to devalue the artist's skill in reproducing reality. In spite of this, photography actually inspired artists to pursue other means of artistic expression, and rather than compete with photography to emulate reality, impressionists sought to express their
Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841-1919)"Oil on canvas, 51.6 ( 68.9 in Figure 35.30 Le Moulin de la Galette, 1876

perceptions of nature and modern city life.

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Section 7

Rise of Modernism

Post-Impressionism Britain Symbolism French Sculpture Art Noveau Cezanne

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Post-Impressionism
Post-Impression refers to a genre that rejected the naturalism of Impressionism in favor of using color and form in more expressive manners.
KEY POINTS

more expressive manners. The term "Post-Impressionism" was coined by the British artist and art critic Roger Fry in 1910 to describe the development of French art since Manet. PostImpressionists extended Impressionism while rejecting its limitations. For example, they continued using vivid colors, thick application of paint, distinctive brush strokes, and real-life subject matter, but they were also more inclined to emphasize geometric forms, distort forms for expressive effect, and to use unnatural or arbitrary colors in their compositions. Significant Artists of Post-Impressionism Post-Impressionism developed from Impressionism. From the 1880s onward, several artists, including Vincent Van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat, and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, envisioned different precepts for the use of color, pattern, form, and line, deriving these new directions from the Impressionist example. These artists were slightly younger than the Impressionists, and their work contemporaneously became known as PostImpressionism. Some of the original Impressionist artists also ventured into this new territory. Camille Pissarro briefly painted in a pointillist manner, and even Monet abandoned strict plein air painting. Paul Czanne, who participated in the first and third Impressionist exhibitions, developed a highly individual vision emphasizing pictorial structure; he is most often called a post-

Post-Impressionists extended the use of vivid colors, thick application of paint, distinctive brush strokes, and real-life subject matter, and were more inclined to emphasize geometric forms, distort forms for expressive effect, and to use unnatural or arbitrary colors in their compositions. Although they were often exhibited together, PostImpressionist artists were not in agreement concerning a cohesive movement, and younger painters in the early twentieth century worked in geographically disparate regions and in various stylistic categories, such as Fauvism and Cubism. The term "Post-Impressionism" was coined by the British artist and art critic Roger Fry in 1910, to describe the development of French art since Manet.

Move from Naturalism Post-Impression refers to a genre of painting that rejected the naturalism of Impressionism, in favor of using color and form in

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Figure 35.31 A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte

Czanne set out to restore a sense of order and structure to painting by reducing objects to their basic shapes while retaining the bright fresh colours of Impressionism. Vincent van Gogh used vibrant colors and swirling brush strokes to convey his feelings and his state of mind (Figure 35.32). Hence, although they were often exhibited together, Post-Impressionist artists were not in agreement concerning a cohesive movement, and younger painters in the early twentieth century worked in geographically disparate regions and in various stylistic categories, such as Fauvism and Cubism.
Figure 35.32 Wheat Field with Crows

Georges Seurat's works are Pointilist, using systematic dots of color to create form and structure.

Impressionist. Although these cases illustrate the difficulty of assigning labels, the work of the original Impressionist painters may, by definition, be categorized as Impressionism. A Diverse Search for Direction The Post-Impressionists were dissatisfied with the triviality of subject matter and the loss of structure in Impressionist paintings, although they did not agree on the way forward. Georges Seurat and his followers, for instance, concerned themselves with Pointillism, the systematic use of tiny dots of colour (Figure 35.31). Paul
Vincent Van Gogh used swirling brush strokes in many of his Post-Impressionist works.

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Britain
Before World War I, British modernism developed unevenly, and mostly through the short-lived Vorticism movement.

both cherished and vilified by artists and critics. For example, Impressionism was initially regarded by many conservative critics as a "subversive foreign influence" but became "fully assimilated" into British art during the early twentieth century. Before World War I, British modernism developed unevenly and mostly through the shortlived Vorticism movement. Vorticism, an offshoot of Cubism, was a brief modernist movement in British art and poetry of the early make-up and ambition.
The cover of the 1915 BLAST demonstrates the Vorticism Movement's use of geometric style and sharp angles in print and design. Figure 35.33 BLAST Cover

KEY POINTS

The term "Vorticism" was given to the movement by Ezra Pound in 1913, although Wyndham Lewis, usually seen as the central figure in the movement, had been producing paintings in the same style for a year or so previously. The movement was announced in 1914 in its first issue of BLAST, Vorticism's official literary magazine, which contained its manifesto and declared the movement's rejection of landscape and nudes in favour of a geometric style tending towards abstraction. Vorticism diverged from Cubism and Futurism. It tried to capture movement in an image. In a Vorticist paintings, modern life is shown as an array of bold lines and harsh colors drawing the viewer's eye into the center of the canvas.

twentieth century. It was based in London but was international in

In many respects, the Victorian artistic era continued in Britain until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. As a result, the Royal Academy became increasingly ossified and British attitudes toward modern art were polarized at the end of the nineteenth century:

The term "Vorticism" was given to the movement by Ezra Pound in 1913, although Wyndham Lewis, usually seen as the central figure in the movement, had been producing paintings in the same style for a year or so previously. The movement was announced in 1914 in its

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first issue of BLAST, Vorticism's official literary magazine, which contained its manifesto and declared the movement's rejection of landscape and nudes in favor of a geometric style tending towards abstraction. The Vorticists published two issues of the literary magazine BLAST, edited by Lewis, in June 1914 and July 1915 (Figure 35.33). It contained work by Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, and by the Vorticists themselves. Its typographical adventurousness was cited by El Lissitzky as one of the major forerunners of the revolution in graphic design in the 1920s and 1930s. The Vorticism group began with the Rebel Art Centre established by Lewis as a break with other traditional schools, and had its intellectual and artistic roots in the Bloomsbury Group, Cubism, and Futurism. Lewis saw Vorticism as an independent alternative to Cubism, Futurism, and Expressionism. Though the style grew out of Cubism, it is more closely related to Futurism in its embrace of dynamism, the machine age, and all things modern. However,
Lawrence Atkinson, one of the signatories of BLAST, painted The Lake (pen and watercolor on paper) circa 1915-20 inspired by Vorticism. Figure 35.34 The Lake

Vorticism diverged from both Cubism and Futurism in the way it tried to capture movement in an image. In Vorticist paintings, modern life is shown as an array of bold lines and harsh colors drawing the viewer's eye into the center of the canvas (Figure 35. 34). Paintings and sculpture shown at the Rebel Art Centre in 1914, before the formation of the Vorticist Group, were considered an "experimental work" by Lewis, Wadsworth, Shakespear and others, who used angular simplification and abstraction in their paintings. This work was contemporary with and comparable to abstraction by continental European artists such as Kandinski, Franti1ek Kupka, and the Russian Rayist Group. The Vorticists held only one official exhibition in 1915 at the Dor Gallery in London. After this, the movement broke up, largely due to the onset of World War I and public apathy towards their work.
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Symbolism
Symbolism was a late 19th-century art movement of French, Russian, and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts.
KEY POINTS

A Move Toward Meaning Symbolism was a late 19th century art movement of French, Russian, and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts. The name "symbolist" itself was first applied by the critic Jean Moras, who invented the term to distinguish the symbolists from the related decadent movement of literature and of art. Distinct from, but related to, the symbolist style of literature, symbolism of art is related to the gothic component of Romanticism The term "symbolism" is derived from the word "symbol" which derives from the Latin symbolum, a symbol of faith, and symbolus, a sign of recognition. Symbolism was largely a reaction against naturalism and realism, anti-idealistic styles which were attempts to represent reality in its gritty particularity, and to elevate the humble and the ordinary over the ideal. Symbolism, on the other hand, favored spirituality, the imagination, and dreams. A Search for Hidden Truth Symbolists believed that art should represent absolute truths that could only be described indirectly. Thus, they wrote and painted in a very metaphorical and suggestive manner, endowing particular images or objects with symbolic meaning. Jean Moras published the Symbolist Manifesto ("Le Symbolisme") in Le Figaro on 18 September 1886 (see 1886 in poetry). Moras announced that

Symbolism was largely a reaction against naturalism and realism, anti-idealistic styles which were attempts to represent reality in its gritty particularity, and to elevate the humble and the ordinary over the ideal. Symbolism, on the other hand, favored spirituality, the imagination, and dreams. Symbolists believed that art should represent absolute truths that could only be described indirectly. Thus, they wrote and painted in a very metaphorical and suggestive manner, endowing particular images or objects with symbolic meaning. In other words, symbolism expressed scenes from nature, human activities, and all other real world phenomena that are not depicted for their own sake, but rather as perceptible surfaces created to represent their esoteric affinities with primordial ideals.

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symbolism was hostile to "plain meanings, declamations, false sentimentality and matter-of-fact description," and that its goal was to "clothe the Ideal in a perceptible form" whose "goal was not in
Figure 35.35 La mort du fossoyeur

matter (Figure 35.36), while the Decadents cultivated prcieux, ornamented, or hermetic styles, and morbid subject matters. The symbolist painters were an important influence on expressionism and surrealism in painting, two movements which descend directly from symbolism proper. The harlequins, paupers, and clowns of Pablo Picasso's "Blue Period" show the influence of symbolism, and especially of Puvis de Chavannes. In Belgium, symbolism became so popular that it came to be thought of as a national style: the static strangeness of painters like Ren Magritte can be considered as a direct continuation of symbolism. The work of some symbolist visual artists, such as Jan Toorop, directly affected the curvilinear forms of art nouveau.
Figure 35.36 The Caress

itself, but whose sole purpose was to express the Ideal." In other words, symbolism expressed scenes from nature, human activities, and all other real world phenomena not for their own sake, but as perceptible surfaces created to represent their esoteric affinities with primordial ideals (Figure 35.35). The symbolist style has

La mort du fossoyeur ("The death of the gravedigger") by Carlos Schwabe is a visual compendium of symbolist motifs. Death and angels, pristine snow, and the dramatic poses of the characters all express symbolist longings for transguration "anywhere, out of the world."

frequently been confused with decadence and, by the late 1880s, the terms "symbolism" and "decadence" were understood to be almost synonymous. Though the aesthetics of the styles can be
Belgian symbolist Fernand Khnop!'s The Caress

considered similar in some ways, the two remain distinct. The symbolists emphasized dreams, ideals, and fantastical subject

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French Sculpture
Modern sculpture is generally considered to have begun with the work of French sculptor Auguste Rodin.
KEY POINTS

kind of stately grandiosity. Several different directions in the classical tradition were taken as the century turned, but the study of the live model and the post-Renaissance tradition was still fundamental. Modern classicism showed a lesser interest in naturalism and a greater interest in formal stylization. Greater attention was paid to the rhythms of volumes and spacesas well as greater attention to the contrasting qualities of surface (open, closed, planar, broken, etc.) while less attention was paid to storytelling and convincing details of anatomy or costume. Greater attention was given to psychological effect than to physical realism, and influences from earlier styles worldwide were used. Modern sculpture, along with all modern art, "arose as part of Western society's attempt to come to terms with the urban, industrial and secular society that emerged during the nineteenth century". Rodin's Influence Modern sculpture is generally considered to have begun with the work of French sculptor Auguste Rodin. Rodin, often considered a sculptural Impressionist, did not set out to rebel against artistic traditions, however, he incorporated novel ways of building his sculpture that defied classical categories and techniques. Specifically, Rodin modeled complex, turbulent, deeply pocketed surfaces into clay. Also, many of his most notable sculptures clashed with the predominant figure sculpture tradition, in which works

Rodin modeled complex, turbulent, deeply pocketed surfaces into clay and many of his most notable sculptures clashed with the predominant figure sculpture tradition, in which works were decorative, formulaic, or highly thematic. Rodin's most original work departed from traditional themes of mythology and allegory, in favor of modeling the human body with realism, and celebrating individual character and physicality. It was the freedom and creativity with which Rodin used these practices, along with his more open attitude toward bodily pose, sensual subject matter, and non-realistic surface, that marked the re-making of traditional 19th century sculptural techniques into the prototype for modern sculpture.

French Sculpture Modern classicism contrasted in many ways with the classical sculpture of the nineteenth century, which was characterized by commitments to naturalism, the melodramatic, sentimentality, or a

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were decorative, formulaic, or highly thematic. Rodin's most original work departed from traditional themes of mythology and allegory, in favor of modeling the human body with realism, and celebrating individual character and physicality. Rodin was a naturalist, less concerned with monumental expression than with character and emotion. Departing with centuries of tradition, he turned away from the idealism of the Greeks and the decorative beauty of the Baroque and neoBaroque movements. His sculpture emphasized the individual and the concreteness of flesh, suggesting emotion through detailed, textured surfaces, and the interplay of light and shadow. To a greater degree than his contemporaries, Rodin believed that an individual's character was revealed by his physical features. Rodin's talent for surface modeling allowed him to let every part of the body speak for the
Rodin's The Thinker (18791889) is among the most recognized works in all of early modernist sculpture. Figure 35.37 "The Thinker" by Auguste Rodin

whole. The male's passion in The Kiss, for example, is suggested by the grip of his toes on the rock, the rigidness of his back, and the differentiation of his hands (Figure 35.37). Rodin saw suffering and conflict as hallmarks of modern art. He states that "nothing, really, is more moving than the maddened beast, dying from unfulfilled desire and asking in vain for grace to quell its passion." Rodin's major innovation was to capitalize on such multistaged processes of nineteenth century sculpture and their reliance on plaster casting. Since clay deteriorates rapidly if not kept wet or fired into a terra-cotta, sculptors used plaster casts as a means of securing the composition they would make out of the fugitive material that is clay. This was common practice among Rodin's contemporaries: sculptors would exhibit plaster
The Walking man is composed of two fragments of sculpture that Rodin combined into a single work without masking the fusion of these disparate forms. Figure 35.38 The Walking Man

casts with the hopes that they would be commissioned to have the works made in a more permanent material. Rodin, however, would

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have multiple plasters made and treat them as the raw material of sculpture, recombining their parts and figures into new compositions, and new names. As Rodin's practice developed into the 1890s, he became more and more radical in his pursuit of fragmentation, the combination of figures at different scales, and the making of new compositions from his earlier work. The Walking Man A prime example of this radical practices is the Walking Man (18991900, Figure 35.38). It is composed of two sculptures from the 1870s that Rodin found in his studio a broken and damaged torso that had fallen into neglect and the lower extremities of a statuette version of his 1878 St. John the Baptist Preaching he was having re-sculpted at a reduced scale. Without finessing the join between upper and lower, between torso and legs, Rodin created a work that many sculptors at the time, and subsequently, have seen as one of his strongest and most singular works. This is despite the fact that the object conveys two different styles, exhibits two different attitudes toward finish, and lacks any attempt to hide the arbitrary fusion of these two components. It was the freedom and creativity with which Rodin used these practices along with his activation of the surfaces of sculptures through traces of his own touch that marked Rodin's re-making of traditional nineteenth

century sculptural techniques into the prototype for modern sculpture.

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Art Noveau
Art Nouveau is an international style of art (especially the decorative arts) and architecture that was most popular from 18901910.

Background Art Nouveau is an international style of art and architecture that was most popular from 18901910 AD. The name "Art Nouveau" is French for "new art". A reaction to academic art of the nineteenth century, it was inspired by natural
Figure 35.39 Art Nouveau: Barcelona

KEY POINTS

forms and structures, not only in flowers and plants, but also in curved lines. It is also considered a philosophy of furniture design. Art Nouveau furniture is structured according to the whole building and made part of ordinary life. Art Nouveau was most popular in Europe, but its influence was global. It is a very varied style with frequent localized tendencies (Figure 35.39). Before the term "Art Nouveau" became common in France, le style moderne ("the modern style") was the more frequent designation. Maison de l'Art Nouveau was the name of the gallery initiated during 1895 by the German art dealer Samuel Bing in Paris that featured exclusively modern art. The fame of his gallery was
The Casa Batll, already built in 1877, was remodelled in the Barcelona manifestation of Art Nouveau, modernisme, by Antoni Gaud and Josep Maria Jujol during 19041906

A reaction to academic art of the nineteenth century, Art Nouveau was inspired by natural forms and structures, especially in curved lines. It is also considered a philosophy of furniture design, which was structured according to the whole building and made part of ordinary life. Art Nouveau is considered a "total style", meaning that it includes a hierarchy of scales of design architecture, interior design, decorative arts, and the visual arts. According to the philosophy of the style, art should strive to be a way of life. Artists thus desired to combine the fine arts and the applied arts, even for utilitarian objects. Art Nouveau is an international style of art (especially the decorative arts) and architecture that was most popular from 18901910. The name "Art Nouveau" is French for "new art". The origins of Art Nouveau are found in the resistance of the artist William Morris to the cluttered compositions and the revival tendencies of the nineteenth century: and his theories helped initiate the Arts Nouveau movement.

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increased at the 1900 Exposition Universelle, where he presented coordinated- in design and color- installations of modern furniture, tapestries and objets d'art. These decorative displays became so strongly associated with the style, that the name of his gallery subsequently provided a commonly used term for the entire style. Likewise, Jugend (Youth) was the illustrated weekly magazine of art and lifestyle of Munich, founded in 1896 by Georg Hirth. Jugend was instrumental in promoting the Art Nouveau style in Germany. As a result, its name was adopted as the most common German-language term for the style. Origins of Art Noveau The origins of Art Nouveau are found in the resistance of the artist William Morris to the cluttered compositions and revivalist tendencies of the nineteenth century. His theories helped initiate the Art Nouveau movement. About the same time, the flat perspective and strong colors of Japanese wood block prints, especially those of Katsushika Hokusai, had a strong effect on the formulation of Art Nouveau. The Japonisme that was popular in Europe during the 1880s and 1890s was particularly influential on many artists with its organic forms and references to the natural world. Although Art Nouveau acquired distinctly localized tendencies as its geographic spread increased, some general characteristics are

indicative of the form. A description published in Pan magazine of Hermann Obrist's wall hanging Cyclamen (1894), described it as
Figure 35.40 Etienne Pernet

"sudden violent curves generated by the crack of a whip", which became well known during the early spread of Art Nouveau. Subsequently, the term "whiplash" is frequently applied to the characteristic curves employed by Art Nouveau artists. Such decorative "whiplash" motifs, formed by dynamic, undulating, and flowing lines in a syncopated rhythm, are found throughout the architecture, painting, sculpture, and other forms of Art Nouveau design.

Art Nouveau is rarely so fully in control of architecture: doorway at place Etienne Pernet, 24 (Paris 15e), 1905 Alfred Wagon, architect.

Art Noveau as a Total Style Art Nouveau is now considered a "total style," meaning that it includes a hierarchy of scales of design architecture, interior design, decorative arts (including jewelry furniture, textiles, household silver and other utensils and lighting), and the visual arts. According to the philosophy of the style, art should strive to be

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a way of life. For many Europeans, it was possible to live in an Art Nouveau-inspired house with Art Nouveau furniture, silverware, crockery, jewelry, cigarette cases, etc. Artists thus desired to combine the fine arts and applied arts, even for utilitarian objects. Art Nouveau in architecture and interior design eschewed the eclectic revival styles of the nineteenth century. Art Nouveau designers selected and "modernized" some of the more abstract elements of Rococo style, such as flame and shell textures. They also advocated the use of very stylized organic forms as a source of inspiration, expanding their natural repertoire to use seaweed, grasses, and insects (Figure 35.40). In Art Nouveau painting, two-dimensional pieces were drawn and printed in popular forms such as advertisements, posters, labels, and magazines. Japanese wood-block prints, with their curved lines, patterned surfaces, contrasting voids, and flatness of visual plane, also inspired Art Nouveau painting. Some line and curve patterns became graphic clichs that were later found in works of artists from many parts of the world.
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Cezanne
Czanne was a French Post-Impressionism painter whose work highlights the transition from the 19th century to the early 20th century.
KEY POINTS

In Czanne's mature work there is solidified, almost architectural style of painting. To this end, he structurally ordered his perceptions into simple forms and color planes. This exploration rendered slightly different, yet simultaneous, visual perceptions of the same phenomena to provide the viewer with a different aesthetic experience. From his so-called "Dark Period" in 1861-1870, Cezanne's works are characterized by dark colors and the heavy use of black. The lightness of his Impressionist works contrast sharply with the dramatic resignation found in his final period of productivity from 1898-1905. This resignation informs several still life paintings that depict skulls as their subject.

Introduction Paul Czanne (18391906) was a French artist and PostImpressionism painter whose work began the transition from the 19th-century conception of artistic endeavor to a new and radically

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different world of art. Czanne's often repetitive brushstrokes are highly characteristic and clearly recognizable. He used planes of color and small brushstrokes to form complex fields and convey intense study of his subjects. Early Work Czanne's early work is often concerned with the figure in the landscape, often depicting groups of large, heavy figures. Later, he became more interested in working from direct observation,
Figure 35.41 The Black Marble Clock 18691871

gradually developing a light, airy painting style. Nevertheless, in Czanne's mature work, there is development of a solidified, almost architectural style of painting. To this end, he structurally ordered whatever he perceived into simple forms and color planes. Czanne was interested in the simplification of naturally occurring forms to their geometric essentials, wanting to "treat nature by the cylinder, the sphere, the cone." For example, a tree trunk may be conceived of as a cylinder and an apple or orange as a sphere. Additionally, Czanne's desire to capture the truth of perception led him to explore binocular graphic vision. This exploration rendered slightly different, yet simultaneous, visual perceptions of the same phenomena, providing the viewer with a different aesthetic experience of depth. Dark Period From his so-called "Dark Period" in 1861-1870, Cezanne's works are characterized by dark colors and the heavy use of black (Figure 35. 41). They differ sharply from his earlier watercolors and sketches at the cole Spciale de dessin at Aix-en-Provence in 1859. In 1866 67, inspired by the example of Courbet, Czanne painted a series of paintings with a palette knife. He later called these works, mostly portraits, une couillarde ("a coarse word for ostentatious virility"). All in all, works of the dark period include several erotic or violent

The Black Marble Clock, with it's heavy use of black and dark color, reects Cezanne's "Dark Period" in his early career.

subjects.

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After the start of the Franco-Prussian War in July 1870, Czanne's canvases grew much brighter and reflective of Impressionism
Figure 35.42 Jas de Bouffan, 1876.

Figure 35.43 Pyramid of Skulls

(Figure 35.42). Czanne moved between Paris and Provence, exhibiting in the first (1874) and third Impressionist shows (1877). In 1875, he attracted the attention of collector Victor Chocquet, whose commissions provided some financial

Under Pissarro's inuence, Cezanne's works became much brighter and Impressionist in style.

relief. On the whole, however, Czanne's

exhibited paintings attracted hilarity, outrage and sarcasm. The lightness of his Impressionist works contrast sharply with his dramatic resignation in his final period of productivity from 1898-1905. This resignation informs several still life paintings that depict skulls as their subject (Figure 35.43). Czanne's explorations of geometric simplification and optical phenomena inspired Picasso, Braque, Gris and others to experiment with ever more complex multiple views of the same subject. Czanne thus sparked one of the most revolutionary areas of artistic enquiry of the 20th century, one which was to affect the
Pyramid of Skulls, c. 1901, The dramatic resignation to death informs several still life paintings Czanne made between 1898 and 1905.

development of modern art. A prize for special achievement in the arts was created in his memory. The "Czanne medal" is granted by the French city of Aix en Provence.

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EXAMPLE

Through his work, Czanne sparked one of the most revolutionary areas of artistic enquiry of the 20th century, one which was to affect the development of modern art. A prize for special achievement in the arts was created in his memory. The "Czanne medal" is granted by the French city of Aix en Provence.

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Section 8

The Beginning of Modern Architecture

Structures and Technolgy Chicago School of Architecture Modern Architecture and Decoration

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Structures and Technology

Building materials spawned by the Industrial Revolution, such as iron, steel, and sheet glass, determined new architectural techniques.
KEY POINTS

Simplicity and clarity of forms and elimination of "unnecessary detail" Visual expression of structure (as opposed to the hiding of structural elements) The related concept of "Truth to materials," meaning that the true nature or natural appearance of a material ought to be seen rather than concealed or altered to represent something else Use of industrially-produced materials Adoption of the machine aesthetic, particularly in International Style modernism A visual emphasis on horizontal and vertical lines. Application of Themes With the Industrial Revolution, the increasing availability of

Among the common themes of modern architecture was the use of industrially-produced materials. In the 1830s Britisher Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction. Around 1900 a number of architects and designers around the world began developing new solutions to integrate traditional precedents (classicism or Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities.

Modern themes Common themes of modern architecture include: The notion that "Form follows function," a dictum originally expressed by Frank Lloyd Wright's early mentor Louis Sullivan, meaning that the result of design should derive directly from its purpose

new building materials such as iron, steel, and sheet glass drove the invention of equally new building techniques. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his "fireproof" design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flagstone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number

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of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction. This kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading the poet William Blake to describe places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire as "Dark satanic mills." The Crystal Palace, designed by Joseph Paxton for the Great Exhibition of 1851 (Figure 35.44), was an early example of iron and glass construction. It was followed in 1864 by the first glass and metal curtain wall. A further development was that of the steel-framed skyscraper in Chicago, introduced around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Modernist Schools Around 1900, a number of architects and designers around the world began developing new solutions to integrate traditional precedents (classicism or Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner and the Vienna Secession in Austria, and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new. The work of some of these were a part of what is broadly categorized as Art Nouveau (New Art). Note that the Russian word for Art Nouveau, 234-56,

and the Spanish word for Art Nouveau, Modernism, are cognates of the English word "Modern," though they carry different meanings. An early use of the term in print around this time that approached its later meaning can be found in the title of a book by Otto Wagner. The aftermath of the First World War would result in additional experimentation and ideas. Following the experiments in Art Nouveau and its related movements around the world, modernism in architecture and design grew out of stylistic threads originating throughout world.
Figure 35.44 The transept faade of the Crystal Palace The Crystal Palace, 1851, was one of the rst buildings to have vast amounts of glass supported by structural metal, foreshadowing trends in Modernist architecture.

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Chicago School of Architecture

The Chicago School of architecture is famous for promoting steel-frame construction and a modernist spatial aesthetic.

school of architects active in Chicago at the turn of the 20th century. They were among the first to promote the new technologies of steelframe construction in commercial buildings, and developed a spatial aesthetic which co-evolved with, and then came to influence, parallel developments in European Modernism. While the term Chicago School is widely used to describe buildings in the city during the 1880s and 1890s, this term has been disputed by scholars, in particular in reaction to Carl Condit's 1952 book The Chicago School of Architecture. Historians such as H. Allen Brooks, Winston Weisman and Daniel Bluestone have pointed out that the phrase suggests a unified set of aesthetic or conceptual precepts, when, in fact, Chicago buildings of the era displayed a wide variety of styles and techniques. Contemporary publications used the phrase Commercial Style to describe the innovative tall buildings of the era rather than proposing any sort of unified school. One of the distinguishing features of the Chicago School is the use of steel-frame buildings with masonry cladding (usually terra cotta), allowing large plate-glass window areas and limiting the amount of exterior ornamentation. Sometimes elements of neoclassical architecture are used in Chicago School skyscrapers. Many Chicago School skyscrapers contain the three parts of a classical column. The first floor functions as the base, the middle stories, usually with little ornamental detail, act as the shaft of the column, and the last

KEY POINTS

While the term "Chicago School" is widely used to describe buildings in the city during the 1880s and 1890s, Chicago buildings of the era displayed a wide variety of styles and techniques. One of the distinguishing features of the Chicago School is the use of steel-frame buildings with masonry cladding (usually terra cotta), allowing large plate-glass window areas and limiting the amount of exterior ornamentation. The "Chicago window" originated in this school. It is a threepart window consisting of a large fixed center panel flanked by two smaller double-hung sash windows.

Chicago School of Architecture Chicago's architecture is famous throughout the world and one style is referred to as the Chicago School. It is also known as Commercial style. In the history of architecture, the Chicago School was a

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floor or so represent the capital, with more ornamental detail and capped with a cornice. The "Chicago window" originated in this school (Figure 35.45). It is a three-part window consisting of a large fixed center panel flanked by two smaller double-hung sash windows. The arrangement of windows on the facade typically creates a grid pattern, with some projecting out from the facade forming bay windows. The Chicago window combined the functions of lightFigure 35.45 Chicago School window grid

gathering and natural ventilation; a single central pane was usually fixed, while the two surrounding panes were operable. These windows were often deployed in bays, known as oriel windows, that projected out over the street. Architects whose names are associated with the Chicago School include Henry Hobson Richardson, Dankmar Adler, Daniel Burnham, William Holabird, William LeBaron Jenney (Figure 35.46), Martin Roche, John Root, Solon S. Beman, and Louis Sullivan. Frank Lloyd Wright started in the firm of Adler and Sullivan but created his own Prairie Style of architecture.
Exterior of the Home Insurance Building by architect William Le Baron Jenney in Chicago, Illinois. Figure 35.46 The Home Insurance Building, which some regarded as the rst skyscraper in the world, was built in Chicago in 1885 and was demolished in 1931.

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The Chicago window combined the functions of light-gathering and natural ventilation; a single central pane was usually xed, while the two surrounding panes were operable.

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Modern Architecture and Decoration

Modern architecture adhered to Louis Sullivan's famous precept, "Form follows function," which meant the absence of ornamentation.
KEY POINTS

the concept of "function" in place of "utility". "Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception, and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural. Modern architecture is generally characterized by simplification of form and by the creation of ornament from the structure and theme of the building. It is a term applied to an overarching movement, with its exact definition and scope varying widely. In a broader sense, early modern architecture began at the turn of the 20th century with efforts to reconcile the principles underlying architectural design with rapid technological advancement and the modernization of society. It would take the form of numerous movements, schools of design, and architectural styles, some in tension with one another, and often equally defying such classification. The Industrial Revolution had introduced or popularized the use of steel, plate glass, and mass-produced components. These opened up a brave new world of bold structural frames, with clean lines and plain or shiny surfaces. In the early stages of modern architecture, a popular motto was "decoration is a crime." In Eastern Europe, the Communists rejected the West's decadent ways, and modernism developed in a markedly more bureaucratic, somber and monumental fashion.

"Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception, and enjoyment of a building, not only the practical aspects but also aesthetic, psychological, and cultural. Modern architecture is generally characterized by simplification of form and by the creation of ornament from the structure and theme of the building. In the early stages of Modern architecture, "decoration is a crime" was a popular motto.

A Revolution in Scale and Form The great 19th century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: "Form follows function". While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, it had the effect of introducing

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Figure 35.47 The AEG Turbinenfabrik ("turbine factory"), 1909, designed by Peter Behrens, illustrating the combination of industry and design.

The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative forms.
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The AEG Turbinenfabrik ("turbine factory"), 1909, designed by Peter Behrens, illustrating the combination of industry and design.

Some historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian and Edwardian architecture. Around the turn of the 20th century, a general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these are the philosophies of the Deutscher Werkbund and Bauhaus School (Figure 35.47).

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Section 9

Sculpture

Modern Sculpture

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Modern Sculpture
Modern sculpture arose symbiotically with similar artistic trends in painting, drawing and printmaking in Europe during the 1800s.
KEY POINTS

Modern Sculpture Modern sculpture arose symbiotically with similar artistic trends in painting and drawing in Europe during the 1800s, lasting until around 1950. While there is some disagreement among scholars as to the exact time period and definition of the term, it can be said that modernist artistic movements share a common trait of breaking with past ideals. Typically, modernist artists were concerned with the representation of contemporary issues as opposed to grand historical and allegorical themes previously favored in art. The Realist movement of the 1850s is often considered the beginning of modern painting, while the work of Rodin is seen as the progenitor of modern sculpture. Auguste Rodin Modern sculpture is widely considered to have begun in the 1800s with the work of the French artist Auguste Rodin (1840-1917), who is seen as the forefather of the movement. Rodin is credited with ushering in a new approach and subject matter to the creation of sculpture. He did not expressly set out to do so, however, since he was a proponent of traditional artistic conventions. Rodins work signified a departure from the traditional themes of mythology and allegory prevalent during his time, and instead modeled the human body with intense realism, celebrating the individual character, psychological states, and physicality of his subjects.

Modern sculpture is widely considered to have begun in the 1800s with the work of the French artist Auguste Rodin (1840-1917). Rodins work signified a departure from traditional themes of mythology and allegory that were prevalent during his time, and instead modeled the human body with intense realism, celebrating the individual character, psychological states and physicality of his subjects. The Rodin exhibit at the 1900 Paris Exposition Universelle (worlds fair) is widely believed to be the precise beginning of the modern sculptural movement. Sculptural movements that developed as a result of Modernism include: Art Nouveau, Cubism, Geometric Abstraction, De Stijl, Suprematism, Constructivism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Futurism, Formalism, Abstract Expressionism, Pop-Art and Minimalism among others.

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Rodin was predominantly a naturalist and therefore concerned himself with character and emotion over monumental expression. He is known for turning away from the idealized traditions of the Greeks and decorative beauty of the Baroque and Neo-Baroque movements, thereby departing with centuries of tradition. Sculptural movements that developed as a result of Modernism include the following: Art Nouveau Cubism Geometric Abstraction De Stijl Suprematism Constructivism Dadaism Surrealism Futurism Formalism Abstract Expressionism Pop-Art

Minimalism Exposition Universelle The Rodin exhibit at the 1900 Paris Exposition Universelle (worlds
Figure 35.48 The Gates of Hell

fair) is widely believed to be the precise beginning of the modern sculptural movement. At this exhibition, Rodin showed his works Burghers of Calais, Balzac, and debuted his Gates of Hell. Rodins sculptures at the Worlds Fair exhibit were incredibly well received by the public, and quickly ushered him to the forefront of the artistic community as a worldrenowned artist.

The Gates of Hell"is a group of sculptures depicting scenes of physical and" psychological turmoil from Dantes"Inferno

The Gates of Hell is a group of sculptures depicting scenes of physical and psychological turmoil from Dantes Inferno in high relief

(Figure 35.48). This work is comprised of 186 figures in its final form, including the renowned The Thinker (Figure 35.49). Many of Rodins most well-known sculptures started as designs for this piece.

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The Burghers of Calais was first displayed in 1889 to great public acclaim. The sculpture is a monument to an event in 1347 during the Hundred Years War when Calais, an important French port, was under siege by the English.
Figure 35.49 The Thinker

Originally a commission from the mayor of Calais for the town square, Rodins design was controversial as it did not present the burghers in a heroic manner; rather they appear worried and worn, perhaps struggling with their expected fates. The monument is considered innovative for its emotional portrayal as well as for being displayed at the same level as the viewers, without being raised on a traditional pedestal.

The Thinker"is a bronze sculpture on marble pedestal by Auguste Rodin, whose rst cast, of 1902.

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Chapter 36

Europe and America, 1900-1950

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Section 1

Europe, 1900-1920

Introduction

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Introduction
The early 20th century was marked by rapid industrial, economic, social and cultural change, which greatly inuenced art during this time.
KEY POINTS

The Impressionists at the end of the 19th century, who championed landscape painting and revolutionized technique and the use of color, helped to open the floodgates for the movements that would evolve in the early 20th century. These, in turn, mirrored the economic and social changes occurring throughout Europe at the time. The first two decades of the 20th century were marked by enormous industrial, economic, social and cultural change. International trade brought with it increasing growth and prosperity, along with a rise in poverty and slums in major cities. Urbanization, architectural advances, increases in technology and the spread of goods and information were markers of the times. Competition between nations was reflected in attempts to show off advances in technology, business, and architecture, among other things. Advances in science included Einstein's Theory of Relativity and Freud's development of modern psychology. After the relative peace of most of the 19th century, rivalry between European powers erupted in 1914 with the outbreak of the first World War. Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilized from 19141918, as countries around the world were called into the conflict. With the widespread death and destruction of the greatest war the world had ever seen art, during and after this time, became

The first two decades of the 20th century witnessed enormous industrial, economic, social and cultural change. International trade brought with it increasing growth and prosperity, along with a rise in poverty and slums in major cities. Urbanization, advances in science and technology, and the spread of goods and information were markers of the times. With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, art became heavily influenced by the desire to abstract life and escape the horrific possibilities of the human condition. Artists began to question and play around with themes of reality, perspective, space and time.

The early twentieth century saw huge changes in the modes and meanings of artistic production, as many movements and countries re-evaluated aesthetics, technique, color, media, meaning, and many other aspects of art.

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heavily influenced by the desire to abstract life and escape the horrors possible in the human condition (Figure 36.1).
Figure 36.1 A ration party of the Royal Irish Ries in a communication trench during the Battle of the Somme, July 1916

both directly and indirectly, from the invention of new artistic materials to subject matter and themes. Artists began to question and play around with themes of reality, perspective, space and time, and representation.
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The death and destruction of World War I contributed to the desire of artists to abstract life.

These economic and social changes greatly influenced European modes of thought which, in turn, shaped the development of new styles of art. For example, Einstein's Theory of Relativity contributed to the development of cubism, and developments in psychology greatly influenced the subject matter of artists throughout Europe. The rapid rise of technology impacted artists

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Section 2

European Art

Fauvism Picasso, Primitivism, and Cubism Die Brcke" Independent German Expressionists Der Blaue Reiter Beyond Cubism Abstract Sculpture Dada

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Fauvism
The Fauves were a group of early twentieth-century Modern artists based in Paris whose works challenged Impressionist values.
KEY POINTS

years, 19041908, and had three exhibitions. The leaders of the movement were Henri Matisse and Andr Derain (Figure 36.2).
Figure 36.2 "Charing Cross Bridge, London" by Andr Derain, 1906

The Fauvist movement, led by Henri Matisse and Andre Derain, officially lasted for only four years: 1904-1908. Fauvist influences and references include Van Gogh's PostImpressionism and the Neo-Impressionist technique of Pointillism. Gustave Moreau, a controversial professor at the cole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, mentored several of the Fauves, including Matisse, and profoundly influenced their work. Simplification, abstraction, unusual brush strokes, and vivid color are hallmarks of the Fauvist style.

