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Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Heat Temperature Transfer of Heat

Sajjad Ahmed Memon Senior Scientist NIMRA

Heat
The sensation of hotness is certainly familiar to all of us. We know that when two bodies, one hot and the other cold are placed in an enclosure, the hotter body will get coldness and the colder body will get heat until the degree of hotness of the two bodies is the same. Clearly something has been transferred from one body to the other to equalize their hotness. This phenomenon is called Heat.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Heat
It is a form of energy so may be transformed into work. for example: Heated water can turn into steam, which can push a piston. In fact, heat can be defined as energy being transferred from one body to another.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Heat
The unit of Heat is calorie. One calorie = 4.184 J Calorie: One calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1oC. In the life sciences, heat is commonly measured in kilocalorie units. 1 kcal = 1000 cal.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Temperature
Temperature is a quantitative measure of hotness. The units of temperature are: Centigrade or Celsius (oC) Fahrenheit (oF) Kelvin or Absolute Scale (oK)
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Temperature Scales
Fahrenheit temperature scale was developed in 1724 by a German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-1736), who is credited with the invention of the alcohol thermometer in 1709 and the mercury thermometer in 1714. Celsius (known until 1948 as centigrade) is a temperature scale that is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (17011744), who developed this scale two years before his death Kelvin scale was devised in 1854 by William Kelvin (1824-1907), a Scottish physicist and engineer.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Temperature Scales

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Temperature Scales

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Temperature Scales

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Transfer of Heat
As the matter is made of atoms, which are in continuous disordered motion. In a gas, the atoms are not bound together. They move in random directions and collide frequently with one another and with the walls of the container. In a solid, where the atoms are bound together, the random motion is more restricted. The atoms are free only to vibrate and do so, again randomly, about some average position to which they are locked.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Transfer of Heat
The situation with regard to liquids is between these two extremes. Here the molecules can vibrate, but they also have some freedom to move. Because of their motion, the moving particles in a material possess kinetic energy. This energy of motion inside materials is called internal energy and the motion itself is called thermal motion.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Transfer of Heat
Heat is transferred from one region to another in four ways: Conduction Convection Radiation Diffusion
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Transfer of Heat

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Conduction
It is the heat transfer in solids. If one end of a solid rod is placed near the heat source (fire), after some time the other end of the rod will become hot. In this case, heat has been transferred from the fire through the rod by conduction. The process of heat conduction involves the increase of internal energy in the material. The heat enters one end of the rod and increases the internal energy of the atoms near the heat source.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Conduction
The amount of heat Hc conducted per second through a block of material is given by

Here (A) is the area of the block (L) is its length T1 T2 is the temperature difference between the two ends. Kc is the constant of coefficient of thermal conductivity. In physics, Kc is given in units of cal-cm/sec-cm2-oC. However, for problems involving living systems, it is often more convenient to express Kc in units of cal-cm/m2-hr-oC.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Conduction

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Convection
In solids, heat transfer occurs by conduction. In fluids (gases and liquids), heat transfer proceeds primarily by convection. When a liquid or a gas is heated, the molecules near the heat source gain energy and tend to move away from the heat source. Therefore, the fluid near the heat source becomes less dense. Fluid from the denser region flows into the rarefied region, causing convection currents. These currents carry energy away from the heat source.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Convection
When the energetic molecules in the heated convection current come in contact with a solid material, they transfer some of their energy to the atoms of the solid, increasing the internal energy of the solid. In this way, heat is coupled into a solid. The amount of heat transferred by convection per unit time Hc is given by

