INFORMATION TO USERS ‘This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI rilms the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted, Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. University Microfilms international Bell & Howell information Company 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann A‘oor. Mi 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/$21-0600Order Number 9234386 Seismic response of uplifting liquid storage tanks Malhotra, Praveen Kumar, Ph.D. Rice University, 1992 U-M-I 300 N. Zeeb Rd ‘Ann Arbor, MI 48106RICE UNIVERSITY Seismic Response of Uplifting Liquid Storage Tanks by Praveen K. Malhotra A THEsIs SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE Doctor of Philosophy Approven, THESIS COMMITTEE: A letsos, Director Brown and Root Professor Department of Civil Engineering £ a BE. Merwin Professor Department of Civil Engineering R.P. Nordgren 7 Herman and George R. Brown Professor Department of Civil Engineering Houston, Texas June. 1991Seismic Response of Uplifting Liquid Storage Tanks Praveen K. Malhotra Abstract A systematic study is carried out on several aspects of the dynamic response of liquid containing, cylindrical steel tanks that may experience partial uplifting of their base during intense ground shaking. The tanks are presumed to rest on a rigid base and to be subjected to unidirectional horizontal ground motion. The objective is to formulate a method of analysis with which the dynamic response of such systems may be evaluated reliably and cost-effectively. The study consists of two parts: the first deals with the static uplifting resistance of the flexible base plate, and the second deals with the dynamic response of the uplifting system. In Chapters 2 and 3, an insight into the behavior of the uplifting plate is gained with the help of a prismatic beam solution. In Chapter 2, the solution is implemented ‘exactly’ whereas, in Chapter 3 it is implemented approximately by use of the Ritz energy procedure with a set of judiciously selected deflection shape functions. In Chapter 4, the ‘exact’ solution of the axisymmetrically uplifted plate is ob- tained. A detailed comparison is then made between the plate and the beam solu-tions in order to ascertain the suitability of the beam model for the plate analysis. ‘The insight gained from this comparison is then utilized in the formulation of an approximate method of analysis for the solution of an asymmetrically uplifted plate. In obtaining the beam and plate solutions, due consideration is given to the effects of membrane forces associated with large deflections, plastic yielding in the base plate, and the restraining action of the tank wall at the plate boundary. In Chapter 5, an approximate method of analysis is formulated for efficiently com- puting the seismic response of uplifting tanks. Both unanchored tanks and partially anchored tanks for which the number of anchor bolts at the base is insufficient to ensure full fixity are considered. The responses examined include the hydrodynamic pressures, the base uplift at critical locations, the plastic rotation at the plate-shell junction, and the maximum compressive stress in the tank wall. The parameters that are varied include the intensity of ground shaking, the geometric and material properties of the tank, and the degree of base fixity.Acknowledgments ‘The author deeply appreciates the guidance of his thesis advisor, Professor A.S. Veletsos. The author greatly values the training and experience he has had while working with Professor Veletsos. ‘The author thanks Professor J.E. Merwin and Professor R.P. Nordgren for serving on the thesis committee and providing comments and suggestions during the course of this work. Thanks are extended to Dr. H.T. Tang of the Electric Power Research Institue for his helpful comments. Financial support of this work from the Electric Power Research Institute is grate- fully acknowledged. Also acknowledged are the Fellowships from the Rice University and the American Society of Civil Engineers. ‘The author thanks his wife, Romee, for her help and support during the later part of this work. To his parents the author is highly indebted as only their love and sacrifices made it all possible.Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgments iv List of Tables vii List of Figures x List of Symbols xv Introduction 1 LL Background 6.0.0. eee eee eee eee 1 1.2 Objectives and Scope of Work . 7 Uplifting of Beam 9 QA Introduction. 6... eee eee eee eee 9 2.2 System Considered . 2... eee 9 2.3 Method of Analysis.......... Gocugacsooea0 _u 24 Simplified Solutions... 0.0.02... 0000s Gocaoagce 2 2.5 Numerical Results... 2.2.2... 00-000. ne) 2.6 Conclusions ....... vee tect eee e eens 413 Uplifting of Beam: Ritz Method 3.1 Introduction. ©... 6.2... eee 3.2. System Considered 3.3. Method of Analysis... . . . - beeen eee 3.4 Method of Solution... 6 oe eee ee 3.5 Numerical Results . ee 3.6 Conclusions... . . eee ee 4 Uplifting of Circular Plate 4.1 Introduction. .........- 4.2 Statement of Problem 4.3 Axisymmetric Uplifting... 00.0200 o cece eee 44 Asymmetric Uplifting... .. . ee eee 4.5 Conclusions»... 6.2.2 eee eee eee eee eee ee 5 Dynamic Response Analysis 5.1 Introduction... 2.2... 6 ee 5.2 System Considered . 2... ee ee 5.3. Modeling of the System 5.4 Equations of Motion... 2... 6. eee ee eee eee 5.5 Method of Solution ..........--. 5.6 Numerical Results . vi 43 43 44 49 51 53 54 34 72 85 100 1035.7 Partially Anchored Tanks 5.8 Conclusions . . BibliographyBl 52 53 54 55 56 58 Tables Dynamic Properties of Fundamental Impulsive Mode of Vibration for Steel Tanke Filled with Water 2.0.0.6 6-2 ee esse ees OF Maximum Responses of Unanchored Broad Tank Subjected to Different Intensities of El Centro Record... 6... see ee 123 Maximum Responses of Unanchored Tall Tank Subjected to Different Intensities of El Centro Record ©... eee eee eee 128 Maximum Responses of Unanchored Broad Tank with Different Base Plate /Uhickneses pe ee 128 Maximum Responses of Unanchored Tall Tank with Different Base Plate Thicknesses ..... . - dabohcadcogs00dgbcaE 128 Maximum Respcases of Unanchored Broad Tank with Different Shell Wall Thicknesses ......- oboonas0b000000008 e 12o Maximum Responses of Unanchored Tall Tank with Different Shell Wall Thicknesses ......-- Boon gucccocs secees 129 Maximum Responses of Partially Anchored Broad Tank with Different Values of Total Anchor Bolt Area... 2... 55+ -.. M3 viii5.9 Maximum Responses of Partially Anchored Tall Tank with Different Values of Total Anchor Bolt Area... 2... =~ feo 4)21 22 23 24 25 2.6 27 28 29 Figures System Considered. . . ee Progressive Movement of Plastic Hinge Within the Beam . . . ‘True and Simplified Solutions for Uplifted Beam ........... Normalized Shear and Axial Forces at Uplifted End of Beam... . . Deflection Configurations and Bending Moment Diagrams of Beam for Different Magnitude of Uplifting Force .....-...-- 2-0 Uplifting Force-Displacement Relationships for Beam Obtained from Simple Bending and String Solutions .. 2.0.0.0 ..-0-005 Uplifting Force-Displacement Diagrams for Beams with Different Values of h,/h and h/R .. . Uplifting Force-Displacement Diagrams for Beams with Different Values of Eb/p and ,6/p . 0-0-0 vee eee eee Effect of Yielding Within the Beam on Uplifting Force-Displacement 18 26 2.10 Vertical and Axial End Forces Associated with Cyclic Uplifting of Beam 382.11 Bending Moment and Plastic End Rotation Associated with Cyclic 31 3.2 41 42 43 44 45 4.6 47 48 49 Uplifting of Beam . Deflection Shape Functions Considered . « Uplifting Force-Displacement Diagrams of Beams with Different Values of h,/R Obtained from ‘Exact’ and Ritz Energy Solutions Axisymmetrically Uplifted Plate . Local Uplifting of Plate due to Internal Wall Pressures... . «+ Force-Displacement Diagrams for Axisymmetrically Uplifted Plates with Different Thicknesses .. 06-02-22 ee ee eee cree Force-Displacement Diagrams for Axisymmetrically Uplifted Plates with Different Yield Levels... 0.0.00 0- see eens ees Force-Displacement Diagrams for Axisymmetrically Uplifted Plates with Different Tank Wall Thicknesses . Radial and Circumferential Membrane Stresses at Plate Boundary for ‘Axisymmetrically Uplifted Plate... 0.02 c eee eee Model of Asymmetrically Uplifted Plate Sensitivity of Moment-Rotation Diegram to Number of Beams in Model of Asymmetrically Uplifted Plate Uplifted Regions of Plate... 00 ee ever eee eee xi 40 46 61 65 67 69 n 74xii 4.10 Moment-Rotation Diagrams for Asymmetrically Uplifted Plates with Different Thicknesses 2.0000 e eee 82 4.11 Moment-Rotation Diagrams for Asymmetrically Uplifted Plates with Different Tank Wall Thicknesses.. 2... 0020s ee see 83 4.12 Moment-Rotation Diagrams for Asymmetrically Uplifted Plates with Different Yield Levels... 0.000022 eee eo 84 5.1 Tank-Liquid System Considered . oe ee s+ 88 5.2. Tank Subjected to Base Translation and Rotation ..........- 90 5.3 Coefficients a(z) and a(r) for Impulsive Components of Hydrodynamic Pressures... 00-00 eee ev eee eee ar) 5.4 Model of Unanchored Tank-Liquid System ......-.--. ot 5.5 _N-S Component of 1940 El Centro Earthquake Ground Motion Record 105 5.6 Pseudoacceleration Response Spectra for Systems Subjected to El Centro Record . 106 5.7 Pseudoacceleration and Deformation Histories for Broad Tank .... 107 5.8 Pseudoacceleration and Deformation Histories for Tall Tank... . uu 5.9 Critical Responses of Broad Tank . 12 5.10 Critical Responses of Tall Tank .......-------5 eee US 5.11 Uplifted Regions of Base Plate at Selected Times of Response of Unanchored Broad Tank . 1165.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18, 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 Uplifted Regions of Base Plate at Selected Times of Response of Unanchored Tall Tank .-..--.- 0s see Base Moment-Rotation Diagrams for Unanchored Tanks ..... - . Free Vibration Response Histories of Broad Tank ......- Free Vibration Response Histories of Tall Tank. . Pseudoacceleration Histories for Unanchored Broad Tank Subjected to Different Intensities of E] Centro Record... .-.. 2.000% Pseudoacceleration Histories for Unanchored Tall Tank Subjected to Different Intensities of E] Centro Record... - 2-22-22 eee Effect of Convective Liquid Action on Response Histories of Unanchored Broad Tank»... 00.00.00 0022s eee Effect of Convective Liquid Action on Response Histories of Unanchored Tall Tank . . pt00boG0cu4ubG0o0dG Effect of Hydrodynamic Base Pressure on Response Histories of Unanchored Tanks ....... Typical Anchor Bolt Detail... 0.0.0... 0 ee eee eee ee Bolt Resistances at Different Stages of Base Uplift. .......... Histories of Pseudoacceleration and Base Uplift for Fully Anchored, Partially Anchored and Unanchored Broad Tanks ......... ++ Histories of Pseudoacceleration and Base Uplift for Fully Anchored, Partially Anchored and Unanchored Tall Tanks ...... 2.6.05 aT ug 120 121 125 126 131 132 134xiv 5.25 Effects of Degree of Base Anchorage on Maximum Responses of (Broad/enki et ee 145 5.26 Effects of Degree of Base Anchorage on Maximum Responses of Tall Meg 146 5.27 Base Moment-Rotation Diagrams for Partially Anchored Tanks ... 148List of Symbols Chapter 2 A. = bh = cross-sectional area of beam b width of beam C.D = constants of integration a coefficients for constraints at uplifted end of beam E = Young's modulus of elasticity h = thickness of beam hy = thickness of tank wall I = bh /12 = moment of inertia of beam cross-section sp, kouykuu = stiffness coefficients for constraints at uplifted end of beam Ri = hau — Bba/ boo L = uplifted length of beam M = moment at an arbitrary point of beam M, = moment at uplifted end of beam Jif = fixed-end moment due to pressures on tank wall M, = oybh?