Fauvism is the style of les Fauves (French for "the wild beasts"), a short-lived and loose group of early twentieth-century Modern artists whose works emphasized painterly qualities and strong color over the representational or realistic values retained by Impressionism. While Fauvism as a style began around 1900 and continued beyond 1910, the movement as such lasted only a few

The vibrant, surprising use of color in this work is characteristic of the Fauvist style.

Apart from Matisse and Derain, other artists included Albert Marquet, Charles Camoin, Louis Valtat, the Belgian painter Henri Evenepoel, Maurice Marinot, Jean Puy, Maurice de Vlaminck, Henri Manguin, Raoul Dufy, Othon Friesz, Georges Rouault, the

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Dutch painter Kees van Dongen, the Swiss painter Alice Bailly, and Georges Braque (subsequently Picasso's partner in Cubism). The paintings of the Fauves were characterized by seemingly wild brush work and strident colors, while their subject matter had a high degree of simplification and abstraction. Fauvism can be classified as an extreme development
Figure 36.3 Woman with a Hat by Henri Matisse, 1905.

such in 1904. Moreau's broad-mindedness, originality, and affirmation of the expressive potency of pure color was inspirational for his students. Matisse's fondness for bright and expressive color became more pronounced after he spent the summer of 1904 painting in St. Tropez with the neo-Impressionists Signac and Henri Edmond Cross. Many of the Fauve characteristics first cohered in Matisse's painting, Luxe, Calme et Volupt ("Luxury, Calm and Pleasure"), which he painted that summer. Derain and Matisse worked together through the summer of 1905 in the Mediterranean village of Collioure, and later that year displayed their highly innovative paintings at the Salon d'Automne. The vivid, unnatural colors led the critic Louis Vauxcelles to derisively dub their works as les Fauves, or "the wild beasts," marking the start of the Fauvist movement. The painting that was singled out for special condemnation, Matisse's Woman with a Hat, was subsequently bought by the major patrons of the avant-garde scene in Paris: Gertrude and Leo Stein (Figure 36.3).
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of Van Gogh's Post-Impressionism fused with the pointillism of Seurat and other Neo-Impressionist painters, in particular Paul Signac. Other key influences were Paul Czanne and Paul Gauguin, whose employment of areas of saturated colornotably in paintings from Tahitistrongly influenced Derain's work at Collioure in 1905. Gustave Moreau was the movement's

This painting was rejected by critics when initially exhibited, but was soon acquired by avantgarde collectors Leo and Gertrude Stein.

inspirational teacher: a controversial professor at the cole des Beaux-Arts in Paris and a Symbolist painter, he taught Matisse, Marquet, Manguin,

Rouault and Camoin during the 1890s, and was viewed by critics as the group's philosophical leader until Matisse was recognized as

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Picasso, Primitivism, and Cubism

Picasso's pioneering work in the early twentieth century was dened by formal experimentation and bold incorporation of diverse inuences.
KEY POINTS

During Picasso's African Period, which lasted from 1906 to 1909, the artist painted in a style strongly influenced by African sculpture. This period followed his Blue Period, consisting of somber paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green. Picasso's Blue Period was preceded by his Rose Period, characterized by orange and pink colors and featuring many circus people, acrobats and harlequin. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the European cultural elite were discovering African, Micronesian and Native American art. African artifacts were being brought back to Paris museums following the expansion of the French empire into Africa. The press was abuzz with exaggerated
Picasso was greatly inuenced by Gauguin's African inspired works like The Moon and The Earth. Figure 36.4 The Moon and the Earth, by Paul Gauguin, 1893

1906-1909 is referred to as Picasso's African period, during which he produced Les Demoiselles d'Avignon and several other paintings incorporating primitivist elements. Picasso was inspired by African artifacts as well as the work of Post-Impressionist artist Paul Gauguin. The formal elements of Les Desmoiselles d'Avignon bridged Picasso's African Period and subsequent Cubist work. Picasso and Georges Braque co-founded the Cubist movement, one of the most influential movements in Modern Art. Cubism stressed basic abstract geometric forms that presented the subject from many angles simultaneously.

As one of the most influential artists of the 20th century, Picasso is widely known for co-founding the Cubist movement and for the wide variety of styles he helped to develop and explore.

stories of cannibalism and exotic tales about the African kingdom of Dahomey. The mistreatment of Africans in the Belgian Congo was exposed in Joseph Conrad's popular book, Heart of Darkness.

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Artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse and Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of "primitive" cultures. Around 1906, Picasso, Matisse, Derain and other Paris-based artists had acquired an interest in Primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and tribal masks, in part due to the works of Paul Gauguin that had recently achieved recognition in Paris's avant-garde circles. Gauguin's powerful posthumous retrospective exhibitions at the Salon d'Automne in Paris in 1903 and 1906 had a powerful influence on Picasso's paintings (Figure 36.4). In 1907, Picasso experienced a "revelation" while viewing African art at the ethnographic museum at Palais du Trocadro. African art influenced Picasso's style painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), especially in its treatment of the two figures on the right side of the composition (Figure 36.5).
This work is inuenced by primitivism and is considered to be one of the earliest examples of Cubist painting. Figure 36.5 Les Desmoiselles d'Avignon, Pablo Picasso, 1907

Les Demoiselles d'Avignon is a protocubist work bridging Picasso's African and Cubist periods. Picasso continued to develop a style derived from African art before beginning his Analytic Cubism
Figure 36.6 Georges Braque, Violin and Candlestick, 1910

phase in 1910. Other works of Picasso's African Period include the Bust of a Woman (1907, in the National Gallery, Prague); Mother and Child (Summer 1907, in the Muse Picasso, Paris); Nude with Raised Arms (1907, in the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid, Spain); and Three Women (Summer 1908, in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg).

This is a strong example of Cubism's emphasis on geometric form and multiple perspectives.

Cubism, established by Picasso and his colleague Georges

Bracque, was marked by a revolutionary departure from representational art. In Cubist artwork, objects were analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form instead of being depicted from one viewpoint, Picasso, Braque and other Cubists depicted subjects from a multitude of viewpoints to create a greater

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context (Figure 36.6). Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century.
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Die Brcke"
Die Brucke, The Bridge, had a major impact on the evolution of modern art in the 20th century and the creation of expressionism.
KEY POINTS

Die Brcke was one of two groups of German painters fundamental to Expressionism, the other being Der Blaue Reiter group (The Blue Rider), formed in Munich in 1911. Die Brucke artists were influenced by primitivism and were known for urban themes, the use of strong colors and violent imagery. Members of Die Brucke are often compared to the contemporaneous French Fauvist movement. Founding member Ernst Ludwig Kirchner dissolved Die Brucke in 1913. Kirchner was persecuted by the Nazis as a "degenerate artist"; he committed suicide on the eve of WWII. Die Brucke means "The Bridge" and refers to the goal of bridging artistic traditions from the past and the present.

The Founding of Die Brcke Die Brcke (The Bridge) was a group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden in 1905. The Brcke Museum in Berlin

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was named after the group. Founding members were Fritz Bleyl, Erich Heckel, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff. Later members were Emil Nolde, Max Pechstein, and Otto Mueller (Figure 36.7). Similarities between Die Brcke and Fauve Die Brcke is sometimes compared to Fauvism. Both movements shared interests in primitivist art. Both shared an interest in the expressing of extreme emotion through high-keyed color that was very often non-naturalistic. Both movements employed a drawing technique that was crude, and both groups shared an antipathy to complete abstraction. The Die Brcke artists' emotionally agitated paintings of city streets and sexually charged events transpiring in country settings make their French counterparts, the Fauves, seem tame by comparison. Shared Roots in Architecture The founding members of Die Brcke in 1905 were four Jugendstil architecture students: Fritz Bleyl (18801966), Erich Heckel (18831970), Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (18801938) and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff (18841976). They met through the Knigliche Technische Hochschule (technical university) of Dresden, where Kirchner and Bleyl began studying in 1901 and became close friends

in their first term. They discussed art together and also studied nature, sharing a radical outlook. Distinct Style Die Brcke aimed to eschew the prevalent traditional academic style and find a new mode of artistic expression, which would form a bridge (hence the name) between the past and the present. They responded both to past artists such as Albrecht Drer, Matthias Grnewald and Lucas Cranach the Elder, as well as contemporary international avantgarde movements. As part of the affirmation of their national heritage, they revived older media, particularly woodcut prints. The group developed a common style based on vivid color, emotional tension, violent imagery, and an influence from primitivism. After first concentrating exclusively on urban subject matter, the group ventured into

Figure 36.7 Poster for rst Die Brcke show, by Fritz Bleyl, 1906

Die Brucke was an early 20th century German expressionist movement.

southern Germany on expeditions arranged by Mueller and produced more nudes and arcadian images. They invented the

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printmaking technique of linocut, although they at first described them as traditional woodcuts, which they also made. Attempts to Reject Bourgeois Backgrounds The group members initially "isolated" themselves in a working-class neighborhood of Dresden, aiming thereby to reject their own bourgeois backgrounds. Erich Heckel was able to obtain an empty butcher's shop on the Berlinerstrasse in Friedrichstadt for their use as a studio.The group composed a manifesto (mostly Kirchner's work), which was carved on wood and asserted a new generation, "who want freedom in our work and in our lives, independence from older, established forces." In September and October 1906, the first group exhibition was held, focused on the female nude, in the showroom of K.F.M. Seifert and Co. in Dresden.
This painting features several of the core members of Die Brucke. Figure 36.8 Painting of the Group Members, by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner 1926-1927

Between 1907 and 1911, Brcke members spent summers at the Moritzburg lakes and on the island of Fehmarn (Figure 36.8). In 1913, Kirchner wrote Chronik der Brcke (Brcke chronicle), which led to the ending of the group. In 1933, Kirchner was labelled a "degenerate artist" by the Nazis and asked for his resignation from the Berlin Academy of Arts; in 1937, over 600 of his works were confiscated from public museums in Germany and were sold or destroyed. In 1938, the psychological trauma of these events, along with the Nazi occupation of Austria, close to his home, led to his suicide.
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Independent German Expressionists

German Expressionism refers to a number of related creative movements beginning before WWI and peaking in Berlin during the 1920s.

Expressionist artists sought to express meaning or emotional experience rather than physical reality. Expressionism was developed as an avant-garde style before the First World War. It remained popular during the Weimar Republic, particularly in Berlin. The style extended to a wide range of the arts, including painting, literature, theatre, dance, film, architecture, and music.

KEY POINTS

Figure 36.9 Mother with her Dead Son, by Kthe Kollwitz

Kathe Kollwitz, Egon Schiele, and Paula Modersohn-Becker are among the independent German Expressionists who were unaffiliated with other Expressionist groups but nonetheless successful. Kollwitz is best remembered for her compassionate series, The Weavers. Many of Egon Schiele's contemporaries found the explicit sexual themes of his work disturbing. Paula Modersohn-Becker is among the first recognized female artists to create nude self-portraits.

Expressionism was a modernist movement, beginning with poetry and painting, that originated in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. It emphasized subjective experience-- manipulating perspective for emotional effect in order to evoke moods or ideas.
This Kollwitz sculpture is a WWII war memorial.

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Expressionist painters had many influences, among them Edvard Munch, Vincent van Gogh, and several African artists. They were also aware of the Fauvism movement in Paris, which influenced Expressionism's tendency toward arbitrary colors and jarring compositions. In 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brcke (the Bridge) in the city of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement, though they did not use the word itself. A few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) in Munich. Among their members were Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and Auguste Macke. Apart from these groups, there were several important independent German Expressionists, including Paula Modersohn-Becker, Egon Schiele and Kathe Kollwitz. Kthe Kollwitz (1867 1945) was a German painter, printmaker, and sculptor whose work offered an eloquent and often searing account of the human condition, and the tragedy of war, in the first half of the 20th century. Initially her work was grounded in Naturalism, and later took on Expressionistic qualities (Figure 36. 9). Inspired by a performance of Gerhart Hauptmann's The Weavers, which dramatized the oppression of the Silesian weavers

in Langembielau and their failed revolt in 1842, Kollwitz produced a cycle of six works on the Weavers theme. Rather than a literal illustration of the drama, the works were a free and naturalistic expression of the workers' misery, hope, courage, and, eventually, doom. The Weavers became Kollwitz' most widely acclaimed work. Egon Schiele (1890 1918) was an Austrian painter. A protg of Gustav Klimt, Schiele was a major figurative painter in the early 20th century. His work is noted for its intensity, as well as for the many self-portraits he produced. The twisted body shapes and expressive line that characterize Schiele's paintings and drawings mark the artist as an early exponent of Expressionism. Schiele was influenced by his mentor, Klimt, as well as by Edvard Munch, Jan Toorop, and Vincent van Gogh. Schiele explored themes not only of the human form, but also of human sexuality. Many viewed Schiele's work as being grotesque, erotic, pornographic, or disturbing, focusing on sex, death, and discovery (Figure 36.11). Paula Modersohn-Becker (1876 1907) was a German painter and one of the most important representatives of early Expressionism.
Female nude selfportraits were uncommon subjects in this era. Figure 36.10 Selbstportrt, by Paula ModersohnBecker, 1906

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In a brief career, cut short by her death at the age of 31, she created a number of groundbreaking images of great intensity. Modersohn-Becker studied briefly at the cole des BeauxArts in Paris and was influenced by French post impressionists Paul Czanne, Vincent van Gogh, and Paul Gauguin. On her last trip to Paris in 1906, she produced a series of paintings about which she felt great excitement and satisfaction. During this period of painting, she produced her initial nude self-portraits-something unprecedented by a female painter-- and portraits of friends such as Rainer Maria Rilke and Werner Sombart (Figure 36.10).

Figure 36.11 Sitzender weiblicher Akt mit aufgesttzen Ellbogen, by Egon Schiele

Der Blaue Reiter

Der Blaue Reiter (1911-1914) was a 20th century artistic movement based in Munich that was fundamental to Expressionism.

KEY POINTS

A shared goal for expressionist artists in Der Blaue Reiter was the communication of a spiritual truth through painting. Der Blaue Reiter was short-lived, lasting for only three years due to the outbreak of World War I. The major contribution of Der Blaue Reiter was their almanac, an edited volume containing contemporary art criticism and reproductions of work by Kandinsky, Marc and others.
Schiele's depiction of female nudes scandalized his contemporaries.

Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) was a group of artists from Munich, Germany. The group was founded by a number of Russian emigrants, including Wassily Kandinsky, Alexej von Jawlensky, Marianne von Werefkin, and native German artists, such as Franz Marc, August Macke and Gabriele Mnter (Figure 36.12). Along with Die Brcke, which was founded in 1905, Der Blaue Reiter was a major feature of the movement known as Expressionism.

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Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, August Macke, Alexej von Jawlensky, Marianne von Werefkin, Gabriele Mnter, Lyonel Feininger, Albert Bloch and others formed the group in response to the rejection of Kandinsky's painting "Last Judgement" from an exhibition. Der Blaue Reiter lacked an artistic manifesto, but it was centered around Kandinsky and Marc (Figure 36.13). Within the group, artistic approaches and aims varied from artist to artist; however, the artists shared a common desire to express spiritual truths through their art. They believed in the promotion of modern art, the connection between visual art and music, the spiritual and symbolic associations of color, and a spontaneous, intuitive approach to painting. Members were interested in European medieval art and primitivism, as well as the contemporary, nonfigurative art scene in France. As a result of their encounters with cubist, fauvist and Rayonist ideas, they moved towards abstract art.
German painter Franz Marc was a founding member of Der Blaue Reiter. Figure 36.12 Franz Marc, Tiger, 1912

Der Blaue Reiter organized exhibitions in 1911 and 1912 that toured Germany. They also published an almanac featuring contemporary, primitive and folk art, along with children's paintings. In 1913 they exhibited in the first German Herbstsalon. Der Blaue Reiter Almanach (The Blue Rider Almanac) was published in early 1912, in
Figure 36.13 Wassily Kandinsky, Blue Rider, 1903

an edition of 1100 copies. The volume was edited by Kandinsky and Marc and contained reproductions of more than 140 artworks, and 14 major articles. A second volume was planned, but the start of World War I prevented it. Instead, a second edition of the original was printed in 1914. The art reproduced in the

Der Blaue Reiter is the name of this Kandinsky work and the expressionist movement with which it is associated.

Almanac marked a dramatic turn away from a Eurocentric and conventional orientation. The selection was dominated by primitive, folk, and children's art, with pieces from the South Pacific and Africa, Japanese drawings, medieval German woodcuts and

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sculpture, Egyptian puppets, Russian folk art, and Bavarian religious art painted on glass. The five works by Van Gogh, Czanne, and Gauguin were outnumbered by seven from Henri Rousseau and thirteen from child artists. The group was disrupted by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Franz Marc and August Macke were killed in combat. Wassily Kandinsky, Marianne von Werefkin and Alexej von Jawlensky were forced to move back to Russia because of their Russian citizenship.
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Beyond Cubism
Cubism was broadly inuential in the early 20th century, inspiring other movements in the visual arts as well as poetry and literature.
KEY POINTS

Cubist work represents an artistic subject from multiple perspectives simultaneously. Italian Futurism and Russian Constructivism are two movements that were greatly influenced by Cubism. Divisionism, a technique in which color and light are deconstructed, is an important aspect of Futurist and Cubist work. Gertrude Stein, Wallace Stevens, Pierre Reverdy, and William Faulkner all applied Cubist principles to written work. Cubist poets and writers also influenced Dada and Surrealism.

Overview Cubism is an avant-garde art movement of the early 20th century that was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, and later joined by Juan Gris, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, and Fernand Lger. The movement

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revolutionized European painting and sculpture and inspired related movements in music, literature, and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century (Figure 36.14). In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up, and reassembled in an abstracted form. Instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context. Variants on Cubism
Georges Braque, with Picasso, was one of the founders of Cubism. Figure 36.14 Georges Braque, Violin and Candlestick, 1910

Futurism, an Italian movement, emphasized and glorified themes associated with contemporary concepts of the future, including speed, technology, youth and violence, and objects such as the car, the airplane, and the industrial city (Figure 36.15). Futurist painters were slow to develop a distinctive style and subject matter. In 1910 and 1911 they used the techniques of divisionism, breaking light and color down into a field of stippled dots and stripes. Later, Severini, who lived in Paris, attributed their backwardness in style and method at this time to their distance from Paris, the center of avant-garde art. Severini was the first to come into contact with
This is a seminal work from the Futurist movement which was inuenced by Cubism. Figure 36.15 Giacomo Balla, Abstract Speed + Sound, 19131914

Variants on Cubism, such as Futurism and Constructivism, developed in other countries. Constructivism was an artistic and architectural philosophy that originated in Russia in 1919; it entailed a rejection of the idea of autonomous art and was in favor of art as a practice for social purposes. Constructivism had a great impact on modern art movements of the 20th century, influencing major trends such as Bauhaus and the De Stijl movement.

Cubism. Following a visit to Paris in 1911, the Futurist painters adopted the methods of the Cubists. Cubism offered them a means of analyzing energy in paintings and expressing dynamism. The adoption of Cubism determined the style of much subsequent Futurist painting. Umberto Boccioni and Severini in particular continued to make use of the broken colors and short brush-strokes of divisionism.

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Cubism in Literary Works The influence of Cubism extended to other artistic fields outside painting and sculpture. In literature, the written works of Gertrude Stein employ repetition and repetitive phrases as building blocks in both passages and whole chapters. Most of Stein's important works use this technique, including the novel The Makings of Americans (190608). Picasso was an important influence on Stein's writing. Gertrude Stein and her brother Leo were not only the first important literary patrons of Cubism, they were in return important influences on visual Cubism (Figure 36.16). In the field of American fiction, William Faulkner's 1930 novel As I Lay Dying can be read as an interaction with the Cubist mode. The novel features narratives of the diverse experiences of fifteen characters; when taken together these narratives produce a single cohesive body.
Stein's work was inuenced by Picasso and Cubist principles. Figure 36.16 Gertrude Stein, by Pablo Picasso, 1904

The poets generally associated with Cubism are Guillaume Apollinaire, Blaise Cendrars, Jean Cocteau, Max Jacob, Andr Salmon, and Pierre Reverdy. Wallace Stevens' "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird" is also said to demonstrate how Cubism's multiple perspectives can be translated into poetry. As American poet Kenneth Rexroth explains, Cubism in poetry "is the conscious, deliberate dissociation and recombination of elements into a new artistic entity made self-sufficient by its rigorous architecture. This is quite different from the free association of the Surrealists and the combination of unconscious utterance and political nihilism of Dada." The Cubist poets' influence on both Cubism and the later movements of Dada and Surrealism was profound; Louis Aragon, founding member of Surrealism, said that for Breton, Soupault, luard, and himself, Reverdy was "our immediate elder, the exemplary poet."
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Abstract Sculpture
Modern abstract sculpture developed alongside other avant-garde movements of the early 20th century like Cubism and Surrealism.
KEY POINTS

individual and the concreteness of flesh, suggesting emotion through detailed, textured surfaces and the interplay of light and shadow. The modern sculpture movement essentially began during the Rodin exhibit at the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1900. At this event, Rodin showed his Burghers of Calais, Balza and Victor Hugo statues, along with the Thinker (Figure 36.17). Though all of these are representational works of art, Rodin's approach to form paved the way for increasingly experimental and abstract art. Cubist sculpture developed in parallel with cubist painting, centered in Paris beginning around 1909 and evolving through the early 1920s. The style is most closely associated with the formal experiments of Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso. Others were
Rodin's experiments with form, visible in the Thinker, launched modern abstract sculpture. Figure 36.17 "The Thinker" by Auguste Rodin

Auguste Rodin is seen as the progenitor of modern sculpture. Picasso and fellow cubist artists developed new means of constructing works of art using collage, or sculptural assemblage using disparate materials. This is known as Cubist constructionism. Surrealism further expanded upon contemporary definitions of sculpture by introducing the concept of the "readymade". Constantin Brancusi rejected naturalism in sculpture as well as any form of representational art. His minimal, abstract artworks attempt to depict the essence of an object.

Auguste Rodin, along with artists like Edgar Degas and Paul Gauguin, developed a radical new approach to the creation of sculpture in the nineteenth century. Rodin was a naturalist, less concerned with monumental expression than with character and emotion. Departing with centuries of tradition, he turned away from the idealism of the Greeks and the decorative beauty of the Baroque and neo-Baroque movements. His sculpture emphasized the

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quick to follow Braque and Picasso's lead in Paris, including Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Alexander Archipenko, Joseph Csaky, Jacques Lipchitz, Henri Laurens and Ossip Zadkine. During his period of Cubist innovation, Picasso revolutionized the art of sculpture by by combining disparate objects and materials into one sculptural work - the sculptural equivalent of the collage in two dimensional art. Just as collage was a radical development in two dimensional art, so was Cubist construction a radical development in three dimensional sculpture (Figure 36.18). The advent of Surrealism led to objects being described as "sculpture" that would not have been so previously. For example, "involuntary sculpture" or "coulage."
Picasso was a pioneer in early 20th century Cubist sculpture. Figure 36.18 Head of a Woman, by Picasso, 1909

Marcel Duchamp originated the use of the "found object" or "readymade" with pieces like Fountain (1917, Figure 36.19). Similarly, the work of Constantin Brncu7i at the beginning of the
Figure 36.19 Marcel Duchamp, Fountain

century paved the way for later abstract sculpture. In revolt against the naturalism of Rodin and his late-19thcentury contemporaries, Brncu7i distilled subjects down to their essences as illustrated by his Bird in Space series (1924). These elegantly refined abstract forms became synonymous with 20thcentury sculpture. Brncu7i's impact, with his vocabulary

Duchamp's appropriation of a urinal as a piece of art challenged the prevailing denition of sculpture.

of reduction and abstraction, is seen throughout the 1930s and 1940s, and exemplified by artists including Gaston Lachaise, Sir Jacob Epstein, Henry

Moore, Alberto Giacometti, Joan Mir, smundur Sveinsson, Julio Gonzlez, Pablo Serrano, and Jacques Lipchitz.
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Dada
Dada was a multidisciplinary cultural movement of the European avant-garde that emerged in Zurich during World War I.
KEY POINTS

In terms of artistic medium, dadaists worked in collage, creating compositions by pasting together transportation tickets, maps, plastic wrappers and other artifacts of daily life. Dada artists also worked in photomontage, a variation on collage which utilized actual or reproductions of photographs printed in the press. In Cologne, Max Ernst used photographs taken from the front during World War I to comment on the war. Another variation on collage used by Dadaists was assemblage, the assembly of everyday objects to objects and trash. Dada began in Zurich in 1916 (Figure 36.20) Key figures in the
This plaque is from the Cabaret Voltaire, the rst venue where Dada artists showcased their work in 1916. Figure 36.20 Plaque commemorating birth of Dada movement

Dada was a political movement opposed to artistic and social conformity as well as the capitalist forces that led to WWI. Dada artists worked in non-traditional media including collage, photomontage and assemblage. Dada artist Michel Duchamp pioneered the notion of the "readymade;" everyday objects appropriated for artistic purposes. Dada spread throughout Europe and North America following WWI; by the early 1920s the center of Dada activity was Paris. Dada informed many of the major avant garde movements of the 20th century century including Surrealism and Social Realism.

produce meaningful or meaningless pieces of work, including war

Dada was a multi-disciplinary art movement rejecting prevailing artistic standards by producing "anti-art" cultural works. In addition to being anti-war, Dada was also anti-bourgeois and had political affinities with the radical left.

Dada movement included Hugo Ball, Emmy Hennings, Hans Arp and Raoul Hausmann, among others. The movement influenced later styles like avant-garde, and movements including surrealism, Nouveau ralisme, pop art and Fluxus.

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Dada was an informal international movement with participants in

Figure 36.21 Dada poster from 1923

During this time, Duchamp began exhibiting "readymades" (everyday objects found or purchased and declared art) and was active in the Society of Independent Artists. In 1917, he submitted the now famous Fountain to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition. Initially an object of scorn within the arts community, the Fountain has since become almost canonized by some as one of the most recognizable modernist works of sculpture. The committee presiding over Britain's prestigious Turner Prize in 2004, for example, called it "the most influential work of modern art" (Figure 36.22). By 1921, most of the original Dadists moved to Paris, where Dada experienced its last major incarnation. Inspired by Tristan Tzara, Paris Dada soon issued manifestos, organized demonstrations, staged
Originally rejected by the New York art world, the Fountain is now considered a major work in the canon of western art. Figure 36.22 Marcel Duchamp, Fountain

Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I. For many participants, the movement was a protest against the bourgeois nationalist and colonialist interests that many Dadaists believed were the root cause of the war. The movement also spoke against

This poster for a Dada soiree references the medium of collage.

cultural and intellectual conformity in art and society.

According to Hans Richter, Dada was not art, it was "anti-art." When World War I ended in 1918, most of the Zurich Dadaists returned to their home countries, while some began Dada activities in other cities (Figure 36.21). Like Zurich, New York City was a refuge for writers and artists from World War I. Frenchmen Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia met American artist Man Ray in New York City in 1915. The trio soon became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States.

performances and a number of journals.

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While broad, the Dada movement was unstable. By 1924, artists had gone on to other ideas and movements including surrealism and social realism. Some theorists argue that Dada was the beginning of postmodern art.
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Section 3

Moderism in America

Ashcan School Stieglitz The Armory Show

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Ashcan School
The Ashcan School was a movement within American Realism known for portraying scenes of daily life in New York's poorer neighborhoods.
KEY POINTS

American Realism American Realism was a concept arising in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in art, music, and literature. Whether it was a portrayal of contemporary culture, or a scenic view of downtown New York City, these works of literature, music, and art depicted a contemporary view of what was happening or what was "real." In America at the beginning of the 20th century, a new generation of painters, writers, and journalists were coming of age. These younger artists were interested in creating a new style that reflected city life and an American population that became increasingly more urban than rural as the country entered the new century. From the late 19th to the early 20th centuries, the United States experienced enormous industrial, economic, social, and cultural change. A continuous wave of European immigration and the rising potential for international trade brought increasing growth and prosperity to America. American Realism attempted to portray the exhaustion and cultural exuberance of the American landscape and the life of ordinary people at home. Artists used the rapidly growing setting of the city to influence the color, texture, and look of their creative projects. Pulling away from fantasy and focusing on the grit and reality of daily life, American Realism presented a breakthroughintroducing Modernism, and what it means to be in

American Realism arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with works of art that depicted contemporary views of daily life, and the Ashcan School was central to that movement. The artists of the Ashcan School rebelled against American Impressionism, contrasting the Impressionists' emphasis on light with Realist works that were darker in tone and captured harsher moments in life. Ashcan School artists portrayed prostitutes, drunks, butchered pigs, overflowing tenements, and boxing matches. Their focus on poverty and daily realities of urban life prompted critics to consider them on the fringe of Modern art.

The Ashcan School was a movement within American Realism that came into prominence in New York City during the early 20th century, best known for works portraying scenes of daily life in New York's poorer neighborhoods.

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Figure 36.23 McSorley's Bar (1912)

known as The Eight, many of whom had experience as newspaper illustrators, and whose only show together in 1908 created a sensation. These artists were not only depicting Fifth Avenue socialites, but also the lower class and richly textured immigrant cultures. Critics of the time did not always appreciate their choice of subjects, which included alleys, tenements, slum dwellers, and in the case of John French Sloan, taverns frequented by the working class (Figure 36.23). Only five artists of The Eight, William Glackens, Robert Henri, George Luks, Everett Shinn, and John French Sloan (Figure 36.24) became associated with the Ashcan School. The Ashcan School was not an organized group. Their unity consisted of a desire to tell truths about the state of the city. The first
Figure 36.24 Shinn Henri Sloan

John French Sloan, McSorley's Bar, 1912 (oil on canvas, 66 x 81 cm., Detroit Institute of the Arts)

known use of the "ashcan" terminology in describing the movement was by Art Young in 1916. The artists of the Ashcan School rebelled against American Impressionism, which was the vanguard of American art at the time. In contrast to the
Everett Shinn, Robert Henri and John Sloan, c. 1896 (unidentied photographer,"black and white print, 18 x 13 cm.)

the present. The Ashcan School, also known as "The Eight," was central to the new American Modernism in the visual arts. The Ashcan School The Ashcan School was a group of New York City artists who sought to capture the feel of turn-of-the-century New York through realistic portraits of everyday life. The movement grew out of the group

Impressionists' emphasis on light, their Realist works were

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generally darker in tone, capturing harsher moments of life and often portraying such subjects as prostitutes, drunks, butchered pigs, overflowing tenements, boxing matches (Figure 36.25), and wrestlers. It was their frequent, although not total, focus upon poverty and the daily realities of urban life that prompted American critics to consider them on the fringe of Modern art.
Figure 36.25 Both Members of This Club

Stieglitz
Alfred Stieglitz was an American photographer and deeply inuential promoter of ne art photography and modern art.
KEY POINTS

In addition to his fame as a photographer, Stieglitz is known as a writer, publisher, exhibition organizer, collector, and owner of multiple New York art galleries-- through which he introduced many photographers and artists of other media, including avant-garde European artists new to the U.S. Stieglitz was involved in a number of photographic organizations and journals in New York city throughout his career. He used these platforms to promote photography as a fine art, and contributed to its acceptance in the art world. Stieglitz was also a talented, visionary photographer whose works include the ground-breaking portraits and studies he created of his wife, the artist Georgia O'Keeffe, as well as the first known intentionally abstract photographs he created in his series on clouds.

George Bellows, Both Members of This Club, 1909 (oil on canvas, National Gallery of Art)

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Alfred Stieglitz (January 1, 1864 July 13, 1946, Figure 36.26) was an American photographer and promoter of modern art. He was a hugely significant figure in the history of American visual arts. In addition to his fame as a photographer, Stieglitz was known as a

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writer, publisher, exhibition organizer, collector, and owner of multiple New York art galleries-- through which he introduced many photographers and artists of other media, including avantgarde European artists new to the U.S. He was a significant catalyst and leader of the art world throughout his career, and was instrumental in making photography an accepted form of fine art. Early Life Stieglitz was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, the first son of GermanJewish immigrants. His parents actively played a role in seeing that Stieglitz was well-educated, sending him to private school and traveling to Europe to advance his studies. While studying mechanical engineering in Berlin, he happened to enroll in a chemistry class taught by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel, an important scientist and researcher in the newly developing field of photography. At the same time, he met German artists
Gertrude Kasebier, Alfred Stieglitz in 1902 Figure 36.26 Gertrude Kasebier, Alfred Stieglitz in 1902

Adolf von Menzel and Wilhelm Hasemann, both of whom introduced him to the idea of making art directly from nature. He bought his first camera and traveled through the European countryside, taking many photographs of landscapes and peasants. Soon he was writing articles regularly on the technical and aesthetic aspects of photography for magazines in England and Germany. That same year, he submitted several photographs to a competition held by the British magazine Amateur Photographer. His photograph The Last Joke, Bellagio won first place and became Stieglitz's first photographic recognition. New York Stieglitz soon gained fame not only for his photography but for his writing about photography's place in relation to painting and other arts. His career accelerated accordingly as he became a prominent figure in the New York photography and art scenes. Within a short period, he was running all aspects of the The Camera Club of New York, and turned their newsletter into the expanded magazine, Camera Notes. Stieglitz would use Camera Notes to champion his belief in photography as an art form by including articles on art and aesthetics next to prints by leading photographers. In 1900 Stieglitz organized the first exhibition juried solely by photographers, rather than traditional artists. He called this collection of works the Photo-

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Secession, and quickly launched a new photographic journal, Camera Work, the first photography journal to have a visual focus. Stieglitz opened a gallery in New York in 1905, The Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession, with a show of over 100 prints. He became convinced that the only way photography would be seen as equal to other fine art media was for it to be exhibited and published directly next to painting, sculpture, drawings and prints. In 1907 he showed the paintings of artist Pamela Coleman Smith. Her exhibition marked a turning point from the old era of Stieglitz as revolutionary promoter of photography to the new era of Stieglitz as revolutionary promoter of modern art. The following year, Stieglitz opened the Little Galleries under the new name 291. The name change represented a clear break from the old way of thinking about photography. From this point forward, the gallery
Alfred Stieglitz, The Steerage, 1907. First published in Camera Work, #36, October 1911. Figure 36.27 Alfred Stieglitz, The Steerage

broke down all boundaries between traditional art media and photography as Stieglitz organized many ground-breaking exhibits of modern art and photography. During this same period, the National Arts Club mounted a "Special Exhibition of Contemporary Art" that included photographs by Stieglitz and others alongside paintings by Mary Cassatt, Robert Henri, James McNeill Whistler, and others. This is thought to have been the first major show in the U.S. in which photographers were given equal ranking with painters. The 1910s marked a shift for Stieglitz, partly due to his interest in more modern aesthetics for photography and his shift away from Pictorialism (Figure 36.27). The shift was also partly due to his introduction to Georgia O'Keeffe and her work. In the following years he devoted himself to her, not only romantically, but in relentlessly promoting her painting and photographing her obsessively. This was the
Alfred Stieglitz, Georgia O'Kee!e, Hands, 1918. Figure 36.28 Alfred Stieglitz, Georgia O'Keeffe, Hands

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most prolific period of his life, during which he photographed O'Keeffe in a wide range of moods, characters, and in many close-up studies of her body (Figure 36.28). In the early 1920s Stieglitz created what are generally recognized as the first intentionally abstract photographs, in the form of a study of clouds. In the later decades of his life, Stieglitz opened several galleries in New York and continued to fiercely promote (and control access to) O'Keeffe's work though she resided in New Mexico for most of the year. His health began to deteriorate until he suffered a fatal stroke in 1946. He left behind a major collection, of his own work as well as others,' which O'Keeffe distributed to major museums throughout the U.S.
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The Armory Show

The Armory Show displayed European avant-garde artists alongside their American counterparts.
KEY POINTS

The show displayed some 1,300 works by over 300 artists. The initial premise was to bring the best avant-garde European art to an American audience. Contemporary responses to the European Impressionist, Fauvist, and Cubist works were filled with accusations of quackery, insanity, immorality and anarchy. The Armory Show introduced New Yorkers accustomed to the naturalistic art of American Realism to the styles of European avant-gardes. The show served as a catalyst for American artists to create their own artistic language.

Many exhibitions have been held in the vast spaces of U.S. National Guard armories, but historically the Armory Show refers to the 1913 International Exhibition of Modern Art (Figure 36.29). The Armory Show was the first exhibition organized by the Association of American Painters and Sculptors. The exhibition ran in New York City's 69th Regiment Armory from February 17 until March 15. It displayed some 1,300 paintings, sculptures and decorative works by over 300 artists. The initial premise of the

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show was to exhibit the best avant-garde European art alongside the best works of American artists to audiences in New York City, Chicago and Boston. Impressionism, Fauvism, and Cubism were among the European avant-garde schools represented. News reports and reviews of the show were filled with accusations of quackery, insanity, immorality and anarchy, often including parodies, caricatures (Figure 36.30) and mock exhibitions. Criticism aside, civil authorities did not interfere with the show. Among the scandalously radical works of art were Marcel Duchamp's cubist/futurist style Nude Descending a Staircase (1912, Figure 36.31), in which he expressed motion with successive superimposed images. Art critic Julian Street wrote that the work resembled "an explosion in a shingle factory" while cartoonists satirized the piece. Gutzon Borglum, one of
Armory Show Poster, 1913 Figure 36.29 Armory Show Poster, 1913

descending a nude," while J. F. Griswold, a writer for the New York Evening Sun, entitled it "The rude descending a staircase (Rush hour in the subway)." Despite these negative reactions, the purchase
Figure 36.30 Caricature of Cubism at the Armory Show

of Paul Czanne's Hill of the Poor (View of the Domaine Saint-Joseph) by the Metropolitan Museum of Art signaled an integration of Modernism into the established New York museums. Duchamp's brother, going by the "nom de guerre" Jacques Villon, also exhibited at the Armory Show, striking a sympathetic chord with New York collectors.The exhibition went on to the Art Institute of Chicago and then to The Copley Society of Art in Boston.