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Convection

Here A is the area exposed to convective currents T1 T2 is the temperature difference between the surface and the convective fluid Kc is the coefficient of convection, which is usually a function of the velocity of the convective fluid.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Radiation
Vibrating electrically charged particles emit electromagnetic radiation, which propagates away from the source at the speed of light. Electromagnetic radiation is itself energy (called electromagnetic energy), which in the case of a moving charge is obtained from the kinetic energy of the charged particle. Due to internal energy, particles in a material are in constant random motion. Both the positively charged nuclei and the negatively charged electrons vibrate and emit electromagnetic radiation. In this way, internal energy is converted into radiation, which is called thermal radiation.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Radiation
Due to the loss of internal energy, the material cools. The amount of radiation emitted by vibrating charged particles is proportional to the speed of vibration. Hot objects, therefore, emit more radiation than cold ones. Because the electrons are much lighter than the nuclei, they move faster and emit more radiant energy than the nuclei.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Radiation
The amount of radiation absorbed by a material depends on its composition. Some materials, such as carbon black, absorb most of the incident radiation. These materials are easily heated by radiation. Other materials, such as quartz and certain glasses, transmit the radiation without absorbing much of it. Metallic surfaces also reflect radiation without much absorption. Such reflecting and transmitting materials cannot be heated efficiently by radiation.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Radiation
The rate of emission of radiant energy Hr by a unit area of a body at temperature T is Here is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, which is 5.67108 W/m2-oK4 or 5.67105 erg/cm2-oK4-sec. The temperature T is measured on the absolute scale e is the emissivity of the surface, which depends on the temperature and nature of the surface. The value of the emissivity varies from 0 to 1.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Radiation
A body at temperature T1 in an environment at temperature T2 will both emit and absorb radiation. The rate of energy emitted per unit area is eT14 and the rate of energy absorbed per unit is eT24 . The values for e and are the same for both emission and absorption. If a body at a temperature T1 is placed in an environment at a lower temperature T2, the net loss of energy from the body is

If the temperature of the body is lower than the temperature of the environment, the body gains energy at the same rate.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Diffusion
If a drop of coloured solution is introduced into a still liquid, we observe that the colour spreads gradually throughout the volume of the liquid. The molecules of colour spread from the region of high concentration (of the initially introduced drop) to regions of lower concentration. This process is called diffusion.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Diffusion
Diffusion is the main mechanism for the delivery of oxygen and nutrients into cells and for the elimination of waste products from cells. On a large scale, diffusive motion is relatively slow (it may take hours for the coloured solution in our example to diffuse over a distance of a few centimeters), but on the small scale of tissue cells, diffusive motion is fast enough to provide for the life function of cells.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Diffusion
Consider a molecule in a liquid or a gas which is moving away from the starting point 0. The molecule has a thermal velocity (v) and travels on the average a distance (L) before colliding with another molecule. As a result of the collision, the direction of motion of the molecule is changed randomly. The path may be only slightly deflected or it may be altered on large scale.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Diffusion
On the average, after a certain number of collisions, the molecule will be found a distance (S) from the starting point. A statistical analysis of this type of motion shows that after (N) collisions the distance of the molecule from the starting point is, on the average

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Diffusion
The average distance (L) traveled between collisions is called the mean free path. This type of diffusive motion is called a random walk.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Diffusion
Let us now calculate the length of time required for a molecule to diffuse a distance (S) from the starting point. From above equation, the number of steps for collisions that take place while diffusing through a distance (S) is

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Diffusion
The total distance traveled is the product of the number of steps and the length of each step will be

If the average velocity of the particle is (v), the time (t) required to diffuse a distance (S) is

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Diffusion
In a liquid such as water, molecules are close together. Therefore, the mean free path of a diffusing molecule is short, about 108 cm (this is approximately the distance between atoms in a liquid). The velocity of the molecule depends on the temperature and on its mass.

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Diffusion
At room temperature, the velocity of a light molecule may be about 104 cm/sec. From above equation, the time required for molecules to diffuse a distance of 1 cm is

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Diffusion
Gases are less densely packed than liquids; consequently, in gases the mean free path is longer and the diffusion time shorter.

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

 Convert 20oC into Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales. Convert 85oF into Celsius and Kelvin scales. Convert 280oK into Celsius and Fahrenheit.

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Find the heat conduction of an Aluminum sheet of total 2 meter length, the area is 15 cm2 and the temperature difference is 07oC.

Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA

Calculate the time required for molecules to diffuse in a liquid a distance of 103 cm. Assume that the average velocity of the molecules is 104 cm/sec and that the mean free path is 108 cm. Repeat the calculation for diffusion in a gas, where the mean free path is 105 cm.
Sajjad Ahmed Memon S.S./ Health Physicist NIMRA