/4 = plastic moment capacity of beam cross-section N = axial force in beamxvi fixed-end force due to pressures on tank wall load per unit length of beam uplifting end force radius of tank horizontal displacement of beam at uplifted end vertical displacement of beam at an arbitrary point, value of w at uplifted end horizontal distance from rightmost point of contact of beam with its foundation L— 2 = horizontal distance from uplifted end of beam Poisson’s ratio dw/dz = rotation at an arbitrary point of beam value of @ at uplifted end rotation of end constraint 6, — 8, = plastic rotation of beam at uplifted end plastic rotation in the interior of beam 2/L = normalized horizontal distance from rightmost point of contact of beam with its foundation value of ¢ for point of maximum moment within the beam yield stress of beam materialChapter 3 Sih Va % Chapter 4 Io, hous us i Ky L Mr xvii shape functions strain energy due to axial deformations strain energy due to bending deformations strain energy of end constraints horizontal displacement at uplifted end due to axial deformations total potential energy potential energy of applied loads EhS/12(1 — v2) = flexural rigidity of plate Young’s modulus of elasticity thickness of base plate thickness of tank wall AQ; /Au; = slope of uplifting force-displacement diagram of i-th beam in plate model stiffness coefficients for constraints along plate boundary Kru — Bul koo instantaneous rotational stiffness of plate for asymmetric uplifting width of annular uplifted region of base plate overturning moment due to uplifting forces along plate boundarya a Qn Qr xviii fixed-end moment per unit length due to pressures on tank wall radial bending moment per unit length value of M, at plate boundary circumferential bending moment per unit length radial membrane force per unit length value of N, at plate boundary circumferential axial force per unit length value of Nz at plate boundary fixed-end radial force per unit length due to pressures on tank wall base pressure uplifting force for i-th beam in plate model transverse shearing force per unit of circumferential length value of Q, at plate boundary 2rRQn + W = total axisymmetric uplifting force along plate boundary radial distance from plate center tank radius radial displacement of an arbitrary point on mid-surface of plate value of u at plate boundary vertical displacement of an arbitrary point on mid-surface of plate value of w at plate boundaryxix w; = vertical displacement at the end of i-th beam in plate model W = total weight of tank wall v= Poisson’s ratio 6 = dw/dr = rotation in radial direction at an arbitrary point 6; = value of @ at plate boundary = rigid body rotation of the plate boundary due to asymmetric uplifting Chapter 5 Ay = total bolt area A, = 2xRh, = net cross-sectional area of tank shell at its base A(t) = pseudoacceleration for fundamental impulsive mode of vibration of tank-liquid system at time t A = maximum value of A(t) C. = effective viscous damping coefficient of the unanchored system f = fundamental impulsive frequency of fully anchored system, in cps k= height at which the fundamental impulsive modal mass must be concentrated to yield correct overturning base moment M h, = wall thickness of base course he = effective uniform wall thickness H = height of liquid in tankKe Ke Wmaz Ww 2,(t) a(r) a(z) xx effective stiffness of the unanchored system instantaneous stiffness of rotational spring simulating resistance of base plate to asymmetric uplifting fundamental impulsive modal mass overturning base moment due to pressures on tank wall maximum value of M base shear due to hydrodynamic pressures on tank wall radius of tank time in seconds effective natural period of unanchored tank-liquid system fundamental natural period of fully anchored tank deformation of superstructure u + Uh = overall deformation vertical displacement or uplift along boundary of base plate maximum value of w weight of tank wall weight of liquid in the tank horizontal ground acceleration at time t maximum value of #,(t) coefficient in expression for hydrodynamic base pressure coefficient in expression for hydrodynamic wall pressureAOmez xxi height at which the fundamental impulsive modal mass must be located to yield the value of base moment due to pressures on the tank base only maximum value of plastic rotation at junction of shell and base plate damping factor for fixed-base fundamental impulsive natural mode of tank-liquid system pg = unit weight of tank material pig = unit weight of liquid mass density of tank material mass density of liquid maximum compressive stress in tank wall yield stress of plate material yield stress of bolt material circumferential coordinate base rocking associated with tank uplifting 2nf = fundamental impulsive frequency of fully anchored tank in rad/sec w/T=@ = fundamental damped natural frequency of fully anchored tankChapter 1 Introduction Liquid storage steel tanks are critical components of modern industrial facilities and lifeline systems, and must be designed to withstand safely the earthquakes to which they may be subjected. Failure of such systems may lead to the loss of valuable contents and may impede fire fighting efforts following destructive earthquakes. 1.1 Background Since a pioneering contribution in 1949 [1], the dynamic response of ground-excited, upright, cylindrical tanks has been the subject of numerous analytical studies which may conveniently be classified into three groups. The initial analyses (1, 2, 3] were carried out on the assumption that the tank is rigid and fully anchored to a rigid base. Subsequent analyses [4, 5, 6, 7] considered the flexibility of the tank wall and demonstrated its significant influence on the magnitude and characteristics of the resulting response. The latest studies [8, 9] have been concerned with the effects of ground flexibility and of the associated coupling between the vibrating tank-liquid system, its foundation and the supporting medium. These studies have elucidatedthe dynamic response of the class of systems examined, and have provided practical methods of analysis and design of tanks subjected to earthquakes. Fundamental to these studies, however, has been the assumption that the tanks are fully anchored at the base. In practice, complete anchorage is not economical or even, feasible at times. Many tanks are unanchored or only partially anchored and tend to uplift during high-intensity ground shaking and respond in a highly nonlinear fashion. Base uplifting completely changes the characteristics of the system both in terms of its, flexibility and energy dissipation capacity. These changes in turn affect significantly the dynamic response of the system. Studies [10, 11] of the performance of uplifting tanks during past earthquakes have revealed that such systems are susceptible to damage due to: (i) buckling of their wall, caused by large compressive stresses; (ii) rupture at the plate-shell junction, caused by excessive plastic rotations; and (fii) the inability of piping connections to the tank wall to absorb large base uplifts. In contrast to the response of fully anchored tanks which is reasonably well un- derstood, the seismic response of unanchored systems has been the subject of only exploratory recent studies and requires a great deal of additional research. Past stud- ies on this subject can be broadly divided into two categories: studies that are pri- marily concerned with the uplifting behavior of the thin base plate under static load conditions; and studies that deal with the seismic response analysis of the uplifting tanks. A brief overview of these studies is presented below.Plate uplifting analysis - Partial uplifting of the thin base plate of a seismically excited tank is a highly nonlinear phenomenon; with nonlinearities arising from: (i) variations in base contact area; (ii) membrane action associated with large deflections; (iii) yielding in the plate; and (iv) variations in time and location of the hydrodynamic base pressures. The methods of analysis used so far were either too simple to account for all the important effects or too complex to be used in practical situations such as the response anal of uplifting tanks. In early studies on plate uplifting, use was made of prismatic beam solutions to come up with simple tools for the design of unanchored tanks (12, 13, 28]. In the simpler analyses (12, 13], the effect of membrane forces was ignored, as a result the ‘maximum load capacity was reached as soon as two plastic hinges were formed: one at the uplifted end, and another at some point within the beam where the moment was maximum. In an attempt to include the effect of membrane forces, an approximate model was proposed in Ref. [28] in which certain assumptions regarding the magnitude of shear and axial forces were made on the basis of experimental observations. In Ref. [23], the second-order beam theory was used to consider the effect of membrane forces more accurately. The model used, however, did not take into consideration the effects of the flexibility of the end constraints and plastic yielding within the beam. In more recent studies, attempts were made to study the uplifting behavior more closely with the help of complex analyses that employed finite difference energy (15, 16] or Ritz energy (17, 19] techniques. Both axisymmetric and asymmetric solutions wereobtained and the results compared with the experimental data. A significant contri- bution of these studies was in bringing out the important role played by the membrane forces in the load carrying mechanism. Due to their computationally intensive na- ture, the methods of analysis are, however, not quite suitable for implementation in a dynamic analysis program that may require the solution of the plate problem at numerous time steps. The complex nature of the methods also precluded an easy interpretation of the results and a detailed parametric study. None of these studies has touched upon the effects of load reversal and the asso- ciated energy loss due to plastic yielding. These effects are of special significance in the dynamic response analysis of uplifting tanks. Experimental investigations of the plate behavior were done by conducting static- tilt tests on scaled models of broad and tall tanks (20, 29]. In these tests the dynamic conditions of pressures were simulated by static tilting of the supporting platform from its original horizontal position. As a preliminary investigation, tests were also conducted under axisymmetric conditions. ‘Tests revealed the importance of mem- brane forces in the load carrying mechanism. Extensive data were collected on the deformations and stresses with an objective to assist development of analytical mod- els. Seismic response of uplifting tanks - The seismic response analyses of uplift- ing tanks have been conducted with the aid of models that approximately represent the hydrodynamic action and the resistance of the plate to base rotation.‘The lumped mass models that were actually developed for flat-bottom tanks were used directly in some studies to represent the uplifting tanks as well (21, 22]. This is not easily justifiable as the motion of the base in the two cases is quite different. A nonlinear rotational spring was included in these models to represent the uplifting resistance of the base plate. In a study on the response of tanks resting directly on flexible soils [21] the rotational spring was used to represent, simultaneously, the flexibility of the ground and the resistance of the plate to base rotation. Its properties were obtained by making a series of assumptions regarding the distribution of forces in the plate and the foundation. In another study [22] it was proposed that the characteristics of the rotational spring be obtained from the results of static tilt tests. In the solutions obtained, however, fixed values of rotational spring stiffness were used. It was concluded in these studies that base uplifting significantly influences the dynamic response characteristics of the systems. In Ref. [23] the tank wall was modeled by finite elements and the base plate by a series of springs spaced evenly at the base of the tank. Spring properties were ob- tained from the large deflection analysis of a prismatic beam. Response was obtained by subjecting the tank wall to pressures obtained from the analysis of a correspond- ing fully anchored tank, which is not justifiable because the hydrodynamic action is completely altered by base uplifting. In a computationally intensive method [24], use ‘was made of a finite element discretization for the base plate, the tank wall and the liquid inside the tank. Both geometric and material nonlinearities associated withbase uplifting were ignored in this study. The results indicated that significantly large compressive stresses may develop in the tank wall as a result of base uplifting. Solutions were also obtained for tanks that were only partially anchored by means of, bolts, but in these solutions plastic yielding in the bolts was not considered. In view of the complex nature of the problem, shaking table tests were conducted on scaled models of steel tanks [25, 26, 28, 29]. Parameters varied in these tests in- cluded base fixity, roof type and characteristics of horizontal base excitation. Results demonstrated that uplifting significantly changes the hydrodynamic response charac- teristics of the system and gives rise to compressive stresses in the tank wall that are much larger than those for a fully anchored tank under the same loading conditions. More recently, scale model tests were performed [27] on anchored and unanchored tanks. It was observed that the rocking mode associated with uplifting dominates the response of unanchored tanks. Codal provisions - In the API Standard 650 [30] procedure for the design of unanchored tanks, the overturning moment. at the base of the tank is evaluated by assuming the tank to be fully anchored and resting on a rigid base. The overturning resistance of the base plate is evaluated with the help of a simple beam solution which completely ignores the effect of membrane forces.1.2 Objectives and Scope of Work The preceding discussion highlights the need for a more refined method of analysis and design of uplifting systems. The current research which is intended at serving this purpose has a two-fold objective: 1. The evaluation of the static uplifting resistance for the base plate of vertical, cylindrical tanks; and 2. The formulation of a simple but rational method for evaluating the uplifting response of these tanks. ‘The tanks are presumed to be of circular cross-section, filled with liquid, and to rest on a rigid base. In addition to the formulation of appropriate methods of analysis, a detailed parametric study which elucidates the effects and relative importance of various parameters is carried out. A more detailed account of the work is given below. Plate uplifting analysis - The analysis is carried out