"A Slight Attack of Third Dimentia Brought on by Excessive Study of the Much Talked of Cubist Pictures in the International Exhibition at New York," drawn by John French Sloan in April 1913. Published before 1923.

The Armory Show introduced New Yorkers accustomed to the naturalistic art of American Realism to the styles of the European avant-gardes. The show also served as a catalyst for American

the early organizers of the show, labeled this piece "A staircase

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artists who became more independent and created their own artistic language. There have been many exhibitions throughout the 20th century that celebrated the show's legacy. The "New" New York Armory Show was held in piers on the Hudson

Figure 36.31 Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, 1912, oil on canvas, 58 x 35 in. Philadelphia Museum of Art.

River in 1994. It has since evolved into an annual contemporary arts festival with a strong commercial bent.
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Section 4

Modern Architecture

European American

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European
Expressionist architecture was a European movement of the twentieth century, parallel with the expressionist visual and performing arts.
KEY POINTS

arts. The term "Expressionist architecture" initially described the activity of the German, Dutch, Austrian, Czech, and Danish avant-garde from 1910 until 1930. Subsequent redefinitions extended the term backwards to 1905 and also widened it to encompass the rest of Europe. Today the meaning has broadened even further to refer to architecture of any date or location that exhibits some of the qualities of the original movement such as: distortion, fragmentation, or the communication of violent or overstressed emotion. The style was characterized by an early-modernist adoption of novel materials, formal innovation, and very unusual massing sometimes inspired by natural biomorphic forms and sometimes by the new technical possibilities offered by the mass production of brick, steel, and glass. Many expressionist architects fought in World War I and their experiences, combined with the political turmoil and social upheaval that followed the German Revolution of 1919, resulted in a Utopian outlook and a romantic socialist agenda. Hence, ephemeral exhibition buildings were numerous and highly significant during this period. Likewise, scenography for theater and films provided another outlet for the expressionist imagination, and provided supplemental incomes for designers attempting to challenge conventions in a harsh economic climate.

The term "Expressionist architecture" initially described the activity of the German, Dutch, Austrian, Czech, and Danish avant-garde from 1910 until 1930. The style was characterized by an early-modernist adoption of novel materials, formal innovation, and very unusual!massingsometimes inspired by natural biomorphic forms and sometimes by the new technical possibilities offered by the mass production of brick, steel, and glass. Expressionist architecture was individualistic and in many ways eschewed aesthetic dogma. Though containing a great variety and differentiation, many points can be found as recurring in works of Expressionist architecture, and are evident in some degree in each of its works.

Modern European Architecture Expressionist architecture was an architectural movement that developed in Europe during the first decades of the twentieth century in parallel with the expressionist visual and performing

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Expressionist architecture was individualistic and in many w ays eschewed aesthetic dogma. Though containing a great variety and differentiation, many points can be found as recurring in works of Expressionist architecture, and are evident in some degree in each of its works: 1. Distortion of form for an emotional effect, 2. Subordination of realism to symbolic or stylistic expression of inner experience, 3. An underlying effort at achieving the new, original, and visionary, 4. Profusion of works on paper, and models, with discovery and representations of concepts more important than pragmatic finished products, 5. Often hybrid solutions, irreducible to a single concept. 6. Themes of natural romantic phenomena, such as caves, mountains, lightning, crystal and rock formations, 7. Utilizes creative potential of artisan craftsmanship, 8. Tendency more towards the gothic than the classical,

9. Draws as much from Moorish, Islamic, Egyptian, and Indian art and architecture as from Roman or Greek, 10. Conception of architecture as a work of art. Form also played a defining role in setting apart expressionist architecture from its immediate
Figure 36.32 Einstein's Tower

predecessor, art nouveau, or Jugendstil. While art nouveau had an organic freedom with ornament, expressionist architecture strove to free the form of the whole building instead of just its parts. An example of a built expressionist project that is formally inventive is Erich Mendelsohn's Einstein Tower (Figure 36.32). This sculpted building shows a relativistic

Einstein Tower in Potsdam, Germany, 1919-1922 (Erich Mendelsohn). In Mendelsohn's design, form and space are shaped in uid concrete and devoid of applied ornament.

and shifting view of geometry: devoid of applied ornament, form and space are shaped in fluid concrete to express

concepts of the architect and the building's namesake.

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As expressionist architecture utilized curved geometries, a recurring form in the movement is the dome. Another expressionist motif was the emphasis on either horizontality or verticality for dramatic effect, which was influenced by new

Figure 36.33 "Skyscraper Project" Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Friedrichstrass e Skyscraper Project, BerlinMitte, Germany, 1921.

American
Modern American architecture is divided between the two styles of Art Deco and Streamline Moderne.
KEY POINTS

Art Deco emerged from the Interwar period, when rapid industrialization was transforming culture. One of its major attributes is an embrace of technology. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, and faith in social and technological progress. Streamline Moderne was an aesthetic !first created by industrial designers who stripped Art Deco design of its ornament in favor of the aerodynamic pure-line concept of motion and speed developed from scientific thinking: embodied in cylindrical forms and long horizontal windowing. The Streamline Moderne was both a reaction to Art Deco and a reflection of austere economic times. Gone was unnecessary ornament: sharp angles were replaced with simple, aerodynamic curves.

technologies like cruise liners and skyscrapers (Figure 36.33).

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Modern American architecture is usually divided between the two styles of Art Deco and Streamline Moderne. Art Deco, which emerged in the 1920s and flourished in the 1930s - 1940s, is an eclectic style that combines traditional craft motifs with Machine

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Age imagery and materials. Streamline Moderne, also known as Art Moderne, was a late type of the Art Deco design style that emerged
Figure 36.34 Spire of the Chrysler Building, New York

urban United States has many examples of Art Deco architecture, especially in New York, Chicago, and Detroit. The famous skyscrapers in these cities are the best-known, but notable Art Deco buildings can be found in various neighborhoods. As the Great Depression decade of the 1930s progressed, Americans saw a new decorative element of the Art Deco style emerge in the marketplace: streamlining. Streamline Moderne was a concept first created by industrial designers, who stripped Art Deco design of its ornament in favor of the aerodynamic pure-line concept of motion and speed developed from scientific thinking. This aesthetic was embodied in cylindrical forms and long horizontal windowing. An array of designers quickly ultra-modernized and streamlined the designs of everyday objects, such as toasters. Streamline Moderne was both a reaction to Art Deco and a reflection of austere economic times.
The Hollywood Palladium (in Hollywood, CA) was a dance hall built in the 1940s in the Streamline Moderne style. This picture depicts the Palladium in 2005, prior to the 2008 renovation. Figure 36.35 Hollywood Palladium

during the 1930s. Its architectural style emphasized curving forms, long horizontal lines, and sometimes nautical elements. The Art Deco style is often characterized by rich colors, symmetry, bold geometric shapes, simple composition, rectilinear rather than curvilinear shapes, and lavish ornamentation (Figure 36.34). Art Deco emerged from the Interwar period when rapid industrialization was transforming culture. One of its major attributes is an embrace of technology. During

The opulent Art Deco spire of the Chrysler Building in New York City, designed by William Van Alen, was built 19281930 and reects the earlier lavish ornamentation, yet simple and streamlined composition of the style.

its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, and faith in social and technological progress.The

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Gone was unnecessary ornament. Sharp angles were replaced with simple, aerodynamic curves. Exotic woods and stone were replaced with cement and glass (Figure 36.35). Common characteristics of Streamline Moderne included horizontal orientation, rounded edges, corner windows, glass blocks, porthole windows, chrome hardware, smooth exterior wall surfaces (usually stucco), horizontal wall grooves, and subdued colors (Figure 36.36).
Figure 36.36 Hecht Company Warehouse

However, Art Deco and Streamline Moderne were not necessarily opposites. Streamline Moderne buildings with a few Deco elements were not uncommon, and sometimes, it is difficult to differentiate between the two styles.
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The Hecht Company Warehouse (Washington, D.C.) is a Streamline Moderne style building.The building uses glass block extensively, culminating in a twelve-pointed star-shaped cupola at the corner, which is illuminated at night. Black brick interspersed with glass block spells out "The Hecht Co" at the fth oor.

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Section 5

America, 1900 to 1930

Painting and Sculpture Photography

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Painting and Sculpture

American Realism attempted to portray the true reality, glamour, and grit of early 20th century America.

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Sculpture in the early 20th century was marked by Modern Classicism, as well as the early beginnings of art deco.

KEY POINTS

Painting and Sculpture From the late 19th to the early 20th centuries, the United States experienced enormous industrial, economic, social, and cultural change. A continuous wave of European immigration and the rising potential for international trade brought increasing growth and prosperity to America. Through all mediums of artistic expression (including painting, literature, and music), American Realism attempted to portray the exhaustion and cultural exuberance of the American landscape and the life of ordinary Americans at home. Artists used the feelings, textures and sounds of the city to influence the color, texture, and look of their creative projects. Pulling away from fantasy and focusing on the now, American Realism presented a new gateway and a breakthroughintroducing modernism, and what it means to be in the present. Each artist, though slightly different in concept or subject, was defining what was going on in front of his or her eyes, without imagining a past or a future. Artists, writers, and musicians were

The early 20th century was marked by enormous industrial, economic and social change, and artists of this time sought to portray the exhaustion and cultural exuberance of the American landscape through realistic portrayals. The Ashcan school led the movement in American Realism, seeking to capture the feel of turn of the 20th century New York City through realistic portraits of both the rich and working class. Other artists were highly influenced by modernist styles arriving from Europe, such as the cubist and abstract paintings. Art of the American Southwest, such as the work of Georgia O'Keefe, developed a unique style focusing on the native people and landscapes of the region, and was used to entice people to come west. The Harlem Renaissance was marked by a new generation of prolific African-American artists who used art to combat racism and oppression.

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concerned with recording the grit and true reality of early 20th century America instead of reflecting back to antiquities. The Ashcan School The Ashcan school was a group of New York City artists who led the movement in realism, seeking to capture the turn of the 20th century New York City through realistic portraits of everyday life. These artists were not only depicting the rich and promising Fifth Avenue socialites, but the lives of immigrants and working class, including alleys, tenements, and slums. Work was often characterized by socially conscious imagery. Leading figures of the Ashcan school included Robert Henri, George Bellows, Everett Shinn, George Benjamin Luks, William Glackens, and John Sloan (Figure 36.37).
Figure 36.37 "Both Members of This Club" by George Bellows (1909) George Bellows was a prominent painter in American Realism.

The Ashcan school artists soon gave way to modernists arriving from Europe, such as the cubists and abstract painters promoted by Alfred Stieglitz at his 291 Gallery in New York City. John Marin, Marsden Hartley, Alfred Henry Maurer, Arthur B. Carles, Arthur Dove, Henrietta Shore, Stuart Davis, Stanton MacDonaldWright, Morgan Russell, Patrick Henry Bruce, and Gerald Murphy were some important early American modernist painters. Charles Sheeler and the modernists Charles Demuth and Ralston Crawford were referred to as Precisionists for their sharply defined renderings of machines and architectural forms. Edward Hopper developed an individual style of realism by concentrating on light and form, and avoiding overt social content (Figure 36.38). Early 20th Century Art Art in the American Southwest developed a unique style following the First World War. The completion of the Santa Fe Railroad enabled American settlers and artists to travel across the west and
Hartley was among the early modernist painters in the United States. Figure 36.38 Painting No. 48, Marsden Hartley (1913)

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new artists colonies started growing up around Santa Fe and Taos. Focusing on the native people and landscapes, images of the Southwest became a popular form of advertising, used most significantly by the Santa Fe Railroad to entice settlers to come west and enjoy the unsullied landscapes. Walter Ufer, Bert Geer
Figure 36.39 Modern Classicism Sculpture

Archibald Motley, Lois Mailou Jones, Palmer Hayden, and Sargent Johnson. As the century began, many young European sculptors migrated to the booming economy of the United States, and European trained sculptors account for much of the great work created before 1950. Sculpture at this time was marked by Modern Classicism, or the revitalization of the classical Greek traditions in modern sculpture, as well as the early beginnings of art deco - a much more linear and symmetrical style marked by elegance, functionality and modernity. Paul Manship, C. Paul Jennewein and Edward McCartan were leading sculptors of the time, as well as Elie Nadelman, Albin Polasek, Gaston Lachaise, William Zorach, and Carl Milles. Sculptors associated with the Harlem Renaissance included Richmond Barth, Augusta Savage, Elizabeth Catlett, Martin Puryear, Jerry Harris, Thaddeus Mosley, and Richard Hunt (Figure 36.39). When the Great Depression hit in 1929 and 1930, the economic and political landscape of the country ushered in a new era of art that would later become known as New Deal Art.
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Phillips, E. Irving Couse, William Henry Jackson, Marsden Hartley, Andrew Dasburg, and Georgia O'Keeffe were some of the more prolific artists of the Southwest. The 1920s marked another significant development in American art, known as the Harlem Renaissance. Centered in New York City, a new generation of educated and politically astute AfricanAmerican women, men, and

The Darlington Memorial Fountain: Nymph and Fawn (C. Paul Jennewein, 1922) is a gilded bronze sculpture atop a small fountain in the Judiciary Square neighborhood of Washington, D.C.

gender non-conforming folks emerged who used art, literature, music, and exhibitions to combat racism and oppression. The movement showcased the range of talents within African-American communities, and included artists such as Aaron Douglas, Romare Bearden, Jacob Lawrence, Charles Alston, Augusta Savage,

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Photography
From 1900-1930, photography in America ranged from soft and artistic pictorialist images to gritty documentation of social conditions.
KEY POINTS

As true art was deemed a product of imagination, skill, and craft, amateur photographers challenged the social conceptions of photography by producing the style known as art photography. Photo-Secession Movement Photographer Alfred Steiglitz (1864 1946) led the Photo-Secession movement, a movement that promoted photography as a fine art and sought to raise standards and awareness of art photography. The style was characterized by pictorialism, in which pictures and photographic materials were manipulated to emulate the painting and etching of the time. Among the methods used were soft focus; special filters and lens coatings; burning, dodging and/or cropping in the darkroom to edit the content of the image; and alternative printing processes such as sepia toning, carbon printing, platinum printing or gum bichromate processing (Figure 36.40). Centered in Gallery 291 in New York City from 1902-1916,
Alfred Steiglitz used pictorialism to create a painting-quality in his photographs.

Figure 36.40 Spring Showers, The Coach by Alfred Stieglitz (1902)

In the early 20th century, Alfred Steiglitz led the PhotoSecession movement which used pictorialism, soft focus, and picture manipulation to promote photography as a fine art. Many photographers such as Lewis Hine sought to capture everyday life of American people, both the wealthy and the poor, in a realistic and often gritty fashion. Commercial photography also expanded during the era, and was commonly featured in magazines and advertisements. Toward the late 1920s and early 1930s, change in the social landscape led to the development of the Precisionist Movement, which rejected the pictorialism of the PhotoSecession movement and instead used sharp focus and carefully framed images.

Photography In the early 20th century, a photographic movement developed that sought to legitimize photography as a creative art form on par with paintingrather than simply a scientific method of documentation.

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membership to the Photo-Secession movement was by invitationonly and varied according to Stieglitz's interests. The most prominent members included Edward Steichen, Clarence H. White, Ksebier, Frank Eugene, F. Holland Day, and Alvin Langdon Coburn. Coburn is best known for his invention of the vortoscope, a kaleidoscope-like instrument that used prisms to create an abstract image, and created a bridge to modernism. At the same time, photography's use as a tool of realistic documentation mirrored the growth of American Realism in art and
Figure 36.41 Power house mechanic working on steam pump!by!Lewis Hine!(1920) Lewis Hine's 1920 Power house mechanic working on steam pump, one of his work portraits, shows a working class American in an industrial setting. The carefully posed subject, a young man with wrench in hand, is hunched over, surrounded by the machinery that denes his job. But while constrained by the machinery (almost a metal womb), the man is straining against it muscles taut, with a determined lookin an iconic representation of masculinity.

sculpture. Many photographers sought to capture everyday life of American people, both the wealthy and the poor, in a realistic and often gritty fashion. Lewis Hine used light to illuminate the dark areas of social existence in his Pittsburgh Survey (1907), investigating the working and living conditions in Pittsburgh. He later became the photographer for the National Child Labor Committee (Figure 36.41). Paul Strand created brutally direct abstractions, close-up portraits, and he documented machines and cityscapes. Precisionist Movement Edward Weston, in direct opposition to the Photo-Secession movement, would become a leader in the Precisionist Movement and the establishment of the Group F/64 in the early 1930s. This movement was the first true use of modernism in photography, characterized by sharp focus and carefully framed images. James VanDerZee was an African American photographer who became emblematic of the Harlem Renaissance movement. He was best known for his portraits of black New Yorkers, and produced the most comprehensive documentation of the period. Commercial Photography Commercial photography also expanded during this time, as in the works of Edward Steichen. Steichen broke with Steiglitz toward the

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end of the Photo-Secession movement and created the first commercial image in 1919, entitled Pear and Apple. His work was widely featured in magazines such as Vanity Fair. Ansel Adams also began his career as a commercial photographer.
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Section 6

Europe, 1920-1945

Utilitarian Art in Russia Dutch Rationalism German Bauhaus Art Surrealism Picasso Neueu Sachlichkeit Sculpture

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Utilitarian Art in Russia

Constructivism was an artistic and architectural philosophy that originated in Russia in 1919, and that rejected the idea of autonomous art.
KEY POINTS

Constructivism had a considerable effect on modern art movements of the 20th century, influencing major trends such as Bauhaus and the De Stijl movement. Its influence was pervasive, with major impacts upon architecture, graphic and industrial design, theatre, film, dance, fashion and to some extent music. Origins and Evolution The term Construction Art was first used as a derisive term by Kazimir Malevich, an artist of the Suprematism movement, to describe the work of Alexander Rodchenko in 1917. Constructivism as theory and practice was derived largely from a series of debates at INKhUK (Institute of Artistic Culture) in Moscow, from 192022. After deposing its first chairman, Wassily Kandinsky, for his "mysticism," The First Working Group of Constructivists (including Liubov Popova, Alexander Vesnin, Rodchenko, Varvara Stepanova, and the theorists Alexei Gan, Boris Arvatov, and Osip Brik) would develop a definition of Constructivism as the combination of faktura the particular material properties of an object and tektonika, its spatial presence. Initially the Constructivists worked on threedimensional constructions as a means of participating in industry: the OBMOKhU (Society of Young Artists) exhibition showed these three-dimensional compositions by Rodchenko, Stepanova, Karl Ioganson, and the Stenberg Brothers. Later the definition would be extended to designs for two-dimensional works such as books or

As much as involving itself in designs for industry, the Constructivists worked on public festivals and street designs for the post-October revolution Bolshevik government. The canonical work of Constructivism was Vladimir Tatlin's proposal for the Monument to the Third International (1919) which combined a machine aesthetic with dynamic components celebrating technology such as searchlights and projection screens. The First Working Group of Constructivists defined Constructivism as the combination of faktura -- the particular material properties of an object -- and tektonika, its spatial presence.

Overview Constructivism was an artistic and architectural philosophy that originated in Russia beginning in 1919. At the heart of the movement was a rejection of the idea of autonomous art. The movement was in favor of art as a practice for social purposes.

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posters, with montage and factography becoming important concepts. Public Art As much as involving itself in designs for industry, the Constructivists worked on public festivals and street designs for the post-October revolution Bolshevik government. Perhaps the most famous of these was in Vitebsk, where Malevich's UNOVIS Group painted propaganda plaques and buildings (the best known being El Lissitzky's 1919 poster Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge). Inspired by Vladimir Mayakovsky's declaration "the streets our brushes, the squares our palettes," artists and designers participated in public life during the Civil War. A striking instance was the proposed festival for the Comintern congress in 1921 by Alexander Vesnin and Liubov Popova, which resembled the constructions of the OBMOKhU exhibition as well as their work for the theater. There was a great deal of overlap during this period between Constructivism and
Mayakovsky worked for the Russian State Telegraph Agency (ROSTA) creating both graphic and text satirical Agitprop posters. Figure 36.42 Agitprop poster by Mayakovsky

Proletkult, the ideas of which concerning the need to create an entirely new culture struck a chord with the Constructivists. In addition some Constructivists were heavily involved in the "ROSTA Windows," a Bolshevik public information campaign carried out around 1920 (Figure 36.42). Some of the most famous of these were by the poet-painter Vladimir Mayakovsky and Vladimir Lebedev. Tatlin's Vision versus Gabo's The canonical work of Constructivism was Vladimir Tatlin's proposal for the Monument to the Third International (1919) which combined a machine aesthetic with dynamic components celebrating technology such as searchlights and projection screens. Gabo publicly criticized Tatlin's design, saying he should "Either create functional houses and bridges or create pure art, not both." This position had already caused a major controversy in the Moscow group in 1920, when Gabo and Pevsner's Realistic Manifesto asserted a spiritual core for the movement. This was opposed to the utilitarian and adaptable version of Constructivism held by Tatlin and Rodchenko. Tatlin's work was immediately hailed by artists in Germany as a revolution in art. A 1920 photograph shows George Grosz and John Heartfield holding a placard saying "Art is Dead Long Live Tatlin's Machine Art." The designs for the tower were published in Bruno Taut's magazine Fruhlicht.

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Tatlin's tower started a period of exchange of ideas between Moscow and Berlin, something reinforced by El Lissitzky and Ilya Ehrenburg's Soviet-German magazine Veshch-Gegenstand-Objet which spread the idea of "Construction art," as did the Constructivist exhibits at the 1922 Russische Ausstellung in Berlin, organised by Lissitzky. A "Constructivist international" was formed, which met with Dadaists and De Stijl artists in Germany in 1922. Participants in this short-lived international group included Lissitzky, Hans Richter, and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy. However the idea of "art" was becoming anathema to the Russian Constructivists. The INKhUK debates of 192022 had culminated in the theory of Productivism propounded by Osip Brik and others, which demanded direct participation in industry and the end of easel painting. Tatlin was one of the first to attempt to transfer his talents to industrial production, with his designs for an economical stove, for workers' overalls and for furniture. The Utopian element in Constructivism was maintained by his "letatlin," a flying machine which he worked on until the 1930s.
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Dutch Rationalism
The Amsterdam School is a style of architecture that lasted from 1910 to 1930, with the aim of creating a total architectural experience.
KEY POINTS

Buildings of the Amsterdam School are characterized by brick construction with complicated masonry with a rounded or organic appearance, relatively traditional massing, and the integration of an elaborate scheme of building elements inside and out. Imbued with socialist ideals, the Amsterdam School style was often applied to working-class housing estates, local institutions, and schools. The most important architects and virtuoso artists of the Amsterdam School were Michel de Klerk and Piet Kramer.

The Amsterdam School (Dutch: Amsterdamse School) is a style of architecture that arose from 1910 through about 1930 in The Netherlands. The Amsterdam School movement is part of international Expressionist architecture, sometimes linked to German Brick Expressionism. Buildings of the Amsterdam School are characterized by brick construction with complicated masonry with a rounded or organic appearance, relatively

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traditional massing, and the integration of an elaborate scheme of building elements inside and out: decorative masonry, art glass, wrought ironwork, spires or "ladder" windows (with horizontal bars), and integrated architectural sculpture. The aim was to create a total architectural experience, interior and exterior. Imbued with socialist ideals, the Amsterdam School style was often applied to working-class housing estates, local institutions and schools. For many Dutch towns, Hendrik Berlage designed the new urban schemes, while the architects of the Amsterdam School were responsible for the buildings. With regard to the architectural style, Michel de Klerk had a different vision than Berlage. In the magazine "Bouwkundig Weekblad 45/1916," Michel de Klerk criticized Berlage's recent buildings in the style of Dutch Traditionalism. In
Figure 36.43 The Scheepvaarthuis, Amsterdam. The 1912 cooperativecommercial Scheepvaarthuis (Shipping House) is considered the starting point of the Amsterdam School movement.

this context, the Stock Exchange by Berlage of 1905 can be seen as the starting point of traditionalist architecture. The Amsterdam School had its origins in the office of architect Eduard Cuypers in Amsterdam. Although Cuypers was not a progressive architect himself, he gave his employees plenty of opportunity to develop. The three leaders of the Amsterdam School Michel de Klerk, Johan van der Mey, and Piet Kramer all worked for Cuypers until about 1910. In 1905, Amsterdam was the first city to establish a building code, and the city hired Johan van der Mey afterwards, in the special position as "Aesthetic Advisor," to bring artistic unity and vision to its built environment. Van der Mey's major commission, the 1912 cooperative-commercial Scheepvaarthuis (Shipping House), is considered the starting point of the movement, and the three of them collaborated on that building (Figure 36.43). The most Amsterdam School buildings are found in this city. The movement and its followers played an important role in Berlage's overall plans for the expansion of Amsterdam. The most important architects and virtuoso artists of the Amsterdam School were Michel de Klerk and Piet Kramer. Other members included Jan Gratama (who gave it its name), Berend Tobia Boeyinga, P. H. Endt, H. Th. Wijdeveld, J. F. Staal, C. J. Blaauw, and P. L. Marnette. The journal Wendingen ("Windings" or

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"Changes"), published between 1918 and 1931, was the magazine of the Amsterdam School movement. After De Klerk died in 1923, the style lost its importance. The De Bijenkorf Store in the Hague by Piet Kramer of 1926 is considered to be the last example of "classic" Amsterdam School Expressionism.
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German Bauhaus Art

The Bauhaus was a school in Germany that combined crafts and the ne arts and was famous for its functionalist approach to design.
KEY POINTS

The Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography. The Bauhaus style was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between function and overall design. The design innovations commonly associated with Gropius and the Bauhausradically simplified forms, rationality, functionality, and the idea that mass-production was reconcilable with the individual artistic spiritwere already partly developed in Germany before the Bauhaus was founded.

The Bauhaus School The Bauhaus was a school in Germany that operated from 1919 to 1933, combined crafts and the fine arts, and was famous for the functional design approach it taught and publicized. Despite its name meaning "house of construction" in German and the founder,

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Walter Gropius, being an architect, the Bauhaus did not have an architecture department during its first years. Nonetheless, the school was founded on the idea of "total" creativity in which all arts, including architecture, would be brought together. The Bauhaus style became one of the most influential currents in Modernist architecture and modern design. The Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography (Figure 36.44). Germany's defeat in World War I, the fall of the German monarchy, and the abolition of censorship under the new, liberal Weimar Republic allowed an upsurge in artistic experimentation. Many Germans of left-wing views were influenced by the cultural radicalization that followed the Russian Revolution. Yet the political influences can be overstated: Gropius himself did not have radical views and said Bauhaus was entirely apolitical. Another significant influence was the 19th century English designer William Morris, who had argued that art should meet the needs of society and that there should be no distinction between form and function. Thus the Bauhaus style was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between function and overall design.

German Bauhaus Art The most important influence on Bauhaus was Modernism, a cultural movement with origins as far back as the 1880s and which had already made its presence felt in Germany before the World War. The design innovations commonly associated with Gropius and the Bauhaus radically simplified forms, rationality, functionality, and the idea that massproduction was reconcilable with the individual artistic spiritwere already partly developed in Germany before the Bauhaus was founded. The German national designers' organization Deutscher Werkbund was formed in 1907 to harness the potential of mass production, with a mind towards preserving Germany's economic competitiveness. In its first seven years, the Werkbund came to be regarded as the authoritative body on German design and was copied in other countries. Many fundamental questions of craft versus mass production, the relationship between use and
Bauhaus means "house of construction." Figure 36.44 The Bauhaus in Dessau, Germany

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beauty, the practical purpose of formal beauty in a commonplace object, and whether or not a single proper form could exist were all debated by the Werkbund's members. The entire movement of German architectural modernism was known as Neues Bauen. Beginning in June of 1907, Peter Behrens' pioneering industrial design work for the German electrical company AEG successfully integrated art and large scale mass production. He designed consumer products, standardized parts, created clean-lined designs for the company's graphics, developed a consistent corporate identity, built the modernist landmark AEG Turbine Factory, and made full use of newly developed materials such as poured concrete and exposed steel. Behrens was a founding member of the Werkbund and Walter Gropius worked for him during this period. The Bauhaus was founded at a time when German attitudes towards art had turned from emotional Expressionism to matter-of-fact New Objectivity. Working architects turned away from fanciful experimentation, and turned toward rational, functional, and standardized buildings. Beyond the Bauhaus, many other German architects of the 1920s responded to the same emerging aesthetic issues and uses of materials. The acceptance of modernist design into everyday life was the subject of publicity campaigns, well-

attended public exhibitions like the Weissenhof Estate, films, and public debate.
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Surrealism
The cultural movement of Surrealism began in the 1920s, and features the element of surprise, unexpected juxtapositions, and non sequiturs.
KEY POINTS

artists and writers regard their work as an expression of the philosophical movement, with the artwork being an artifact. Leader Andr Breton was explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was above all a revolutionary movement. Surrealism developed out of the Dada activities during World War I and the most important center of the movement was Paris. From the 1920s onward, the movement spread around the globe, eventually affecting the visual arts, literature, film, and music of many countries and languages, as well as political thought and practice, philosophy, and social theory. Surrealist Inspiration World War I scattered the writers and artists who had been based in Paris, and in the interim many became involved with Dada, believing that excessive rational thought and bourgeois values had brought the conflict of the war upon the world. The Dadaists protested with anti-art gatherings, performances, writings, and artworks. After the war, when they returned to Paris, the Dada activities continued. During the war, Andr Breton, who had trained in medicine and psychiatry, served in a neurological hospital where he used Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic methods with soldiers suffering from shell shock. Meeting the young writer Jacques Vach, Breton felt that Vach was the spiritual son of writer and metaphysical thinker Alfred Jarry. He admired the young writer's antisocial

Surrealism developed out of the Dada activities during World War I and the most important center of the movement was Paris. Freud's work with free association, dream analysis, and the unconscious was of utmost importance to Surrealists developing methods to liberate imagination. Along with dream analysis, the Surrealists emphasized that "one could combine inside the same frame, elements not normally found together to produce illogical and startling effects". The group aimed to revolutionize human experience, in its personal, cultural, social, and political aspects. They wanted to free people from false rationality, and also from restrictive customs and structures.

Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for writing and visual art. Surrealist works feature the element of surprise, along with unexpected juxtapositions and non sequiturs. First and foremost, Surrealist

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attitude and disdain for established artistic tradition. Later Breton wrote, "In literature, I was successively taken with Rimbaud, with Jarry, with Apollinaire, with Nouveau, with Lautramont, but it is Jacques Vach to whom I owe the most." Back in Paris, Breton joined in Dada activities and started the literary journal Littrature along with Louis Aragon and Philippe Soupault. They began experimenting with automatic writing spontaneously writing without censoring their thoughtsand published the writings, as well as accounts of dreams, in the literary
Figure 36.45 Salvador Dal, The Persistence of Memory (1931)

other notable artistic figures. As the Surrealists developed their philosophy, they believed that Surrealism would advocate the idea that ordinary and representative expression was vital and important, but that expression must be fully open to the imagination. Freud's work with free association, dream analysis, and the unconscious was of utmost importance to the Surrealists as they developed methods to liberate their imaginations. They embraced
Magritte's work frequently displays a collection of ordinary objects in an unusual context, giving new meanings to familiar things. Figure 36.46 Ren Magritte's La Trahison des Images ("The Treachery of Images") (1928-9) or Ceci n'est pas une pipe ("This is not a pipe").

journal. Breton and Soupault delved deeper into automatism and wrote The Magnetic Fields (1920). The Development of the Surrealist Movement Continuing to write, attracting more artists and

idiosyncrasy, while rejecting the idea of an underlying madness. Later, Salvador Dal explained it as: "There is only one difference between a madman and me. I am not mad." Along with dream analysis, the Surrealists emphasized that "one could combine inside the same frame, elements not normally found together to produce illogical and startling effects" (Figure 36.45). Breton included the idea of the startling juxtapositions in his 1924 manifesto, taking it in turn from a 1918 essay by poet Pierre Reverdy, which said: "a juxtaposition of two more or less distant realities. The more the relationship between the two juxtaposed

Liquid shapes became the trademark of Salvador Dal, particularly in his The Persistence of Memory, which features the image of watches that sag as if they are melting.

writers, Breton and Soupault came to believe that automatism was a better tactic for societal change than

Dadaist attacks on prevailing values. The group grew to include Salvador Dal, Man Ray, Joan Mir, Marcel Duchamp, among

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realities is distant and true, the stronger the image will be -- the greater its emotional power and poetic reality" (Figure 36.46). The group aimed to revolutionize human experience, in terms of the personal, cultural, social, and political aspects. They wanted to free people from false rationality, and also from restrictive customs and structures. Breton proclaimed that the true aim of Surrealism was "long live the social revolution, and it alone!" To this goal, at various times Surrealists aligned with communism and anarchism. In 1924 they declared their philosophy in the first "Surrealist Manifesto." That same year they established the Bureau of Surrealist Research, and began publishing the journal La Rvolution surraliste.
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Picasso
Pablo Picasso is one of most inuential artists of the 20th century, known for Cubist art, constructed sculpture, and collage.

KEY POINTS

Picassos Blue Period (19011904) consists of somber paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green, only occasionally warmed by other colors. The Rose Period (19041906) is characterized by a cheery style with orange and pink colors, and features circus people, acrobats, and harlequins. Picassos African-influenced Period (19071909) begins with the two figures on the right in his painting, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, which were inspired by African artifacts. Formal ideas developed during this period led directly into the Cubist period that followed. Analytic Cubism (19091912) is a style of painting Picasso developed along with Georges Braque using monochrome brownish and neutral colors. Both artists took apart objects and "analyzed" them in terms of their shapes. Synthetic Cubism (19121919) was a further development of the genre, in which cut paper fragmentsoften wallpaper or portions of newspaper pageswere pasted into compositions, marking the first use of collage in fine art.

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Period (19051907), the African-influenced Period (19081909),

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Analytic Cubism (19091912), and Synthetic Cubism (19121919). Blue Period Picassos Blue Period (19011904) consists of somber paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green, only occasionally warmed by other colors. This periods starting point is uncertain, having possibly begun in Spain in the spring of 1901 or in Paris in the second half of the year. Many paintings of gaunt mothers with children date from this period. In his austere use of color and sometimes doleful subject matter, prostitutes and beggars being frequent subjects, Picasso was influenced by a trip through Spain and by the suicide of his friend Carlos Casagemas. Starting in autumn of 1901, he painted several posthumous portraits of Casagemas, culminating in the gloomy allegorical painting La Vie (1903). The same mood pervades his well-known etching The Frugal Repast (1904), which depicts a blind man and a sighted woman, both emaciated, seated at a nearly bare table. Blindness is a recurrent theme in Picassos works of this period, also represented in The Blindmans Meal (1903) and in the portrait of Celestina (1903).

Arguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of the German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War Guernica. For many, this large canvas embodies for many the inhumanity, brutality, and hopelessness of war.

Pablo Ruiz y Picasso, known as Pablo Picasso (18811973), was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, and stage designer who spent most of his adult life in France. As one of the greatest and most influential artists of the 20th century, he is widely known for co-founding the Cubist movement, the invention of constructed sculpture, the co-invention of collage, and for the wide variety of styles he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are the proto-Cubist Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), and Guernica (1937), a portrayal of the German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. His revolutionary artistic accomplishments brought him universal renown and immense fortune, making him one of the best-known figures in 20th-century art. Picassos work is often categorized into periods. While the names of many of his later periods are debated, the most commonly accepted periods in his work are the Blue Period (19011904), the Rose

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Rose Period The Rose Period (19041906) is characterized by a more cheery style with orange and pink colors, and featuring many circus people, acrobats, and harlequins. The harlequin, a comedic character usually depicted in checkered patterned clothing, became a personal symbol for Picasso. Picasso met Fernande Olivier, a model for sculptors and artists, in Paris in 1904, and many of these paintings are influenced by his warm
Figure 36.47 Pablo Picasso, Three Musicians (1921)

which were inspired by African artifacts. Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that followed. Cubism Analytic cubism (19091912) is a style of painting Picasso developed along with Georges Braque using monochrome brownish and neutral colors. Both artists took apart objects and "analyzed" them in terms of their shapes. Picasso and Braques paintings at this time have many similarities. Synthetic Cubism (19121919) was a further development of the genre, in which cut paper fragments often wallpaper or portions of newspaper pageswere pasted into compositions, marking the first use of collage in fine art (Figure 36. 47). Classicism and Surrealism In the period following the upheaval of World War I, Picasso produced work in a neoclassical style. This "return to order" is evident in the work of many European artists in the 1920s, including Andr Derain, Giorgio de Chirico, Gino Severini, the artists of the New Objectivity movement, and the artists of the Novecento Italiano movement. Picassos paintings and drawings from this period frequently recall the work of Raphael and Ingres. During the 1930s, the minotaur replaced the harlequin as a common motif in his work. His use of the minotaur came partly

relationship with her, in addition to his increased exposure to French painting. The generally upbeat and optimistic mood of paintings in this period is reminiscent of the 18991901 period (just prior to the Blue Period) and 1904 is considered a transitional year between the

Picasso's Three Musicians exemplies the Synthetic Cubist style.

two periods.

African-influenced Period Picassos African-influenced Period (19071909) begins with the two figures on the right in his painting, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon,

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from his contact with the surrealists, who often used it as their symbol, and it appears in Picassos Guernica. The minotaur and Picasso's mistress Marie-Thrse Walter are heavily featured in his celebrated Vollard Suite of etchings. Arguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of the German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War Guernica (Figure 36. 48). For many, this large canvas embodies the inhumanity, brutality, and hopelessness of war. Asked to explain its symbolism, Picasso said, "It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them."
Arguably Picasso's most famous work, Guernica is a historically signicant artwork that has gained a monumental status in 20th century Western painting. Figure 36.48 Pablo Picasso, Guernica (1937)

Neueu Sachlichkeit
Neue Sachlichkeit (or The New Objectivity) was an artistic attitude that arose in Germany in the 1920s in reaction to Expressionism.
KEY POINTS

Neue Sachlichkeit meant to imply a turn towards practical engagement with the worldan all-business attitude, understood by Germans as intrinsically American. Leading up to World War I, much of the art world was under the influence of Futurism and Expressionism, both of which abandoned any sense of order or commitment to objectivity or tradition. Neue Sachlichkeit was a reaction against this. The New Objectivity comprised two tendencies, characterized in terms of a left and right wing: on the left were the verists (exemplified by George Grosz and Max Beckmann) and on the right the classicists (e.g., Georg Schrimpf).