in a step-wise manner, starting with the simplest possible idealization of the problem, and proceeding sys- tematically to more realistic representations, building on the insight gained from the simpler conditions. The analysis is first carried out for a prismatic beam uplifted at its end; then, for an axisymmetrically uplifted plate; and finally, a highly efficient method for an asymmetrically uplifted plate is formulated. Special emphasis is given to the beam idealization because it provides a ‘building-block’ for the more complex representations. The analysis of the beam problem is implemented ‘exactly’ as wellas approximately by the Ritz energy procedure using a small number of judiciously selected displacement shape functions. Relative merits of the two methods are exam- ined. Seismic response of uplifting tanks ~ The analysis is carried out with the help of a procedure which is not only highly efficient but is believed to represent adequately the essential aspects of the problem. Both unanchored tanks and partially anchored tanks for which the number of anchor bolts at the base is insufficient to ensure full fixity are examined. The anchorage is assumed to be provided by pretensioned elasto- plastic bolts that are evenly spaced around the tank perimeter. ‘The problem parameters which are varied include the tank dimensions, the in- tensity of ground shaking, the thicknesses of the base plate and tank wall, and the total anchor area. The response quantities which are examined are the hydrodynamic pressures, base uplift, plastic rotation at the plate-shell junction, and the maximum compressive stress in the tank wall.Chapter 2 Uplifting of Beam 2.1 Introduction In this chapter a highly refined yet efficient solution of an uplifting beam, shown in Fig. 2.1, is discussed. A series of such beams are later used in Chapter 4 to represent the base plate of an uplifting tank. This chapter also includes a detailed parametric study with the help of which the effect and relative importance of various parameters is assessed. 2.2 System Considered A uniformly loaded prismatic beam of width 6 and thickness h, supported on a rigid base is considered. The beam is elastically constrained against both rotation and axial displacement at one end and is uplifted at that end by a concentrated upward force Q,, as shown in Fig. 2.1. The elastic end constraints are of the type that may be induced by a surrounding cylindrical shell in the uplifting tank problem. It is desired to evaluate the uplifting force-displacement relationship for the beam and the magnitude of resulting forces at critical sections, giving due regard to large deflection effects and the possibility of yielding in the beam. 9\ beep aa t -—* __y 4 Fig. 2.1 System Considered bart ‘A function of the magnitude of the applied force Qs, the uplifted length of the beam is denoted by L. Distances are measured from the rightmost point of contact of the beam with the rigid base. The configuration of the beam is defined by the vertical displacement w, considered to be positive when upward, and the horizontal displacement u, considered to be positive to the right (along the positive direction of the corresponding position coordinate). These displacements are presumed to be (small compared to the uplifted length L) of a magnitude such that no distinction needs to be made between horizontal and axial displacements and between axial force and its horizontal component. The horizontal position coordinate will be normalized with respect to L and the displacements u and w will be normalized with respect to the beam thickness h. In the following development the lateral load p is considered to be positive down- wards, moments are considered to be positive when they produce tension at the bottom face of the beam, and transverse shears are positive when directed upward on the left face of a section and downward on the right face. 2.3 Method of Analysis ‘The method of analysis presented herein is based upon the following assumptions: 1. The second-order beam theory, with the underlying assumption that vertical deflections are small compared to the uplifted length of the beam, is valid; 2. The moment-curvature relationship is elastic-perfectly plastic in nature;12 3. The friction between the foundation and the beam is such that no slip occurs between the two; and 4. The lateral load on the beam is presumed to act vertically downward as opposed to the true hydrostatic load which acts normal to the deformed configuration of the beam. ‘The governing differential equation for an elastic beam can be written as [14]: SM =-pl? (24) in which M = moment at a point; € = 2/L = the dimensionless position coordinate; N = the axial force in the beam, positive when it produces tension; and Eis the flexural rigidity of the beam cross-section. On account of rigid foundation assumption, vertical displacement, slope and moment are equal to zero at € = 0. On the assumption that N is tensile the solution of Eq. 2.1 is: MOL _ pL AGRm = Coin Ag + Deosh g + P= (2.2) in which N d= yee and the integration constants C’ and D are determined from the boundary conditions at €= 0 and = 1. On noting that M(0) = 0 and M(1) = My, one obtains ML 1. pL 5 EY Saba * eT 3 D=-= (2.3b) (23a)13 Next, use is made of the relation: _Eldw “Pe to obtain following expression for slope at an arbitrary point: ( Xe ) sage pL ate) Ctanh + D) SS 4 He (24) and slope at € = 1 y= tanh 9/2 AE (: samba) pL mnt - 4p) W (2.5) Considering the horizontal displacement at £ = 0 to be zero, the corresponding displacement at the uplifted end may be determined from, _NL Lb py “= FE- Th 6(€)dE (2.6) in which A = bh. The first term in this equation represents the effect of the axial deformation, and the second represents the second-order shortening due to vertical deformation. Upon evaluating the integral, Eq. 2.6 becomes NL DLJ 1, X38, QsinhA | sinh2a wa PELE ee x ta ~ Boon - CL [3 Qsinhd , sinh2X] CDL[, 1 4... cosh2A SR- x tay |- De [3— gy —2ainbas Dr | For a specified length L, the expressions for moment and slope presented so far are functions of two unknown quantities: the axial force, N, and the end moment, M. It is, however, possible to reduce the number of unknowns to one by expressing My in terms of N with the help of the force-displacement relations of the end constraints which may be expressed in either of the following forms: M koe ow | | 8 (2.7)4 or by their inverse a deg dou | | Mi a (2.8) uy dow dew N in which 6, = the rotation of the end constraint, and the k's and d’s are interrelated For elastic response 8, = 03. Due to the possibility of plastic yielding in the beam, 0, is generally different from 0), and AO = 6-6, (2.9) represents the angle of plastic end rotation. On substituting in Eq. 2.9 the expression for 6; from Eq. 2.5 and that of 8, from the first of Eqs. 2.8, and solving for My, one obtains, fEQ — 2tanh 3) + doyN + A8 _=- eee 2.10) . a tanh 3+ dee (2.19) The vertical displacement at the end can be determined by integrating Eq. 2.4 and evaluating the integration constant by taking w(0) = 0. The resulting expression is: _ d_)\ My tanh A/2) pl? Coe ( ~ Sink 3) ae (: cao ) ON (41) Similarly, the uplifting force Q, is computed from, 1aM , Ndw AEIC Qo oe tT ae| Pe (2.12) With the above expressions established, the analysis may be implemented in a stepwise manner considering a fixed value of uplifted length in each step. The solu-16 tions presented herein are obtained by using a length increment, AL, equal to the beam thickness, h. Let it be assumed that the state of the beam corresponding to a prescribed uplifted length is known; and that it is desired to evaluate the correspond- ing state for a value of L somewhat different from the preceding value. ‘An increase in L corresponds to an increase in the uplifting force, Qi, and vice- versa a decrease in L corresponds to a decrease in the uplifting force. The state of the beam is defined by the values of its axial force, N’, end moment, My, and the angle of plastic rotation, A9. For the initial elastic response Ad = 0; along unloading and reloading paths between regions of inelastic action, it is nonzero but constant; and along paths of progressive yielding, it varies continuously and must be reevaluated in each step. The analysis for each increment AL is summarized as follows: 1. Assume a value of N; this is normally taken equal to the value computed in the preceding step. 2. Check the direction of loading and compute the value of Mi. If there is no change in the direction of loading from the preceding step and the value of |Mi| at the end of preceding step were less than the yield moment M,, compute the new value from Eq. 2.10 using the latest value of A@. If there is no change in the direction of loading and the value of |M;| at the end of preceding step were equal to M,, take the new value equal to My. If there is reversal in loading, compute M, from Eq. 2.10.16 3. Compute tu from Eq. 2.6. 4. Compute N = ~(kou ~ K3,/keo)ur + keu/keeM;, and compare with the assumed value in step 1. This expression can be derived from Eqs. 2.7 by eliminating 0, from the second equation using the first equation. 5. Repeat steps 1 through 4 using the computed V as the new assumption until convergence. 6. Compute w; and Qy from Eqs. 2.11 and 2.12. In addition, if operating in a yielding range of response, evaluate A@ from Eq. 2.9 by first computing 0, and 6, from Eqs. 2.5 and 28, respectively. It is possible that after convergence the end moment Mj, when computed from Eq. 2.10, may turn out to be numerically greater than the yield moment M,. In =M, such cases, steps 3 through 5 are repeated until convergence taking |My| = M,. Plastic yielding within the beam ~ The maximum moment within the beam is obtained by equating the first derivative of the moment expression, given by Eq. 2.2, to zero. This gives the point of maximum moment to be at énaz = 3 tanh“(-C/D) (2.13) For a certain value of L the maximum moment computed at maz becomes equal to the yield moment My,, as a result of which a plastic hinge is formed at that point (denoted by point 2 in Fig. 2.2). For this value of L, however, no slope discontinuity occurs at the hinge location. An increase in uplift causes the moment to reduce at,WwW point 2 and the plastic hinge to move to a new location to the left, at point 3. Plastic deformation which occurs in the small region between points 2 and 3 manifests itself in the form of a slope discontinuity at 3. Further increase in uplift causes the hinge to move progressively to the left, leaving behind slope discontinuities at previous hinge locations. If the current hinge location is denoted by n (see Fig. 2.2) the beam can be divided into three zones: zone I between points 0 and n; zone II between points n and 2; and zone III between points 2 and 1. While zones I and III have always been elastic, zone II, though fully elastic now, has undergone plastic deformation before. Whereas, the length of zone III stays the same that of zones I and II continuously changes with uplift. For a given value of the uplifted length Z and an assumed value of the axial force N, the different zones may be analyzed as follows: Zone I: On noting that M(0) = 0 and M(1) = M, M(G)L L MGM =O sinh M6 + Dy cosh Maga + 2 (2.4) in which € = 2/L,; Ly being the length of zone I. N ie EI Ml, 1, pl? ET sab + MET > pl. N Since maximum moment occurs at & = 1 and is equal to My, the first derivative of the moment diagram must be zero at that point; which gives tanh y = —C,/D1Fig. 2.2 Progressive Movement of Plastic Hinge Within the Beam19 W da = af pla = tanb™"(—Cs/Ds) he [Bee -ourny (2.15) ‘The above equation needs to be solved iteratively for L1, since both C; and D; which appear on the right hand side depend upon L;. Expressions for displacements and forces at & = 1 are: Myla tanh i/2) ply = Mela , (; _ taabA/?) pla Of = tanh y/2-Iye + ( nT ) i (2.16a) _\M, tanh Ax/2) pL? ra (1- iy i m= (: =x) N +( Ma] ) 2N (2.166) Mj = M, (2.16c) = (2.164) Zone Il: The configuration of zone II is defined by series of slope discontinuities (on account of plastic yielding) at the current and previous hinge locations. Beam segments, of lengths l,l, ..-, tn (see Fig. 2.2) between the points of slope discon- tinuities are assumed to be straight. Proceeding from left to right, with the known values of slope and displacement. at the end of zone I (0{ and w{) and an assumed value of slope discontinuity, Ad = 64! — 01, at point n one can obtain values of slope and displacement at other points in zone II. Once the deformed shape is known the values of moment and shear are readily obtainable at any point from equilibrium. The displacements and forces at the end of zone II, which also happen to be the values atthe beginning of zone III, are denoted by 8//, w!!, QU, and MJ! Zone III: On noting that M(0) = Mj! and M(1) = —M, MUM = Cy sinh data + Da cosh As + ae (2.1) in which 3 = (2 — Li — L2)/Ls a (Mtoe) bb He tanh ii Expressions for other quantities at the end of zone III (or at uplifted end of the beam) are: 6 = S2cosh da—1) + Pein dst os +o! (2.18a) w= Silo inh 3 — Aa) + +38 (cosh As — 1) + ply Ny 7 oti Le + wi! (2.18b) M, (2.18¢) Q No (2.184) For a specified value of L and known history of plastic yielding within the beam ((.e. plastic rotation at various hinge locations) the analysis can be implemented as follows: 1, Assume a value of N. 2. Compute L; from Eq. 2.15. Obtain Ly = L — Ly — Lg; Le being the distance of first hinge within the beam from the uplifted end. 3. Obtain 6f, wf, MJ and QI from Eqs. 2.16.10. ‘Assume a value of slope discontinuity, Ad, at the current hinge location i.e. where zone I meets zone Il Proceeding from left to right, obtain 6/", w!!, Mf! and Q{!, at the end of zone I, taking into account the slope discontinuities at previous hinge locations. Obtain 0, wi, My and Q: from Eqs. 2.18. Check if moment equilibrium about € = 0 is satisfied, i.e. if 2 M, + Nw, — Qb+2E =0 If not, compute new value of slope discontinuity from My + Nw; - Qu + pl?/2 AGnew = 46 - (Es + La) and repeat steps 5 and 6. . Compute 1; NL Lh Py» 1 eels w= 5-3 [ena - pout Flees ‘The expressions for 6(E,) and (fs) may be obtained by integrating Eqs. 2.14 and 2.17, respectively. Compute N = —(kuu — kjy/kos ur — kou/keeM,, and compare with the assumed value in step 1. Repeat steps 1 through 9 with revised value of N until convergence.22 2.4 Simplified Solutions Two simplified models for the beam are considered in the following section. In the first model, beam is assumed to carry load by bending action, whereas, in the second it is assumed to act like a string. Bending solution ~ The governing differential equation for bending is eM 5 gee On using the boundary conditions, M(0) = 0 and M(1) = M, one obtains: m@= eet me 219) On substituting Eldw ered and integrating one obtains: pl? | ML Pele azul, _ Plt | ML? ~ 24ET "GET 4 (2.204) w (2.20b) Also, the shear at uplifted end is obtained from, ph Ma (2.200) Moment M, in the above equations is obtained by using the moment-rotation rela- tionship of the end constraints, i.e. M, = —O,kge, which gives, ke _pl? keg + 2E1/L 6 If [Mj|, computed from the above equation exceeds the yield moment, M= (2.21) M=-M,2B should be used in Eqs. 2.20. The solutions reported in Ref. (13] are obtained by substituting kep = 00 in Eq. 2.21, which gives My = —p1?/6. On equating the maximum moment within the beam, obtained from Eq. 2.19, to M, one obtains following conditions for yielding within the beam: L=3.414/M,/p (2.222) Qi =2/Myp (2.22) My wy = 819 (2.22) The above results are same as the one obtained in Ref. [12]. After the formation of second plastic hinge there is no further inerease in either Qy or L; wy, however, increases without bound. In this study it is assumed that the yielding at the end occurs first. The condition for simultaneous occurrence of yielding at the end and at some point within the beam is obtained by substituting L from Eq. 2.22a into Eq. 2.21 and taking M; = —M,. This gives EL /P For values of kyy larger than the one given by Eq. 2.23, yielding at the end occurs kop = 0.621 (2.23) first. This condition is easily satisfied for practical cases of tank uplifting. For a given value of L, less than the limiting value given by Eq. 2.2la, the bending solution is implemented as follows: 1. Compute M; from Eq. 2.20. If |My| > M, take My = 2. Obtain w; and Q; from Eqs. 2.20b and 2.20.String solution - The equation of equilibrium for a string is 0 —= 2.24) nagar (2.24) which upon integration gives (6) wr i (2.26a) Also, (2.26b) (Ede (2.26) N in above equations is obtained by making use of its relationship with the horizontal displacement, ui, ie. Na-K (2.27) where, Ky, = kus — F},/keo. Substituting u; from Eq. 2.26c into Eq, 2.27 one obtains following expression for V. E kujp__\"" N =0.55pL [eo (2.28) For a given value of L the string solution is implemented as follows: 1. Obtain N from Eq. 2.28. 2. Obtain w; and Q; from Eqs. 2.26a and 2.26b.2.5 Numerical Results Representative solution - A representative solution obtained by the true analysis which accounts for both bending and string actions is compared in Fig. 2.3 with the bending and string solutions. The plots on the left represent the relationships between the uplifting end force Q; and the corresponding displacement, whereas the plots on the right represent the relationship between Q; and the uplifted length L. The results are expressed in dimensionless form, with the force normalized with respect to ph, and the displacement normalized with respect to the beam thickness A. The particular solutions displayed are for the values of Bais x0 and 2 21.8 x10" which correspond to a mild steel beam loaded by water nearly 46 ft high. The yield moment M, is related to 0, by o,bh? 4 M, = In the above expression it is assumed that the yielding occurs in the beam, and not in the end constraints, which is justified because for a typical tank the thickness of the shell is much greater than that of the base plate. It is also assumed that the effect of axial forces on the yield moment is negligible, justification for which is provided later in the discussion of results for the axial force. The elastic end constraints for this and all other solutions that follow are consid- ered to be of the type that would be induced by an infinitely tall cylindrical shell26 (cot x Bt = 4/9" ‘501 x T= 4/97 “100°0 = 4/4 '% = 4/%y) wrag p f) Jo} suonnjog payydung pue ony, ¢% “BL u/1 y/ta Oz OO 08 09 Ob 02 O G2 o@ St OL s 0 Tt a 11+ —— uoynjos Suns - 02 uoynjos uoynjos 7 Surpusg— 6ulpueg ys Lo 5 09 uonnjos an— a ‘ uonnjos Bug ‘\—uoynjos any ossubjected to axisymmetric moments and transverse shears at its base. The values of ko, kos and kyy, under these conditions are [34] Eph? (hy/R)? = oR (2.29a) E be (hs/R) , be = Sa (2.296) soy = Eb ha RY? (2.29) Ba -1)p? where, R and h, = the tank radius and the wall thickness, respectively. For the solutions displayed in Fig. 2.3, h,/R = 0.001, h,/h = 2, and v = 0.3. Point a in Fig. 2.3 corresponds to the formation of plastic hinge at the uplifted end, whereas point b corresponds to the formation of plastic hinge within the beam. As would be expected, the load at small uplifts is resisted almost entirely by bending action, while at large uplifts it is resisted by string action. The tne solution is in good agreement with the bending solution up to the initiation of yielding within the beam, following which it deviates sharply from the bending solution and approaches the string solution asymptotically. Because the axial force tends to reduce the magnitude of maximum moment in the central region, point 6 for the true solution corresponds to a somewhat higher load than the corresponding point for the bending solution. It is worth noting that for the same value of uplifting end force @; the uplifted length L for the string solution is significantly smaller than that for the true solution. ‘This is due to the fact that whereas for string solution the entire load on the uplifted length is carried at the uplifted end (Q: = pL), for the true solution a part of this load is also carried at the end that remains in contact with the foundation.28 This becomes more clear in Fig. 2.4 in which the ratio of the uplifting end force Q: to the total downward load pL is plotted for progressively increasing values of uplifting. The ratio Q1/pL varies from 0.5 (at w = 0) to 1 (at w = 00). Note that even at w, = 25h only about 3/4th of the load is carried at the uplifted end while remaining 1/4th is carried at the point that remains in contact with the foundation. Ina previously proposed approximate solution [28] a constant value of Q:/pL = 5/6 was used for all values of uplift w:. In Fig. 24 a plot is also included of the normalized axial force for progressively increasing values of uplift. The plot shows a maximum value of N/ph © 90 which, after proper substitution, gives a value of axial stress which is only 5% of oy. It is, therefore, justifiable to ignore the effect of axial forces in the computation of plastic moment M,, Further insight into the behavior of the uplifting beam may be gained from the plots, in Fig, 2.5, of the deflection profiles and the bending moment diagrams for selected values of the uplifting force. The distance y in these plots are measured from the uplifted end of the beam. Simplified solutions - The force-displacement relationship for the bending ac- tion is sensitive to the rotational stiffness of the end constraint, whereas, the cor- responding relationship for string action is sensitive to the axial stiffness of the end constraint. These sensitivities are demonstrated in Fig. 2.6, in which the left curves are for bending solutions for three different values of the rotational end constraint29 IXY pue Ivayg pazlpULON Fz ‘By q/t Ge 02 SI OL S 0 Op f ateos 1S TO opeos yor oolle 600 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 y/h Fig. 2.5 Deflection Configurations and Bending Moment Diagrams of Beam for Different Magnitude of Uplifting Force (h,/h = 2, h,/R = 0.001, Eb/p = 1.5 x 10°, oyb/p = 1.8 x 10°)31 15 PoUreIGG Ureagy 405 s njog Burg (q) uonnjog Supuag (v) Se ay a <1 (4) Tm 2-01 (=) Ta b 80 90 0 20 OF 80 90 +0 20 0 1 0 e-OL X FF e-O1 XG 02 0OL32 go/EbK? and the right curves are for string solution for several different values of Ki, /Eb. A value of kee/Ebh? equal to oc corresponds to complete fixity against ro- tation, whereas a value equal to 2.44 x 10-* corresponds to a rotational stiffness for which the yielding at the end and within the beam occur simultaneously (Eq. 2.23). It is important to note that unlike the true solution, which depends upon the dimensionless factors Eb/p and o,b/p, the bending solution depends only upon the latter factor. The normalized force in this case is a function of the product of w/t and Eb/p rather than of the two factors independently. Similarly, the end force in the string solution is a function of the product of the w/a and (Eb/p)¥/°. The value of 2,b/p for the bending solutions presented herein is considered to be the same as for the true solution presented earlier. The string solution does not depend upon o,5/p. A nearly linear relationship between Q;/ph and w:/h(Eb/p)*/* (for both of which the thickness h appears in the denominator) implies that h has almost no influence on the string action. The nature of plots for the bending solution, however, suggests a strong influence of beam thickness on bending action. Therefore, for true solution the beam thickness h would play an important role only in the smalll deflection range where bending action is important. Sensitivity of true solution to different parameters - Examination of Eqs. 2.29 reveals that for a fixed h,/R ratio, the rotational end constraint is proportional to the square of the wall thickness, h,, whereas the extentional end constraint is independent of it. It is further observed that the rotational end stifiness is proportional to the33, square root of h,/R, whereas the extensional stiffness is proportional to (h,/R)*/?, It would be expected, therefore, that the small defiection response, which is domi- nated by bending action, would be sensitive to the thickness ratio h./h but relatively insensitive to the ratio h,/R, whereas the large deflection response for which the string action is predominant would be sensitive to the ratio h,/R but insensitive to h,/h. That this is indeed the case is demonstrated by the plots presented in Fig. 2.7 of which those on the left are for different values of h,/h (and a constant value of h,/R = 0.001), and those on the right are for three different values of h,/R (and a constant value of h,/A = 2). The differences at large displacements for the left hand curves are due to the coupling term ke,. The values of Eb/p and o,b/p for these solutions are kept the same as those for the solutions presented previously. The sensitivity of the force-displacement diagrams to variations in Eb/p and o,)/p is illustrated in Fig. 2.8. The relative insensitivity of results to changes in Eb/p parameter suggests that the effect of Young’s modulus of elasticity is not very large on the force-displacement relationship. This is an important observation because a suggestion has been made in an earlier study [28] to modify the value of Young’s modulus of elasticity to account for the plane strain conditions in plate uplifting, The proposed modification would, however, produce no noticeable change in results. A change in 0, b/p parameter corresponds to a change in the yield stress of the beam material and, therefore, has a significant influence only on the small deflection response where bending action is important.34 (ct x 81 = d/q*o ‘01 x oT = d/g “100°0 = 4 /"y ‘Z = y/*y ‘payou ostmsoyjo ssapupy) ay/*y pur y/*y Jo SON|eA WOIIYIC] tPILM surwag, 10y suMBTEIC JwouNDsyIdsIC-oo10g BUNA, 2-2 “Shy y/ta y/tm Sc 0c. Sto! S 0G2e 02 GL or S 0 — T — —————_+ 0 09 000 = u/"4 08‘1000 = y/* = u/*4 ‘parou astins HeOg 10} (01 x BT = d/9*0 ‘01 x oT = d/qq7 jo ssajup)) d/q%o pur d/acy jo36 Effect of yielding within the beam - The most time consuming aspect of the analysis presented herein concerns the consideration of the yielding within the beam. With a view towards simplifying the method of analysis, it is desirable to assess the extent to which such a yielding influences the resulting force-displacement relationship. In Fig. 2.9 the effect of disregarding yielding within the beam is seen for different values of h,/R and oy b/p parameters. The effect is small for large values of h,/R because for these cases the string action, which is not influenced by plastic yielding, plays a rather dominant role. Similarly, the effect is also small for large values of o, 4/p because an increase in yield stress delays yielding within the beam until a point when string action is more important. In general the effect of yielding within the beam is not significant for practical cases of tank uplifting and is, therefore, being dropped from the subsequent analyses. Effect of load reversal ~ In Fig. 2.10 solutions for two different unloading paths c—f—gand d—e~ f—g are shown together with those for a loading path a—b—c—d. ‘The upper diagram shows the variation of the uplifting force, Q1, whereas the lower diagram shows the variation of the axial force, N. The area between the loading and unloading paths in the upper diagram represents the loss of energy due to yielding. It is worth noting that in the unloading path a positive value of uplift wy is associated with zero value of the uplifting force Qy. In fact a very large downward force at the end is required to bring the beam to its original ‘flat’ configuration once yielding at the end has taken place.37 (c01 x 81 = d/qto ‘01 x ST = 4/44 “1000 = 4 /*y *% = 4/*y ‘parou asimsayjo ssajup)) suresse1q Waursse|dsiq-ao1e4 Bunjydy vo wag ay) ULYALM BUIP|ALA Jo ayy 62 “By y/t y/t Ge 02 SI OL S 0 G2 02 SL OL S 0 + ——+—_+>— 0 _a- pesouby —— pelepisuog :weaq jo Jo}ejul ul BuipjalA, $000°0End forces due to wall pressures: 0 Ignored = —— z Considered ----- -20 bs, 0 5 10 15 20 25 wi/h Fig. 2.10 Vertical and Axial End Forces Associated with Cyclic Uplifting of Beam (hy/h = 2, hy/R = 0.001, Eb/p = 1.5 x 10°, 0,6/p = 1.8 x 103)39 The axial force which keeps on reducing as unloading progresses can even assume negative values. The solutions obtained so far have been for positive values of the axial force. The Eqs. 2.2 to 2.5 and 2.10 to 2.12 have been written in such a way that the corresponding equations for negative value of NV are obtained by simply replacing the hyperbolic functions (sinh, cosh and tanh) with corresponding trigonometric functions (sin, cos and tan) and redefining \® = —N?