Public Life in Weimar Germany

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The New Objectivity (in German: Neue Sachlichkeit) is a term used to characterize the attitude of public life in Weimar Germany, as well as the art, literature, music, and architecture created to adapt to it. Rather than some goal of philosophical objectivity, it was meant to imply a turn towards practical engagement with the world

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an all-business attitude, understood by Germans as intrinsically American" (Dennis Crockett, German Post-Expressionism: The Art of the Great Disorder, 1918-1984). The term was originally the title of an art exhibition staged by Gustav Friedrich Hartlaub, the director of the Kunsthalle in Mannheim, to showcase artists who were working in a postexpressionist spirit, but it took a life of its own, going beyond Hartlaub's intentions. As these artists rejected the self-involvement and romantic longings of the expressionists, Weimar intellectuals in general made a call to arms for public collaboration, engagement, and rejection of romantic idealism. The movement essentially ended in 1933 with the fall of the Weimar Republic and the rise of the Nazis to power. Before the First world War Leading up to World War I, much of the art world was under the influence of Futurism and Expressionism, both of which abandoned any sense of order or commitment to objectivity or tradition. Expressionism was in particular the dominant form of art in Germany, and it was represented in many different facets of public lifein theater, in painting, in architecture, in poetry, and in literature.

Expressionists abandoned nature and sought to express emotional experience, often centering their art around inner turmoil (angst), whether in reaction to the modern world, to alienation from society, or in the creation of personal identity. In concert with this evocation of angst and unease with bourgeois life, expressionists also echoed some of the same feelings of revolution as did Futurists. The New Objectivity was a reaction against this. The External World: Verists and Classicists The New Objectivity comprised two tendencies, characterized in terms of a left and right wing: on the left were the verists, who "tear the objective form of the world of contemporary facts and represent current experience in its tempo and fevered temperature;" and on the right the classicists, who "search more for the object of timeless ability to embody the external laws of existence in the artistic sphere." The verists' vehement form of realism emphasized the ugly and sordid. Their art was raw, provocative, and harshly satirical. George Grosz (Figure 36.49) and Otto Dix are considered the most important of the verists. The verists developed Dada's abandonment of any pictoral rules or artistic language into a satirical hyperrealism," as termed by Raoul Hausmann, and of which the best known examples are the graphical works and photo-montages of John Heartfield. Use of collage in these works became a

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compositional principle to blend reality and art, as if to suggest that to record the facts of reality was to go beyond the most simple appearances of things. This later developed into portraits and scenes by artists such as Grosz, Dix, and Rudolf Schlichter. Portraits would give emphasis to particular features or objects that were seen as distinctive aspects of the person depicted. Satirical scenes often depicted a madness behind what was happening, depicting the participants as cartoon-like. Other verists, like Christian Schad, depicted reality with a clinical precision, which suggested both an empirical detachment and intimate knowledge of the subject. Schad's paintings are characterized "an artistic perception so sharp that it seems to cut beneath the skin", according to the art critic Wieland Schmied. Often, psychological elements were introduced in his work, which suggested an underlying unconscious reality.
Figure 36.49 The Eclipse of the Sun by George Grosz, 1926 George Grosz exemplied the verist style of New Objectivity.

Max Beckmann, who is sometimes called an expressionist although he never considered himself part of any movement, was considered to be a verist and the most important artist of Neue Sachlichkeit. Compared to the verists, the classicists more clearly exemplify the "return to order" that arose in the arts throughout Europe. The classicists included Georg Schrimpf, Alexander Kanoldt, Carlo Mense, Heinrich Maria Davringhausen, and Wilhelm Heise. The sources of their art include 19th-century art, the Italian metaphysical painters, the artists of Novecento Italiano, and Henri Rousseau.
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Sculpture
Modern sculpture emerged from Western society's attempt to come to terms with urban, industrial and secular society.

the collage in two dimensional art. The advent of Surrealism led to objects being described as "sculpture" that would not have been so previously, like "coulage" and other forms of "involuntary sculpture." In later years, Picasso became a prolific potter, leading a revival in ceramic art with other notables including George E. Ohr, Peter Voulkos, Kenneth Price, and Robert Arneson. Marcel Duchamp originated
The voluptuous female nude typied Lachaise's work. Figure 36.50 Gaston Lachaise, Floating Figure (1927)

KEY POINTS

In the early 20th century, Pablo Picasso revolutionized the art of sculpture when he began!combining disparate objects and materials into one constructed piece of sculpture. The advent of Surrealism led to objects being described as "sculpture" that would not have been so previously, like "coulage" and other forms of "involuntary sculpture". In revolt against the naturalism of Rodin and his late-19thcentury contemporaries, Constantin Brncu7i distilled subjects down to their essences.

use of the "found object" (French: objet trouv) or "readymade" with such pieces as Fountain (1917).

Modernist sculpture movements include Cubism, Geometric abstraction, De Stijl, Suprematism, Constructivism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Futurism, Formalism Abstract expressionism, Pop-Art, Minimalism, Land art, and Installation art. In the early 20th century, Pablo Picasso revolutionized the art of sculpture when he began combining disparate objects and materials into one constructed piece of sculpture; the sculptural equivalent of

Similarly, the work of Constantin Brncu$i at the beginning of the century paved the way for later abstract sculpture. In revolt against the naturalism of Rodin and his late-19th-century contemporaries, Brncu7i distilled subjects down to their essences as illustrated by the elegantly refined forms of his Bird in Space series (1924).

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Brncu7i's impact, through his vocabulary of reduction and abstraction, is seen throughout the 1930s and 1940s, exemplified by artists including Gaston Lachaise (Figure 36.50), Sir Jacob Epstein, Henry Moore (Figure 36.51), Alberto Giacometti, Joan Mir, Julio Gonzlez, Pablo Serrano, and Jacques Lipchitz. By the 1940s, abstract sculpture was impacted and expanded by Kinetic art pioneers Alexander Calder, Len Lye, Jean Tinguely, and Frederick Kiesler.
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Figure 36.51 Henry Moore, Family Group (1950) This statue was Moore's rst large scale commission for a bronze and his rst commission following the Second World war.

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Section 7

America, 1930-1945

The Harlem Renaissance Rural America Canada Mexico Brazil Cuba Sculpture and Photography Painting

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The Harlem Renaissance

The Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s) was an AfricanAmerican cultural movement known for its proliferation in art, music, and literature.

The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement in the United States that spanned the 1920s and 1930s. While the zenith of the movement occurred between 1924 and 1929, its ideas lived on much longer. At the time, it was known as the "New Negro Movement," named after the 1925 anthology by Alain Locke. The cultural and political renaissance produced novels, plays, poems, music, dance, and other artwork that represented the flowering of a distinctive African-American expression. Along with the artists, political leaders such as Marcus Garvey founded potent philosophies of black self-determination and unity among black communities in the United States, the Caribbean, and Africa. At the same time, activists like Hubert Harrison challenged the notion of the renaissance, arguing that the term was largely a white invention that overlooked the continuous stream of creativity that had emerged from the African-American community since 1850. Harlem's Background The district of Harlem had originally developed in the 19th century as an exclusive suburb for the white middle and upper classes. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late 19th century, the once exclusive district was abandoned by its native whites, who moved further north. Harlem became an AfricanAmerican neighborhood in the early 1900s, during the Great Migration in which many sought a better standard of living and

KEY POINTS

The cultural and political Harlem Renaissance produced novels, plays, poems, music, dance and other artwork that represented the flowering of a distinctive African-American expression. Along with the artists, political leaders such as Marcus Garvey founded potent philosophies of black selfdetermination and unity among black communities in the United States, the Caribbean, and Africa. Harlem became an African-American neighborhood in the early 1900s, during the Great Migration in which many African Americans sought a better standard of living and relief from the institutionalized racism in the South. While there was no unifying characteristic of the movement, common themes included the influence of slavery, black identity, the effects of institutional racism, and how to convey the experience of modern black life in the urban North. The Harlem Renaissance helped lay the foundation for the post-World War II phase of the Civil Rights Movement and inspired countless future black artists.

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relief from the institutionalized racism in the South. Others of African descent came from racially stratified communities in the Caribbean, seeking a better life in the U.S. By 1930, 90,000 new arrivals joined the African Americans already living there, creating a community of nearly 200,000. Despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism continued to affect African-American communities. Race riots and other civil uprisings occurred throughout the US during the Red Summer of 1919, reflecting economic competition over jobs, housing, and social territories. An Explosion of Culture The first stage of the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s. Three Plays for a Negro Theatre, written by white playwright Ridgely Torrence,premiered in 1917 and featured African-American actors conveying complex human emotions and yearnings. They rejected the stereotypes of the "blackface" and minstrel show traditions. That same year Hubert Harrison, known as "The Father of Harlem Radicalism," founded The Liberty League and The Voice, the first organization and newspaper of the New Negro Movement. Harrison's organization and newspaper were political, but also emphasized the arts with sections for poetry and book reviews. Another landmark came in 1919, when the poet Claude McKay published his militant sonnet, "If We Must Die". Although the poem

never alluded to race, African-American readers heard its note of defiance in the face of racism. By the end of WWI, the fiction of James Weldon Johnson and the poetry of Claude McKay were describing the reality of contemporary African-American life in America. Characteristics and Themes Characterizing the Harlem Renaissance was an overt racial pride and the developing idea of the New Negro, who through intellect and production of literature, art, and music could challenge the pervading racism and promote progressive politics. The creation of art and literature would serve to "uplift" the race. There was no uniting form characterizing the art that emerged, however. It encompassed a wide variety of styles, including Pan-African perspectives; "high-culture" and "low-culture"; traditional music to blues and jazz; traditional and experimental forms in literature such as modernism; and the new form of jazz poetry. Because of this diversity, numerous artists came into conflict with conservatives in the black intelligentsia, who took issue with certain depictions of black life. Some common themes represented during the Harlem Renaissance were the influence of slavery, black identity, the effects of institutional racism, the dilemmas of performing and writing for

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elite white audiences, and how to convey the experience of modern black life in the urban North. New authors attracted a great amount of national attention, and the Harlem Renaissance led to more opportunities for blacks to be published by mainstream houses. Some authors who became nationally known were Jean Toomer, Jessie Fauset, Claude McKay, Zora Neale Hurston, James Weldon Johnson, Alain Locke, Eric D. Walrond and Langston Hughes (Figure 36.52). A new way of playing the piano called the Harlem Stride Style was also created during the Renaissance, and jazz musicians like Fats Waller, Duke Ellington, Jelly Roll Morton, and Willie "The Lion" Smith are considered to have laid the foundation for future musicians of their genre. Visual artists of the time included Charles Alston, Henry Bannarn, Leslie Bolling, Aaron Douglas, Jacob Lawrence, and Archibold Motley (Figure 36.53).
Langston Hughes was one of the most well-known writers to emerge from the Harlem Renaissance. Figure 36.52 Lansgton Hughes

The Harlem Renaissance helped lay the foundation for the post-World War II phase of the Civil Rights Movement and inspired countless future black artists. The Renaissance was more than a literary or artistic movement; it possessed a certain sociological development particularly through a new racial consciousness through racial integration.

Figure 36.53 Archibald Motley painting "Black Belt" (original painting in color)

Motley is most famous for his colorful chronicling of the African-American experience during the 1920s and 1930s and is considered one of the major contributors to the Harlem Renaissance.

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Rural America
Regionalism refers to a naturalist and realist style of painting that dominated American rural painting in the 1930s.
KEY POINTS

through the 1950s in the United States. After World War I, many American artists rejected the modern trends emanating from the Armory Show and European influences such as those from the School of Paris. Instead they chose to adopt academic realism in depicting American rural scenes. Partly due to the Great Depression, Regionalism became one of the dominant art movements in America in the 1930s (the other being Social Realism). At the time, the United States was still a heavily agricultural nation with a much smaller portion (than today) of its population living in industrial cities such as New York City or Chicago. A debate between abstraction versus realism had been ongoing since the 1913 Armory Show, and continued in the 1930s between Regionalism, Social Realism, and Abstract art. By the 1940s this debate had evolved into two camps that were divided geographically and politically: the Regionalists and the Social Realists who primarily lived in rural areas and whose work addressed social, economic and political issues; and the Abstract artists who primarily lived in New York City and embraced Modernism. Regionalisms eventual loss of status in the art world is mainly a result of the ultimate triumph of Abstract expressionism, when Modernist critics gained power in the 1940s. Using a realist approach, the artistic focus of Regionalism was from artists who shunned city life and rapidly developing technological

After World War I, many American artists rejected the modern trends emanating from the Armory Show and European influences such as those from the School of Paris. Instead they chose to adopt academic realism in depicting American rural scenes. By the 1940s there was a strong debate between the Regionalists and the Social Realists in rural areas, whose work addressed social, economic and political issues; and the Abstract artists in New York City who embraced Modernism. Using a realist approach, the artistic focus of Regionalism was from artists who shunned city life and rapidly developing technological advances, to create scenes of rural life. Regionalist style was at its height from 1930 to 1935, and is best-known through the so-called "Regionalist Triumvirate" of Grant Wood in Iowa, Thomas Hart Benton in Missouri, and John Steuart Curry in Kansas.

Regionalism, also known as American scene painting, refers to a naturalist style of painting and other works of art of the 1920s

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advances, to create scenes of rural life. In Grant Wood's pamphlet Revolt Against the City, published in Iowa City, 1935, he asserts that American artists and buyers of art were no longer looking to Parisian culture for subject matter and style. Wood wrote that Regional artists interpret physiography, industry, and psychology of their hometown, and that the competition of these preceding elements creates American culture. He wrote that the lure of the city was gone, and hoped that art of

Figure 36.54 Grant Wood - "American Gothic"

towns and rural landscapes, as well as cities; the works which stress local and small-town themes are often called "American Regionalism", and those depicting urban scenes, with political and
Figure 36.55 Thomas Hart Benton - Cut the Line

social consciousness, are called "Social Realism." Some artists depicted images as a way to return to a simpler time away from industrialization, whereas others sought to make a political statement and lent their art to revolutionary and radical causes.

Grant Wood's best known work is his 1930 painting"American Gothic,"which is also one of the most famous paintings in American art,"and one of the few images to reach the status of universally recognized cultural icon, comparable to Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa"and Edvard Munch's The Scream.

This 1944 artwork Cut the Line shows the launch of a Tank Landing Ship (LST). Mr. Benton is considered by many art critics to be the quintessential American artist of the 20th Century, and during World War II was commissioned by Abbott Laboratories to produce artworks about the Navy.

the widely diffused "whole people" would prevail. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, Regionalist art was widely appreciated for its reassuring images of the American heartland. Much of the work conveyed a sense of nationalism and romanticism in depictions of everyday American life. During the 1930s, these artists documented and depicted American small

Regionalist style was at its height from 1930 to 1935, and is bestknown through the so-called "Regionalist Triumvirate" of Grant Wood (Figure 36.54) in Iowa, Thomas Hart Benton in Missouri (Figure 36.55), and John Steuart Curry in Kansas. Other artists of the movement include John Rogers Cox, Alexandre Hogue, Dale Nichols, and William S. Schwartz. Many artists involved in the movement studied with or under Benton at the Kansas City Art

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Institute (KCAI), such as John Stockton de Martelly, Frederic James and Pat Potucek. Regionalism had a strong influence on popular culture. Regionalisttype imagery appeared in magazine advertisements, and influenced American children's book illustrators such as Holling Clancy Holling.
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Canada
The arts have ourished in Canada since the 20th century, especially leading up to and after the end of World War II in 1945.
KEY POINTS

A group of landscape painters called the Group of Seven aimed to develop the first distinctly Canadian style of painting, and painted large, brilliantly colored scenes of the Canadian wilderness. They later enlarged to form the Canadian Group of Painters. By the 1920s and 30s, artists such as Kathleen Munn, Bertram Brooker and Lawren Harris began experimenting with abstract or non-objective art, viewing abstract art as a way to explore symbolism and mysticism. Founded in 1938 in Montral, the Eastern Group of Painters included Montral artists whose common interest was painting art for art's sake, rather than for the espousal of a nationalist theory like the Group of Seven. Artists such as Emily Carr, David Milne and William Kurelek took on a highly individual style, and many painted in a similar style to that of American regionalism.

The arts have flourished in Canada since the 20th century, and especially leading up toand afterthe end of World War II in 1945.

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Government support has played a vital role in their development, enabling visual exposure through publications and periodicals featuring Canadian art, as have the establishment of numerous art schools and colleges across the country. The Group of Seven is often considered the first uniquely Canadian artistic group and style of painting. Nationalism and the Group of Seven
Figure 36.56 The Group of Seven

the Group of Seven, though neither were ever official members. In the 1930s, members of the Group of Seven decided to enlarge the club and formed the Canadian Group of Painters, made up of 28 artists from across the country. Beginning of Non-Objective Art In the 1920s, Kathleen Munn and Bertram Brooker independently experimented with

A group of landscape painters called the Group of Seven (Figure 36.56) aimed to develop the first distinctly Canadian style of painting. All these artists painted large, brilliantly-colored scenes of the Canadian wilderness. The original members of the group were Franklin Carmichael, Lawren

abstract or non-objective art in Canada. Both artists viewed abstract art as a way to explore symbolism and mysticism as an integrated part of their personal spirituality. As the Group of Seven was enlarged into the Canadian group of Painters in the 1930s, Lawren Harris left the

Figure 36.57 Mount Lefroy - James MacDonald, 1932

The Group of Seven aimed to develop the rst distinctly Canadian style of painting. This image shows six of the Group of Seven, plus their friend Barker Fairley, in 1920. From left to right: Frederick Varley, A. Y. Jackson, Lawren Harris, Fairley, Frank Johnston, Arthur Lismer, and J. E. H. MacDonald.

James MacDonald was one of the founding members of Canada's Group of Seven,"considered by many to be the rst uniquely Canadian artistic group and style of painting.

Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Frank Johnston, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald (Figure 36.57), and Frederick Varley. Tom Thomson (who died in 1917) and Emily Carr were also closely associated with

group to also experiment with abstract forms and aimed to represent broad conceptual themes rather than landscapes. These individual artists indirectly influenced the following generation of

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artists who would come to form groups of abstract art after World War II. Their work changed the definition of art in Canadian society and encouraged young artists to explore abstract themes. The Eastern Group of Painters Founded in 1938 in Montral, Qubec,the Eastern Group of Painters included Montral artists whose common interest was painting art for art's sake, not the espousal of a nationalist theory (as was the case with the Group of Seven or the Canadian Group of Painters). By the late 1930s, many Canadian artists began resenting the quasinational institution that the Group of Seven had become. Artists began rejecting the perspective that the efforts of a group of Ontario-based artists constituted a national vision or
Emily Carr became famous for her paintings of totem poles, native villages, and the forests of British Columbia in the early 20th century. Figure 36.58 Emily Carr, "Blunden Harbour," 1930, oil on canvas

counter this notion and restore variation of purpose, method, and geography to Canadian art. The groups members included Alexander Bercovitch, Goodridge Roberts, Eric Goldberg, Jack Weldon Humphrey, John Goodwin Lyman, and Jori Smith. 1930s Regionalism Since the 1930s, Canadian painters have developed a wide range of highly individual styles. Emily Carr (Figure 36.58) became famous for her paintings of totem poles, native villages, and the forests of British Columbia. Other noted painters have included the landscape artist David Milne and the prairie painter William Kurelek, who painted in a similar style to that of American regionalism. After World War II Government support played a vital role in arts development after World War II, as have the establishment of numerous art schools and colleges across the country. The abstract painters Jean-Paul Riopelle and Harold Town, along with multi-media artist Michael Snow had an important impact on modern art in Canada. The abstract art group Painters Elevenparticularly the artists William Ronald and Jack Bushwere influential as well. Canadian sculpture has been enriched by the walrus ivory and soapstone carvings of the Inuit artists as well. These carvings show objects and activities from

oeuvre, and many artistsnotably those in Qubecbegan feeling ignored and undermined. The Eastern Group of Painters formed to

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their daily lives, both modern and traditional, as well as scenes from their mythology.
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Mexico
Mexican muralism was the promotion of mural painting from 1920-1970, generally with social and political messages.
KEY POINTS

At the end of the Mexican Revolution in 1921, the government commissioned the painting of public murals as a way of promoting the ideals of the Revolution to the largely illiterate public. These ideals of the murals were to glorify the Mexican Revolution, promote the identity of Mexico as a mestizo nation, and promote art as a public commodity, not only the province of a few wealthy collectors. In addition, many of the muralists included elements of Marxism, highlighting the struggle of the working class against oppression. The three most influential muralists from the 20th century were Diego Rivera, Jos Clemente Orozco and David Siqueiros, known as los tres grandes". The concept of mural as political message was carried to the United States, and served as inspiration to the later Chicano Mural Movement.

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The era from 1930-1945 in Mexico is best marked by Mexican muralism. From the 1920s to 1970s a large number of murals with nationalistic, social and political messages were created on public buildings, as part of efforts to reunify the country under the post Mexican Revolution government. Mexican muralism started a tradition which continues to this day in Mexico. In 1921, after the end of the Mexican Revolution, Jos Vasconcelos was appointed to head the Secretara de Educacin Pblica. At the time, most of the Mexican population was illiterate and the government needed a way to promote the ideals of the Mexican Revolution. Vasconcelos helped establish a government-backed mural program, hiring the country's best artists, for this purpose. Similar to mural use in the pre-Hispanic and colonial periods, the purpose of these murals were not simply aesthetic, but social, to promote certain ideals. These ideals or principles were to glorify the Mexican Revolution and the identity of Mexico as a mestizo nation, with the indigenous promoted as well as the Spanish. The movement was strongest from the 1920s to the 1950s, which corresponded to the countrys transformation from a mostly rural and mostly illiterate society to an industrialized one. While today they are part of Mexicos identity, at the time they were controversial, especially those with socialist messages plastered on centuries-old colonial buildings. One of the basic underpinnings of

the nascence of a post revolutionary Mexican art was that it should be public, available to the citizenry and above all not the province of a few wealthy collectors. The great societal upheaval, as well as a lack of relatively wealthy middle class to support the arts, made the concept possible, and on
Figure 36.59 Mural in the main stairwell of the National Palace by Diego Rivera

this the painters and the government agreed. Though commissioned by the government, the artists maintained complete freedom of expression; in addition to the original ideas of a reconstructed Mexico and the elevation of Mexicos indigenous and rural identity, many of the

A leader in Mexican muralism, much of Rivera's work was"utopian and idealist.

muralists included elements of Marxism - especially the struggle of the working class against oppression. The murals, due to their location and themes, took on a monumental status. Many were painted on the walls of colonial era government buildings. Techniques included the revival of old techniques such as the fresco, painting on freshly plastered walls

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and encaustic or hot wax painting. Others used mosaics and high fire ceramics, as well as metal parts, and layers of cement. The three most influential muralists from the 20th century are
Figure 36.60 "La gran legislacin revolucionaria mexicana y la abolicin de la esclavitud". Mural by Jos Clemente Orozco painted in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico between 1948 and 1949.

an evil and brutal rules class. His work was somber and dire, with emphasis on human suffering and fear of the technology of the future. Unlike other artists, Orozco never glorified the Mexican Revolution, having fought in it, but rather depicted the horrors of this war. This caused many of his murals to be heavily criticized and even defaced (Figure 36.60). Siqueiros was the youngest and most radical of the three, having joined the Venustiano Carranza army when it was 18 and experienced the Revolution from the front lines. Although all three were communists, Siqueiros was the most dedicated, with his painting filled with portrayals of the proletarian masses. His work is also characterized with rapid, sweeping, bold lines and the use of modern enamels, machinery and other elements related to technology. His radical politics made him unwelcome in Mexico and the United States, so he did much of his work in South America. His masterpiece is considered to be the Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros, located in Mexico City (Figure 36.61). Mexican muralism brought mural painting back to the forefront of Western art in the 20th century with its influence spreading abroad, especially promoting the idea of mural painting as a form of promoting social and political ideas. The concept of mural as political message was transplanted to the United States, especially

Diego Rivera, Jos Clemente Orozco and David Siqueiros, known as los tres grandes (the three great ones). Of the three, Rivera was the most traditional in terms of painting styles, drawing heavily from European modernism. His themes were Mexican, often scenes of everyday life and images of ancient Mexico. He originally painted this in bright colors in the European style, but modified it to more earthy tones to imitate indigenous murals. His greatest contribution is the promotion of Mexicos indigenous past into how

Orozco, one of the three great muralists of the 20th century, painted murals that were more"critical and pessimistic that his peers.

many people both inside and outside of the country view it (Figure 36.59). Orozco also began with a European

style of expression. However, his art developed into an angry denunciation of oppression especially by those he considered to be

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in the former Mexican territory of the Southwest, and served as inspiration to the later Chicano Mural Movement.
Figure 36.61 Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros in Mexico City

Brazil
The beginning of the 20th century saw a struggle between old schools and modernist trends in Brazilian art.

KEY POINTS

The Week of Modern Art festival, held in So Paulo in 1922, was a landmark in the history of Brazilian modern art and received fiery criticism from conservatives in society. The Week introduced experimental tendencies derived from European Expressionism, Cubism, and Surrealism to a wider public audience. The radicalism of those first Modernists couldn't last for long in a society used to traditional fashions, and in the 1930s Brazilian art became a mix of important achievements of the Moderns with more conventional traits, giving birth in a generation of moderate Modernism.

Siquieros is known for his radical politics and murals, characterized by rapid, sweeping, bold lines. The Polyform Cultural Siqueiros is considered his masterpiece.

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The beginning of the 20th century saw a struggle between old schools and modernist trends in Brazilian art. The Week of Modern Art festival, held in So Paulo in 1922, was received with fiery criticism by conservative sectors of the society, but it was a landmark in the history of Brazilian art. It included plastic arts exhibitions, lectures, concerts, and the reading of poems. Due to the

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radicalism (for the times) of some of their poems and music, the artists were vigorously booed and pelted by the audience, and the press and art critics in general were strong in their condemnation. However, those artists are now seen as the founders of Modern art in Brazil. Modernist literature and theory of art were represented by Oswald de Andrade, Srgio Milliet, Menotti del Picchia, and Mrio de Andrade, whose revolutionary novel Macunama (1928) is one of the founding texts of Brazilian Modernism. Painting was represented by Anita Malfatti, Tarsila do Amaral, Emiliano Di Cavalcanti, Vicente do Rego Monteiro; sculpture by Victor Brecheret; and music by Heitor Villa-Lobos, the leader of a new musical nationalism, among many others. The Week not only introduced experimental tendencies derived from European Expressionism, Cubism, and Surrealism to a wider public audience, but also made the use of national folklore as a basis for an art more relevant to the Brazilian reality, with an enhanced social awareness. However, the radicalism of those first Modernists couldn't last for long in a society used to traditional fashions, and the original core members had separated by 1929, pursuing individual paths. What Brazilian art then became was a mix of some important achievements of the Moderns, meaning freedom from the strict academic agenda, with more conventional traits, giving birth

in the following generation to a moderate Modernism. This new era of moderate Modernism was best exemplified by painter Cndido Portinari, who was something like the official painter of the Brazilian government in mid-century (Figure 36.62). The erosion of radical Modernism in the visual arts in the early 20th century was not reflected in Brazilian literature, however. Clarice Lispector wrote existentialist novels and developed a highly personal style, filled with stream-ofconsciousness and epiphanies. Joo Guimares Rosa changed the face of
Cndido Portinari was a prominent painter during the moderate Modernist era of the 1930s. Figure 36.62 Cndido Portinari: Study for Discovery of the Land mural at the United States Library of Congress.

Brazilian literature with his experimental language, and playwright Nelson Rodrigues dealt with crime, prejudice, passion, and sexual pathologies. In the 1950s, painting and sculpture regained strength through Abstractionism, and architecture began also to display

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advanced features, influenced by Le Corbusier. Its greatest achievement was the urban core of Braslia, designed by urbanist Lcio Costa and architect Oscar Niemeyer, now a World Heritage Site.
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Cuba
Cuban artists embraced European modernism and the early part of the 20th century saw a growth in Cuban Vanguardism movements.
KEY POINTS

Cuban art is a very diverse cultural blend of African, European and North American design reflecting the diverse demographic of the island. By the late 1920s, Modernism burst on the Cuban scene as part of the critical movement of national regeneration, which arose in opposition to American neo-colonial control, the dictatorship of Gerardo Machado, and the consequent economic crisis. The Vanguardia artists, who studied surrealism, cubism, and modernist primitivism in Paris, rejected the academic conventions of Cuba's national art academy and became increasingly political in their ideology. Pioneers included Antonio Gattorno, Eduardo Abela, Fidelio Ponce de Len, and Carlos Enrquez Gmez. Also influential to Cuban art was nave art, recognized by its childlike freshness and amateurish qualities.

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Cuban Art Cuban art is a very diverse cultural blend of African, European and North American design reflecting the island's demographics. Cuban artists embraced European modernism and the early part of the 20th century saw a growth in Cuban Vanguardism movements, characterized by a mixture of modern artistic genres. Some of the more celebrated 20th century Cuban artists include Amelia Pelez (1896-1968), best known for a series of mural projects, and painter Wifredo Lam (1902-1982) who created a highly personal version of modern primitivism. Vanguardia By the late 1920s, the Vanguardia artists had rejected the academic conventions of Cuba's national art academy. In their formative years, many had lived in Paris, where they studied and absorbed the tenets of surrealism, cubism, and modernist primitivism. Modernism burst on the Cuban scene as part of the critical movement of national regeneration, which arose in opposition to American neo-colonial control, the dictatorship of Gerardo Machado, and the consequent economic crisis. They returned to Cuba committed to new artistic innovation and keen to embrace the heritage of their island. These artists became increasingly political in their ideology, viewing the rural poor as symbols of national identity in contrast to the ruling elite of post independence Cuba.

Pioneers were Antonio Gattorno, Eduardo Abela, Fidelio Ponce de Len, and Carlos Enrquez Gmez. Gattorno's oil painting The Siesta represents the starting point of the surrealist cycle. Born around the turn of the century, these artists grew up in turmoil of constructing a new nation and reached maturity when Cubans engaged in discovering and inventing a national identity. They fully shared in the sense of confidence, renovation, and nationalism that characterized Cuban progressive intellectuals in the second quarter of the twentieth century. Modern Primitivism Antonio Gattorno and Eduardo Abela were the earliest painters of their generation to adapt modern European and Mexican art to the interpretation of their Cuban subjects. They also found in the directness and idealization of early Renaissance painting an effective model for their expression of Cuban themes. These painters images, for all their differences, shared a modern primitivism view of Cuba as an exotic, timeless, and rural inhabited land inhibited by simple and sensual, if also sad and melancholic people. Although rooted in Cubas natural and cultural environment, the vision of lo cubano (the Cuban) was far removed from contemporary historical reality. Instead it was based on an ideal conception of patria that had been a component of Cuban nationalism and art since the nineteenth century. The emphasis

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which Enrquez and Ponce placed on the themes of change, transformation, and death have had an enduring impact on Cuban art. Nave Art According to European and North American Art critics, Nave art is usually recognized by its childlike freshness and amateurish qualities. Artists who work in this style are generally acknowledged as favoring a more primitive or folk style of art. The term nave itself can be problematic; usually meaning an artist is self-taught, it has been used in the past by academic artists or critics as a derogatory term, since nave artists tend to ignore the basic rules of art, especially those regarding perspective. In spite of ignoring these academic conventions, nave artists are generally quite sophisticated in their personal forms of artistic expression.The colors used in Cuban nave art are especially vivid, with artists using the vibrant colors of its tropical home. Art work offers an idealized view of rural life, spiritual references to both Catholicism and Santerias Orichas (deities), legends, and other aspects of Afrocuban culturepast and present. This nave style of art portrays the typical Cuban worldview of the enjoyment of life despite its hardships.

Cuban Art After 1930 The masters of the first generation of Cuban modernism set the stage for the prevalence of certain themes that would govern Cuban art after 1930, and which would have varying degrees of impact on those generations that would later emerge entirely in exile after 1960. Between 1934 and 1940, and still reeling from the overthrow of President Machado (Figure 36.63), Cuba was searching for its cultural identity in its European and African roots. The landscape, flora, fauna, and lore of the island, as well as its peasants - the often neglected foundation of Cubas soul and economy - emerged in its art. Modern Cuban artists continue to create significant work in this tradition, including Juan Ramn Valds Gmez (called Yiki) and Jose Angel Toirac Batista.
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Geraldo Machado was President of Cuba from 1925 until he was overthrown in 1933. Figure 36.63 President Geraldo Machado, 1871 1939

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Sculpture and Photography

During the 1930s and 40s, photography and sculpture expanded into new realms of artistic expression that were inuenced by the times.
KEY POINTS

The period from 1930-1945 in American history is marked by the Great Depression and outbreak of the second World War. During this time, both photography and sculpture expanded into new realms of artistic expression, heavily influenced by the society and times.
Figure 36.64 Dorothea Lange, Migrant Mother, 1936. A portrait of Florence Owens Thompson (1903-1983). The caption of the image reads: "Destitute pea pickers in California. Mother of seven children. Age thirty-two. Nipomo, California." "Lange's image of a supposed migrant pea picker, Florence Owens Thompson, and her family has become an icon of resilience in the face of adversity.

In 1935-36 both Kodak and Agfa introduced new color film technologies, which allowed for the proliferation of color photography for the first time. Social realism extended to photography, and depicted social injustice and economic hardship through unvarnished pictures of life's struggles. Working-class activities were often depicted as heroic. Group f/64, led by Ansel Adams, was a group of seven San Francisco photographers who shared a common photographic style characterized by sharp-focused and carefully framed images seen through a particularly Western viewpoint. European trained sculptors account for much of the great work created before 1950, as many young European sculptors migrated to the free, booming economy across the Atlantic. Modern classicism, american expressionism, and the Harlem renaissance were all influential in the works of sculpture produced during this time.

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Photography Photographic technology continued to expand throughout the 20th century. Kodachrome, the first modern "integral tripack" (or "monopack") color film, was introduced by Kodak in 1935, and Agfa's similarly structured Agfacolor Neu was introduced in 1936. These new technologies allowed for the proliferation of color photography for the first time, and currently available color films still employ a multilayer emulsion and the same principles, most closely resembling Agfa's product. Social Realism Social realism, also known as socio-realism, became an important art movement during the Great Depression in the 1930s. Social realism depicted social and racial injustice, and economic hardship through unvarnished pictures of life's struggles, often depicting working-class activities as heroic. The movement was largely a style of painting that typically conveyed a message of social or political protest edged with satire; however it also extended to the art of photography. Prominent photographers at the time included Walker Evans, Dorothea Lange (Figure 36.64), Margaret BourkeWhite, Lewis Hine, Edward Steichen, Gordon Parks, Arthur Rothstein, Marion Post Wolcott, Doris Ulmann, Berenice Abbott, Aaron Siskind, and Russell Lee,among several others. Each of these artists sought to depict the worldand often the povertythey saw

around them with the realistic portrayal that only photography could provide. In the 1930s, the Farm Security Administration employed several photographers to document the effects of the
Figure 36.65 Ansel Adams: Half Dome, Apple Orchard, Yosemite trees with snow on branches, April 1933. Ansel Adams was one of the co-founders of Group f/64, a group of photographers known who shared a common style characterized by sharp-focused and carefully framed images.

Great Depression on the population of America. Many of the photographs can also be seen as propaganda images to support the U.S. government's policy distributing support to the worst affected, poorer areas of the country. Group F/64 Alongside social realism, another approach to photography referred to as "straight photography" was also gaining momentum. Group f/ 64 is perhaps the most well known example of this art movement. Group f/64 was a group of seven 20th century San Francisco photographers who shared a common photographic style

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characterized by sharp-focused and carefully framed images seen through a particularly Western viewpoint. In part, they formed in opposition to the pictorialism movement in photography that had dominated much of the early 20th century, but moreover they wanted to promote a new modernist aesthetic that was based on precisely exposed images of natural forms and found objects. Photographers involved in the group included Ansel Adams (Figure 36.65), Imogen Cunningham, John Paul Edwards, Sonya Noskowiak, Henry Swift, Willard Van Dyke, and Edward Weston. Sculpture As the century began, many young European sculptors migrated to the free, booming economy across the Atlantic. Thus, European trained sculptors such as Elie Nadelman, Albin Polasek, Gaston Lachaise and Carl Milles account for much of the great work created before 1950. Modern Classicisim and American Expressionism Several notable American sculptors joined in the revitalization of the classical tradition at this time, most notably Paul Manship, who "discovered" archaic Greek sculpture while studying on a scholarship in Rome. C. Paul Jennewein and Edward McCartan were also leaders in this direction who fit easily with the art-deco tastes of the 1920s. In the 1930s and 1940s, the ideologies seen

throughout European politics were also reflected in the associations of American sculptors: on the right were artists who were mostly native-born and old-school classical, modeling from clay; the left was often immigrant and expressionistic, with an emphasis on more current themes and direct carving in wood or stone. An example of a left-leaning leader would be Anna Hyatt Huntington, heiress and sculptor who founded and led the National Sculpture Society,and who endowed the sculpture park, Brookgreen Gardens in South Carolina. Representing the right of the political divide was the New York-based Sculptors Guild, whose most famous member was William Zorach.
Richmond Barthe is an outstanding example of American sculpture in the 1930's and 1940's, and was inuential in the Harlem Renaissance. Figure 36.66 Richmond Barthe (1901 -1989)"Boxer", 1942, Art Institute of Chicago

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African-American Sculptors With the Harlem renaissance, an African-American sculpture genre emerged. Richmond Barth was an outstanding example, establishing a widely successful reputation for his many public works (Figure 36.66). Augusta Savagewas a sculptor and teacher. Other contemporary sculptors include Elizabeth Catlett, Martin Puryear, Jerry Harris, Thaddeus Mosley, and Richard Hunt.
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Painting
American painting in the 1930s and 40s is marked by developments in Regionalism, Social Realism, and Modernist techniques like Precisionism.
KEY POINTS

When the Great Depression hit, president Roosevelts New Deal created several public arts programs in order to give work to artists and decorate public buildings, usually with a national theme. Regionalism, also known as American Scene Painting, developed in reaction to abstract modernism and rapid industrialization and instead depicted American small towns and rural landscapes. Closely related to Regionalism, Social Realism was an artistic movement which depicted social and racial injustice and economic hardship through unvarnished pictures of life's struggles. By 1930, various forms of Modernism had entered popular culture, characterized by a tendency toward abstraction, innovation, futuristic themes, and a rejection of European influence.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

The style of much of the public art commissioned by the WPA was influenced by the work of Diego Rivera and other artists of the contemporary Mexican muralism movement. Several separate and related movements began and developed during the Great Depression including Regionalism and Social Realism, along with Modernist trends.