/EI. Plastic rotation at uplifted end - An important index of the state of the beam in the yielding range is the angle of plastic rotation at the uplifted end, Ad. The variation of this quantity as a function of the end displacement is shown in Fig. 2.11 along with the corresponding variation of the end moment, My. As would be expected, the plastic rotation is zero prior to initiation of yielding (a — 6); it increases continuously after the end moment has reached its yield value (b— c — d); it maintains a constant value in the regions of elastic unloading (c— f and d — e); and it decreases continuously after the end moment has reached its yield value in the opposite direction (e — f — g). For the conditions considered, the maximum plastic rotation at w = 25h is approximately 22° Effect of liquid pressure on the tank wall - In the representation of base plate of a liquid filled tank by prismatic beams one needs to take into account the effect of pressures on the tank wall. This effect can be incorporated into the current model by first computing the forces M and N at the shell bottom with both rotationAg degrees End forces due to wall pressures: Ignored Considered ----- 0 5 10 15 20 25 wi/h Fig. 2.11 Bending Moment and Plastic End Rotation Associated with Cyclic Up- lifting of Beam (hs/h = 2, ha/R = 0.001, Eb/p = 1.5 x 10, o,b/p = 1.8 x 10°)41 and displacement locked and then treating them as externally applied joint forces, The new equilibrium equations at the joint which replace Eqs. 2.7 and 2.8 are M hee how | | 8 M + (230) N fax bus | [ nN or e, dey dow =- (2.31) wy dou duy where M and N are obtained from Ref. (35, Eq. 54 a-d] by dropping terms of lesser importance. These are: Rhsp Ms BG (2.32a) We Veh (2.32b) “* Baa On substituting into Eq. 2.9 the expression for 0, from Eq. 2.5 and 6, from the first of Eqs. 2.31 and solving for My, one obtains: cy BOA — 2tanh 3) + do(N — N) +00 M,=M (2.33) Gh taah 3 + dey (238) The solutions obtained by incorporating the effect of pressures on the tank wall are shown by ‘dashed-lines’ Figs. 2.10 and 2.11. It is worth noting that an important effect, of wall pressures is to provide an initial resistance to uplifting, whereby a minimum uplifting force is required to initiate uplifting 2.6 Conclusions A highly efficient method of analysis of beam uplifting problem is discussed. The method accounts for the effects of axial forces associated with large deflections and42 those of plastic yielding. Following are true for practical cases of tank uplifting in which the base plate is modeled by a series of beams. © Axial forces play a very important role in the uplifting resistance. Formation of two plastic hinges does not limit the uplifting resistance of the beam due to continued resistance generated by the string action. ‘© Maximum stress due to axial force is quite small (< 5%g,), which brings into light the efficiency of string action in carrying the applied load * Beam thickness has a significant effect only for small deflections where bending action is important. The end restraint offered by the wall of the tank plays an important role only at large deflections, where string action is important, © The uplifting resistance is not significantly affected by the value of the Young's modulus of elasticity. The effect of yield stress is significant only at small deflection. © The effect of yielding within the beam on the uplifting force-displacement rela- tionship is not very large; the effect is especially small for cases in which string action plays a dominant role e.g. for large values of h,/R parameter.Chapter 3 Uplifting of Beam: Ritz Method 3.1 Introduction The Ritz energy method offers an attractive alternative for the analysis of many structural engineering problems provided the deflection configuration of the system can be approximated adequately. For large deformation analyses, it is particularly difficult to come up with a suitable set of deflection shape functions because one needs to take into account the interrelationship that exists between the lateral and in-plane displacements due to second-order effects. The energy expression in these cases is not quadratic and results in a set of nonlinear algebraic equations. Ritz method was used in Ref. [17] for the problem of asymmetric uplifting of a circular plate. In this study the coupling between the lateral and in-plane displace- ments was not considered in the selection of the displacement shape functions and only one shape function was used for each set of displacements, The results obtained seem to be ‘stiff’ though in the absence of an exact solution the accuracy cannot be assessed. In a complex model used in Ref. [19] several shape functions for lateral and in-plane displacements were used. Significant amount of computational effort is required in the 43,44 generation of these shape functions which take into account. the coupling between the lateral and in-plane displacements. Comparisons were made between the numerical solutions and the experimental data. Possibility of plastic yielding in the plate was disregarded in both these studies. The objective of this chapter is to critically evaluate the option offered by the Ritz energy method both in terms of accuracy and computational efficiency for the problem of the uplifting beam. This is accomplished by comparing the results obtained by the Ritz method with those obtained by the ‘exact’ method described in Chapter 2. The procedure described in the following sections is for loading only but can be easily extended to include the effects of unloading. The effect of yielding at the end is considered but that of yielding within the beam, which in the previous chapter was found to be of not much consequence, is disregarded. 3.2 System Considered ‘The system considered is same as the one described in the previous chapter where a uniformly loaded prismatic beam resting on a rigid foundation is uplifted at one end by a force Qh. It is desired to obtain the relationship between the force Q1 and the corresponding displacement wy presuming, as before, the displacements to be moderately large.3.3. Method of Analysis The fundamental step in the application of the Ritz energy method is the judicious selection of the generalized coordinates and the deflection shape functions in terms of which the total energy Il of the system may be formulated. Minimization of the energy expression leads to a system of equations in generalized coordinates which for the problem under consideration will be nonlinear. For the system examined here the generalized coordinates selected are the uplifted length L of the beam and the vertical displacement, slope and horizontal displacement at the uplifted end (denoted by wi, 6: and us, respectively) The vertical deflection at an arbitrary point of the beam is expressed in the form, w(E) = fils ~ Lf) (3.1) where shape functions fi = @(4- 38) (3.2a) and h=@-8 (3.2b) Shape functions f, and fy (see Fig. 3.1) are essentially the deflected shapes of the beam subjected to unit displacement and rotation at € = 1. They satisfy all essential and natural boundary conditions at € = 0 which are: w(0) = 6(0) = M(0) = 0. Expressing w the way it is done here introduces enough flexibility into the formulation by letting vertical deflection and rotation at the uplifted end to vary independently of each other.h7a Fig. 3.1 Deflection Shape Functions Considered‘The horizontal displacement at an arbitrary point can be written as: u(6) = Aug - 2L(eye (3.3) in which the first term on the right represents the elongation at an arbitrary point due to the axial force (Au being the corresponding elongation at the uplifted end) and the second term represents the shortening due to vertical displacements. The constant axial strain implied by the first term is a consequence of the moderately large deflection assumption. On substituting € = 1 in Eq. 3.3 one obtains dueut ee [ (2): df a which on evaluation of the ‘eon gives 4, 2 uo soe Aus gyui — ggnd +3 tur (3.4) (3.5) Energy expressions ~ The strain energy of bending deformation is given by, EI p(@w\? “=a l'(@) « which on substituting w from Eq. 3.1, yields 8 4,7 2 Vy= 1281 (Bui +h + ia) The strain energy of axial deformation is: AE, , Y= a4" which on substituting Au from Eq. 3.5, gives FA (2304 4 384 og , 304 o= F Goo"! ~ moore’ + poor te er no tae aeM 7 ‘9007 wea" ~ 3900 (3.6) (3.7) (3.8) 24 wi, — ——w 8+ sous 8yu; + Bust + tel) (3.9)48 ‘The strain energy of the elastic end constraints is 1 =3 (koa 03 + 2hou Or us + hax U2) (3.10) ‘The potential energy of the lateral load, p, and the uplifting end force, Qs, is 9 = pL f wd - Qi = 04pLw, — 0.057176; — Qiu (3.11) and the total energy of the system, II, is the sum of Eqs. 3.7, 3.9, 3.10 and 3.11. Governing equations - The condition of minimum potential energy requires that, on _ on _ am _ ag Bw; ~ 0, ~ Guy ~ OL (3.12) This leads to following set of nonlinear equations: 4608, 576, | 3k, 19.25 + 8.4165 + (SEE at — Fates + SOE ane 12L .,, 48 Ly? pl’ Qi? CE Zam) (2) +o4ar - B= (3.13a) 1925, 304 9, 36 18L : wt + ute, + ee vee{ spoore™* + Zoo0r “t ~ Za9q°"* + Zs00%— Ly? heel? 9. Kewl? pls 30, 05 ; cg wo) (4) + Brat em — 0.0555 =0 (3.13) BL ep L)* , kel? Bunt Teta) (2) + =0 — (8:18c) 8.8 2, (3456 384 152 age Aut + rosie +2406 + (sors! ~ zeport wis + Fogg ie 9D ye , 48 2) (LY ag00"t + apzattt ~ aren + 37%) ) - pls Lt oar +0128, =0 (3.134) where TA.49 3.4 Method of Solution ‘The above set of equations involves five unknowns namely wy, 63, a1, L and Qy. In the solution method adopted here, the uplifted length L is assumed known and the remaining unknowns w,, 0}, 1 and Q are determined from the solution of Eqs. 3.13a through 3.13d. Inasmuch as Q; appears only in the first of these equations, the last three equations are solved first for wy, 6, and uy, and then Q; is determined from Eq. 3.132. End yielding ~ Equations 3.13a through 3.13d are for the initial elastic range of response. The modifications necessitated by yielding at the uplifted end are identified in this section. ‘The moment at the uplifted end, Mi, can be obtained either from the beam deformation or from the force-displacement relationship of the end constraints. El & EI Mae = Fy (“12 +614) (3.14) or My = Keo Oy ~ hou (3.15) Inasmuch as the values obtained from these two equations are generally different, the average of the two values was used as an approximation to the true value. However, the difference between the two values was found to be negligibly small for the cases considered.30 ‘A plastic hinge is assumed to form when |M,| becomes equal to the yield moment, M, = oybh®/4. The force-displacement relationships of the end constraints after formation of the plastic hinge are: -M, where ki, = kus (3.16a) (3.16b) — KB, /kos. The derivation of Eq. 3.16b was discussed in Chapter 2. ‘The corresponding strain energy of the end constraints is then given by, = M+ Bassa aie ae My (3.17) ‘As a result of this change in V; the terms involving kg and ky, are replaced by My in Eq. 3.13b, and terms involving ky, and ky, are replaced by, + yy hee Reutty + Fag Mv in Eq. 3.13¢. Bending solution - The governing equations for bending solution may be ob- tained from Eqs. 3.13a, 3.13b and 3.13d by deleting the terms resulting from the strain energy of axial deformation V,, and taking u; = 0. The resulting expressions are: pL’ Ql’ _ 19.2uy + 8.416, +0455 - SE = 0 A 8.4ury + 4.8101 + 005 =0 ML? pls Btu + 4.810, + 3 =o 238 2 Fut - 16.80% = 240, +042 Fe (3.182) Before yielding (3.18b) After yielding ply ok 3. Fy = (3.18¢)81 On expressing 0; in terms of w; using Eq. 3.18b and substituting into Eq. 3.18 one obtains a quadratic equation in wy, with only one positive root, which can be readily solved. On back substituting w; into Eq. 3.18b and Eq, 3.18a one obtains values of 6, and Qh. 3.5 Numerical Results ‘The solution of nonlinear equations was obtained with the aid of subroutine DNEQNJ in the IMSL library of mathematical functions [36]. This subroutine, essentially, employs an iterative technique to arrive at the true solution from an initially assumed solution. The initial solution was taken equal to the bending solution for which u = 0 and w; and 6; are determined from the solution of Eqs. 3.18a through 3.18. For the cases considered the iterations always converged to the desired solution without any numerical problems. However, for certain cases in which the bending solution was not used as an initial guess, the iterations did not converge to the desired solution, thus suggesting more than one ‘real’ solution for the set of nonlinear equations. This aspect needs to be investigated in more detail. ‘The solutions were obtained for a range of system parameters h,/R, hs/h, 0,6/p and Eb/h and compared with the corresponding solutions obtained using the method described in Chapter 2. The agreement between the two sets of solutions is so good that for practical purposes no distinction between the two can be made. A typical comparison is shown in Fig. 3.2 for three different. values of the h,/R parameter.s (01 x 81 = 4/q%o ‘sor x 91 = d/aq ‘% = ¥/"y) suoynjog ABsoug zy pue ,joexG, wos} paurergg y/*y Jo A WAC] (HM suvag Jo suBBeIG JoUIadyIdsiq-so104 BUNgdA Ze “By y/ta y/ta y/tm Ge st s rd Sh S Ge St s zoo'o = u/*4 1000 = U/"4 $000°0 = u/*4 Uonnjog ZHIty ----~ uonnjog Joex3, ‘00153 3.6 Conclusions ‘A method based on the Ritz energy procedure has been presented for the beam uplifting problem. The method makes use of four generalized coordinates and two shape functions one corresponding to displacement and another corresponding to rotation at the uplifted end. The deflection shape function for horizontal displacement. is arrived at by giving due regards to the second-order shortening effects of vertical displacements. The results obtained for a range of parameters are found to be in excellent agreement with those from the ‘exact’ solution. The method is, however, not as efficient as the ‘exact’ method due to the computational effort required in the solution of nonlinear equations. ‘The potential, however, does exist in making the method computationally more competitive by devising a more efficient scheme for the solution of nonlinear equations.Chapter 4 Uplifting of Circular Plate 4.1 Introduction ‘The objectives of this chapter are: 1. To obtain the ‘exact’ solution for the axisymmetrically uplifted plate and to examine the effects of important system parameters; 2. To compare the results of the plate solution with those obtained by the use of the beam model and to explore the applicability of beam model for the analyses of plates; 3. To present an approximate but reasonably accurate and cost-effective method for the analysis of asymmetrically uplifted plates. Due consideration is given to the nonlinearities associated with large deflection and material yielding. The solutions are obtained for cyclic loading conditions to highlight the presence of hysteretic damping. The range of parameters and levels of uplift considered are appropriate for the seismic response of steel tanks encountered in practice. 344.2 Statement of Problem ‘The system considered is a circular plate of radius A and uniform thickness h sim- ulating the action of the base plate of an uplifting cylindrical steel tank. The plate which is presumed to be resting on a rigid base is subjected to a uniformly distributed lateral load, p, and a uniformly distributed line load, W/2rR, along the boundary. The uniform lateral load represents the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid in the tank and the uniform line load represents the weight of the tank wall. The plate boundary is presumed to be constrained against radial displacement and rotation by elastic constraints representative of those provided by the cylindrical shell of the tank. The plate is examined under the following two conditions of uplift: 1. Axisymmetric uplifti g induced by uniformly distributed vertical line forces along the plate boundary. 2. Asymmetric uplifting induced by vertical line forces distributed along the plate boundary in such a way as to induce a rigid body rotation of the boundary. The assumed rigid body rotation of the plate boundary is considered to be the rep- resentative of the action of uplifting tanks, as the in-plane stiffness of their wall is typically very large. Of interest in axisymmetric uplifting is the relationship between the total upward force, Qr, and the resulting displacement of the plate boundary, w;. Of interest in56 asymmetric uplifting is the relationship between the resultant moment of the forces, Mr, and the rigid body rotation, #, of the plate boundary. 4.3 Axisymmetric Uplifting ‘The ‘exact’ solution of the problem is obtained by the application of moderately large deflection plate theory for the uplifted portion of uniform width, L, shown in Fig. 4.1. Vertical displacements in this approach are considered to be large compared to the plate thickness but small compared to the width L, and no distinction is made between normal and vertical pressures. Only yielding at the plate boundary is considered. Based on the results of the beam problem examined in Chapter 2, yielding in the interior of the plate is not expected to have a significant influence on the desired force-displacement relationship. It is assumed that no slippage occurs between the contact portion of the plate and the foundation. The effect of relaxing this condition is examined later. Governing differential equations - For a segment in the uplifted portion of the plate the equilibrium of forces in the vertical and radial directions may be written as [34] 14 trand=p (44) Ny+ ik —Ng=0 (4.2) and that of moments in the radial direction may be written as: (4.3)q l Q I We ttt id SP te L B+} Fig. 4.1 Axisymmetrically Uplifted Plate58 where Q, = the transverse shearing force per unit of the circumferential length, pos- itive when directed upwards on the outer face of a circular section of radius r; N, and Ng = the radial and circumferential membrane forces per unit length, positive when tensile. These forces are related to the vertical and radial displacements of the mid-surface, w and u, by pe hye du pelea N, a ([#+2($) ol (44) Bh fu v(dw\?, du no= Eh, Eos (2) of] (45) Displacement w is positive when upwards and displacement u is positive when in the direction of increasing r. The quantities M, and Mg in Eq. 4.3 are the radial and circumferential bending moments per unit length of the plate. They are given by, Pw, vdw M,=D [3 | (4.6) @w , ide mon Se +r uae where D = Eh*/12(1 — v2) = flexural rigidity of the plate. Moments are considered positive when they produce tension at the bottom surface of the plate. On substituting Eqs. 4.6 and 4.7 into Eq. 4.3 and rearranging terms one obtains, dfid ( dw dw flrs (2) +" (48) Substitution of Eqs. 4.4, 4.5 and 4.8 into Eqs. 4.1 and 4.2 yields a set of two differential equations of fourth-order in w and second-order in u. Alternatively, a set of six first-order equations in terms of the displacements u and w, radial rotation 6, and the forces N,, M, and Q, can be obtained. The solution presented herein is59 based on the latter formulation. The relevant equations, along with their derivations, are as follows: # =0 (4.9) ae (4.90) (4.9) (4.94) (4.9e) (4.98) Eqs. 4.9b and 4.9¢ follow directly from Eqs. 4.6 and 4.4, respectively, and the definition of 8. Eq. 4.94 is obtained by expanding Eq, 4.1 and rearranging terms. Eq. 4.9¢ is. obtained from Eq. 4.3 making use of Eqs. 4.6 and 4.7, whereas Eq. 4.9f is obtained from Eq. 4.2 making use of Eqs. 4.4 and 4.5. ‘The Eqs. 4.9a to 4.9f are solved numerically to obtain a complete solution for the uplifted portion of specified width L, using boundary conditions at r = R~ L and r= R, that are presented in the following section. With unknowns u, 8, M, and N, determined, the forces Ny and Mg may be computed from the following alternative forms of Eqs. 4.5 and 4.7: Ne=uNe+ Eh Mz = M,+ ae S Among various response quantities obtained from the solution of Eqs. 4.9 to 4.9f, of special interest are the values of vertical displacement and shear at the plate bound60 ary, denoted by w and Qn, respectively. The latter quantity is used to determine the total uplifting force, Qr = 2 RQ, + W, where W = boundary force due to the weight of the tank wall. Boundary conditions — Of the six boundary conditions required for the solution of Eqs. 4.9a to 4.9f, the four at r = R— L, identified with subscript ‘0’, are: We = 8 = Myo = Ue = 0 (4.10) ‘The first three of these follow from the assumption of rigid base, whereas the fourth follows from the assumption of no slippage between the plate and the foundation. The remaining two, expressing the force-displacement relationship of the boundary constraint at r= R, are: Mr kee kaw 9, M, + Na koe uw | (4 Ny, in which M, and N, are the externally applied bending moment and axial force per (4.11) unit length of the plate boundary, and M,; and Nj, are the corresponding internal forces in the plate. The external forces, which simulate the effect of the pressures on the tank wall, induce local uplifting of a narrow annular region adjacent to the plate boundary prior to uplifting of the boundary itself, as shown in Fig. 4.2. Approximate expressions for these forces, which are actually the fixed-end forces at the base of the tank wall are obtained from the ones given in Ref. [35, Eq. 54 a-d] by dropping terms of lesser importance. These are: Spe (4.128)Mt Al bd 4 Fig. 4.2 Local Uplifting of Plate due to Internal Wall Pressures 6162 « VER Ne aye (4.128) in which R and h, are the radius and thickness of the tank wall, respectively. If the boundary constraints are provided by an infinitely tall shell of stated radius and thickness, the coefficients of the stiffness matrix in Eqs. 4.11 are given by [34]: ER3(h/R)'? = 3 pA (4.13a) Eh,(h,/R) Kou = ara as (4.13b) Kew Ebel RPP (4.18) Bap The quantity 0, in Eq. 4.11 represents the rotation of the boundary constraint. For elastic response, 6, is equal to the rotation of the plate at its boundary, @). After the initiation of yielding along the plate boundary the two rotations are different. Plastic yielding - A plastic hinge is assumed to form along the plate boundary when |Mj:| attains the value of yield moment, M,. As long as the direction of loading is not reversed, the boundary conditions represented by Eqs. 4.11 must then be replaced by, [Mal =M, (4.14a) Na = — kiya — F (—Ma + ,) +N, (4.14b) where ki, = hue — K}y/ Eq. 4.14b is obtained by eliminating 8, from the second of Eqs. 4.11 using the first of Eqs. 4.11.63 The boundary rotation, 6, obtained from the solution of Eqs. 4.92 to 4.9f, using Eqs. 4.14a and 4.14b as boundary conditions, is not the same as the rotation of the boundary constraint, 8,, which is obtained as follows: 0, = (M, — My) deo + (N, — Nea) dew (4.15) where dgo = kuu/(kepkun — #3.) and dey = —kou/(Keskun — k},) are the coefficients of the flexibility matrix, obtained by inverting the stiffness matrix in Eq. 4.11. The difference AO =0,-6, (4.16) represents the angle of plastic rotation at the plate boundary. Upon unloading, the boundary conditions at r = R are once again given by Eq. 4.11, except that 6, is no longer equal to 6; but is equal to @ — A, where AO remains fixed at its value at the start of unloading. If during unloading |M;;| attains the value of yield moment, M,, the boundary conditions at r = R are once again given by Eqs. 4.14a and 4.14b. Method of solution - Equations 4.9a through 4.9f were solved numerically for varying values of the width of the uplifted region, L, with the aid of routine DBVPFD of the IMSL library of mathematical functions [36]. This is essentially a double pre- cision routine for the solution of boundary value problems that uses finite differences along with an iterative scheme to solve the system of resulting nonlinear algebraic equations. The solutions obtained for one value of L were used as the initial estimates for the next value. For the solutions presented herein, the increment in L was taken64 equal to the plate thickness h. Needless to add, an increase in L corresponds to an increase in the uplifting force, whereas a decrease in L corresponds to a decrease in the uplifting force. Numerical solutions - Representative plots of the relationship between the total uplifting force, Qr, and the corresponding uplift, w, are shown by the solid lines in Fig. 4.3. These solutions are for three different values of the normalized plate thickness, h/R, and values of v=03, o/B=12x10-% and E/p= 15x 10° ‘These parameters are representative of a mild-steel plate loaded by water nearly 46 ft. high. The plate is constrained at its boundary by a cylindrical shell of thickness fh, = 0.001R. The total downward load at the plate boundary due to the weight of the shell is taken as W = 0.015Wi, where W; = Rp = total