Precisionism, strongly influenced by Cubism and Futurism, depicted themes of industrialization and the modernization of the American landscape with precise, sharply defined, geometrical forms.

Painting in America during the 1930s and 1940s is marked by several styles that developed simultaneously, and sometimes in opposition to each other. The dominant styles of the time include Regionalism, Social Realism, Precisionism, and Abstract Modernism. New Deal Art When the Great Depression hit, president Roosevelts New Deal created several public arts programs. The purpose of the programs was to give work to artists and decorate public buildings, usually with a national theme. The first of these projects, the Public Works of Art Project (PWAP), was created after successful lobbying by the unemployed artists of the Artists' Union. The PWAP lasted less than one year, and produced nearly 15,000 works of art. It was followed by the Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration (FAP/WPA) in 1935, which funded some of the most well-known American artists.

Regionalism Regionalism, also known as American Scene Painting, developed in reaction to the Armory Show and abstract modernism, and instead depicted American small towns and rural landscapes that conveyed a sense of nationalism and romanticism of everyday American life. Some did so as a way to return to a simpler time away from industrialization, whereas others sought to make a political statement and lent their art to revolutionary and radical causes. Representative artists include Thomas Hart Benton, John Rogers Cox, Grant Wood, John Steuart Curry, Alexandre Hogue, Dale Nichols, William S. Schwartz, John Stockton de Martelly, Frederic Jamesand Pat Potucek,many of whom were associated with the Kansas City Art Institute. Social Realism A closely related movement to Regionalism, Social Realism was an artistic movement which depicted social and racial injustice and

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economic hardship through unvarnished pictures of life's struggles. Artists often depicted working-class activities as heroic, and many conveyed a message of social or political protest edged with satire.
Figure 36.67 Blue and Green Music by Georgia O'Keeffe, 1921

War I confirmed the status of the U.S. as an international player and gave the people self-confidence and a feeling of security. American modernism marked the beginning of American art as distinct and autonomous from European taste by breaking artistic conventions that had been shaped after European traditions until then. Georgia O'Keeffe (Figure 36.67) was a major figure in American Modernism who received widespread recognition for challenging the boundaries of modern American artistic style. She is chiefly known for paintings of flowers, rocks, shells, animal bones and landscapes in which she synthesized abstraction and representation. AfricanAmerican painterAaron Douglasis one of the
Charles Demuth was a prominent Precisionist painter, depicting themes of American industrialization with precise geometrical forms. Figure 36.68 Chimney and Water Tower, 1931. Charles Demuth (1883 1935)

Many artists who subscribed to Social Realism were painters with socialist (but not necessarily Marxist) political views. American Social Realism includes the works of such artists as those from the Ashcan School, including Edward Hopper, Ben Shahn, Rafael Soyer, Isaac Soyer, Reginald Marsh, Jack Levine and others.

Georgia O'Keefe was a major gure in American Modernism, and synthesized abstraction and representation in her works.

Abstraction and Precisionism Not all of the artists who emerged in the years between the wars were

Regionalists or Social Realists. By 1930, various forms of Modernism had entered popular culture. Characteristically, modernist art has a tendency to abstraction, is innovative, aesthetic, futuristic and self-referential. Economic and technological progress in the U.S. during the Roaring Twenties gave rise to widespread utopianism, which influenced some modernist artists, while others were skeptical of the embrace of technology. The victory in World

best-known and most influential African-American modernist painters, who contributed strongly to the Harlem Renaissance and the development of an aesthetic movement that is closely related to distinct features of African-American heritage and culture. Arthur Doveused a wide range of media, sometimes in unconventional combinations to produce his abstractions and his abstract landscapes. Milton Avery's paintings, often nearly abstract,

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had a significant influence on several of the younger artists who would soon become known as Abstract Expressionists. Joseph Cornell, inspired by Surrealism, created boxed assemblages incorporating found objects and collage. Precisionism was an artistic movement that emerged in the United States after World War I and was at its height during the inter-War period. Influenced strongly by Cubism and Futurism, its main themes included industrialization and the modernization of the American landscape, which were depicted in precise, sharply defined, geometrical forms. The themes originated from the streamlined architecture and machinery of the early 1900s. Precision artists considered themselves strictly American and tried to avoid European artistic influences. Precisionist artists have also been referred to as "Cubist-Realists", "Sterilists", and "Immaculates", and their art would have an influence on the magic realism and pop art movements. Charles Demuth (Figure 36.68), Edward Hopper, Edmund Lewandowski, Charles Sheeler,andHerman Trunkwere prominent Precisionists.
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Section 8

Postwar Art

Art Informal in Europe Experiments in Latin America

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Art Informal in Europe

Popular in the 1940s and 1950s, Art Informel is often considered to be the European equivalent to American abstract expressionism.

structure, conception or approach; it was more than simply a casual or relaxed art procedure. Popular in the 1940s and 1950s, it is often considered to be the European equivalent to abstract expressionism, although there are stylistic differences (for example, abstract expressionism is often described as being more raw and

KEY POINTS

aggressive than tachisme). Abstract expressionism was a school of painting in the United States that flourished after World War II until the early 1960s. It was characterized by the view that art is nonrepresentational bearing no reference to any figurative reality - and instead is improvisational. In its wider definition the term describes art that depicts real

Figure 36.69 Serge Poliakoff, Composition grise et rouge

Following World War II, Art Informel spread throughout Europe as Abstract Expressionism was spreading through the U.S. The style was characterized by a complete absence of form and lack of premeditated structure, conception or approach. Tachisme is a specific French style of Art Informel, characterized by spontaneous brushwork, drips of paint and scribbling reminiscent of calligraphy.

Following the end of World War II, a postwar movement known as Art Informel spread throughout Europe. The movement abandoned geometric abstraction in favor of a more intuitive form of expression, similar to Action Painting in the United States. Art Informel did not refer to a sense of "informal art" or a simple reduction of formality, but instead was characterized by a complete absence of form in art. This style lacked any premeditated

forms in a simplified, or rather reduced, way, keeping only an allusion to the original natural subject, such as

Serge Poliako! painted in the French tachisme style of Art Informel.

in the paintings of Joan Mir. Twentieth century painter Wassily Kandinsky is often considered the inventor of such non-figurative art, becoming the first abstract artist as well as a prominent theorist.

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Tachisme is a specific French style of abstract painting under the greater movement of Art Informel. Often referred to the School of Paris, tachisme was a reaction to Cubism and is characterized by spontaneous brushwork, paint dripped straight from the tube onto canvas, and scribbling reminiscent of calligraphy. Important proponents of the style were Jean-Paul Riopelle, Jean Dubuffet, Pierre Soulages, Nicholas de Stael, Hans Hartung, Serge Poliakoff, Georges Mathieu and Jean Messagier, among several others (Figure 36.69). Other movements closely related to Art Informel were the Gutai group in Japan and COBRA, a European avant-garde movement active from 1948 to 1951.
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Experiments in Latin America

In the years following the two World Wars, Latin American artists experimented with multiple forms of artistic expression.
KEY POINTS

Surrealism, an artistic movement originating in Europe, strongly impacted the art of Latin America after the first World War, as seen in some works by Frida Kahlo. Following World War II, abstract art became the dominant art form in Latin America, reflecting a move toward modernization and industrialization with its emphasis on clear and distilled forms. Generacin de la Ruptura was an art movement in 1960s Mexico marked by expressionistic and figurative styles. Nueva Presencia was a group in the early 1960s formed in response to WWII atrocities. It rejected contemporary trends and advocated the social responsibility of artists. Otra Figuracin was an Argentinian group in the 1960s that used abstract expressionism and figurative styles, featuring vivid colors and collage. Artists in Latin America were known for their use of parody as social commentary on such things as the legacy of European imperialism.

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Following the first and second World Wars, Latin American artists experimented with multiple forms of artistic expression. Beginning with Surrealism and Muralism after World War I, artistic styles evolved toward abstract expressionism, geometric designs, and social commentary through artwork. Surrealism, an artistic movement originating in post-World War I Europe, strongly impacted the art of Latin America, where the the legacy of European rule over indigenous peoples embodied the central Surrealist value of contradiction. The widelyknown Mexican painter Frida Kahlo painted selfportraits and depictions of traditional Mexican culture
Painted in 1932, this work by Garca predates his inuence on the growth of abstract art in Latin America after World War II. Figure 36.70 Joaqun Torres Garca Constructivo con campana

Nemesio Antnez (Chile); Wifredo Lam (Cuba); and Roberto Aizenberg (Argentina). Buffered from World War II, many South American countries in the 1940s and 1950s entered an optimistic period of economic growth. Abstract art, with its emphasis on clear and distilled forms, became the dominant visual language, reflecting a move toward modernization and industrialization. The return of Joaqun TorresGarca (18741949) to Uruguay in 1934 was decisive in the development of abstraction in Latin America. Having spent more than four decades in Europe and the United States, he had quickly become associated with an international group of abstract artists, including Piet Mondrian and Theo van Doesburg. Upon his return to South America, he advocated a different type of abstraction that merged contemporary trends with the spiritual art of the past particularly that of Mesoamerica (Figure 36.70). The influx of postwar European artists to Latin America was another determinant factor in the rise of geometric abstraction. In Brazil, for example, the arrival of the Swiss artist Max Bill (1908 1994) in the 1950s inspired a number of concrete artists to form groups, including the Grupo Ruptura (So Paulo) and the Grupo Frente (Rio de Janeiro). The two groups differed about what constituted abstract art: the So Paulo contingent stressed reason, serial form, and optical effects; the neo-concrete artists of Rio de

in a style combining Realism, Symbolism and Surrealism. Other Latin American Surrealists include Remedios Varo and Alberto Gironella (Mexico); Roberto Matta, Mario Carreo Morales, and

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Janeiro accorded a higher value to the role of experimentation, expressiveness, and subjectivity. Broadly speaking, these two trends came to define much of the art produced in South America from the 1940s to the 1970s. Abstraction also flourished in Mexico, particularly in the 1960s, as the works by Mathias Goeritz and Carlos Mrida demonstrate. Generacin de la Ruptura, or "Rupture Generation," is the name given to an art movement in Mexico in 1960s in which younger artists broke away from the established national style of Muralismo. Born out of the desire for greater freedom of style in art, this movement is marked by expressionistic and figurative styles. Mexican artist Jos Luis Cuevas is credited with initiating la Ruptura, publishing a paper in 1958 called La Cortina del Nopal ("The Cactus Curtain") which condemned Mexican muralism as being overly political rather than artistic. Nueva Presencia ("new presence") was an artist group founded by artists Arnold Belkin and Fancisco Icaza in the early 1960s. In response to WWII atrocities such as the Holocaust and the atomic bomb, the artists of Nueva Presencia shared an anti-aesthetic rejection of contemporary trends in art and a belief that the artists had a social responsibility. Members of the group included Leonel Gngora, Francisco Corzas, and photographer Ignacio "Nacho" Lpez.

Otra Figuracin ("Other Figuration") was an Argentinian artist group and commune formed in 1961 and disbanded in 1966. Artists of Otra Figuracin worked in an expressionistic, abstract, figurative style featuring vivid colors and collage. Although Otra Figuracin were contemporaries of Nueva Presencia, there was no direct contact between the two groups. Prominent members included Rmulo Macci, Ernesto Deira, Jorge de la Vega, and Luis Felipe No. Another common practice of Latin American art is the use of parody. Parodies in art serve a dual purpose: they reference the artistic and cultural history of Latin America, and they also critique the legacy of European imperialism. Two notable artists who frequently employed this technique are Columbian figurative artist Fernando Botero and Mexican painter and collagist Alberto Gironella.
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Section 9

Abstract Expressionism

New York The Development of Abstract Expressionism Jackson Pollack and Action Painting Color Field Painting The New York School

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New York
The New York School was an informal group of American poets, painters, dancers, and musicians active in the 1950s and 1960s in New York.

1960s in New York City. The poets, painters, composers, dancers, and musicians often drew inspiration from Surrealism and the contemporary avant-garde art movements, in particular, action painting, abstract expressionism, Jazz, improvisational theater, experimental music, and the New York art world's vanguard circle.

KEY POINTS

The New York School, which fostered the development of the abstract expressionist style of the 1950s was documented through a series of artists' committee invitational exhibitions commencing with the Ninth Street Art Exhibition in 1951 and followed by consecutive exhibitions through 1957. The Ninth Street Art Exhibition, otherwise known as the Ninth Street Show, which was held from May 21-June 10, 1951, was a historical, ground-breaking exhibition in that it placed New York on the map as the cultural center of new artistic expression. The Ninth Street Art exhibition was not only a showing of a remarkable amount of work from leading abstract expressionists and notable New York artists, it was also the stepping-out of the post war New York avant-garde (Figure 36.71). The show was located at 60 East 9th Street in the first floor and the basement of a building which was about to be demolished. The artists celebrated not only the appearance of the dealers, collectors and museum people on the 9th Street, and the consequent exposure of their work, but they

The New York School, which fostered the development of the abstract expressionist style of the 1950s, was documented through a series of artists' committee invitational exhibitions commencing with the Ninth Street Art Exhibition in 1951 and followed by consecutive exhibitions through 1957. The Ninth Street Art Exhibition, otherwise known as the Ninth Street Show, which was held from May 21-June 10, 1951, was a historical, ground-breaking exhibition in that it placed New York on the map as the cultural center of new artistic expression. The opening of the show was a great success. Yet in spite of the public interest exhibited toward the Ninth Street Show, there were few galleries that were willing to accept the works of the New York School artists who were unknown to traditional art criticism.

The New York School (which is most often associated with abstract expressionist painting) was an informal group of American poets, painters, dancers, and musicians active in the 1950s and

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celebrated the creation and the strength of a living community of significant dimensions. The opening of the show was a great success. Yet in spite of the public interest exhibited toward the Ninth Street Show, there were few galleries that were willing to accept the works of the New York School artists who were unknown to traditional art criticism. A converted horse stable named The Stable Gallery, located at 924 7th Avenue and 58th Street in New York City, hosted the abstract expressionists works showcased in the New York Painting and Sculpture Annuals from 1953-1957.
Figure 36.71 Clyfford Still Cly!ord Still, 1957D No. 1, 1957, oil on canvas, 113 x 159 in, AlbrightKnox Art Gallery, Bu!alo, New York. Still was one of the leading gures of the New York School of abstract expressionism.

The Development of Abstract Expressionism

Abstract expressionism was an American postWorld War II art movement.
KEY POINTS

Abstract expressionism has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic, and nihilistic. In practice, the term is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles, and even to work that is neither especially abstract nor expressionist. Although it is true that spontaneity or the impression of spontaneity characterized many of the abstract expressionists works, most of these paintings involved careful planning, especially since their large size demanded it. Abstract expressionist paintings share certain characteristics, including the use of large canvases, an "all-over" approach, in which the whole canvas is treated with equal importance.

Abstract expressionism was an American postWorld War II art movement. Although the term "abstract expressionism" was first applied to American art in 1946 by the art critic Robert Coates, it had been first used in Germany in 1919 in the magazine Der Sturm. Abstract expressionism is derived from the combination of the

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emotional intensity and self-denial of the German Expressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools such as Futurism, the Bauhaus, and Synthetic Cubism. Additionally, it has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic, and nihilistic. In practice, the term is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles, and even to work that is neither especially abstract nor expressionist. Abstract expressionism has many stylistic similarities to the Russian artists of the early 20th century such as Wassily Kandinsky. Although it is true that spontaneity or the impression of spontaneity characterized many of the abstract expressionists' works, most of these paintings involved careful planning, especially since their large size demanded it. In many instances, abstract art implied expression of ideas concerning the spiritual, the unconscious, and the mind. Abstract expressionism expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities that artists had available for the creation of new works of art. Although Abstract expressionism spread quickly throughout the United States, the major centers of this style were the New York School and California. Abstract expressionist paintings share certain characteristics, including the use of large canvases, an "allover" approach, in which the whole canvas is treated with equal

importance (as opposed to the center being of more interest than the edges). Jackson Pollock's energetic action paintings, with their "busy" feel, are different both technically and aesthetically from the violent and grotesque Women series of Willem de Kooning. In contrast to the emotional energy and gestural surface marks of Pollock and de Kooning, the Color Field painters initially appeared to be cool and austere, eschewing the individual mark in favor of large, flat areas of color, which these artists considered to be the essential nature of visual abstraction, along with the actual shape of the canvas. In later years, Color Field painting has proven to be both sensual and deeply expressive, albeit in a different way from gestural abstract expressionism. During the period leading up to and during World War II, modernist
Jackson Pollock, No. 5, 1948, oil on berboard, demonstrates a signicant feature of abstract expressionism: attacking a canvas from all sides using drips of paint in various colors and stains. Figure 36.72 The Liver is the Cock's Comb

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artists, writers, and poets, as well as important collectors and dealers, fled Europe and the onslaught of the Nazis for safe haven in the United States. New York replaced Paris as the new center of the art world. The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism, the modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Surrealism, Joan Mir, Cubism, Fauvism, and early Modernism via great teachers in America like Hans Hofmann from Germany and John D. Graham from Russia. Graham's influence on American art during the early 1940s was particularly visible in the work of Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning and Jackson Pollock. Gorky's contributions to American and world art are difficult to overestimate. His works, such as The Liver is the Cock's Comb, The Betrothal II, and One Year the Milkweed, immediately prefigured abstract expressionism. During the late 1940s, Jackson Pollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all contemporary art that followed him. To some extent, Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Pollock redefined what it was to produce art. His move away from easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era and to all that came after. Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's processthe placing of unstretched raw canvas on the floor, where it could be attacked from all four sides using

artist materials and industrial materialsessentially took artmaking beyond any prior boundary (Figure 36.72). Many New York School artists began exhibiting their abstract expressionist-related paintings during the 1950s, when the movement gained international recognition.
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Jackson Pollack and Action Painting

Action painting, created by Jackson Pollock, is a style in which paint is spontaneously splattered, smeared or dripped onto canvas.

the physical act of painting itself as an essential aspect of the finished work. Action painting is inextricably linked to the Abstract Expressionism art movement, a school of painting characterized by the view that art is non-representational and chiefly improvisational, and which took place in postWorld War II Americaespecially New Yorkduring the 1940s until the early 1960s. Major artists associated with this movement are Jackson Pollock, Willem de
Figure 36.73 Jackson Pollock, Number 31, 1950

KEY POINTS

Kooning, Robert Motherwell, Franz Kline and Mark Rothko, among others. The term action painting was coined by the American critic Harold Rosenberg in 1952in his essay "The American
Oil and Enamel Paint on Canvas (The Museum of Modern Art, New York City, Sidney and Harriet Janis Collection Fund)

Action painting was developed as part of the Abstract Expressionism movement that took place in postWorld War II America, especially in New York, during the 1940s through until the early 1960s. Action painting places the emphasis on the act of painting rather than the final work as an artistic object. Jackson Pollock challenged traditional conventions of painting by using synthetic resin-based paints, laying his canvas on the floor, and using hardened brushes, sticks, and even basting syringes for applying paint.

Action Painters"and signaled a major shift in the aesthetic perspective of New York School painters and critics. According to Rosenberg the canvas was not an object, but rather "an arena in which to act." Rosenberg's critique shifted the emphasis from the object to the struggle of painting itself, with the finished work being only the physical manifestation, a kind of residue, of the actual work

Action Painting Action painting is a style of painting in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied with a brush. The resulting work often emphasizes

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of art, which was in the process of the painting's creation (Figure 36.73). Action painting refers to the spontaneous activity that was the "action" of the painter, through arm and wrist movement, painterly gestures, leading to paint that was thrown, splashed, stained, splattered, poured, and dripped (Figure 36.74). The painter would sometimes let the paint drip onto the canvas while rhythmically dancing or even while standing on top of the unstretched canvas laying on the floorboth techniques invented by one of the most important abstract expressionists: Jackson Pollock. Jackson Pollock My painting does not come from the easel. I prefer to tack the unstretched canvas to the hard wall or the floor. I need the resistance of a hard surface. On the floor I am more at ease. I feel nearer, more part of the painting, since this way I can walk around it, work from the four sides, and literally be in the painting. Born in Cody, Wyoming in 1912, Jackson Pollock moved to New York City in 1930, where he studied under Thomas Hart Benton at the Art Students League of New York. In 1948 he married American painter Lee Krasner, and they moved to what is now known as the Pollock-Krasner House and Studio in the Springs area of East Hampton, Long Island, NY.

Figure 36.74 Jackson Pollock, Number 31 (detail), 1950

Oil and Enamel Paint on Canvas (The Museum of Modern Art, New York City, Sidney and Harriet Janis Collection Fund)

Materials and Process After his move to Springs, he began painting with his canvases laid out on the studio floor, turning to synthetic resin-based paints called alkyd enamels, which were much more fluid than traditional paint and, at that time, were a novel medium. Pollock described this use of household paints, instead of fine art paints, as "a natural growth out of a need." He used hardened brushes, sticks, and even basting syringes as paint applicators. By defying the convention of painting on an upright surface, he added a new dimension by being able to view and apply paint to his canvases from all directionsthe

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term "all-over painting" has been used to describe some of his work, as well as the work of other artists from that time. In the process of making paintings in this
Figure 36.75 Jackson Pollock in his studio

Death At the peak of his fame, Pollock abruptly abandoned the drip style and by 1951 his works had turned darker in color. This was followed by a return to color, and he reintroduced figurative elements. During this period Pollock had moved to a more commercial gallery and there was great demand from collectors for new paintings. In response to this pressure, along with personal frustration, his longterm problem with alcoholism worsened. He painted his two last works in 1955. On August 1956 Pollock died in a single-car crash in his Oldsmobile convertible while driving under the influence of alcohol. After Pollock's demise at age 44, his widow, Lee Krasner, managed his estate and ensured that Pollock's reputation remained strong despite changing art-world trends. They are both buried in Green River Cemetery in Springs, Long Island, NY.
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way, he moved away from figurative representation, and challenged the Western tradition of using easel and brush. In addition, he also moved away from the use of only the hand and wrist, since he used his whole body to paint (Figure 36.75). Titles with Numbers

The artist threw, splashed, stained, splattered, poured and dripped paint to create his works.

Pollock wanted an end the search for figurative elements in his

paintings, so he abandoned titles and started numbering his paintings instead. The numbering relates to the way composers title their works. Furthering the musical metaphor, Pollock's action paintings have been often described as improvisational works of art, similar to how jazz musicians approach the performance of a piece.

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Color Field Painting

Color Field painting used greatly reduced formats,"repetition,"and a highly articulated and psychological use of color.

Color Field painting is a style of abstract painting that emerged in New York City during the 1950s and 1960s. It was inspired by European modernism and closely related to Abstract Expressionism, while many of its notable early proponents were among the pioneering Abstract Expressionists. Color Field is characterized primarily by large fields of flat, solid color spread across or stained into the canvas creating areas of unbroken surface and a flat picture plane. The movement places less emphasis on gesture, brushstrokes and action in favour of an overall consistency of form and process, with color itself becoming the subject matter. Taking its example from other European modernists like Joan Mir, the Color Field movement encompasses several decades from the mid-20th century through the early
Color Field painting is characterized by simple geometric forms and repetitive, regulated systems."Paintings of this genre have proven to be both sensual and deeply expressive, albeit in a di!erent way from gestural Abstract Expressionism. Figure 36.76 Who's Afraid of Red, Yellow and Blue?, 1966, by Barnett Newman

KEY POINTS

Color Field painting!is a style of abstract painting that emerged in New York City during the 1950s and 1960s. It was closely linked to!Abstract Expressionism, Post-Painterly Abstraction, and Lyrical Abstraction. Distinct from the emotional energy and gestural surface marks and paint handling of Abstract Expressionists such as Jackson Pollock, Color Field painting initially appeared to be cool and austere. The movement places less emphasis on gesture, brushstrokes and action in favour of an overall consistency of form and process, with color itself becoming the subject matter. Mark Rothko, Frank Stella, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Adolph Gottlieb, and Morris Louis are among the many artists who used Color Field techniques in their work. Color Field painters revolutionized the way paint could be effectively applied, through use of acrylic paint and techniques such as staining and spraying.

21st century. Color Field painting actually encompasses three separate but related generations of painters, commonly grouped

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into abstract expressionism, post-painterly abstraction, and lyrical abstraction. Some of the artists made works in all three eras that relate to all of the three styles. The focus of attention in the world of contemporary art began to shift from Paris to New York after World War II and the development of American abstract expressionism. During the late 1940s and early 1950s, Clement Greenberg was the first art critic to suggest and identify a dichotomy between differing tendencies within the Abstract Expressionist canonespecially between Action Painting and what Greenberg termed "Post-Painterly Abstraction" (today known as Color Field). By the late 1950s and early 1960s, young artists began to break away stylistically from abstract expressionism, experimenting with new ways of handling paint and color. Moving away from gesture and angst (such as the violence and anxiety of Action painting) in favor of clear surfaces and seemingly calmer language of color, artists in Great Britain, Canada and the United States used formats of stripes, targets and simple geometric patterns. Color Field painting is related to Post-painterly abstraction, Suprematism, Abstract Expressionism, Hard-edge painting and Lyrical Abstraction. It initially referred to a particular type of abstract expressionism, especially the work of Mark Rothko, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman (Figure 36.76), Robert Motherwell,

Adolph Gottlieb and several series of paintings by Joan Mir. Color Field painting sought to rid art of superfluous rhetoric. Artists like Morris Louis, Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland (Figure 36.77), Friedel Dzubas, Frank Stella (Figure 36.78), and others often used greatly reduced formats, with drawing essentially simplified to repetitive and regulated systems, basic references to nature, and a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general these artists eliminated overt recognizable imagery in favor of abstraction.
Color Field painting is characterized by simple geometric forms and repetitive, regulated systems."Paintings of this genre have proven to be both sensual and deeply expressive albeit in a di!erent way from gestural Abstract expressionism. Figure 36.77 'Beginning', magna on canvas painting by Kenneth Noland, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, 1958

Certain artists quoted references to past or present art, but in general Color Field painting presents abstraction as an end in itself. In pursuing this direction of modern art, these artists wanted to present each painting as one unified, cohesive, monolithic image often within series' of related types. Distinct from the emotional energy and gestural surface marks and paint handling of abstract

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expressionists such as Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning, Color Field painting initially appeared to be cool and austere. Color Field painters eschew the individual mark in favor of large, flat, stained, and soaked areas of color, considered to be the essential nature of visual abstraction along with the actual shape of the canvas. However, Color Field painting has proven to be both sensual and deeply expressive, albeit in a different way from gestural abstract expressionism.
Figure 36.78 Frank Stella, Harran II, 1967

Water-soluble, artist-quality acrylic paints first became commercially available in the early 1960s, coinciding with the Color Field movement as these paints could would sink and hold fast into raw canvas.The most common applications were stain painting (where artists would mix and dilute their paint in buckets or coffee cans, making a fluid liquid, then pour it onto raw unprimed canvas, drawing shapes and areas as they stained); spray painting (a technique using a spray gun to create large expanses and fields of color sprayed across the canvas); and the use of stripes.
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During the late 1950s and early 1960s, Frank Stella"was a signicant gure in the emergence of Minimalism, Post-Painterly Abstraction, and"Color Field painting. His shaped canvases of"the 1960s revolutionized abstract painting.

An important distinction between Color Field painting and abstract expressionism is the paint handling. The most basic defining technique of painting is application of paint, and the Color Field painters revolutionized the way paint could be effectively applied.

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The New York School

The New York School"was"an informal group of American abstract painters and other artists active in the 1950s and 1960s.
KEY POINTS

art movement of Abstract Expressionism, such as the work of Jackson Pollack and Willem de Kooning (Figure 36.79). The artists drew inspiration from surrealism and the contemporary avant-garde art movements, in particular action painting (Figure 36.80), abstract expressionism, Jazz, improvisational theater, experimental music, and the interaction of friends in the New York City art world's vanguard circle. A school of painting that flourished after World War II until the early 1960s, abstract expressionism is characterized by the view that art is nonrepresentational and chiefly improvisational. Abstract expressionist paintings share certain characteristics, including the use of large canvases, and an "all-over" approach in which the whole canvas is treated with equal importance (as opposed to the center being of more interest than the edges). The canvas as the arena
Jackson Pollack is known for his techniques in action painting, a style of abstract expressionism in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied. Figure 36.79 The Liver is the Cock's Comb

Although Abstract Expressionism spread quickly throughout the United States, the major centers of this style were New York City and California, especially in the New York School, and the San Francisco Bay area. The artists drew inspiration from surrealism and the contemporary art movements such as action painting, abstract expressionism, jazz, improvisational theater and experimental music. The work of the New York School was documented through annual exhibitions of painting and sculpture from 1951-1957; racism and discrimination excluded African-American artists from these exhibitions. In addition to painting, the New York School was associated with many poets, dancers, composers, jazz musicians, and writers.

The New York School was an informal group of American poets, painters, dancers, and musicians active in the 1950s and 1960s in New York City. It represented, and is often synonymous with, the

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became a credo of Action painting, while the integrity of the picture plane became a credo of the Color Field painters. The post-World War II era highly benefited some of the artists who were recognized early on by art critics. Some artists from New York, such as Norman Bluhm and Sam Francis, took advantage of the GI Bill and left for Europe, to return later with acclaim. Many artists from all across the U.S. arrived in New York City to seek recognition, and by the end of the decade the list of artists associated with the New York School had greatly increased. Painters, sculptors, and printmakers created art in Action painting, Fluxus, Color Field painting, Hard-edge painting, Pop art, Minimal Art, Lyrical Abstraction, and other movements associated with abstract expressionism. The work of the New York School was documented through a series of invitational artists' committee exhibitions. These exhibitions took place in conjunction with the 9th Street Art Exhibition in 1951 and were followed by Annual Exhibitions of Painting and Sculpture at the Stable Gallery in NYC, from 1953-1957. These annual exhibitions represented a total of 265 New York School artists; however, none of these was African-American. For AfricanAmerican artists a barrier to success in the post-war era was the prevailing blight of racism and segregation, which resulted in

exclusion of artists of African-American origin from major exhibitions and critical attentions. In addition to painting, the New York School was associated with many poets, dancers, composers, jazz musicians, and writers. Poets drew on inspiration from Surrealism and the contemporary avantgarde art movements, in particular the Action painting of their friends in the New York City art world like Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning. In the 1960s, the work of the avant-garde Minimalist composers La Monte Young, Philip Glass, Tony Conrad, Steve Reich, and Terry Riley became prominent in the New York art world. The new Bebop and cool jazz musicians in the 1940s and 1950s (such as Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, John Coltrane, and Gerry Mulligan) coincided with the New York School and abstract expressionism. There are also commonalities between the New
Jackson Pollack is known for his techniques in action painting, a style of abstract expressionism in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied. Figure 36.80 The Liver is the Cock's Comb

York School and the members of the beat generation poets active in 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s New York City, including Allen Ginsberg,

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Jack Kerouac, William S. Burroughs, Diane Wakoski, and several others.

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Chapter 37

Global Art Since 1950

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Section 1

The World Since 1950

Art Since 1950

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Art Since 1950

Late modernism is the overall production of art made between the aftermath of World War II and the early years of the 21st century.

Background Late modernism includes most recent art made between the aftermath of World War II and the early years of the 21st century. The terminology often points to similarities between late modernism and post-modernism, although there are differences. The predominant term for art produced since the 1950s is Contemporary Art. Not all art labeled as contemporary art is modernist or post-modern, and the broader term encompasses both artists who continue to work in modern and late modernist traditions, as well as artists who reject modernism for postmodernism or other reasons. Arthur Danto argues explicitly in After the End of Art that contemporaneity was the broader term, and that postmodern objects represent a subsector of the contemporary movement which replaced modernity and modernism. Other notable critics such as Hilton Kramer, Robert C. Morgan, Kirk Varnedoe, Jean-Franois Lyotard and others have argued that postmodern objects are at best relative to modernist works. The discourse that encompasses the two terms Late Modernism and Postmodern art is used to denote what may be considered as the ultimate phase of modern art, as art at the end of modernism or as certain tendencies of contemporary art. There are those who argue against a division into modern and postmodern periods. Not all

KEY POINTS

The terminology often points to similarities between late modernism and post-modernism, although there are differences. The predominant term for art produced since the 1950s is Contemporary Art. The discourse that encompasses the two terms Late Modernism and Postmodern art is used to denote what may be considered as the ultimate phase of modern art, as art at the end of modernism or as certain tendencies of contemporary art. Late modernism describes movements which arise from and react against trends in modernism and rejects some aspect of modernism, while fully developing the conceptual potentiality of the modernist enterprise. Modern art, radical movements in Modernism, and radical trends regarded as influential and potentially as precursors to late modernism and postmodernism emerged around World War I and particularly in its aftermath.

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critics agree that the stage called modernism is over or even near the end. There is no agreement that all art after modernism is postmodern. Contemporary art is the more-widely used term to denote work since roughly 1960, though it has many other uses as well. Nor is post-modern art universally separated from modernism, with many critics seeing it as merely another phase in modern art or as another form of late Modernism. There are critics of the term "post-modern" and how it is applied; however, these critics are in the minority. This is not to say that the phase of art denoted by post-modernism is accepted, merely that there is a need for a term to describe movements in art after the peak of Abstract Expressionism. However there is a consensus is that a profound change in the perception of works of art has occurred and a new era has been emerging on the world stage since at least the 1960s. Differences Between Late Modernism and Post Modernism Late modernism describes movements which arise from and react against trends in modernism and rejects some aspect of modernism, while fully developing the conceptual potentiality of the modernist enterprise. In some descriptions post-modernism as a period in art history is completed, whereas in others it is a continuing movement in Contemporary art. In art, the specific traits of modernism which

Figure 37.1 Matisse Dance

Henri Matisse, The Dance (second version), 1909 Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.

are cited are generally formal purity, medium specificity, art for art's sake, the possibility of authenticity in art, the importance or even possibility of universal truth in art, and the importance of an avant-garde and originality. This last point is one of particular controversy in art, where many institutions argue that being visionary, forward-looking, cutting edge, and progressive are crucial to the mission of art in the present, and that postmodern art therefore represents a contradiction of the value of art of our times.

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One compact definition offered is that post-modernism rejects modernism's grand narratives of artistic direction, eradicates the boundaries between high and low forms of art, and disrupts the genre and its conventions with collision, collage and fragmentation. Post-modern art is seen as believing that all stances are unstable and insincere, and therefore irony, parody, and humor are the only positions which cannot be overturned by critique or later events. Radical Movements in Modern Art Modern art, radical movements in Modernism, and radical trends regarded as influential and potential precursors to late modernism and postmodernism emerged around World War I and particularly in its aftermath. With the introduction of the use of industrial artifacts in art came movements such as Cubism (Figure 37.1), Dada, and Surrealism as well as techniques such as collage and art forms such as cinema and the rise of reproduction as a means of creating artworks. Both Pablo Picasso the Modernist and Marcel Duchamp the rebel created important and influential works from found objects.
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Section 2

Painting and Sculpture, 1945-1970

European Postwar Expressionism Post-Painterly Abstraction Sculpture Superrealism

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European Postwar Expressionism

Postwar European artists, unlike American Abstract Expressionists, grappled with the isolated experience of the individual gure.
KEY POINTS

biggest contributing factors to this shift was the advent of Abstract Expressionism, a decidedly American movement that is often cited as the first American avant-garde. Visionary figures like Jackson Pollock, Mark Rothko and Barnett Newman epitomized Abstract Expressionism in New York, but a similar concern for Expressionism was present in the work of many important European artists in the aftermath of WWII. The Postwar Figure While both American and European artists were influenced by the postwar rhetoric of anxiety, alienation and disillusionment, the American school was also heavily influenced by Surrealism, and moved increasingly toward reductive abstraction and away from representing biomorphic forms as a means for pursuing the selfexpression of the unconscious. Unlike American Expressionism, which was more abstract, many European painters maintained the primacy of the figure in their work. More concerned with
Figure 37.2 Francis Bacon, Study after Velazquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent X Francis Bacon, Study after Velazquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent X, 1953, oil on canvas, 60 x 46 in. De Moines Art Center, De Moines, Iowa.

Following the end of WWII, and the advent of American Abstract Expressionism, the center of western artistic activity shifted from Paris to New York. Many European artists were heavily influenced by the intellectual movement Existentialism. This interest is reflected in their attempts to grapple with the meaning of the isolated figure in the postwar world. The closest equivalents to American Abstract Expressionism were the French painting movements Tachisme and Art Informel. The artistic approach of these movements was characterized by intuitive abstraction and abandonment of premeditated structure.