downward load on the plate surface or the weight of the liquid in the tank. The total uplifting force, Qr, is expressed as a percentage of W; and boundary displacement, w, is expressed as a percentage of the plate radius, R. It is assumed that the plastic hinge at the plate-shell junction forms in the plate; this assumption is justified by the fact that the thickness of the plate is typically much smaller than that of the shell. The yield moment capacity, M,, is determined from, (4.17)u/"o001 t so i ba 0 $000°0 = u/4 $2000°0 = 4/4 uolnjog weag ---- uoNnjog a1e}q ——66 ‘The solutions indicate that a finite force is required to initiate uplifting at the plate boundary whose magnitude is quite sensitive to changes in the plate thickness. ‘This force is due in part to the weight of the tank wall, W, and in part to the local uplifting adjacent to plate boundary caused by pressures on the tank wall, Fig. 4.2 Whereas, the former component is constant and equal to 0.015W; the latter, which is also the dominant one, increases significantly with increase in plate thickness. For the solutions presented in Fig. 4.3, the latter component is 2 to 3 times the former. ‘A sudden change in the slope of the initial loading path corresponds to the forma- tion of plastic hinge at the plate boundary. A significant delay in the hinge formation with increase in plate thickness is of course due to a corresponding increase in the yield moment, M,, given by Eq. 4.17. ‘The slopes of the curves after the formation of plastic hinge are quite insensitive to changes in plate thickness. This is due to the fact that the response in this region is dominated by membrane action which, as was seen in Chapter 2, is sensitive more to the radial end constraint than to the plate thickness. ‘The size of the hysteresis loop is seen to increase significantly with increase in plate thickness. Since plastic yielding is associated with bending action, thicker plates for which bending action plays a more important role exhibit bigger hysteresis loops. ‘The size of the hysteresis loop is also influenced significantly by the yield level of the plate material, as is evident from the solutions for three different values of the nondimensionalized yield stress, 0,/E, that are presented in Fig. 4.4. Except for the(go=4 ‘01x oT =4/q “sto0 = ‘t/t ‘10:0 = 4 /*y “0000 = Y/Y) S977 PIPLA qarYIG Him saved poydy A|pwoujounnAsixy soy suresBwiq quaurasedsiq-asiog pp “Bl a/™™o0T u/to0t ‘u/™oot 1 so 1 s0 t $0 L L L u L 1 n u $a 4 0 2-01 X PZ =a/40 2 OX ST =a/so OLX ZT =q/*o TA 1H OOF uonnjog weag ---- uonnjog ateid —68 size of the hysteresis loop these solutions are nearly identical to each other, thus, suggesting that the effect of yield level on the uplifting resistance of the plate is of relatively small significance. ‘The effect of varying thickness of the tank wall is seen in Fig. 4.5 in which results are shown for three different values of the normalized wall thickness, h,/R. The plate thickness for these solutions is kept fixed at 0.0005R and the parameters v, o,/E end E/p are same as those for solutions presented in Fig. 4.3. The effect of an increase in shell thickness, h,, is two-fold: it increases the minimum force required to initiate uplifting at the plate boundary and, more importantly, it increases the uplifting resistance of the plate at large deflections. Whereas, the former effect is due to the weight of the tank wall, which is proportional to the wall thickness, the latter is due to the boundary constraints which also depend upon the wall thickness, Eqs. 4.13. ‘The rotational constraint, kip, however, loses its effect at an early stage when yielding occurs along the plate boundary. The effect of wall thickness is, therefore, significantly greater at large deflections where membrane action which is influenced by radial constraint, kyu, is important. Plate vs. beam solutions - Inasmuch as the width of the uplifted portion of the plate is small compared to its radius, it would be expected that the beam solution would provide a reasonable approximation to the plate action. In particular the Qr~ wy relationship would be expected to be comparable to that of a beam of width 2nR and thickness h. That this is indeed the case is demonstrated in Figs. 4.3 through 4.569 (s0=4 ‘01x G1 =d/q = a/"9 ‘0000 = Y/Y) sassoujoryT, [eM Ue, WwOLEYIG, u/*o0t t so be \ 0£0'0 ='M/mM z00'0 = u/*4 $200°0 = "A/A s000'0 = u/*4 uonnjog weeg ---- uonnjog ay2j1g —70 by the excellent agreement that exists between the plate solutions, shown by the solid lines, and the beam solutions, shown by the dashed lines. The agreement, however, deteriorates at very large values of uplift. The source of this deterioration is identified later. ‘As a further measure of the interrelationship between the plate and the beam solutions, on the left side of Fig. 4.6 are shown the variations of the radial membrane stresses at the plate boundary computed by the two solutions. The agreement is again very good. The major limitation of the beam solution is its inability to account for citcum- ferential membrane stresses. ‘The mechanism that gives rise to these stresses is as follows. Due to second-order effects of large deflections, the plate boundary, when uplifted, also has a tendency to move radially inwards. This tendency is resisted both by the radial boundary constraint and by the plate itself. The resistance provided by the plate induces large compressive stresses in the circumferential direction, as shown on the right hand side of Fig. 4.6. Instances of plate buckling in circumferential direction due to large compressive stresses have been reported earlier (15]. ‘The effect of circumferential membrane action on the Qr-w1 relationship, though, noticeable at large deflections is still quite small for the range of uplifts considered here. It is felt that plate buckling in the circumferential direction would bring the plate solution even closer to the beam solution by elimination of the membrane action& (£0 = 4 ‘01 x @1 = d/q *e-01 x B= 4/*9 “S100 = 't/mi ‘1000 = U/*Y 's000°0 = 4/4) eld Patan Ajjeouyoururdsrcy Joy Kiepunog ayzIJq Ie sassang ouesquiay jeyUoIasUINIID pure [eIPeY g°p “HI u/tMo0T a/to0t I go 0 t 0 0 U1 0 uonnjog weeg O2- uonnjog 121g — or ufo 19 OOF Ye 09- 08- 001-72 in the circumferential direction. The beam model is, therefore, found suitable for the solution of plate problem for values of w; at least equal to 1% of the plate radius. ‘The computational effort required for the beam solutions is at least an order of magnitude less than that for the corresponding plate solutions. Effect of frictionless contact between plate and foundation - In the ab- sence of any friction between the plate and the foundation, the circular boundary of the contact region of radius R — L is free to move in the radial direction under the action of radial membrane forces at r = R— L. In that case the following boundary condition should replace the no slip boundary condition (up = 0) at r Rok: Nero us = F(R = L)(1-v) (4.18) The above equation is essentially a relationship between the radial membrane force and the corresponding displacement at the boundary of a disc of radius R—L. Results obtained for a wide range of parameters revealed that no significant change in the Qr- ‘wy relationship occurs as a result of slippage between the plate and the foundation. 4.4 Asymmetric Uplifting Having established its reliability for the solution of the axisymmetrically uplifted plate, the beam model will now be used for the analysis of a plate which is lifted asymmetrically by distributed boundary forces inducing an uplifting moment Mr. ‘As already noted, of interest here is the relationship between Mr and the resulting rigid body rotation of plate boundary, ¥.73 Model used - The uplifted portion of the plate is represented by a series of beams uniformly spaced along the plate boundary. An even number of beams, numbered from 1 to n, is considered, as shown in Fig. 4.7. For the sake of clarity, only odd numbered beams are shown in this figure. The uplifting moment is considered to act, in the vertical plane passing through points 1 and n/2+ 1; this plane will henceforth be referred to as the plane of symmetry. Each beam is considered to be semi-infinite and of uniform width 6 = 2rR/n, and the individual beams and the associated end constraints are presumed to be independent of each other. Accordingly, no provision is made for the circumferential forces and the twisting moments in the plate. The uplifting force-displacement relationship for each beam is evaluated by the procedure described in Chapter 2. The values of the end constraints and of the fixed-end forces are, of course, determined from Eqs. 4.13 and 4.12, respectively, by multiplying the results by the beam width 6. ‘The use of the uniform beams, as contrasted to the more realistic, tapered beams, and the assumption of no circumferential interaction are considered to be adequate for the relatively small base rotations that are of interest in practice. The relative unimportance of the circumferential interaction has also been stressed in some of the previous studies (16, 18). Computation of moment-rotation relationship - The moment-rotation re- lationship is computed incrementally considering linear action for the beams within each load increment.15 Suppose that the uplifting moment, Mr, the associated rotation of the plate boundary, , and the states of all the beams are known at some instant, and that it is desired to evaluate the effect of a specified moment increment, AMr. In particular, let Q; and w; be the end force and end displacement for the i-th beam, and &; be its effective stiffness. Provided w; > 0, the latter quantity is determined from the instantaneous slope of the force-displacement diagram for the beam. For w; = 0 and with the i-th beam tending to move downwards, k; = 00. ‘The steps involved in the evaluation of the desired effect may be summarized as follows: 1. Compute the force increments AQ; for the two beams in the plane of symmetry (ie. for i= 1 and i = n/2+ 1) from the generalized expression AQ = AM a-a) (4.19) Ky where Ky = the rotational stiffness of the plate, defined as the moment necessary to induce a unit rotation of the plate boundary; the quantity d = the normal distance from the rightmost point, n/2+ 1, to the axis of rotation; and d; = the corresponding distance to the end of the i-th beam. For i = 1, dj = 2R, whereas for i = n/2 +1, d; =0, In general, = R(1+ e052 G4 = ») (4.20)76 Also, (4.21) and Ky =k (d- di? (4.22) . By application of the method of analysis described in Chapter 2, compute the resulting displacement increment, Aw;, the new total displacement, wi, and the new effective stiffness for each of the two beams in the plane of symmetry. Subject to the qualification noted earlier, the latter quantity is determined from ky = AQ:/Aw;. Compute the rotation of the plate boundary from, Wi — Wa/a4 p= pee (4.23) and the displacements for the remaining beams from, waasr + Odi (4.24) . By application of the method referred to in step 2, compute the beam force Q; corresponding to each of the displacements w; computed in step 3, as well as the associated stiffness kj7 At the end of step 4, slight discrepancies usually exist between the applied boundary forces and the resultants of forces induced in various beams. These discrepancies are computed from, Mere = 3Qi (R= di) — Mr (4.25a) Wer = Q-W (4.25) For the solutions obtained here, these discrepancies are adjusted in the next load increment by subtracting the forces induced by them from the ones computed by Eq, 4.19 in the next load increment. The beam forces induced by Mery and Qere are: Qe or oreo Re) ee Dh Ky Needless to add, the procedure described is applicable for both positive and neg- ) (4.26) ative values of AMr and can, therefore, be used to establish both the loading and unloading paths of the Mr-y diagram. When both points 1 and n/2 +1 are in contact with the foundation (this is possible not only at the start of the loading but at subsequent stages of unloading and reloading as well), 2 minimum moment, given by the following expression, is required to rotate the plate boundary. For rotation about point n/2 +1, [Monin] = 32 Qimin di + WR (4.2Ta) and for rotation about point 1, [Mninl = > Qimin (2R — di) +WR (4.27b) where Qimin = the minimum force required to uplift the end of the i-th beam.8 It is conceivable that at some stage neither point 1 nor point n/2 +1 may be in contact with the foundation. This is due to the fact that beams which have experienced substantial yielding may require an infinite downward force to bring them in contact with the foundation. Provision for varying pressures ~ During the seismic response of tanks, the pressures on the base plate vary in both time and location, and this variation must be considered in the analysis. For the relatively small portions of the plate that actually uplift in practical situations, the variation of the pressure in the radial direction is generally small and can be ignored, whereas the variation in the circumferential direction can be considered by assigning different intensity of pressure to the different beams in the model. The temporal variations can be considered by adjusting the pressure intensities at different times. Numerical results - Figure 4.8 shows the Mr- diagram computed for a uni- formly