Introduction In the Postwar period after 1945, the center of modern artistic activity in the west shifted from Paris to New York. One of the

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the philosophical and cultural movement of Existentialism, European artists grappled with the meaning of the figure and its isolated, individual experience of the world. Existentialist themes often framed the work of figurative artists such as Francis Bacon (Figure 37.2), Lucian Freud, and Alberto Giacometti (Figure 37.3). Bacon and Freud were British painters who often painted expressive portraits that were noted for their psychological penetration. Giacometti was a Swiss painter and sculptor mostly known for his sculptures of isolated, attenuated figures. These figures were thought to reflect the postwar view that life was increasingly void of meaning. Tachisme/Art Informel During this time period, there were also European artists who engaged more fully in abstraction, particularly those associated with the French painting movements Tachisme (from the French word tache, meaning stain) and Art Informel. Tachisme is often regarded
Alberto Giacometti, Woman of Venice VII, 1956, bronze. Art Gallery of New South Wales. Figure 37.3 Alberto Giacometti, Woman of Venice VII

as the closest European equivalent of American Abstract Expressionism. Tachisme is characterized by spontaneous brushwork, drips and blobs of paint applied directly from a tube, and, occasionally, a scribbling reminiscent of calligraphy. Important Tachisme painters include Jean-Paul Riopelle, Jean Dubuffet, Pierre Soulages, Nicholas de Stael, Hans Hartung, Serge Poliakoff (Figure 37.4), Georges Mathieu and Jean Messagier. Art Informel, a movement closely related to Tachisme, rejected the geometric, hard-edge style of American abstraction in favor of a more intuitive form of expression. premeditated structure.
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Serge Poliako!, Composition grise et rouge, 1964, oil on canvas, 160 x 130 cm. Galerie Ludor!, Dusseldorf, Germany. Figure 37.4 Serge Poliakoff, Composition grise et rouge

"Informel" referred to the lack of form itself and the absence of a

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Post-Painterly Abstraction
Embracing clean linearity and open composition, PostPainterly Abstraction evolved in reaction to Abstract Expressionism in the 50s and 60s.
KEY POINTS

County Museum of Art in 1964. He was influential until the mid-1970s. Greenberg perceived that this new style of painting favored openness and clarity as opposed to the dense, painterly surfaces of Abstract Expressionism. This new set of artists abandoned the elements of subject matter, personal connection with the artist, and defined brush strokes. While the Abstract Expressionists were characterized by gestural abstraction and were therefore still concerned with some degree of representation, Greenberg suggested that the formal elements of Post-Painterly Abstraction attained a level of "purity" that revealed the truthfulness of the

Post-Painterly Abstraction developed in reaction to Abstract Expressionism and was first used as a term by art critic Clement Greenberg in 1964. Post-Painterly Abstraction is often characterized by its rejection of dense-painterly surfaces and connection to the artist. It instead embraced clean linearity, open composition, and bright planes of color. The term was used throughout the 1960s and 70s, but eventually was supplanted by the related movements of Minimalism, Hard-Edge Painting, Color-Field Painting, and Lyrical Abstraction. Key artists of this movement include Frank Stella, Ellsworth Kelly, Helen Frankenthaler, Kenneth Noland, Jack Bush, Gene Davis and Sam Francis.

Figure 37.5 Frank Stella, Harran II

This was a movement in painting that followed and evolved in reaction to the Abstract Expressionist movement of the 1940s and 1950s. The term was first used by the art critic Clement Greenberg as the title for an exhibit he curated for the Los Angeles
1967, polymer and uorescent polymer paint on canvas, 120 x 240 inches. Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum

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canvas and the reality of the canvas's two-dimensional space, or flatness. This style emphasized the picture-as-object, rather than a representation of something, be it something in the physical world or something in the artist's emotional world. Post-Painterly Abstraction was often characterized as cleanly linear, using bright colors, lacking in detail, and open in composition. Examples of Post-Painterly Abstractionists include Hard-Edged Painters such as Ellsworth Kelly and Frank Stella (Figure 37.5)
Figure 37.6 Helen Frankenthaler, Mountains and Sea

Morris Louis, Arthur Fortescue McKay, Howard Mehring, Kenneth Noland, Jules Olitski, Ray
Figure 37.7 Morris Louis, Where

Parker, David Simpson, Albert Stadler, Frank Stella, Mason Wells, Emerson Woelffer, and a number of other American and Canadian artists who were becoming well known in the 1960s.

who explored relationships between tightly-ruled shapes and edges, and Color-Field Painters such as Helen Frankenthaler (Figure 37.6]) and Morris Louis (Figure 37.7), who explored the tactile and optical aspects of large, open fields of pure color. The 31 artists who

1960, magna on canvas, 252 x 362 centimeters. Hirschhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden

While the term Post-Painterly Abstraction gained some currency in the 1960s, it was

gradually supplanted by Minimalism, Hard-Edge Painting, Lyrical Abstraction and Color-Field Painting.
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1952, oil and charcoal on canvas, 86 5/8 x 117 1/4 inches. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

participated in Clement Greenberg's LACMA exhibit included Walter Darby Bannard, Jack Bush, Gene Davis, Thomas Downing, Friedel Dzubas, Paul Feeley, Sam Francis, Helen Frankenthaler, Al Held, Ellsworth Kelly, Nicholas Krushenick, Alexander Liberman,

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Sculpture
Sculptors in the postwar period engaged in a variety of styles, including Abstract Expressionism, Minimalism and Pop Art.

wife Dorothy Dehner, Herbert Ferber, Isamu Noguchi, Ibram Lassaw, Theodore Roszak, Phillip Pavia, Mary Callery, Richard Stankiewicz, Louise Bourgeois, and Louise Nevelson in particular were some of the sculptors considered as being important members of the movement. As with the movement's painting, Abstract Expressionist sculpture was greatly influenced by surrealism and its emphasis on spontaneous or subconscious creation. The work of David Smith, for example, sought to express twodimensional subjects that had never before been shown in three dimensions (Figure 37.8). Minimalism
David Smith, Ancient Household, 1945, bronze. Hirschhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden Figure 37.8 David Smith, Ancient Household

KEY POINTS

As with the movement's painting, Abstract Expressionist sculpture was greatly influenced by surrealism and its emphasis on spontaneous or subconscious creation. Minimalist sculptures often set out to expose the essence or identity of a subject through elimination of all non-essential forms or concepts. These works are often characterized by geometric, cubic forms, equality of parts, repetition, neutral surfaces and use of industrial materials. Sculptors Claes Oldenburg and George Segal were important proponents of Pop Art sculpture in their use of found-objects and reproduction of everyday commercial objects as fine art.

Abstract Expressionism Minimalism during the 1960s and 70s was a reaction against the While Abstract Expressionism is most closely associated with painting, and its interests in self-expression certainly lent itself to a style of painting, a number of sculptors were integral to the movement as well. Certain sculptors, including David Smith, his painterly subjectivity of Abstract Expressionism dominant in the previous decades. Minimalist artists explicitly stated that their art was not about self-expression, unlike the Abstract Expressionists. Instead, Minimalist works often set out to expose the essence or

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identity of a subject through elimination of all non-essential forms or concepts. These works are often characterized by geometric, cubic forms, equality of parts, repetition, neutral surfaces and use of industrial materials. Prominent figures associated with Minimalism, though not all agreed with the usage of the term itself, include Donald Judd, John McCracken, Anthony Caro, Tony Smith, Sol LeWitt, Carle Andre, and Dan Flavin. Donald Judd, who disavowed the term minimalism, and preferred to refer to his sculptures as "specific objects," exemplifies this style of sculpture in his use of simple, repeated forms exploring space. His works were often fabricated (rather than sculpted) out of metals, industrial plywood and concrete, and therefore defied easy classification as sculpture (Figure 37.9). Pop Art There were several important artists associated with the Pop Art movement. Two of these sculptors include Claes Oldenburg and George Segal. Oldenburg began his artistic practice as part of a group of artists reacting to Abstract Expressionism sublime gestures
Donald Judd, Untitled, 1977. Munster, Germany Figure 37.9 Donald Judd, Untitled

with figural drawings and papier mache sculptures. His artistic trajectory took him from making found-object paintings littered with urban debris to plaster sculptures of everyday commercial and manufactured objects. He subsequently created sculptures of
Figure 37.10 Claes Oldenburg, Plug

similar subjects on larger and larger scales, first sewing soft sculptures out of canvas, then turning to large outdoor monuments in public spaces. These were oversized reproductions of familiar objects in such increased sized

Claes Oldenburg, Plug, 1970, Cor-Ten steel, bronze, 117 x 78 x 58 in. Philadelphia Museum of Art.

as to abstract the subject matter (Figure 37.10). George Segal, another artist associated with

the Pop art movement, was best known for his life-size figures made from plaster and bandage casts. These figures, often left with minimal color and detail and given a ghostly, hollow appearance, inhabited tableaux constructed of found objects such as a street corner, a bus, or a diner.
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Superrealism
In reaction to abstract expressionism, super- or photorealism evolved from pop art and sought to reclaim and exalt the gurative image.

term was first applied to the art movement of photorealism that began in America in the late 1960s and continued into the 1970s. Photorealism was a reaction against abstract expressionism as well as minimalist art movements, and evolved from similar precepts that informed pop art. Pop art and photorealism were both reactionary movements

KEY POINTS

stemming from the ever increasing and overwhelming abundance of photographic media, which by the mid 20th century had grown into such a massive phenomenon that it was threatening to lessen the value of imagery in art. While pop artists were primarily pointing out the absurdity of the imagery that dominated mass culturesuch as advertising, comic books, and massRichard Estes, Telephone Booths, 1968, oil on canvas, Figure 37.11 Richard Estes, Telephone Booths

Pop art and photorealism were both reactionary movements stemming from the ever-increasing and overwhelming abundance of photographic media, which by the mid 20th century had grown into such a massive phenomenon that it was threatening to lessen the value of imagery in art. Photorealism uses cameras and photographs, which are then transferred to canvas in paint with tight and precise compositions. Superrealist painters chose highly difficult subject matter that emphasized the high level of technical prowess and virtuosity required to simulate, such as reflective surfaces or embellished environments.

Superrealism Superrealism, or photorealism, is a genre of painting based on using cameras and photographs to gather visual information and then from this creating a painting that appears to be photographic. The

produced cultural objectsphotorealists aimed to reclaim and exalt the value of the image. Photorealist painters gather imagery and visual information through the use of the photograph, which is then transferred onto

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the canvas either by projecting a slide of the image onto the canvas, or by the traditional technique of the grid. The resulting images are often direct copies of the photograph, though usually on an increased scale. Stylistically, this results in painted compositions that are tight and precise, often with an emphasis on imagery that requires a high level of technical prowess and virtuosity to simulate; for example, reflections in surfaces (Figure 37.11) and embellished, man-made environments (Figure 37.12). The first generation of American photorealists comprising the art historical movement included such painters as Richard Estes, Ralph
Figure 37.12 Ralph Goings, Ralph's Diner

Goings, Chuck Close, Charles Bell, Audrey Flack, Don Eddy, Robert Bechte, and Tom Blackwell.
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Ralph Goings, Ralph's Diner, 1981-82, oil on canvas.

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Section 3

The Art World Grows

Assemblage Performance Art Photography Pop Art

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Assemblage
Assemblage art consists of making three-dimensional or two-dimensional artistic compositions by putting together found-objects.
KEY POINTS

by putting together found-objects. While similar to the process of collage, it is distinct in its deliberate inclusion of non-art materials. The origin of the usage of the term in its artistic sense can be traced back to the early 1950s, when French artist Jean Dubuffet created a series of collages of butterfly wings, which he titled "assemblages d'empreintes." However, the origin of the artistic practice dates to the early 20th century when both Marcel Duchamp and Pablo Picasso had been working with found-objects for many years prior to Dubuffet. They were not alone. Russian constructivist artist Vladimir Tatlin created his "counter-reliefs" in the middle of 1910s. Alongside Tatlin, the earliest woman artist to try her hand at assemblage was Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, the Dada Baroness. The most recognizable assemblage pieces from this period are the readymades of Marcel Duchamp, such as Fountain (1917, Figure 37.13). Readymades were found-objects which Duchamp chose and presented as art. The idea was to question the notion of art and the accepted canon, and the adoration of art, which Duchamp found "unnecessary."
Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, 1917. Figure 37.13 Marcel Duchamp, Fountain

Though the term was not in use until the 1950s, the origin of the artistic practice dates to the early 20th century avant garde movements that sought to challenge traditional artistic media. One of the most significant assemblage artists, active beginning in the 1930s and 40s, was Louise Nevelson, whose wooden wall-like sculptures disguised their found-object components under spray-paint. In the 1960s, neo-Dadaist Robert Rauschenberg became notable for his "combines." These pieces served as instances in which the delineated boundaries between art, sculpture, and the everyday were broken down so that all were present in a single work of art.

Assemblage Assemblage is an artistic process. In the visual arts, it consists of making three-dimensional or two-dimensional artistic compositions

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Another one of the earliest and most prolific assemblage artists was Louise Nevelson, who began creating her sculptures from found pieces of wood in the late 1930s. Nevelson's most notable sculptures are her walls: wooden, wall-like, collage-driven reliefs consisting of multiple boxes and compartments that hold abstract shapes and found-objects from chair legs to balusters. Nevelson described these immersive sculptures as "environments." The wooden pieces were also cast-off scraps, pieces found in the streets of New York. Unlike Duchamp's poor attempt to mask the urinals true form, Nevelson took foundobjects and by spray painting them she disguised them of their actual use or meaning. Nevelson called herself "the original recycler" owing to her
Robert Rauschenberg, Canyon, 1959, oil, housepaint, pencil, paper, fabric, metal, buttons, nails, cardboard, printed paper, photographs, wood, paint tubes, mirror string, pillow & bald eagle on canvas. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Figure 37.14 Robert Rauschenberg, Canyon

Dubuffet, Marcel Duchamp, Picasso, and Kurt Schwitters alongside Americans Man Ray, Joseph Cornell, Robert Mallary and Robert Rauschenberg, and also included less well known American west coast assemblage artists such as George Herms, Bruce Conner and Edward Kienholz. William C. Seitz, the curator of the exhibition, described assemblages as being made up of preformed natural or manufactured materials, objects, or fragments not intended as art materials. Of the assemblage artists in this period, Robert Rauschenberg is a significant proponent. Rauschenberg picked up trash and found objects that interested him on the streets of New York City and brought these back to his studio where they could become integrated into his work. These works, which he called "combines," served as instances in which the delineated boundaries between art, sculpture, and the everyday were broken down so that all were present in a single work of art. Technically "combines" refers to Rauschenberg's work from 1954 to 1962, but the impetus to combine both painting materials and everyday objects such as clothing, urban debris, and taxidermic animals continued throughout his artistic life (Figure 37.14).
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extensive use of discarded objects, and credited Pablo Picasso for the cube that served as the groundwork for her cubist-style sculpture. In 1961, the exhibition "The Art of Assemblage" was featured at the New York Museum of Modern Art. The exhibition showcased the work of early 20th century European artists such as Braque,

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Performance Art
Performance art is a genre which presents live art that draws on many other artistic styles and trends.

Futurism and Dada. The Dada movement led the way with its unconventional poetry performances, often at the Cabaret Voltaire, by the likes of Richard Huelsenbeck and Tristan Tzara. However, the most significant wave of performance art occurred in the 1960s and 70s when Abstract Expressionism and Minimalism became less popular. The enthusiasm for live and innovative performances reflected this period's interest in moving past preconceptions that limited what could qualify as fine art. Styles Performance art was one of many disparate trends that developed as Abstract Expressionism and Minimalism faded. Its breadth and widespread usage, along with how each performance is a unique occurrence, makes it difficult to summarize performance art's characteristics. Performance art in the 1960s and 70s included "actions," body art, happenings, endurance-focused, and ritualfocused performances. "Cut Piece," an action performed by Yoko Ono in several venues, demonstrates the genre. Ono walked onstage and then knelt on the floor while audience members were encouraged to come onstage and cut off all of her clothing. Happenings, a term coined by Allan Kaprow in 1958, require active participation from the spectators, and are unique, improvisational events that can take place in any venue. There is no structured beginning, middle, or end, and no hierarchy or distinction between

KEY POINTS

Though Western performance art began with early 20th century avant-garde movements, it flourished during the 1960s and 70s when Minimalism and Abstract Expressionism fell out of favor. Performance art often seeks to blur the line between art and life, with the 1960s enthusiasm also reflecting the period's frustrations with traditional fine art. Because performance art shifts between venues, audiences, and styles, it is unattached to established traditions, thriving during sociopolitical unrest and provoking free thought.

Performance art is a genre that presents live art. Performance art usually refers to conceptual art that conveys content through dramatic interaction, rather than just focusing on traditional performances for entertainment purposes. Origins Western cultural theorists trace performance art to early 20th century avant-garde movements such as Russian Constructivism,

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the artist and the viewers. The viewers' reactions decide the art piece, making each happening a unique experience that cannot be replicated. Through happenings, the separations between life, art, artist, and audience all become blurred. The early works of Marina Abramovi8 exemplify endurancefocused, ritual-based performances in which she explored issues of human determination, patience and bodily limits. In her first performance, Rhythm 10 (1973), Abramovi8 explored ritual and gesture. Using twenty knives and two tape recorders, she played a Russian game in which she aimed rhythmic knife jabs between her splayed fingers. With this piece and as a performer, Abramovi8 was exploring states of consciousness. Each time she cut herself, she picked up a new knife, began again, and recorded her results. After cutting herself twenty times, she replayed the tape, listening to the sounds she had made and repeating her previous movements. By
Marina Abramovi), performing The Artist is Present at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, 2010. Figure 37.15 Marina Abramovi', The Artist is Present

replicating her mistakes, she was merging her past actions with the present moment. She explored her physical and mental limits by injuring herself, and then honored what she had done by repeating the gestures, encouraging the audience to think about what her ritual symbolized and what it meant to repeat the gestures after her ritual had already been performed. Performance art seeks to demystify fine art by blurring the line between art and life. Because it can shift fluidly between venues, audiences, and styles, and is unattached to traditional forms, performance art thrives in times of social upheaval and political unrest, providing a public forum for discussion, experimentation and outrage. In the 1980s, performance art fell from favor following renewed interest in painting, however it came back to life in the 1990s in response to issues involving race, immigration, gay rights and AIDS. Since then, performance art has become increasingly accepted in mainstream
Andy Warhol's Exploding Plastic Inevitable with Nico. Figure 37.16 Warhol's Exploding Plastic Inevitable

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culture, being shown in art museums (Figure 37.15) and becoming a topic for scholarly research.

Photography
In the early 20th century, photography evolved through multiple styles as it became accepted as a legitimate ne art medium.
KEY POINTS

EXAMPLE

The Exploding Plastic Inevitable was a series of multimedia events organized by Andy Warhol in 1966 and 1967, featuring musical performances by The Velvet Underground and Nico. The Exploding Plastic Inevitable also had screenings of Warhol's films and performances by other regulars of Warhol's Factory art studio (Figure 37.16).

The earliest fine art photography imitated painting styles, often using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. This was known as Pictorialism. In reaction to Pictorialism, some fine art photographers advocated for "straight photography," giving the sharply focused photograph the status of art in its own right. Following the World Wars, artistic tastes changed and led to the harsher, cleaner aesthetics of Modern art and more interest in urban subject matter. Though genre photography persisted, the 1960s saw the development of the "snapshot aesthetic," featuring banal everyday subject matter and off-centered framing. Conceptual photography developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. While these artists utilize photography to illustrate an idea, they often do not consider themselves photographers but rather use photography as a means to document performances, ephemeral sculpture or actions.

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During the 20th century, both fine art photography and documentary photography became accepted by the Englishspeaking art world and the gallery system. In the United States, pioneer photographers such as Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, F. Holland Day, and Edward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography
Figure 37.17 George Seeley, The Black Bowl

late as the 1940s. In general this term refers to a style in which the photographer has somehow manipulated what would otherwise be a straightforward photograph as a means of "creating" an image rather than simply recording it. Typically, a pictorial photograph lacks sharp focus (some more so than others), is printed in one or more colors rather than blackand-white (ranging from warm brown to deep blue), and may have visible brush strokes or other manipulation of the surface (Figure 37.17). For the pictorialist, a photograph, like a painting, was a way of projecting emotional intent into the viewer's imagination. As the harsh realities of World War I affected people around the world, the public's taste for the art of the past began to change.
Ansel Adams, Church, Taos Pueblo National Historic Landmark, New Mexico, 1942. From the series Ansel Adams Photographs of National Parks and Monuments, compiled 1941-42, documenting the period ca. 1933-42. Figure 37.18 Ansel Adams, Church, Taos Pueblo

as a fine art. A culminating moment for pictorialism and for photography in general occurred in 1910, when the Albright Gallery in Buffalo bought 15 photographs from Alfred Stieglitz's 291 Gallery. This was the first time photography was officially recognized as an art form worthy of a museum collection. Pictorialism At first, fine art photographers

George Seeley, The Black Bowl, c. 1907. Published in Camera Work, No. 20, 1907.

tried to imitate painting styles, giving rise to Pictorialism, a style that uses soft focus to create a

dreamy, 'romantic' look. Pictorialism dominated photography from about 1885 to 1915, though it was still being promoted by some as

Pictorialism gradually declined in popularity after 1920, until fading out of popularity completely by the end of World War II. Weston, Ansel Adams, and others later began to move away from

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Pictorialism by creating the Group f/64, which advocated for 'straight photography', a literal representation of a subject rather than an imitation of something else (Figure 37.18). During this period the new style of photographic Modernism came into vogue, and the public's interest shifted to more sharply-focused images. As the developed countries of the world turned their focus to industrialism and growth, art reflected this change by featuring hard-edged images of new buildings, airplanes and industrial landscapes. Until the late 1970s several genres predominated, such as nudes, portraits, natural landscapes (exemplified by Ansel Adams). Breakthrough 'star'
Diane Arbus, Child with Toy Hand Grenade in Central Park, New York City, 1962. Figure 37.19 Diane Arbus, Child with Toy Hand Grenade in Central Park

Snapshot Aesthetic Beginning around 1963, the term "snapshot aesthetic" made its way into the vocabulary of the fine art photography world. John Szarkowski, who was head of the photography department at the Museum of Modern Art from 1962 to 1991, became one of the trend's largest promoters, and it became especially fashionable from the late 1970s until the mid 1980s. The snapshot aesthetic typically features off-centered framing and everyday subject matter that is often presented without apparent link from image-to-image and relies instead on the juxtaposition and disjunction of individual photographs. Notable practitioners include Garry Winogrand, Nan Goldin, Wolfgang Tillmans, Martin Parr, William Eggleston, Diane Arbus and Terry Richardson (Figure 37.19). These photographers aimed not "to reform life but to know it" (John Szarkowski, Diane Arbus). Conceptual Photography Conceptual Photography is a type of photography that illustrates an idea. There have been illustrative photographs made since the medium's invention, however, the term Conceptual Photography derives from Conceptual Art, a movement of the late 1960s. Today the term is used to describe either a methodology or a genre. Conceptual art of the late 1960s and early 1970s often involved photography that served to document performances, ephemeral

artists in the 1970s and 80s, such as Sally Mann and Robert Mapplethorpe, still relied heavily on such genres, although seeing them with fresh eyes. Others investigated a snapshot aesthetic approach.

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sculpture or actions. The artists did not describe themselves as photographers. Since the 1970s, artists like Cindy Sherman, Thomas Ruff, and Thomas Demand have been described as conceptual. Although their work does not generally resemble the lofi aesthetic of 1960s conceptual art, they may have certain methods in common such as documenting performance (Sherman), typological or serial imagery (Ruff), or the restaging of events (Demand). In contemporary photography, there is now a trend of carefully staging and lighting a picture, rather than hoping to "discover" it ready-made. Photographers such as Gregory Crewdson, and Jeff Wall are noted for the quality of their staged pictures. Additionally, new technological trends in digital photography have created the possibility of full spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions.
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Pop Art
The Pop Art Movement began in the 1960s and included wide-ranging reactions to Abstraction Expressionism, Minimalism, and mass culture.
KEY POINTS

Pop Art presented a challenge to traditions of fine art by including aspects of mass culture, such as advertising, comic books, and mundane, cultural objects in its work. One of the goals of Pop Art was to blur and question the boundaries between "high" art and "low" popular culture. Neo-Dada was one minor artistic movement that contributed to the formation of the Pop Art. In reaction to Abstract Expressionism, Neo-Dadaists sought to create meaning solely through the use of conventional symbols and icons such as targets, flags, letters and numbers. The works of Roy Lichtenstein and Andy Warhol exemplify Pop Art's direct attachment to commonplace images in American popular culture, while treating the subject matter in a cool, impersonal manner. This detached manner illustrated the idealization of mass production and its inherent anonymity.

Although it originated in Britain in the late 1950s, Pop Art did not gain momentum in America until a full decade later. By this time, American advertising had adopted many elements and inflections of

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modern art and functioned at a very sophisticated level. Consequently, American artists had to search deeper for dramatic styles that would distance fine art from more welldesigned and clever commercial materials. Pop Art presented a challenge to traditions of fine art by including aspects of mass culture, such as advertising, comic books, and mundane, cultural objects in its work. One of
Jasper Johns, Flag, 1954-55, Encaustic, oil, collage on fabric mounted on plywood, 42 x 61 in. Museum of Modern Art, New York. Figure 37.20 Jasper Johns, Flag

of the artist's presence on the canvas, Neo-Dadaists sought to create meaning solely through the use of conventional symbols and icons such as targets, flags, letters and numbers. These neutral subjects rejected a reliance on the hand of the artist in the production of meaning-- the surface of the painting could declare itself without reference to the persona that created it (Figure 37.20). Robert Rauschenberg also was considered a Neo-Dadaist, and his "Combines" incorporated found objects, printed materials, and urban debris with traditional fine art materials. Combines served as instances in which the delineated boundaries between art, sculpture, and the everyday object were broken down so that all were
Roy Lichtenstein, Drowning Girl, 1963, oil and polymer on canvas, 67 x 67 in. Museum of Modern Art, New York. Figure 37.21 Roy Lichtenstein, Drowning Girl

the goals of Pop Art was to blur and question the boundaries between "high" art and "low" popular culture. Neo-Dada Two important painters in the establishment of America's Pop Art vocabulary were the American Neo-Dadaists Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg. In the mid-1950s, Jasper Johns began to appropriate popular abstract iconography for painting, thus allowing for a set of familiar associations to answer the need for a subject. In contrast to the Abstract Expressionists, who not only disdained subject matter but also took their paintings to be an index

re-contextualized in a single work of art. Roy Lichtenstein Of equal importance to American Pop Art is Roy Lichtenstein. His work defines the basic premise of Pop Art better than any other

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through parody. Selecting the old-fashioned comic strip as subject matter, Lichtenstein produced hard-edged, precise compositions that documented mass culture while simultaneously creating parodies of it in a soft manner. Lichtenstein used oil and Magna paint in his best known works, such as Drowning Girl (1963) (Figure 37.21), which was appropriated from the lead story in DC Comics' Secret Hearts #83. His characteristic style featured thick outlines, bold colors and Ben-Day dots to represent certain colors, as if created by photographic reproduction. Lichtenstein's contribution to Pop Art merged popular and mass culture with the techniques of fine art, while injecting humor, irony, and recognizable imagery and content into the final product. The paintings of Lichtenstein, like the works of many other pop artists, shared a direct attachment to the commonplace image of American popular culture, while treating the subject matter in a cool, impersonal manner. This detached manner illustrated the idealization of mass production and its inherent anonymity. Andy Warhol Andy Warhol is probably the most famous figure in Pop Art. Warhol attempted to take Pop beyond an artistic style to a life style, and his work often displays a lack of human affectation that dispenses with the irony and parody of many of his peers. Warhol's artwork ranges in many forms of media that include hand drawing, painting,

printmaking, photography, silk screening, sculpture, film, and music. His studio, The Factory, was a famous gathering place that brought together distinguished intellectuals, drag queens, playwrights, Bohemian street people, Hollywood celebrities, and wealthy patrons. New York's Museum of Modern Art hosted a Symposium on Pop Art in December 1962 during which artists like Warhol were attacked for "capitulating" to consumerism. Critics were scandalized by Warhol's open embrace of market culture. This symposium set the tone for Warhol's reception. Throughout the decade it became increasingly clear that there had been a profound change in the culture of the art world, and that Warhol was at the center of that shift. In the early 60s Warhol pared his image vocabulary down to the icon itself--brand names, celebrities, dollar signs-- and removed all traces of the artist's hand in the production of his work (Figure 37.22). Eventually, he moved from hand painting to silk-screen printing, removing the handmade element altogether. The element of detachment reached such an extent at the height of Warhol's fame that he had several assistants producing his silk-screen multiples. The legacy of Pop Art is expansive, and much of the Pop art of the 1960s is considered incongruent, as many different conceptual practices fed into the movement and are reflected by a wide variety of artists. The list of notable Pop artists is extensive, but some major proponents include Jim Dine, Richard Hamilton, Keith Harin,

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David Hockney, Alex Katz, Yayoi Kusama, John McHale, Claes Oldenburg, Julia Opie, Eduardo Paolozzi, Sigmar Polke, Ed Ruscha, George Segal, and Tom Wesselman.
Figure 37.22 Andy Warhol, Campbell's Soup Cans

Andy Warhol, Campbell's Soup Cans, 1962, synthetic polymer on 32 canvases. 20 x 16 in each. Museum of Modern Art, New York.

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Section 4

Painting and Sculpture Since 1970

Neo-Expressionism

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Neo-Expressionism
Neo-Expressionists sought to portray recognizable objects in rough and violently emotional ways using vivid colors and color schemes.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Neo-Expressionism's strong links to the commercial art market has raised questions about its status as a postmodern movement and about the definition of postmodernism itself.

Background Neo-Expressionism is a style of modern painting and sculpture that emerged in the late 1970s and dominated the art market until the mid-1980s. Related to American Lyrical Abstraction of the 60s and 70s; the Bay Area Figurative School of the 50s and 60s; the continuation of Abstract Expressionism; New Image Painting; and precedents in Pop painting; Neo-Expressionism developed as a reaction against the conceptual art and minimalist art of the 1970s. Neo-Expressionists returned to portraying recognizable objects, such as the human body (though sometimes in abstract), in rough and violently emotional ways using vivid colors and color harmonies. Overtly inspired by the so-called German Expressionist painters-Emil Nolde, Max Beckmann, George Grosz, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner--and other expressionist artists such as James Ensor and Edvard Munch, Neo-Expressionists were sometimes called Neue Wilden ("The new wild ones'"). The style emerged internationally

Related to American Lyrical Abstraction, the Bay Area Figurative School, the continuation of Abstract Expressionism, New Image Painting, and precedents in Pop painting, Neo-Expressionism developed as a reaction against the conceptual art and minimal art of the 1970s. Critics questioned Neo-Expressionism's relation to marketability; the rapidly expanding art market; celebrity; the backlash against feminism; anti-intellectualism; and a return to mythic subjects and individualist methods that some deemed outmoded. Women were marginalized by the movement, with painters such as Elizabeth Murray and Maria Lassnig omitted from many key exhibitions. The return to traditional painting in the late 1970s and early 1980s seen in Neo-Expressionist artists such as Georg Baselitz and Julian Schnabel has been described as having postmodern tendencies.

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and was viewed by critics as a revival of traditional themes of selfexpression in European art after decades of American dominance. The social and economic value of the movement was hotly debated. Critics questioned Neo-Expressionism's relation to marketability; the rapidly expanding art market; celebrity; the backlash against feminism; antiintellectualism; and a return to mythic subjects and individualist methods that some deemed outmoded. Women were notoriously marginalized in the movement, with painters such as Elizabeth Murray and Maria Lassnig omitted from many of its key exhibitions, most notoriously the 1981 "New Spirit in Painting" exhibition in London, which included 38 male painters and no female painters at all.
Georg Baselitz's paintings are representative of Neo-Expressionism. Figure 37.23 Georg Baselitz by Lothar Wolleh (Mlheim, 1971)

Neo-expressionism Around the World Georg Baselitz (Figure 37.23), born January 23rd in 1938, is a German painter who studied in the former East Germany before moving to what was then West Germany. Baselitz's style is interpreted as Neo-Expressionist, but from a European perspective it is seen as postmodern. His career was amplified in the 1960s after the police took action against one of his paintings because of its provocative and offensive sexual nature. Ida Applebroog is a notable American painter whose work is included in many public collections in the United States. During the 1990s, she received multiple honors, including the College Art Association Distinguished Art Award for Lifetime Achievement, and an Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from the New School for Social Research/Parsons School of Design. Neo-Expressionism As Postmodern Art? The return to traditional painting in the late 1970s and early 1980s seen in Neo-Expressionist artists such as Georg Baselitz and Julian Schnabel has been described as having postmodern tendencies, and as one of the first coherent postmodern movements. Its strong links to the commercial art market has raised questions about its status as a postmodern movement and about the definition of postmodernism itself. Hal Foster stated that Neo-Expressionism

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was complicit with the conservative cultural politics of the ReaganBush era in the U.S. Flix Guattari disregarded the "large promotional operations dubbed 'Neo-Expressionism' in Germany" as an example of a "fad that maintains itself by means of publicity" and as too easy of a way for him "to demonstrate that postmodernism is nothing but the last gasp of modernism." These critiques of Neo-Expressionism reveal that money and public relations strained contemporary art world credibility in America during the same period that conceptual artists, and women artists including painters and feminist theorists like Griselda Pollock, were systematically reevaluating modern art. Brian Massumi claims that Deleuze and Guattari opened the horizon for new definitions of beauty in postmodern art. For Jean-Franois Lyotard, paintings by Valerio Adami, Daniel Buren, Marcel Duchamp, Bracha Ettinger, and Barnett Newman, after the avant-garde's time and the painting of Paul Czanne and Wassily Kandinsky, were the vehicle for new ideas of the sublime in contemporary art.
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Section 5

Dematerialization

Minimalism Conceptual Art Process Art The Inuence of Feminism Site-Specic Art

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Minimalism
The term minimalism is also used to describe a trend in design and architecture wherein the subject is reduced to its necessary elements.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Zen concepts of simplicity transmit the ideas of freedom and essence of living. Simplicity is not only aesthetic value, it has a moral perception that looks into the nature of truth and reveals the inner qualities of materials and objects for the essence.

Minimalist design has been highly influenced by Japanese traditional design and architecture. In addition, the work of De Stijl artists is a major source of reference for this kind of work. The term minimalism is a trend from early 19th century and gradually became an important movement in response to the over decorated design of the previous period. Minimalist architecture became popular in the late 1980s in London and New York. The concept of minimalist architecture is to strip everything down to its essential quality and achieve simplicity. The idea of simplicity appears in many cultures, especially the Japanese traditional culture of Zen Philosophy. Japanese manipulate the Zen culture into aesthetic and design elements for their buildings.

Background The term minimalism is also used to describe a trend in design and architecture wherein the subject is reduced to its necessary elements. Minimalist design (Figure 37.24) has been highly influenced by Japanese traditional design and architecture. In addition, the work of De Stijl artists is a major source of reference for this kind of work. De Stijl expanded the ideas that could be expressed by using basic elements such as lines and planes organized in very particular manners.
The reconstruction of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's German Pavilion in Barcelona. Figure 37.24 Barcelona Pavilion

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Architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe adopted the motto "less is more" to describe his aesthetic tactic of arranging the numerous necessary components of a building to create an impression of extreme simplicity, by enlisting every element and detail to serve multiple visual and functional purposes (such as designing a floor to also serve as the radiator, or a massive fireplace to also house the bathroom). Minimalist architecture and space The term minimalism is a trend from early 19th century and gradually became an important movement in response to the over decorated design of the previous period. Minimalist architecture became popular in the late 1980s in London and New York, where architects and fashion designers worked together in the boutiques to achieve simplicity, using white elements, cold lighting, large space with minimum objects and furniture. Minimalist architecture simplifies living space to reveal the essential quality of buildings and conveys simplicity in attitudes toward life. It is highly inspired from the Japanese traditional design and the concept of Zen philosophy. Concepts and design elements The concept of minimalist architecture is to strip everything down to its essential quality and achieve simplicity. The idea is not

completely without ornamentation, but that all parts, details and joinery are considered as reduced to a stage where no one can remove anything further to improve the design. The considerations for essences are light, form, and detail of material, space, place and human condition. Minimalist architects not only consider the physical qualities of the building. Moreover, they look deeply into the spiritual dimension and the invisible, by listening to the figure and paying attention to the details, people, space, nature and materials. Which reveals the abstract quality of something that is invisible and search for the essence from those invisible qualities. Such as natural light, sky, earth and air. In addition, they open up dialogue with the surrounding environment to decide the most essential materials for the construction and create relationships between buildings and sites. In minimalist architecture, design elements convey the message of simplicity. The basic geometric forms, elements without decoration, simple materials and the repetitions of structures represent a sense of order and essential quality. The movement of natural light in buildings reveals simple and clean spaces. In late 19th century as the arts and crafts movement began to be popular in Britain, people valued the attitude of truth to materials, with respect to the profound and innate characteristics of materials. Minimalist architects humbly listen to figure, seeking essence and simplicity by

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rediscovering the valuable qualities in simple and common materials. Influences from Japanese Tradition The idea of simplicity appears in many cultures, especially the Japanese traditional culture of Zen Philosophy. Japanese manipulate the Zen culture into aesthetic and design elements for their buildings. This idea of architecture has influenced Western Society, especially in America since the mid 18th century. Moreover, it inspired the minimalist architecture in the 19th century. Zen concepts of simplicity transmit the ideas of freedom and essence of living. Simplicity is not only aesthetic value, it has a moral perception that looks into the nature of truth and reveals the inner qualities of materials and objects for the essence. For example, the sand garden in Ryoanji temple demonstrates the concepts of simplicity and the essentiality from the considered setting of a few stones and a huge empty space.
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Conceptual Art
Conceptual art is dened by concepts or ideas involved in the work that take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material concerns.
KEY POINTS

The notion that art should examine its own nature was already a potent aspect of the influential art critic Clement Greenberg's vision of Modern art during the 1950s. Conceptual artists began a far more radical interrogation of art than was previously possible. One of the first and most important things they questioned was the common assumption that the role of the artist was to create special kinds of material objects. Conceptual art emerged as a movement during the 1960s. In part, it was a reaction against formalism articulated by the influential New York art critic Clement Greenberg. Some have argued that conceptual art continued this dematerialization of art by removing the need for objects altogether, while others, including many of the artists themselves, saw conceptual art as a radical break with Greenberg's kind of formalist Modernism.

Conceptual art is defined by concepts or ideas involved in a work that take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material

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concerns. Many such works, sometimes called installations, may simply be constructed by anyone who follows a set of written instructions. Tony Godfrey, author of
Figure 37.25 Marcel Duchamp, Fountain

assumption that the role of the artist was to create special kinds of material objects. The French artist Marcel Duchamp (Figure 37.25) paved the way for the conceptualists, providing them with examples of prototypically conceptual works the ready-mades, for instance. The most famous of Duchamp's ready-mades was Fountain (1917), a standard urinal basin signed by the artist with the pseudonym "R.Mutt" and submitted for inclusion in the annual, un-juried exhibition of the Society of Independent Artists in New York (it was rejected). In traditional terms, a commonplace object such as a urinal cannot be said to be art because it is not made by an artist or with any intention of being art, nor is it unique or handcrafted. Duchamp's relevance and theoretical influence for future "conceptualists" was later acknowledged by US artist Joseph Kosuth in his 1969 essay, "Art After Philosophy," when he wrote, "All art (after Duchamp) is conceptual (in nature) because art only exists conceptually." The Critique of Formalism and the Commodification of Art Conceptual art emerged as a movement during the 1960s. In part, it was a reaction against the formalism articulated by influential New York art critic Clement Greenberg. According to Greenberg, modern art followed a process of progressive reduction and refinement

Conceptual Art (Art & Ideas) (1998), asserts that conceptual art questions the nature of art, a notion that Joseph Kosuth elevated to a definition of art itself in his seminal, early manifesto of conceptual art, "Art After Philosophy" (1969). The notion that art should examine its own nature was already a potent aspect of the influential art critic Clement Greenberg's vision of Modern art

Urinal "readymade" signed with joke name; early example of "Dada" art. A paradigmatic example of found-art. Photograph by Alfred Stieglitz.

during the 1950s. With the emergence of an exclusively language-based art in the 1960s,

however, conceptual artists such as Joseph Kosuth, Lawrence Weiner, and the English Art & Language group began a far more radical interrogation of art than was previously possible. One of the first and most important things they questioned was the common

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toward the goal of defining the essential, formal nature of each medium. Those elements that ran counter to this nature were to be reduced. The task of painting, for example, was to define precisely what kind of object a painting truly is: what makes it a painting and nothing else? As it is of the nature of paintings to be flat objects with canvas surfaces onto which colored pigment is applied, such things as figuration, 3-D perspective illusion, and references to external subject matter were all found to be extraneous to the essence of painting, and ought to be removed. Some have argued that conceptual art continued this dematerialization of art by removing the need for objects altogether, while others, including many of the artists themselves, saw conceptual art as a radical break with Greenberg's kind of formalist Modernism. Later artists continued to share a preference for art to be self-critical, as well as a distaste for illusion. However, by the end of the 1960s, it was certainly clear that Greenberg's stipulations for art to continue within the confines of each medium and to exclude external subject matter no longer held traction. Contemporary Influence The first wave of the conceptual art movement extended from approximately 1967 to 1978. Early concept artists like Henry Flynt, Robert Morris, and Ray Johnson influenced the later widely accepted movement of conceptual art. Conceptual artists like Dan

Graham, Hans Haacke, and Lawrence Weiner have proven very influential on subsequent artists, and well known contemporary artists such as Mike Kelley or Tracey Emin are sometimes labeled second- or third-generation conceptualists, or post-conceptual artists. Contemporary artists have addressed many of the concerns of the conceptual art movement. While they may or may not term themselves conceptual artists, ideas such as anti-commodification, social and/or political critique, and ideas/information as medium continue to be aspects of contemporary art, especially among artists working with installation art, performance art, net art and electronic/digital art.
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Process Art
Process art is focused on the process of the creative journey instead of a traditional ne art end product.
KEY POINTS

collating, associating, patterning, and moreover the initiation of actions and then proceeding to make art. Process art is concerned with actual creation and how actions can be defined as art, seeing the expression of the artistic process as more significant than the art that is created by the process. Process art often focuses on motivation, intent, and the rationale, with art viewed as a creative journey or process rather than needing to lead to a traditional fine art destination. Process Art Movement The process art movement began in the U.S. and Europe in the mid-1960s. It has roots in Performance Art (Figure 37.26), the Dada movement and, more traditionally, the drip paintings of Jackson Pollock. Change, transience, and embracing serendipity are themes in process art. The Guggenheim Museum states that Robert Morris in 1968 had a groundbreaking exhibition and essay defining the movement, with the museum's website stating: "Process artists were involved in issues attendant to the body, random occurrences, improvisation, and the liberating qualities of nontraditional materials such as wax, felt, and latex. Using these, they created eccentric forms in erratic or irregular arrangements produced by actions such as cutting, hanging, and dropping, or organic processes such as growth, condensation, freezing, or decomposition."

The processes being alluded to are the processes of forming art: the gathering, sorting, collating, associating, patterning, and moreover the initiation of actions and then proceeding to make art. The process art movement began in the U.S. and Europe in the mid-1960s. It has roots in Performance Art, the Dada movement and, more traditionally, the drip paintings of Jackson Pollock. In process art, the ephemeral nature and insubstantiality of materials are often showcased and highlighted. Process art and environmental art are directly related: process artists engage the primacy of organic systems, using perishable, insubstantial, and transitory materials such as dead rabbits, steam, fat, ice, cereal, sawdust, and grass.

Background Process art is an artistic movement, and creative sentiment, where the end product is not the primary focus. The processes being alluded to are the processes of forming art: the gathering, sorting,

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In process art, the ephemeral nature and insubstantiality of materials are often showcased and highlighted. Process art and environmental art are directly related: process artists engage the primacy of organic systems, using perishable, insubstantial, and transitory materials such as dead rabbits, steam, fat, ice, cereal, sawdust, and grass. The materials are often left exposed to natural forces like gravity, time, weather, or temperature in order to celebrate natural processes. Process Art Precedents Inspiring precedents for process art that are fundamentally related include: indigenous rites, shamanic and religious rituals, and also cultural forms such as sandpainting, sun dance, and tea ceremonies.
Like the live immediacy of performance art, process art is focused on the creative journey instead of a traditional ne art destination. Figure 37.26 Human Need/Desire/Hope/Dream (Bruce Nauman, 1983)

For example, the construction process of a Vajrayana Buddhist sand mandala by monks from Namgyal Monastery in Ithaca, New York was recorded and exhibited online by the Ackland's Yager Gallery of Asian Art. The monks' creation of a Medicine Buddha mandala began February 26, 2001 and concluded March 21, 2001, and the dissolution of the mandala was on June 8, 2001, demonstrating that the process of creating the art was more important than preserving the finished product.
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The Inuence of Feminism

The feminist art movement represents the e!orts of feminists to make art reect women's lives and experiences.
KEY POINTS

Background The feminist art movement refers to the efforts of feminists to make art that reflects women's lives. It also sought to change reception of contemporary art and bring visibility to women within art history and practice. Corresponding with general developments within feminism, the movement began in the 1960s and flourished throughout the 1970s (Figure 37.27) as an outgrowth of the so-called second wave of feminism. It has been called the most influential international movement of any during the postwar period with effects that continue in the present. In "Six Years: The
One of the symbols of German Women's movement (from the 1970s). Figure 37.27 Womanpower logo

The women-in-arts movement corresponded with general developments within feminism in the 1960s and 1970s. One of the first feminist art classes in the United States was started in the fall of 1970 at Fresno State University by visiting artist Judy Chicago. The students who formed the program ncluded Susan Boud, Dori Atlantis, Gail Escola, Vanalyne Green, Suzanne Lacy and Cay Lang. The strength of the feminist movement allowed for the emergence and visibility of many new types of work by women. From 1980 onward, art historian Griselda Pollock challenged the dominant museum models of art and history so excluding of women's artistic contributions. She helped articulate the complex relations between femininity, modernity, psychoanalysis and representation.

Dematerialization of the Art Object," Lucy Lippard characterizes the period of 1966 to 1972 as one in which the art object was dematerialized through new practices of conceptual art.

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Origins One of the first feminist art classes in the United States was started in the fall of 1970 at Fresno State University by visiting artist Judy Chicago. The students who formed the Feminist Art Program included Susan Boud, Dori Atlantis, Gail Escola, Vanalyne Green, Suzanne Lacy and Cay Lang. The group refurbished an off-campus studio space in downtown Fresno allowing artists to create and discuss their work "without male interference." Participants lived and worked in the studio, leading reading groups and collaborating on art. In 1971, the class became a full-time program at the university. The program was different than a standard art class. Instead of the typical teaching of techniques and art history, students learned to focus on raising their feminist consciousness. Students would share personal experiences about specified topics like money and relationships. It was believed that by sharing these experiences, students were able to insert more emotion into their artwork. Furthermore, instead of supporting the typical idea of artists being secluded and working as independent "geniuses," the class emphasized collaboration, a "radical departure" for the time period.

Feminist Art Movements Through the US and Europe At the same time, women artists in New York began to come together for meetings and exhibitions. Collective galleries like A.I.R. Gallery were formed to provide visibility for art by feminist artists. The strength of the feminist movement allowed for emergence and visibility of many new types of work by women. Women Artists in Revolution (WAR) formed in 1969 to protest the lack of exposure for women artists. The Ad Hoc Women Artists' Committee (AWC) formed in 1971 to address the Whitney Museum's exclusion of women artists. There are thousands of examples of women associated with the feminist art movement. Artists and writers credited with making the movement visible in culture include: Judy Chicago, founder of the first known Feminist Art Program Miriam Schapiro, co-founder of the Feminist Art Program at Cal Arts Sheila Levrant de Bretteville and Arlene Raven, co-founders of the Woman's Building Both Suzanne Lacy and Faith Wilding were participants in all the early arts' programs. Other important names include Martha

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Rosler, Mary Kelly, Kate Millett, Nancy Spero, Faith Ringgold, June Wayne, Lucy Lippard, Griselda Pollock, and art-world agitators The Guerrilla Girls. The Women's Interart Center in New York, meanwhile, is still in operation, while the Women's Video Festival was held in New York City for a number of years during the early 1970s. Many women artists continue to organize working groups, collectives and nonprofit galleries in various locales around the world. From 1980 onward, art historian Griselda Pollock challenged the dominant museum models of art and history so excluding of women's artistic contributions. She helped articulate the complex relations between femininity, modernity, psychoanalysis and representation.
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Site-Specic Art
Site-specic art is art created to exist in a certain place with the location having been taken into account while creating the artwork.
KEY POINTS

Site-specific art is artwork created to exist in a certain place. Typically, the artist takes the location into account while planning and creating the artwork. The actual term was promoted and refined by Californian artist Robert Irwin, but it was actually first used in the mid-1970s by young sculptors such as Patricia Johanson, Dennis Oppenheim, and Athena Tacha. Outdoor site-specific artworks often include landscaping combined with permanently sited sculptural elements. Sitespecific art can be linked with environmental art. Outdoor site-specific artworks can also include dance performances created especially for the site. The choreography of site-specific dance is generated through research and interpretation of the sites unique cultural matrix of characteristics and topographies, whether architectural, historical, social, or environmental.

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Background Site-specific art (Figure 37.28) is artwork created to exist in a certain place. Typically the artist takes the location into account while planning and creating the artwork. The actual term was promoted and refined by Californian artist Robert Irwin, but it was actually first used in the mid-1970s by young sculptors, such as Patricia Johanson, Dennis Oppenheim, and Athena Tacha, who had started executing public commissions for large urban sites. Architectural critic Catherine Howett and art critic Lucy Lippard first described site-specific environmental art as a movement. Examples of Site-Specific Art Outdoor site-specific artworks often include landscaping combined with permanently sited sculptural elements. Site-specific art can be linked with environmental art. Outdoor site-specific artworks can also include dance performances created especially for the site. More broadly, the term is sometimes used for any work that is more or less permanently attached to a particular location. In this sense, a building with interesting architecture could also be considered a piece of site-specific art. Site-specific dance is created to exist in a certain place. The choreography is generated through research and interpretation of the sites unique cultural matrix of characteristics and

topographies, whether architectural, historical, social, or environmental, and through discovering the hidden meaning in a space and developing methods to amplify it. Some artists make a point of commissioning music created by a local composer especially for the dance site. Indoor site-specific artworks may be created in conjunction with (or indeed by) the architects of the building. Choreographers who have made site-specific contributions to the field of dance include Trisha Brown, Meredith Monk, Ann Carlson, Stephan Koplowitz, Joanna Haigood, and Mark Dendy, among others. Contemporary choreographers working primarily in site-specific dance include: Noemi Lafrance; Tom Pearson and Zach Morris of Third Rail Projects; Andrea Haenggi/AMDaT; Tamar Rogoff; Heidi Duckler Dance Theatre; and Clarinda Mac Low, Paul Benny, Alejandra Mortorell of TRYST, Genevieve Bernard of Voci Dance, and Kate Lawrence working with vertical dance in North Wales.
Dan Flavin, Site-specic installation, 1996, Menil Collection in Houston, Texas. Figure 37.28 Site-specic installation by Dan Flavin, 1996, Menil Collection.

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Site-specific performance art, site-specific visual art, and interventions are commissioned for the annual Infecting the City Festival in Cape Town, South Africa. The site-specific nature of the works allows artists to interrogate the contemporary and historic reality of the Central Business District and create work that allows the city's users to engage and interact with public spaces in new and memorable ways.
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Section 6

Architecture

Modern Postmodern

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Modern
Modern architecture is characterized by simplication of form and creation of ornament from the structure and theme of the building.

broader sense, early modern architecture began at the turn of the 20th century with efforts to reconcile the principles underlying architectural design with rapid technological advancement and the modernization of society. It would take the form of numerous movements, schools of design, and architectural styles, some in tension with one another, and often equally defying such classification. The concept of modernism would be a central theme in these efforts. Gaining popularity after the Second World War, architectural modernism was adopted by many influential architects and

Figure 37.29 Chicago Modernism

KEY POINTS

In a broader sense, early modern architecture began at the turn of the 20th century with efforts to reconcile the principles underlying architectural design with rapid technological advancement and the modernization of society. Modernism eventually generated reactions, most notably Postmodernism which sought to preserve pre-modern elements, while Neo-modernism emerged as a reaction to Postmodernism. Modern architecture developed, in their opinion, as a result of social and political revolutions. Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments.

Background Modern architecture (Figure 37.29) is generally characterized by simplification of form and creation of ornament from the structure and theme of the building. It is a term applied to an overarching movement, with its exact definition and scope varying widely. In a

architectural educators, and continues as a dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings into the

Contrasts in modern architecture, as shown by adjacent high-rises in Chicago, Illinois. IBM Plaza (right), by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, is a later example of the clean rectilinear lines and glass of the International Style, whereas Marina City, (left), by his student Bertrand Goldberg, reects a more sculptural Mid-Century Modern aesthetic.

21st century. Modernism eventually generated reactions, most

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notably Postmodernism which sought to preserve pre-modern elements, while Neo-modernism emerged as a reaction to Postmodernism. Notable architects important to the history and development of the modernist movement include Frank Lloyd Wright, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer and Alvar Aalto. Early Modernism The Crystal Palace, 1851, was one of the first buildings to have vast amounts of glass supported by structural metal, foreshadowing trends in Modernist architecture. There are multiple lenses through which the evolution of modern architecture may be viewed. Some historians see it as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and thus the Enlightenment. Modern architecture developed, in their opinion, as a result of social and political revolutions. Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments. Still other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian and Edwardian architecture.

In the United States Wright's Larkin Building (1904) in Buffalo, New York, Unity Temple (1905) in Oak Park, Illinois, and the Robie House (1910) in Chicago, Illinois were some of the first examples of modern architecture in the United States. Frank Lloyd Wright was a major influence on European architects, including both Walter Gropius (founder of the Bauhaus) and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, as well as on the whole of organic architecture. In Italy: Futurism Futurist architecture began in the early-20th century, characterized by anti-historicism and long horizontal lines suggesting speed, motion and urgency. Technology and even violence were among the themes of the Futurists. The movement was founded by the poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. He produced its first manifesto called the Manifesto of Futurism in 1909. The movement attracted poets, musicians, artists (such as Umberto Boccioni, Giacomo Balla, Fortunato Depero, and Enrico Prampolini), but also a number of architects. Among the latter was Antonio Sant'Elia, who, though he built little (being killed in WWI), translated the Futurist vision into bold urban form. The unbuilt designs and theories of Futurists would go on to influence both the Constructivists and a branch of Italian Fascist architecture.

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In Russia: Constructivism Following the 1917 revolutions in Russia, the societal upheaval and change was coupled with a desire for a new aesthetic, one more in keeping with the Communist philosophy and societal goals of the new state, in contrast to the ornate Neoclassicism that had prevailed prior. This resulted in a new style, Constructivism. Konstantin Melnikov, a Russian Constructivist architect, designed the Melnikov House (1927-29) near Arbat Street in Moscow. The style would prosper, but fell markedly out of favor during the design competition for the Palace of the Soviets from 1931 to 1933, losing to a more traditional revivalism of Russian architecture with nationalistic overtones, afterwards termed Postconstructivism. This resulted in the ultimate demise of the Russian branch of early architectural modernism, though not before it had a chance to influence architects elsewhere, such as Le Corbusier. Expressionism Expressionism was an architectural movement that developed in Northern Europe during the first decades of the 20th century in parallel with the expressionist visual and performing arts. Making notable use of sculptural forms and the novel use of concrete as artistic elements, examples include Rudolf Steiner's Second

Goetheanum, built from 1926 near Basel, Switzerland and the Einsteinturm in Potsdam, Germany.
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Postmodern
Postmodern architecture was a response to Modernism and a return to wit, ornamentation, and previous architectural traditions.
KEY POINTS

architecture. Postmodernity in architecture is said to be heralded by the return of wit, ornamentation, and references to previous architectural traditions. As with many cultural movements, some of the overall Postmodern movement's most pronounced and visible ideas can be seen in architecture. The functional and formal spaces of the Modernist style were replaced by diverse aesthetics: styles collide, form is adopted for its own sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and space abound. Perhaps most obviously, architects rediscovered the expressive and symbolic value of architectural elements that had evolved through centuries but been abandoned by the modern style. Relationship to Previous Styles New trends became evident in the last quarter of the 20th century as some architects started to turn away from modern Functionalism, which they viewed as boring, or even unwelcoming and unpleasant. These architects turned toward the past, quoting previous aspects of various buildings and melding them together to create new designs. A vivid example of this new approach was that Postmodernism saw the comeback of columns and other elements of premodern designs, sometimes adapting classical Greek and Roman examples--yet not simply recreating them like with Neoclassical architecture (Figure 37.30).

The response to the formalism of the modern style involved sampling old styles but breaking traditions, and was part of a movement that continues to influence contemporary architecture. The functional and formal spaces of the Modernist style were replaced by diverse aesthetics: styles collide, form is adopted for its own sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and space abound. Postmodern trends became evident in the last quarter of the 20th century as some architects started to turn away from modern Functionalism, which they viewed as boring, or even unwelcoming and unpleasant.

Background Postmodern architecture began as an international style, with the first examples generally cited as from the 1950s, but did not become a movement until the late 1970s. The Postmodern response to the formalism of Modernism continues to influence present-day

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Roots of Postmodernism The Postmodernist movement began in America in the 1960s and 1970s and then spread to Europe and the rest of the world, continuing through to the present day. Postmodernism has its origins in the perceived failure of Modern architecture. Modernism's preoccupation with Functionalism and economical building meant that ornaments were done away with and that buildings appeared
Figure 37.30 San Antonio Public Library, Texas

appearance. Yet while breaking away from Modernism and quoting from past architectural styles, sometimes in an irreverent way, Postmodern architecture still strives to produce buildings that are sensitive to the context within which they are built.
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stark and merely functional. Many felt Modernist buildings failed to meet the human need for beauty and that Modernism did not account for that desire. Monotonous

The architect for this Postmodern building was selected by a design competition held by San Antonio in July of 1991.

apartment blocks were seen as drab and undesirable. In

response, architects sought to reintroduce color, decoration, and human scale to buildings. With Postmodern architecture, form was no longer defined solely by functional requirements or a minimalist

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Section 7

Postmodernism

Painting Gender Race and Ethnicity Sculpture

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Painting
Neo-expressionism is a style of modern painting and sculpture that emerged in the late 1970s and dominated the art market until the 1980s.

as artists who reject postmodernism for other reasons. Arthur Danto argues that contemporary is the broader term, and that postmodern objects represent a subsector of the contemporary
Figure 37.31 Paul Salvator Goldengruen; Der Maler-Frst

movement. Some postmodern artists have made a more distinctive break from the ideas of modern art and there is no consensus as to what is latemodern and what is postmodern. Ideas rejected by the modern aesthetic have

KEY POINTS

Ideas rejected by the modern aesthetic have been reestablished. In painting, postmodernism reintroduced representation. Traditional techniques and subject matter have returned in art. Jean Baudrillard has had a significant influence on postmodern-inspired art and has emphasized the possibilities of new forms of creativity. In the early 20th century, Marcel Duchamp exhibited a urinal as a sculpture. His point was to have people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art, just because he said it was a work of art. He referred to his work as "readymades".

The Painter Prince (original title: DerMalerfrst) is an example of a highly concentrated artwork in respect of the symbols that appear in a multi-dimensional space.

been re-established. In painting, postmodernism reintroduced representation. Traditional

techniques and subject matter have returned in art (Figure 37.31). It has even been argued that much of what is called postmodern today, the latest avant-garde, should still be classified as modern art. Jean Baudrillard has had a significant influence on postmoderninspired art and has emphasized the possibilities of new forms of creativity. The artist Peter Halley describes his day-glo colors as hyperrealization of real color, and acknowledges Baudrillard as an

Background The predominant term for art produced since the 1950s is contemporary art. Not all art labeled as contemporary art is postmodern, and the broader term encompasses both artists who continue to work in modernist and late modernist traditions as well

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influence. Baudrillard himself was fairly consistent in his view that contemporary art, and postmodern art in particular, was inferior to the modernist art of the post-World War II period, while JeanFranois Lyotard praised contemporary painting and remarked on its evolution from modern art. Major 20th century female artists are associated with postmodern art since much theoretical articulation of their work emerged from French psychoanalysis and feminist theory. Dada In the early 20th century, Marcel Duchamp exhibited a urinal as a sculpture. His point was to have people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art, just because he said it was a work of art. He referred to his work as "readymades." "The Fountain" and Duchamp's other works are generally labeled as Dada. Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to conceptual art. Some question whether Duchamp can be called postmodernist on the grounds that he eschews any specific medium. Dadaism can be viewed as part of the modernist propensity to challenge established styles and forms. From a chronological point of view, Dada is located solidly within modernism. A number of critics have held that Dada anticipates postmodernism, while others, like Ihab Hassan and Steven Connor, consider it a possible changeover point between modernism and postmodernism.

Neo-Expressionism and Painting Neo-Expressionism is a style of modern painting and sculpture that emerged in the late 1970s and dominated the art market until the mid-1980s. The movement is related to American Lyrical Abstraction of the '60s and '70s and the Bay Area Figurative School of the '50s and '60s. It's also seen as a continuation of Abstract Expressionism, New Image Painting and precedents in Pop painting. Neo-Expressionists returned to portraying recognizable objects like the human body in a rough and violently emotional way using vivid colors and banal color harmonies. The return to the traditional art forms of sculpture and painting in the late 1970s and early 1980s, often seen in the work of NeoExpressionist artists like Georg Baselitz and Julian Schnabel, has been described as one of the first coherent movements to emerge in the postmodern era. Its strong links with the commercial art market has raised questions both about its status as a postmodern movement and the definition of postmodernism itself. Hal Foster states that Neo-Expressionism was complicit with the conservative cultural politics of the Reagan-Bush era in the U.S. Flix Guattari disregards the large promotional operations, dubbed NeoExpressionism in Germany, as a too easy way for him to demonstrate that postmodernism is nothing but the last gasp of modernism.

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After Abstract Expressionism During the 1950s and 1960s, forms of Geometric expression including Hard-edge painting and Frank Stella's work in Geometric abstraction emerged as reaction against the subjectivism of Abstract expressionism. Clement Greenberg became the voice of Postpainterly abstraction by curating an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums throughout the United States in 1964. Color field painting, Hard-edge painting and Lyrical Abstraction emerged as radical new directions.
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Gender
The theoretical articulation of major women artists in the twentieth century emerged from feminist theory and postmodernism.

KEY POINTS

Postmodern art is a body of art movements that sought to contradict aspects of modernism or emerged in its aftermath. In general, movements such as Intermedia, Installation art, Conceptual Art and Multimedia, particularly involving video, are described as postmodern. The feminist art movement refers to the efforts and accomplishments of feminists to make art that reflects women's lives and experiences, as well as to change the production and reception of contemporary art. From the 1960s onward, feminism led to a significant increase in interest and scholarship involving women artists. Notable contributions were made by the art historians Germaine Greer, Linda Nochlin, Griselda Pollock, and others. Happenings were mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends. Happenings often incorporated absurdity, physical exercise, costumes, spontaneous nudity, and various random and seemingly disconnected acts.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

Performance Art and Happenings During the late 1950s and 1960s, artists with a wide range of interests began to push the boundaries of contemporary art. Yves Klein in France, and Carolee Schneemann, Yayoi Kusama, Charlotte Moorman, and Yoko Ono in New York City were pioneers of performance-based works of art. Groups like The Living Theater with Julian Beck and Judith Malina collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments--radically changing the relationship between audience and performer. The Judson Dance Theater's dancers and others collaborated with artists, including John Cage, as well. These performances were often designed to create new art forms, combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often including audience participation. These works were characterized by both the reductive philosophies of minimalism, and the spontaneous improvisation of Abstract Expressionism. During the same period, the late 1950s through the mid-1960s, various avant-garde artists created happenings. Happenings were mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends. Happenings often incorporated absurdity, physical exercise, costumes, spontaneous nudity, and various random and seemingly disconnected acts. Nam June Paik, Wolf Vostell, and Charlotte Moorman were notable creators of happenings.

From the 1960s on feminism led to a great increase in interest in women artists and their academic study. Notable contributions have been made by the art historians Germaine Greer, Linda Nochlin, Griselda Pollock and others. Postmodern feminism is an approach to feminist theory that incorporates postmodern and post-structuralist theory, and thus sees itself as moving beyond the modernist polarities of liberal feminism and radical feminism.

Background Postmodern art is a body of art movements that sought to contradict aspects of modernism or emerged in its aftermath. In general, movements such as Intermedia, Installation art, Conceptual Art and Multimedia, particularly involving video, are described as postmodern. Several characteristics help to define postmodernism, including bricolage, the use of words as a central artistic element, collage, simplification, appropriation, performance art, the recycling of past styles and themes in a modern-day context, and exploring the barrier between fine art and low art or popular culture.

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Woman Artists From the 1960s onward, feminism led to a significant increase in interest and scholarship involving women artists (Figure 37.32). Notable contributions were made by the art historians Germaine Greer, Linda Nochlin, Griselda Pollock, and others. Figures like Artemesia Gentileschi and Frida Kahlo, for example, emerged from relative obscurity to become feminist icons. In 1996, Catherine de Zegher curated an exhibition of 37 great women artists from the twentieth century. The exhibition, "Inside the Visible," traveled globally and included artists' works from the 1930s through the 1990s, featuring: Claude Cahun,
Postmodern feminist art seeks a mode of expression that is amorphous and not consigned to the conceptual, theoretical, or aesthetic limitations of modernity. Figure 37.32 Yayoi Kusama, Ascension of Polkadots on the Trees (at the Singapore Biennale, 2006)

The Feminist Art Movement in the U.S. The feminist art movement refers to the efforts and accomplishments of feminists to make art that reflects women's lives and experiences, as well as to change the production and reception of contemporary art. It also sought to bring more visibility to women within art history and art practice. Corresponding with general developments within feminism, and often including such self-organizing tactics as consciousness-raising groups, the movement began in the 1960s and flourished throughout the 1970s as an outgrowth of the so-called second wave of feminism. It has been called "the most influential international movement of any during the postwar period" and its effects continue to the present. Postmodern feminism is an approach to feminist theory that incorporates postmodern and post-structuralist theory, and thus sees itself as moving beyond the modernist polarities of liberal feminism and radical feminism. There are thousands of examples of women associated with the feminist art movement. The following are only a few examples of important artists and writers who can be credited with making the movement more visible in culture: Judy Chicago, founder of the first known Feminist Art Program (in Fresno, California);

Louise Bourgeois, Bracha Ettinger, Agnes Martin, Carrie Mae Weems, Charlotte Salomon, Eva Hesse, Nancy Spero, Francesca Woodman, Lygia Clark, and Mona Hatoum, among others.

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 Miriam Schapiro, co-founder of the Feminist Art Program at Cal Arts; Sheila Levrant de Bretteville and Arlene Raven co-founders of the Woman's Building; Suzanne Lacy and Faith Wilding, both participants in all the early programs; Martha Rosler Mary Kelly, Kate Millett, Nancy Spero, Faith Ringgold, June Wayne, art-world agitators The Guerrilla Girls; and critics, historians, and curators Lucy Lippard, Griselda Pollock, Arlene Raven, and Dextra Frankel.

EXAMPLE

There are thousands of examples of women associated with the feminist art movement. The following are only a few examples of important artists and writers who can be credited with making the movement more visible in culture: Judy Chicago, founder of the first known Feminist Art Program (in Fresno, California); Miriam Schapiro, co-founder of the Feminist Art Program at Cal Arts; Sheila Levrant de Bretteville and Arlene Raven co-founders of the Woman's Building; Suzanne Lacy and Faith Wilding, both participants in all the early programs; Martha Rosler Mary Kelly, Kate Millett, Nancy Spero, Faith Ringgold, June Wayne, art-world agitators The Guerrilla Girls; and critics, historians, and curators Lucy Lippard, Griselda Pollock, Arlene Raven, and Dextra Frankel.

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Race and Ethnicity

In postmodernism, race and ethnicity depends upon each artist's personal experience.
KEY POINTS

Background Postmodernism is skeptical of explanations that claim to be valid for all groups - cultures, traditions, or races - and instead focuses on the relative truths of each person (i.e. postmodernism = relativism). In the postmodern understanding, interpretation is everything; reality only comes into being through our interpretations of what the world means to us individually. Postmodernism relies on concrete experience over abstract principles, arguing that the outcome of one's own experience will necessarily be fallible and relative, rather than certain or universal. African-American Art African-American art is a broad term describing the visual arts of the American black community. Influenced by various cultural traditions, including those of Africa, Europe and the Americas, traditional African-American art forms include the range of "plastic arts;" basket weaving, pottery, woodcarving and painting. Some African-American artists took a global approach after World War II. These artists worked and exhibited abroad in Paris, Copenhagen and Stockholm. Names included Barbara ChaseRiboud, Edward Clark, Harvey Cropper and Beauford Delaney. Other African-American artists made it into important New York galleries by the 1950s and 1960s: Horace Pippin and Romare

Postmodernism relies on concrete experience over abstract principles, arguing that the outcome of one's own experience will necessarily be fallible and relative, rather than certain or universal. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s and 1970s led artists to express the times. Galleries and community art centers were developed for the purpose of displaying AfricanAmerican art, and collegiate teaching positions were created by and for African-American artists. By the 1980s and 1990s, hip-hop graffiti became predominate in urban communities. Most major cities had developed museums devoted to African American artists. The National Endowment for the Arts provided increasing support for these artists. Post-black art is a phrase that refers to a category of contemporary African-American art. It is a paradoxical genre of art where race and racism are intertwined in a way that rejects their interaction.

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Bearden were among the few who were successfully received in a gallery setting. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s and 1970s
Figure 37.33 E.J. Martin 1990

substitute for white. Some suggest the term is attributable to the 1995 book The End of Blackness by Debra Dickerson. However, Thelma Golden claimed to have coined the term "post-black" art with friend and artist Glenn Ligon in the late 1990s. In 2001, the phrase was explained in detail in an exhibition entitled "Freestyle." The exhibition included twenty-eight upand-coming artists of African-American backgrounds. Golden defined post-black art as that which includes artists who are adamant about not being labeled 'black' artists, though their work was steeped, in fact deeply interested, in redefining complex notions of blackness. As Golden explained, post-black art refers to a younger, post-Civil Rights generation of artists in search of a language exploring their artistic interests and identities. As artists of African descent have historically been marginalized and left outside of the general discourse on Western art history, there has not been one style or
Figure 37.34 Jerry Harris Sculpture Sculpture created and owned by artist Jerry Harris entitled "Dogon Mother and Child", 5ft.7 Constructed and carved wood with found objects, laminated clay (Bondo), and wooden dowels. Photo by Jacob Vercoutern, Portland, Oregon

led artists to capture and express the times and changes. Galleries and community art centers were developed for the purpose of displaying African-American art, and collegiate teaching positions were created by and for African-American artists (Figure 37.33). By the 1980s and 1990s, hip-hop graffiti became predominate in urban communities. Most major cities had developed museums devoted to African American artists. The National Endowment for the Arts

Midnight Golfer by Eugene J. Martin, mixed media collage on rag paper.

provided increasing support for these artists. Post-Black art Post-black art is a phrase that refers to a category of contemporary African-American art. It is a paradoxical genre of art where race and racism are intertwined in a way that rejects their interaction. It is art about the black experience that attempts to dispel the notion that race matters. It uses enigmatic themes wherein black can

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school of African-American art. The term post-black attempts to encompass artists who have a variety of backgrounds and experiences, but all share experiences as a person of African descent (Figure 37.34). While the notion of post-black attempts to avoid identity labels, it does serve as an ethnic marker. Some have found fault with this terminology, stating that "racism is real, and many artists who have endured its effects feel the museum is promoting a kind of art that has turned the institution into a boutique or country club," as David Hammons puts it. Golden has even stated that post-black is both a hollow social construction and a reality with an indispensable history."
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Sculpture
Postmodernist sculpture started using nontraditional materials and concepts to di!erente themselves from modernists.
KEY POINTS

Artists created environmental sculpture on expansive sites in land art in the American West group of projects. These land art or, "earth art", environmental scale sculpture works were exemplified by artists such as Robert Smithson, Michael Heizer, James Turrell (Roden Crater). In the 1960s and 1970s artists like Eduardo Paolozzi, Chryssa, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Edward Kienholz, Nam June Paik, Wolf Vostell, Duane Hanson, and John DeAndrea explored abstraction, imagery and figuration through video art, environment, light sculpture, and installation art in new ways. Conceptual art is art in which the concept(s) or idea(s) involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material concerns. Works include One and Three Chairs,1965, by Joseph Kosuth, An Oak Tree by Michael Craig-Martin, and those of Joseph Beuys and James Turrell.

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KEY POINTS (cont.)

Heizer, James Turrell (Roden Crater). Eva Hesse, Sol LeWitt, Jackie Winsor, Keith Sonnier, and Bruce Nauman, among others, were pioneers of postminimalist sculpture (Figure 37.35). Also during the 1960s and 1970s, artists as diverse as Eduardo Paolozzi, Chryssa, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Edward Kienholz, Nam June Paik, Wolf Vostell, Duane Hanson, and John DeAndrea explored abstraction, imagery and figuration through video art, environment, light sculpture, and installation art in new ways. Conceptual art is art in which the concept(s) or idea(s) involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material concerns. Works include One and Three Chairs, 1965, is by Joseph Kosuth, and An Oak Tree by Michael Craig-Martin, and also those of Joseph Beuys and James Turrell. Contemporary Genres Some modern sculpture forms are now practiced outdoors, as environmental art and environmental sculpture, often in full view of spectators. Light sculpture and site-specific art also often make use
Richard Long, South Bank Circle, 1991 Tate Liverpool, England.

Some modern sculpture forms are now practiced outdoors, as environmental art and environmental sculpture, often in full view of spectators. Light sculpture and site-specific art also often make use of the environment. Ice sculpture is a form of ephemeral sculpture that uses ice as the raw material.

Background In the postmodernist sculpture movement, site specific and environmental art works are represented by artists Andy Goldsworthy, Walter De Maria, Richard Long, Richard Serra, Robert Irwin, George Rickey, and Christo. Jeanne-Claude led contemporary abstract sculpture in new directions. Artists created environmental sculpture on expansive sites in the land art in the American West group of projects.
Figure 37.35 South Bank Circle by Richard Long

of the environment. Ice sculpture is a form of ephemeral sculpture that uses ice as the raw material. It is popular in China, Japan, Canada, Sweden, and Russia. Ice sculptures feature decoratively in some cuisines, especially in Asia. Kinetic sculptures are sculptures

These land art, or "earth art", environmental scale sculpture works were exemplified by artists, such as Robert Smithson, Michael

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that are designed to move; mobiles are an example. Snow sculptures are usually carved out of a single block of snow about six to 15 feet (4.6 m) on each side and weighing about 2030 tons. The snow is densely packed into a form after having been produced by artificial means, or collected from the ground after a snowfall. Sound sculptures take the form of indoor sound installations, outdoor installations such as aeolian harps, automatons, or be more or less near conventional musical instruments. Sound sculpture is often site-specific. Art toys have become another format for contemporary artists since the late 1990s, such as those produced by Takashi Murakami and Kid Robot, designed by Michael Lau, or hand-made by the artist Michael Leavitt.
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Section 8

The Nineties

Cultural Wars of the Nineties Political Art: Feminism Political Art: LGBT Rights and the AIDS Crisis Political Art: Race and Ethnicity in the 90s Postcolonial Discourse Deconstructivism Video and Film as Art

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/global-art-since-1950/the-nineties/
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Cultural Wars of the Nineties

Cultural wars in the 90s created a friction between what is culturally acceptable in a society, a!ecting minorities worldwide.

Background Culture war is a loan translation (calque) from the German Kulturkampf. This German term was coined to describe the clash between cultural and religious groups in the campaign from 1871 to 1878, under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck of the German Empire, against the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. The term

KEY POINTS

cultural war has been in English use almost as long as the original Kulturkampf and generalizes the idea of these kinds of struggle. It is related then to the theory of cultural hegemony. Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci presented in the 1920s a theory of cultural hegemony to explain the slower advance, compared to many Marxists' expectations, of proletarian revolution in Europe. He stated that one class that has a monopoly over the mass media and popular culture can dominate a culturally diverse society. He argued for a culture war in which anti-capitalist elements sought to gain a dominant voice in the mass media, education, and other mass institutions. Cultural Wars in the United States The expression was introduced again by the 1991 publication of Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America by James Davison Hunter, a sociologist at the University of Virginia. Hunter described

Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci presented in the 1920s a theory of cultural hegemony to explain the slower advance, compared to many Marxists' expectations, of proletarian revolution in Europe. Gramsci stated that one class who has a monopoly over the mass media and popular culture can dominate a culturally diverse society, and he argued for a culture war in which anticapitalist elements seek to gain a dominant voice in the mass media, education, and other mass institutions. The expression was introduced again by the 1991 publication of Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America by James Davison Hunter, a sociologist. Hunter described what he saw as a dramatic realignment and polarization that had transformed American politics and culture. The street is the location for Monica Ali's book Brick Lane, published in 2003, and the film of 2007 starring Tannishtha Chatterjee. The novel provoked a controversy with some of the local Asian community because of a perceived negative portrayal of them.

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what he saw as a dramatic realignment and polarization that had transformed American politics and culture. He argued that, on an increasing number of hot-button defining issues such as abortion, gun politics, separation of church and state, privacy, recreational drug use, homosexuality, and censorship issues; there existed two definable polarities. Furthermore, not only were there a number of divisive issues, but society had divided along essentially the same lines on these issues, so as to constitute two warring groups, defined primarily by ideological world views, rather than by nominal religion, ethnicity, social class, or even political affiliation. Culture war disputes are considered by many to have had significant impacts on national politics in the United States in the 1990s. Some say, extreme conservative rhetoric of the Christian
The street is the location for Monica Ali's book Brick Lane, published in 2003, and the lm of 2007 starring Tannishtha Chatterjee. Figure 37.36 Brick Lane 2005

Coalition hurt then-president George H.W. Bush's chances for reelection in 1992 and helped his successor, Bill Clinton, win reelection in 1996. On the other hand, conservative cultural warriors' rhetoric helped Republicans gain control of Congress in 1994, and the subsequent impeachment of Clinton by Congress over a sex scandal is widely understood as having been a divisive culture war battle. The culture wars influenced the debate over public school history curricula in the United States in the 1990s. In particular, debates over the development of national educational standards in 1994 revolved around whether the study of American history should be a celebratory or "critical" undertaking and involved such prominent public figures as Lynne Cheney, Rush Limbaugh, and historian Gary Nash. Contemporary Culture Wars The street is the location for Monica Ali's book Brick Lane (Figure 37.36), published in 2003, and the film of 2007 starring Tannishtha Chatterjee. The novel provoked a controversy with some of the local Asian community because of a perceived negative portrayal of them. Parts of the Bengali community were particularly opposed to plans by Ruby Films to film parts of the novel in the Brick Lane area and formed the Campaign Against Monica Ali's Film Brick Lane. Consequently the producers of the film used different locations for

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certain scenes, such as that depicting Brick Lane Market. Despite this, the director of the film Sarah Gavron attests, on the DVD commentary of the film, that genuine footage of Brick Lane does appear in the finished movie. The campaign was allegedly supported by Germaine Greer, who wrote that: "As British people know little and care less about the Bangladeshi people in their midst, their first appearance as characters in an English novel had the force of a defining caricature ...". Some of the Sylhetis of Brick Lane did not recognize themselves. Bengali Muslims smart under an Islamic prejudice that they are irreligious and disorderly--the impure among the pure--and here was a proto-Bengali writer with a Muslim name, portraying them as all of that and more. Greer's involvement has angered some within the British literary community. Salman Rushdie, who set parts of his novel The Satanic Verses in Brick Lane, has called it "philistine, sanctimonious, and disgraceful, but ... not unexpected".
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Political Art: Feminism

Political art in the nineties was a form of protest for the feminist movement against patriarchy and women's exclusion in the arts.

KEY POINTS

Forms of feminism and feminist art of the time were particularly influential to activist art. Throughout their existence the Guerrilla Girls have utilized protest art to express their ideals, opinions, concerns, and to bring revenue into the group. Their posters, which now are in the collection of the museum they originally protested against, the Museum of Modern Art, among others, are known for their bold statements such as, "Do women have to be naked to get into the Met. Museum?

Background Emerging forms of feminism and feminist art of the time was particularly influential to activist art. The notion that personal revelation through art can be a political tool, guided activist art in its study of public dimensions and private experience. The strategies deployed by feminist artists paralleled those of activist artists. Such strategies often involved collaboration, dialogue, a

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constant questioning of aesthetic and social assumptions, and a new respect for audience, and are used to articulate and negotiate issues of self-representation, empowerment, and community identity.
Figure 37.37 Guerrilla Girls Billboard

activist art so as to attain its goals for community and public participation. Parallel to the emphasis on ideas that conceptual art endorsed, activist art is process-oriented, seeking to expose embedded power relationships through its process of creation.

Conceptual art sought to expand aesthetic boundaries in its critique of the art object and the commodity system within which it is circulated as currency. Conceptual artists experimented with unconventional materials and processes of art production. Grounded by strategies rooted in the real world, projects in conceptual art demanded viewer participation and were exhibited outside of the traditional and

In the political sphere, the militancy and identity politics of the period fostered the conditions out of which activist art arose. Protest Art in Feminism Throughout their existence the Guerrilla Girls (Figure 37.37) have utilized protest art to express their ideals, opinions, concerns, and to bring revenue into the group. Their posters, which now are in the collection of the museum they originally protested against, the Museum of Modern Art, among others, are known for their bold statements such as, "When racism and sexism are no longer fashionable, what will your art collection be worth?" In the early days posters were brainstormed, designed, critiqued and posted around New York. Small handbills based on their designs were also passed out at events by the thousands. In 1990 the group designed a billboard featuring Mona Lisa that was placed along the West Side Highway and was supported by the New York City public art fund. For one day, New York's MTA Bus Company also displayed bus advertisements asking, "Do women have to get naked to get into the Met Museum? Stickers also became

Guerrilla Girls billboard in Los Angeles protests white male dominance at the Oscars in 2009.

exclusive space of the art gallery, thus making the work accessible to the public. Similarly, collaborative methods of execution and expertise drawn from outside the art world are often employed in

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popular calling cards representative of the group. In the mid-1980s they infiltrated, the Guggenheim Museum bathrooms, without masks to maintain anonymity, and placed stickers about female inequality on the walls. Similarly, in 1998, Guerrilla Girls West protested at the San Jose Museum of Art, over low representation of women artists. Since 2002, Guerrilla Girls, Inc. have designed and installed billboards in Los Angeles during the Oscars to expose white male dominance in the film industry, such as: "Anatomically Correct Oscars," "Even the Senate is More Progressive than Hollywood," "The Birth of Feminism, Unchain the Women Directors." Guerrilla Girls have also published books that include their statistical data, protest arts and goals regarding inequality in the art world. In 1995, they published their first book, Confessions of the Guerrilla Girls.
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Political Art: LGBT Rights and the AIDS Crisis

The AIDS Crisis that started in the 1980s stigmatized the LGBT community who in turn protested with political art and activism.
KEY POINTS

Perhaps the greatest criticism surrounds Reagan's silence about the AIDS epidemic spreading in the 1980s. Although AIDS was first identified in 1981, Reagan did not mention it publicly for several more years, notably during a press conference in 1985 and several speeches in 1987. Possibly in deference to the views of the powerful religious right, which saw AIDS as a disease limited to the gay male community and spread by immoral behavior, Reagan prevented his Surgeon General, C. Everett Koop, from speaking out about the epidemic. The Sisters as Nuns of the Above refer members of the Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence who have died. Specific losses due to AIDS are immortalized in the folk art NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt.

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Background Perhaps the greatest criticism surrounds Reagan's silence about the AIDS epidemic spreading in the 1980s. Although AIDS was first identified in 1981, Reagan did not mention it publicly for several more years, notably during a press conference in 1985 and several speeches in 1987. During the press conference in 1985, Reagan expressed skepticism in allowing children with AIDS to continue in school, stating: "It is true that some medical sources had said that [HIV] couldn't be communicated in any way other than the ones we already know and which would not involve a child being in the school. And yet medicine has not come forth unequivocally and said, 'This we know for a fact, that it is safe.' And until they do, I think we just have to do the best we can with this problem." The CDC had previously issued a report stating that casual personto-person contact as would occur among schoolchildren appears to pose no risk. During his 1987 speeches, Reagan supported modest educational funding on AIDS, increased AIDS testing for marriage licenses, and added mandatory testing for high-risk groups. ThenVice President Bush met with President Reagan in 1984. Even with the death of his friend Rock Hudson from AIDS, Reagan was widely criticized for not supporting more active measures to

contain the spread of AIDS. Until celebrity Elizabeth Taylor spoke out publicly about the monumental amount of people quickly dying from this new disease, most public officials and celebrities were too afraid of dealing with this subject. Possibly in deference to the views of the powerful religious right, which saw AIDS as a disease limited to the gay male community and spread by immoral behavior, Reagan prevented his Surgeon General, C. Everett Koop, from speaking out about the epidemic. When in 1986 Reagan was highly encouraged by many other public officials to authorize Koop to issue a report on the epidemic, he expected it to be in line with conservative policies. Instead, Koop's Surgeon General's Report on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome greatly emphasized the importance of a comprehensive AIDS education strategy, including widespread distribution of condoms and rejected mandatory testing. This approach brought Koop into conflict with other administration officials such as Education Secretary William Bennett. Social action groups such as ACT UP worked to raise awareness of the AIDS problem. Because of ACT UP, in 1987, Reagan responded by appointing the Watkins Commission on AIDS, which was succeeded by a permanent advisory council.

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AIDS Education and Art The organization of the Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence occurred at the same time Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) began appearing in the Castro District, San Francisco and New York City. Some of the earliest attempts to bring attention to the new disease were staged by the Sisters, both in and out of costume. In 1982, Sister Florence Nightmare, RN (early AIDS activist and registered nurse) Bobbi Campbell, and Sister Roz Erection joined with a team of Sisters and medical professionals to create Play Fair! the first safer sex pamphlet to use plain language, practical advice and humor, and considered by one of the founders to be "one of the Order's greatest achievement in community education and support". In 1999, for the Sisters' 20th anniversary, the pamphlet was revised. The Sisters continue to raise awareness of sexual health worldwide. Today, many Orders regularly pass out condoms and participate in events to educate people on sexual health issues. Sister Sistah, Sister Dana Van Iquity, and Sister Kitty Catalyst O.C.P. work on the Sisters as Nuns of the Above memorial quilt at San Francisco's NAMES Project Quilt office on Market St. The Sisters as Nuns of the Above refer to members of the Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence (Figure 37.38) who have died. Specific losses due to AIDS are immortalized in the folk art NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt. Created in the early 1990s, the quilt has made

history several times. It was featured at the 1996 NAMES quilt display in Washington, D.C. in front of the U.S. House of Representatives and was among the first quilts viewed by then Vice President Al Gore and his wife Tipper Gore. The quilt was later featured in the Names Projects' calendar worldwide. The Nuns of The Above quilt has been flown around the United States and is in high demand for local displays. While in town for the AIDS Memorial Quilt display, the Sisters led an exorcism of homophobia, classism, and racism on the steps of the United States House of Representatives. The Sisters also assisted with the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT-UP) death march and protest to the gates of the White House where ashes of people who had died from AIDS were illegally spread on the lawn
Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/global-artsince-1950/the-nineties/political-art-lgbt-rights-and-the-aids-crisis/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource
Sister Innocenta (Soeur Innocenta) of the Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence, Paris House, France (Les Soeurs de la Perptuelle Indulgence Couvent de Paris) at GayPride, Paris, 2007. Figure 37.38 Sister Innocenta Paris 2007

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Political Art: Race and Ethnicity in the 90s

Art in the 1990s started to ourish, and reected race and ethnicity of the artists and communities.
KEY POINTS

KEY POINTS (cont.)

While the notion of post-black attempts to avoid identity labels, the title of post-black serves as an ethnic marker. Some suggest the term is attributable to the 1995 book, The End of Blackness by Debra Dickerson.

Background The Bronx's evolution from a hot bed of Latin jazz to an incubator of hip hop, was the subject of an award-winning documentary, produced by City Lore and broadcast on PBS in 2006, From Mambo to Hip Hop: A South Bronx Tale. Hip Hop first emerged in the South Bronx in the early 1970s. The New York Times has identified 1520 Sedgwick Avenue as "an otherwise unremarkable high-rise just north of the Cross Bronx Expressway and hard along the Major Deegan Expressway" as a starting point, where DJ Kool Herc presided over parties in the community room. On August 11, 1973, DJ Kool Herc was a D. J. and M. C. at a party in the recreation room of 1520 Sedgewick Avenue in the Bronx, adjacent to the Cross-Bronx Expressway. While it was not the actual "birthplace of hip hop" (the genre developed slowly in several places in the 1970s) it was verified to be the place where one of the pivotal and formative events occurred. Specifically, DJ Kool Herc extended an instrumental beat (mixing or scratching) to let people dance

The Bronx's evolution from a hot bed of Latin jazz to an incubator of hip hop, was the subject of an award-winning documentary, produced by City Lore and broadcast on PBS in 2006, From Mambo to Hip Hop: A South Bronx Tale. The Bronx is home to several off-off-Broadway theaters, many staging new works by immigrant playwrights from Latin America and Africa. The Iroquois, living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called wampum that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as a medium of exchange and unit of measure. Post-black art is a phrase that refers to a category of contemporary African American art. It is a paradoxical genre of art where race and racism are intertwined in a way that rejects their interaction.

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longer (b-boying) and began M. C.ing (rapping) during the extended breakdancing. This helped lay the foundation for a cultural revolution. The Bronx is home to several off-off-Broadway theaters, many of which stage new works by immigrant playwrights from Latin America and Africa. The Pregones Theater, which produces Latin American work, opened a new 130-seat theater in 2005 on Walton Avenue in the South Bronx. Some artists from elsewhere in New York City have begun to converge on the area, and housing prices have nearly quadrupled in the area since 2002. However rising prices directly correlate to a housing shortage across the city and the entire metro area. The Bronx Museum of the Arts (Figure 37.39), founded in 1971, exhibits 20th century and contemporary art through its central museum space, and 11 thousand square feet of galleries. Many of its exhibitions are on themes of special interest to the Bronx. Its permanent collection features more than eight hundred works of art, primarily by artists from Africa, Asia, and Latin America, which include paintings, photographs, prints, drawings, and mixed media. The museum was temporarily closed in 2006 while it underwent a major expansion designed by the architectural firm, Arquitectonica. The Bronx has also become home to a peculiar poetic tribute, in the form of the Heinrich Heine Memorial, better known as the Lorelei

Fountain from one of Heine's best-known works (1838). After Heine's German birthplace of Dsseldorf had rejected, allegedly for anti-semitic motives, a centennial monument to the radical German-Jewish poet (17971856), his incensed German-American admirers (including Carl Schurz) started a movement to instead place a monument in midtown Manhattan at Fifth Avenue and 59th Street. However, this intention was thwarted by a combination of ethnic antagonism, aesthetic controversy, and political struggles over the institutional control of public art. Native American Art
Looking northeast across Grand Concourse (Bronx) and East 165th Street on a cloudy afternoon at Bronx Museum of the Arts. Figure 37.39 Bronx Museum of Arts

The Iroquois, living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts, called wampum, that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as a medium of exchange and unit of measure. The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries. Pueblo peoples crafted impressive items associated with their religious ceremonies. Kachina dancers wore elaborately painted and

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decorated masks as they ritually impersonated various ancestral spirits. Sculpture was not highly developed, but carved stone and wood fetishes were made for religious use. Superior weaving, embroidered decorations, and rich dyes characterized the textile arts. Both turquoise and shell jewelry were created, as were highquality pottery and formalized pictorial arts. Post-Black Art Post-black art is a phrase that refers to a category of contemporary African American art. It is a paradoxical genre of art where race and racism are intertwined in a way that rejects their interaction; it is art about the black experience that attempts to dispel the notion that race matters. It uses enigmatic themes wherein black can substitute for white. Some suggest the term is attributable to the 1995 book, The End of Blackness by Debra Dickerson. While the notion of "post-black" attempts to avoid identity labels, the title of "post-black" serves as an ethnic marker. Some have found fault with this terminology, stating, racism is real, and many artists who have endured its effects feel the museum is promoting a kind of arttrendy, postmodern, blandly internationalthat has turned the institution into a "boutique" or "country club"," as David Hammons puts it. Artists featured in The Studio Museum in Harlems Freestyle show included Kori Newkirk, Laylah Ali, Eric

Wesley, Senam Okudzeto, David McKenzie, Susan Smith-Pinelo, Sanford Biggers, Louis Cameron, Deborah Grant, Rashid Johnson, Arnold J. Kemp, Julie Mehretu, Mark Bradford and Jennie C. Jones.

EXAMPLE

Artists featured in The Studio Museum in Harlems Freestyle show included Kori Newkirk, Laylah Ali, Eric Wesley, Senam Okudzeto, David McKenzie, Susan Smith-Pinelo, Sanford Biggers, Louis Cameron, Deborah Grant, Rashid Johnson, Arnold J. Kemp, Julie Mehretu, Mark Bradford and Jennie C. Jones.

Source: https://www.boundless.com/art-history/global-artsince-1950/the-nineties/political-art-race-and-ethnicity-in-the-90s/ CC-BY-SA Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource

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Postcolonial Discourse
Sara Ahmed argues that Black and Postcolonial feminisms pose a challenge to some of the organizing premises of Western feminist thought.
KEY POINTS

Background Postcolonialism (also, Post-colonial theory, Post-colonial studies, and Post-colonialism) is an academic discipline that comprises methods of intellectual discourse presenting analyses of, and responses to, the cultural legacies of colonialism and of imperialism (nearly always by European and North American powers). These methods which draw from different post-modern schools of thought, such as critical theory. In the field of anthropology, postcolonial studies record the human relations among the colonial nations and the peoples of the colonies they ruled and exploited. To present the ideology and the praxis of (neo) colonialism, postcolonial critical theory draws from, illustrates, and explains with examples from the humanities, history, architecture, anthropology, the cinema, feminism, human geography, linguistics, Marxist theory, philosophy, political science, sociology, religion and theology, and post-colonial literature. Black and postcolonial ideologies Sara Ahmed argues that Black and Postcolonial feminisms pose a challenge to some of the organizing premises of Western feminist thought. During much of its history, middle-class white women led feminist movements and theoretical developments predominantly from Western Europe and North America. However, women of other races have proposed alternative feminisms. This trend

Postcolonialism (also, Post-colonial theory, Post-colonial studies, and Post-colonialism) is an academic discipline that comprises methods of intellectual discourse presenting analyses of, and responses to, the cultural legacies of colonialism and of imperialism. During much of its history, middle-class white women led feminist movements and theoretical developments predominantly from Western Europe and North America. However, women of other races have proposed alternative feminisms. Postcolonial feminists argue that colonial oppression and Western feminism marginalized postcolonial women but did not turn them passive or voiceless. Third-world feminism is closely related to postcolonial feminism. These ideas also correspond with ideas in African feminism, motherism, Stiwanism, negofeminism, femalism, transnational feminism, and Africana womanism.

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accelerated in the 1960s with the civil rights movement in the United States and the
Figure 37.40 Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak at Goldsmiths College

Stiwanism, negofeminism, femalism, transnational feminism, and Africana womanism.

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collapse of European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America, and Southeast Asia. Since that time, women in developing nations and former colonies who are of color, various ethnicities, or living in poverty have proposed additional feminisms. Womanism emerged after early feminist movements were largely white and

The denition of the term Subaltern is the principal contribution to Post-colonial Studies, by the philosopher and theoretician Gayatri Spivak.

middle-class. Postcolonial feminists (Figure 37.40) argue that colonial

oppression and Western feminism marginalized postcolonial women but did not turn them passive or voiceless. Third-world feminism is closely related to postcolonial feminism. These ideas also correspond with ideas in African feminism, motherism,

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Deconstructivism
Deconstructivism is a development of postmodern architecture that began in the late 1980s.

which serve to distort and dislocate some of the elements of architecture, such as structure and envelope. The finished visual appearance of buildings that exhibit the many deconstructivist styles is characterized by a stimulating unpredictability and a controlled chaos.

KEY POINTS

Modernism and Postmodernism Deconstructivism in contemporary architecture stands in opposition to the ordered rationality of Modernism. Its relationship with Postmodernism is also decidedly contrary. Though postmodernist and nascent deconstructivist architects published theories alongside each other in the journal Oppositions, that journal's contents mark the beginning of a decisive break between the two movements.
Seattle Central Library by Rem Koolhaas and OMA. Figure 37.41 Seattle Central Library, Seattle, Washington

Deconstructivism is influenced by the theory of Deconstruction, which is a form of semiotic analysis. It is characterized by ideas of fragmentation, an interest in manipulating ideas of a structure's surface or skin. Though postmodernist and nascent deconstructivist architects published theories alongside each other in the journal Oppositions, that journal's contents mark the beginning of a decisive break between the two movements. While postmodernism returned to embrace, often slyly or ironically, the historical references that modernism had shunned, deconstructivism rejects the postmodern acceptance of such references.

Background Deconstructivism is a development of postmodern architecture that began in the late 1980s. It is influenced by the theory of Deconstruction, which is a form of semiotic analysis. It is characterized by ideas of fragmentation, an interest in manipulating ideas of a structure's surface or skin, and non-rectilinear shapes

Deconstructivism took a confrontational stance toward much of architecture and architectural history, wanting to disjoin and

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disassemble architecture. While postmodernism returned to embrace, often slyly or ironically, the historical references that modernism had shunned, deconstructivism rejects the postmodern acceptance of such references. It also rejects the idea of ornament as an after-thought or decoration. In Venturi's Complexity and Contradiction of Architecture, geometry is to deconstructivists (Figure 37.41) what ornament is to postmodernists, and this complication of geometry was in turn applied to the functional, structural, and spatial aspects of deconstructivist buildings. One example of deconstructivist complexity is Frank Gehry's Vitra Design Museum in Weil-amRhein, which takes the typical unadorned white cube of modernist art galleries and deconstructs it, using geometries reminiscent of cubism and abstract expressionism. This subverts the functional aspects of modernist simplicity while taking modernism, particularly the international style, of which its white stucco skin is reminiscent, as a starting point.
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Video and Film as Art

Video art is a type of art relying on moving pictures and comprising of video and/or audio data.
KEY POINTS

Video art came into existence during the late 1960s and early 1970s as new technology became available outside corporate broadcasting. Video art can be recordings that are broadcast, viewed in galleries, or distributed as video tapes or DVD discs; sculptural installations incorporating one or more television sets or video monitors; and performances in which video representations are included. Many artists found video more appealing than film, particularly when the medium's greater accessibility was coupled with technologies able to edit or modify the video image. Installation works involve either an environment, distinct pieces of video presented separately, or any combination of video with traditional media like sculpture.

Background Video art is a type of art relying on moving pictures and comprising of video and/or audio data. (It should not however be confused with

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television production or experimental film.) Video art came into existence during the late 1960s and early 1970s as new technology became available outside corporate broadcasting. Video art can be recordings that are broadcast, viewed in galleries, or distributed as video tapes or DVD discs; sculptural installations incorporating one or more television sets or video monitors; and performances in which video representations are included. History of Video Art Prior to the introduction of this new technology, moving image production was only available to the consumer by way of eight or sixteen millimeter film. Many artists found video (Figure 37.42) more appealing than film, particularly when the medium's greater accessibility was coupled with technologies able to edit or modify the video image. The first multi-channel video art was Wipe Cycle by Ira Schneider and Frank Gillette. An installation of nine television screens, Wipe Cycle combined live images of gallery visitors, found footage from commercial television, and shots from pre-recorded tapes. The material was alternated from one monitor to the next in an elaborate choreography.

Prominent Video Artists Many of the early prominent video artists were those involved with concurrent movements in conceptual art, performance and experimental film. These include Americans Vito Acconci, John Baldessari, Peter Campus and many others. There were also those like Steina and Woody Vasulka who employed video synthesizers to create abstract works. Video Art Today Current video art is
Exhibit at the Smithsonian American Art Museum (March 16, 2012 - September 30, 2012). Figure 37.42 The Art of Video Games Exhibition Crowd

represented by two varieties - single-channel and installation. Single-channel works are much closer to the conventional idea of television in that a video is screened, projected or shown as a single image. Installation works, meanwhile, involve either an environment, distinct pieces of video presented separately, or any combination of video coupled with traditional media like sculpture. Installation video is the most common form of video art today. Sometimes it is combined with other media and is often subsumed by the greater whole of an installation. Contemporary contributions

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are being produced at the crossroads of such disciplines as installation, architecture, design, sculpture, and electronic art. The digital video "revolution" of the 1990s has allowed many artists to work with video and to create interactive installations based on video. Some examples of video art include entirely digitally rendered environments created with no camera, or video that responds to the movements of the viewer and other elements of the environment.

EXAMPLE

Many of the early prominent video artists were those involved with concurrent movements in conceptual art, performance and experimental film. These include Americans Vito Acconci, John Baldessari, Peter Campus and many others. There were also those like Steina and Woody Vasulka who employed video synthesizers to create abstract works.

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Section 9

New Venues and Forms of Art

Technology Identity

https://www.boundless.com/art-history/global-art-since-1950/new-venues-and-forms-of-art/
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Technology
Digital art is a general term for a range of artistic works and practices that use digital technology as a part of the creative process.
KEY POINTS

creative process. Since the 1970s, various names have been used to describe such artwork, including computer art and multimedia art, and digital art itself is placed under the larger umbrella term of new media art. The impact of digital technology has transformed activities such as painting, drawing, sculpture, and music/sound art, while new forms (such as net art, digital installation art, and virtual reality) have become recognized as artistic practices. More generally, the term digital artist is used to describe an artist who makes use of digital technologies in the production of art. In an expanded sense, digital art is a term applied to contemporary art that uses the methods of mass production or digital media. Digital Production Techniques in Visual Media The techniques of digital art are used extensively by the mainstream media in advertisements and by filmmakers to produce special effects. Both digital and traditional artists use many sources of electronic information and programs to create their work. Given the parallels between visual and musical arts, it seems likely that general acceptance of the value of digital art will have a similar progression to how electronic music has become more accepted over the last four decades.

Since the 1970s, various names have been used to describe the process including computer art and multimedia art, and digital art is placed under the larger umbrella term of new media art. The impact of digital technology has transformed activities such as painting, drawing, sculpture and music/sound art, while new forms, such as net art, digital installation art, and virtual reality, have become recognized artistic practices. The techniques of digital art are used extensively by the mainstream media in advertisements and by filmmakers to produce special effects. Digital art can be purely computer-generated or taken from other sources, such as a scanned photograph or an image drawn using graphics software.

Background Digital art is a general term for a range of artistic works and practices that use digital technology as an essential part of the

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Digital art can be purely computer-generated (Figure 37.43) or taken from other sources, such as scanned photographs or images drawn using graphics software. The term may technically be applied to art done using other media or processes and merely scanned into a digital format, but digital art usually describes art that has been significantly modified by a computing process. Digitized text, raw audio, and video recordings are usually not considered digital art on their own, but can be part of larger digital art projects. Digital painting is created in a similar fashion to non-digital painting, but using software and digitally outputting the resulting image.
Figure 37.43 Irrational Geometrics, Pascal Dombis (2008)

Computer-generated Visual Media Digital visual art consists of, firstly, 2D visual information displayed on a monitor, and secondly, information mathematically translated into 3D information and then viewed through perspective projection on a monitor. The simplest is 2D computer graphics, which reflect drawings made using a pencil and a piece of paper. In this case, however, the image is on the computer screen and the instrument used to draw might be a stylus or mouse. What is generated on the screen might appear to be drawn with a pencil, pen, or paintbrush. Another kind of digital video art is 3D computer graphics, where the screen becomes a window into a virtual environment of arranged objects that are "photographed" by the computer. There are many software programs that can enable collaboration, lending such artwork to sharing and augmentation so users can collaborate on a project to create art. Computer-generated animations are animations created with a computer from digital models. The term is usually applied to works created entirely with a computer. Movies make heavy use of computer-generated graphics, which are called computer-generated imagery (CGI) in the film industry. Digital installation art constitutes a broad field of activity and incorporates many forms. Some resemble video installations, particularly large scale works involving projections and live video

Irrational Geometrics is a digital art installation.

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capture. By using projection techniques that enhance an audiences impression of sensory development, many digital installations attempt to create immersive environments.
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Identity
Since the 1970s a number of social commentators have pointed to the political implications of art museums and social relations.
KEY POINTS

The late 19th century saw a boom in the building of public art galleries in Europe and America, becoming an essential cultural feature of larger cities. More art galleries rose up alongside museums and public libraries as part of the municipal drive for literacy and public education. In the middle and late 20th century earlier architectural styles employed for art museums were increasingly replaced with more modern styles, such as Deconstructivism. Many art museums throughout history have been designed with a cultural purpose or been subject to political intervention. In particular National Art Galleries have been thought to incite feelings of nationalism. Similar to an art gallery is the sculpture garden or sculpture park, which presents sculpture in an outdoor space. Sculpture installation has grown in popularity, whereby temporary sculptures are installed in open spaces during events like festivals.

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were increasingly replaced with more modern styles, such as

KEY POINTS (cont.)

Deconstructivism. Examples of this trend include the Guggenheim Museum in New York City by Frank Lloyd Wright, the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao by Frank Gehry, Centre Pompidou-Metz by Shigeru Ban, and the redesign of the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art by Mario Botta. Some critics argue that these galleries are selfdefeating; in that their dramatic interior spaces distract the eye from the paintings they are supposed to exhibit. Cultural aspects Since the 1970s a number of political theorists and social commentators have pointed to the political implications of art museums and social relations. Pierre Bourdieu, for instance, argued that in spite the apparent freedom of choice in the arts, people's artistic preferences (such as classical music, rock, traditional music) strongly tie in with their social position. Cultural capital is a major factor in social mobility (for example, getting a higher-paid, higherstatus job). The argument states that certain art museums are aimed at perpetuating aristocratic and upper class ideals of taste and excludes segments of society without the social opportunities to develop such interest. The fine arts thus perpetuate social inequality by creating divisions between different social groups. This argument also ties in with the Marxist theory of mystification and elite culture.

Cultural identity is the (feeling of) identity of a group or culture, or of an individual as far as he or she is influenced by belonging to a broader culture. Cultural identity is similar to and has overlaps with, but is not synonymous with, identity politics.

Background In 1817, Sir John Soane established the architectural form of the art gallery with his design for the Dulwich Picture Gallery. This established the gallery as a series of interconnected rooms with largely uninterrupted wall spaces for hanging pictures and indirect lighting from skylights or roof lanterns. The late 19th century saw a boom in the building of public art galleries in Europe and America, becoming an essential cultural feature of larger cities. More art galleries rose up alongside museums and public libraries as part of the municipal drive for literacy and public education. In the middle and late 20th century earlier architectural styles employed for art museums (such as the Beaux-Arts style of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City or the Gothic and Renaissance Revival architecture of Amsterdam's Rijksmuseum)

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Cultural Identity Cultural identity is the (feeling of) identity of a group or culture, or of an individual as far as he or she is influenced by belonging to a broader culture. Cultural identity is similar to and has overlaps with, but is not synonymous with, identity politics. There are modern questions of culture that are transferred into questions of identity. Historical culture also influences individual identity, and as with modern cultural identity, individuals may pick and choose aspects of cultural identity, while rejecting or disowning other associated ideas. Ajay K. Ojha argues that "one individuals epistemological sense of knowing or coming to terms with her/his identity will be different than the next person." Visual Art Outside the Gallery Works on paper, such as drawings, pastels, watercolors, prints, and photographs are typically not permanently displayed for conservation reasons. Instead, a dedicated print study room located within the museum provides public access to these materials. Murals generally remain where they have been painted, although many have been removed to galleries. Various forms of 20th century art, such as land art and performance art, also usually exist outside a gallery. Photographic records of these kinds of art are often shown in galleries, however. Most museum and large art

galleries own more works than they have room to display. The rest are held in reserve collections, on or off-site. Similar to an art gallery is the sculpture garden (Figure 37.44) or sculpture park, which presents sculpture in an outdoor space. Sculpture installation has grown in popularity, whereby temporary sculptures are installed in open spaces during events like festivals.
Figure 37.44 Museum of Contemporary Arts Tehran, Iran. The Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art has a sculpture Garden adjacent to Tehran's Laleh Park.

Online Art Collections There are a number of online art catalogues and galleries that have been developed independently of the support of any individual museum. Many of these are attempts to develop galleries of artwork that are encyclopedic or historical in focus, while others are commercial efforts to sell the work of contemporary artists.

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A limited number of such sites have independent importance in the art world. The large auction houses, such as Sotheby's and Christie's maintain large online databases of art which they have auctioned or are auctioning. Bridgeman Art Library serves as a central source of reproductions of artwork, with access limited to museums, art dealers and other professionals or professional organizations.
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Section 10

Performance Art, Conceptual Art, and New Media

New Media

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New Media
Performance and conceptual art challenge the notion of visual arts.
KEY POINTS

and refinement toward the goal of defining the essential, formal nature of each medium. Those elements that ran counter to this nature were to be reduced. The task of painting, for example, was to define precisely what kind of object a painting truly is: what makes it a painting and nothing else? The nature of paintings was to be flat objects with canvas surfaces onto which colored pigment is applied. Thus, such things as figuration, 3-D perspective illusion, and references to external subject matter were all found to be extraneous to the essence of painting, so ought to be removed. Some have argued that conceptual art continued this dematerialization of art by removing the need for objects altogether, while others, including many of the artists themselves, saw conceptual art as a radical break from Greenberg's kind of formalist modernism. Later artists continued to share a preference for selfcritical art, as well as a distaste for illusion. However, by the end of the 1960s, it was certainly clear that Greenberg's stipulations for art no longer held traction. Performance art (Figure 37.45) is a performance presented to an audience, traditionally interdisciplinary. The performance may be scripted or unscripted, random or carefully orchestrated, spontaneous or otherwise carefully planned, and occur with or without audience participation. The performance can be live or via

Conceptual art emerged as a movement during the 1960s. In part, it was a reaction against formalism as the influential New York art critic Clement Greenberg then articulated it. Some have argued that conceptual art continued this dematerialization of art by removing the need for objects altogether, while others, including many of the artists themselves, saw conceptual art as a radical break with Greenberg's kind of formalist modernism. Performance art is a performance presented to an audience, traditionally interdisciplinary. The performance may be scripted or unscripted, random or carefully orchestrated, spontaneous or otherwise carefully planned, and occur with or without audience participation.

Background Conceptual art emerged as a movement during the 1960s. In part, it was a reaction against formalism as the influential New York art critic Clement Greenberg then articulated it. According to Greenberg, modern art followed a process of progressive reduction

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media; the performer can be present or absent. It can be any situation that involves four basic elements: time, space, the performer's body or presence in a medium, and a relationship between the performer and the audience. Performance art can happen anywhere, in any venue or setting and for any length of time. The actions of an individual or a group at a particular place and in a particular time constitute the work. Contemporary Influence In Conceptual Art The first wave of the conceptual art movement extended from approximately 1967 to 1978. Early concept artists like Henry Flynt, Robert Morris, and Ray Johnson influenced the later widely accepted movement of conceptual art. Conceptual artists like Dan Graham, Hans Haacke, and Lawrence Weiner have proven very influential on subsequent artists, and well-known contemporary artists such as Mike Kelley or Tracey Emin are sometimes labeled "second- or third-generation" conceptualists, or post-conceptual artists.
Marina Abramovic - Guggenheim Seven Easy Pieces - 1st Night Figure 37.45 Marina Abramovic Performance Artist

Contemporary artists have taken many of the concerns of the conceptual art movement up. While they may or may not identify themselves as conceptual artists, ideas such as anticommodification, social and political critique, and ideas / information as medium continue to be aspects of contemporary art, especially among artists working with installation art, performance art, net.art, and digital art. Visual Arts, Performing Arts, and Art Performance Performance art is an essentially contested concept: any single definition of it implies the recognition of rival uses. As concepts like "democracy" or "art", it implies productive disagreement with itself. The meaning of the term in the narrower sense is related to postmodernist traditions in Western culture. From about the mid-1960s into the 1970s, performance art often derived from concepts of visual art, with respect to Antonin Artaud, Dada, the Situationists, Fluxus, Installation art, and Conceptual Art. It therefore tended to be defined as the antithesis to theatre, challenging orthodox art forms and cultural norms. The ideal was an ephemeral and authentic experience for the performer and audience in an event that could not be repeated, captured, or purchased.

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Performance artists often challenge the audience to think in new and unconventional ways, break conventions of traditional arts, and break down conventional ideas about "what art is." As long as the performer does not become a player who repeats a role, performance art can include satirical elements (compare Blue Man Group); utilize robots and machines as performers, as in pieces of the Survival Research Laboratories; or borrow elements of any performing arts such as dance, music, and circus.
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