loaded steel plate for progressively increasing number of beams in the model. The solutions are for plate with h = 0.00052, values of v=03, oy/E=1.2x10 and = E/p=1.5x 10° and boundary constraints representative of those provided by a cylindrical shell of thickness h, 0.001 and weight W = 0.015W;. The moment Mr in these solutions is expressed as a percentage of WiR, and the rotation y is expressed in degrees. In the left hand side of Fig. 4.8 are compared the solutions obtained with 4 and 8 beams, whereas those obtained with 8 and 16 beams are compared in the right hand79 go sweag 9} ---- sweeg g — = 4 01x oT = 4/7 ‘01 _ = eee ‘g aude Aypeouy: 31 . = “600° = Y/¥) Id Pau oe hon sae eee cana Bees ee ren emer eee POW soasSap ‘pt seaaSap ‘ip swieag p---- sweag g— Ob80 side. Note that the results are not particularly sensitive to the number of beams considered, and that even the results obtained with 4 beams (a pair of beams in each of the two perpendicular directions) differ only slightly from those obtained with 16 beams. The solutions presented hereafter were obtained with 8 beams. ‘The rapid rate of convergence of the solution inspires confidence in the accuracy of method of analysis. Reinforcing this confidence are the small widths of the uplifted regions of the plate which substantiate the validity of the assumptions made. The uplifted regions corresponding to points a, 6, ¢ and d of the diagram in Fig. 4.8 are displayed in Fig. 4.9. An interesting feature of the Mr-y diagram in Fig. 4.8is that it is highly ‘pinched’ Accordingly, the hysteretic energy dissipation per deformation cycle is only a frac- tion of that which would be experienced in a system with normal bilinear hysteresis diagram. A parametric study, similar to the one presented earlier for axisymmetrically up- lifted plate, was carried out to investigate the effects of the various parameters on the Mr- diagram. The positive parts of Mr- diagrams obtained for representative cases are shown in Figs. 4.10 through 4.12. The results in Figs. 4.10 and 4.11 are for different values of plate and shell thickness, respectively, while those in Fig. 4.12 are for different values of the yield level for the plate material. Examination of these results reveals that the effects of these parametric variations on the Mp-y diagrams81 Fig. 4.9 Uplifted Regions of Plate for Loads Corresponding to Points a, 6, ¢ and d of Moment-Rotation Diagram of Fig. 4.882 (e0=4 ‘01x ot =d/q “eO1X ZT = a/*0 ‘g10'0 = Mi/a4 “1000 = 4f/*y) sossouyjory,y, quosoyiG {HMM saved paytdy AIpeouoUUIAsy 40) sureIBeIG UOIFeOY-yUOWOW OTF BL saaisap* seaaSap ‘it saaaSap ‘ih sO €0 oO sO eo Vo sO €0 Vo L 41 1 L 1 1 t ttt 1 0 100°0 = u/4 $000°0 = u/4 $z000'0 = u/483 (co=4 ‘01x T= 4/9 01 X 21 = 4/*9 ‘co00'0 = Y/Y) sassauyoIyy, [TEA YURI, OIL sold payiidy Aeounauudsy 10} sureateig uoryeoy-quowoy, T1°F “ soeiSop soaaSap ‘sp soaaSop ‘ft so 60 ro so £0 Fo su £0 Vo a 4 4 L pp L 4 4 4 1 0 o£0'0 = 'M/M S10°0 = 'M/M $200°0 = 'MA/M zoo'o = u/*4 to0'0 = u/*4 s000'0 = u/*4 aM TW ‘Oot84 (go=4' 01x 91 =4/a 0 = Wat/At “100° = 4/*Y “50000 = Y/Y) 819497 PIPLA WABI sapid payiidy, Ayjwanauussy 10) suresFeg uopeyoy-1uoWOW Z1°h “Bid soaasap “ft so £0 te 01 X OT = G/*0 saasZop ‘pt $0 0 fr ee e-OLX 81 =q/40 sooaSap s0 £0 a 4 —t eOlX be = q/*o aM “Ww ‘O0T85 are quite similar to their effects on the Qr-w; diagrams for the axisymmetrically uplifted plate examined earlier. In particular, a change in the plate thickness affects significantly the minimum moment required to induce initial uplifting of the plate boundary (see Fig. 4.10), whereas a change in the wall thickness affects significantly the slope of the Mr- diagram at large rotations (see Fig. 4.11). The size of the hysteresis loop is influenced significantly by the plate thickness as well as by the yield level of the plate material. 4.5 Conclusions A highly efficient approximate method of analysis has been presented for the uplift- ing and rocking resistances of a uniformly loaded circular plate to forces that are distributed along its boundary. The plate has been modeled by a series of semi- infinite prismatic beams uplifted at their ends. For the axisymmetric conditions of loading, the accuracy of the method has been checked by comparing its results with those obtained by an ‘exact’ analysis. The method is also expected to be accurate for asymmetric conditions of loading because the principal underlying assumption regarding the absence of circumferential interaction between neighboring beams is considered to be reasonable for small amounts of uplift encountered in practice. With respect to efficiency, the method for axisymmetric uplifting is about 20 times faster than the ‘exact’. The relative efficiency of the method is expected to be even greater for asymmetric uplifting. The method does not pose any numerical problems.86 The principal conclusions of the study may be summarized as follows: ‘* As would be expected, the thicknesses of plate and the constraining shell af- fect significantly the uplifting resistance of plate. The plate thickness affects mainly the resistance at small displacements, whereas the shell thickness affects primarily the resistance at large displacements. * The yield level of the plate material has a relatively small effect on the uplifting resistance, but does influence significantly the size of the hysteresis loop. The size of this loop is also influenced significantly by the plate thickness. * The hysteresis loops associated with plate uplifting are significantly ‘pinched’, with the result that the amounts of energy dissipation are normally small frac- tions of those for systems with normal bilinear hysteretic diagrams.Chapter 5 Dynamic Response Analysis 5.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the seismic response analysis of tank-liquid systems that are either unanchored or partially anchored. The broad objectives are: 1. To formulate a relatively simple model that realistically represents the action of these systems; and 2. Through detailed parametric studies, to gain improved understanding of the behavior of these systems and the effects and relative importance of various parameters involved. 5.2 System Considered The system considered is a cylindrical steel tank of radius R, filled to a height H with a liquid of mass density p). The tank which is presumed to be resting on a rigid base is excited by a unidirectional component of horizontal ground motion which induces rocking y in its wall and partial uplifting in its flexible base plate, as shown in Fig. 5.1. 87Fig. 5.1 Tank-Liquid System Considered 8889 Both unanchored and partially anchored tanks are considered. The anchorage considered is of the type that is provided by bolts spaced evenly around the tank perimeter. Cylindrical set of coordinates (2, r and ¢) with origin at the center of the base plate is used to specify the position of points in the tank. 5.3 Modeling of the System It is desirable to begin with a brief review of the response of a flat bottom tank to prescribed translation ,(t) and rotation #(t) of its base, as shown in Fig. 5.2. ‘The hydrodynamic action in such a tank can be expressed in two parts: (i) the impulsive action, which is due to the liquid in the lower portion of the tank moving in unison with the tank wall; and (ii) the convective action, which is due to liquid near the free surface undergoing sloshing motion. Whereas, sloshing modes are character- ized by their long periods of vibration, impulsive modes have much shorter periods. By virtue of the vast difference between their periods, these two actions can be un- coupled in most cases. Usually the convective contribution to the response is quite small and can be neglected. Also, for relatively broad tanks with height to radius ratio of the order of 1.5 or less the contribution of higher impulsive modes to the response can also be ignored [7]Fig. 5.2 Tank Subjected to Base Translation and Rotation 90o1 For a tank responding in its fundamental impulsive mode only, the hydrodynamic pressures on the wall of the tank can be expressed as [9]: (2, 0,t) = a(z) pi RA(t) cos ¢ (5.1a) where a(2) is a dimensionless function that defines their heightwise distribution; and A(t) is the instantaneous pseudoacceleration of a similarly excited SDF system. The computation of A(t) is described later. Similatly, the pressures on the tank base are given approximately by, P(r, dt) © @(r) pr RA(L) cos d (5.1b) where a(r) is a dimensionless function that defines their radial distribution. The ‘exact’ expression for these pressures also includes a term that is proportional to [9]. This term, which represents the part of the liquid rotating rigidly with the tank base, is generally quite small and is neglected in the following developments. With the hydrodynamic forces established, the base shear and moment may be determined by integration. The base shear, Q(t), and the moment at a section im- mediately above the base, M(t), may be expressed as: Q(t) = malt) (6.23) and M(t) = mhA(t) (5.2b) where m is the effective or modal mass of the liquid; and his the height to the centroid of the pressure forces.92 The overturning moment at a section below the base plate may be written as: M'(t) = m(h+ SR)A(t) (5.2c) where the second term on the right represents the contribution of the hydrodynamic pressures acting on the base plate, and h+ 6h represents the height at which the mass m or force Q(t) must be concentrated to yield the correct overturning moment below the base. A SDF model of the tank can, therefore, be constructed by supporting the mass ‘m through a flexible, massless cantilever of height + 6h. The properties of the cantilever are considered to be such that the natural frequency of the model and the associated damping factors are same as those for the fundamental impulsive mode of the tank. This model is same as the one described in Ref. [9] except that it does not include a rigid horizontal member of moment of inertia Jy which represented the effect of liquid mass rotating rigidly with the tank base. ‘The pseudoacceleration, A(t), of the SDF system just described is: Alt) = Tee [ain + (h+ 6h) U(r) expl—Cu(t ~ z)]sinlalt — 7dr (5.3) where w = the fundamental frequency in rad/sec; ¢ = modal damping ratio; and & = the damped frequency = w VI=(7. Frequency w is given by, extn SE (54) he frequency in cps; Cy, = a dimensionless coefficient of natural frequency; E and p are the Young's modulus of elasticity and mass density of the tank material, respectively.93 ‘The quantities m, h, 6h and C,, depend upon: the aspect ratio, H/R; wall thick- ness to radius ratio of the tank, 4,/R; Poisson’s ratio for the tank material, v; and the ratio of the density of the liquid to that of the tank wall, pi/p. Selected values of these quantities for different H/R and h,/R ratios are reproduced in Table 5.1 from Ref. [9]. The mass m is presented as a fraction of the total mass of the liquid in the tank, mj, and heights h and 6h are presented as fractions of the height H. These values are for v = 0.3 and pi/p = 0.127. The pressure distribution coefficients a(z) and a(r) for steel tanks with h,/R = 0.001 are shown in Fig. 5.3 for three different values of H/R. Unanchored tank model - When used in conjunction with Eqs. 5.1 and 5.2, Eq. 5.3 defines completely the magnitudes of the hydrodynamic pressures and asso- ciated tank forces. In particular, the first term in the integral represents the effect of base translation, whereas the second represents the effect of base rocking. The signif- icance of the two components of the latter term may be understood by assuming that the base plate is separated at its boundary from the tank wall. The first component, involving the product Aa, then represents the effect of the rocking motion of the tank wall alone when the base plate remains in its horizontal position, whereas the second component, involving the product 6h 1), represents the effect of the rigid body rotation of the base plate with the wall remaining in its vertical position. It should be realized that each of these actions induces pressures that deform the wall in its fundamental impulsive mode.94 Table 5.1 Dynamic Properties of Fundamental Impulsive Mode of Vibration for Steel Tanks Filled with Water (v = 0.3, p/p = 0.127) [9] Ae H A A es Se - ey R| R7° F R ROS mim, 0.0005 0.300 0.549 0.694, 0.695, 0.001 0.304 0.554 0.700 0.703 0.002 0.312 0.565 0.711 0.713 h/H 0.0005 0.385, 0.415 0.491 0.547 0.001 0.387 0.417 0.492 0.548 0.002 0.392 0.420, 0.494 0.549 (ht 6h)/H 0.0005 1.455 0.709 0.543 0.562 0.001 1.428 0.706 0.543 0.563 0.002 1.384 0.700 0.544 0.564 Co 0.0005 0.0506. 0.0620 0.0637 0.0563 0.001 0.0719 0.0875 0.0896 0.0792 0,002 0.1019 0.1231 0.1254 0.110895 xin 0.5. Oo 0.5 t t 0.5 ° a(z) r/R Fig. 5.3 Coefficients a(z) and a(r) for Impulsive Components of Hydrodynamic Pressures [9]96 An important difference between the system just discussed and the unanchored system shown in Fig. 5.1 is in the motion of the base plate. Whereas in the former system the entire base plate rotates like a rigid body, in the latter only a small portion of the plate actually participates in the rotational motion. It will be seen later in this chapter that, during the seismic response of most tanks, the uplifted area of the plate is seldom more than 10% of the total base area. In the evaluation of the hydrodynamic action, it is, therefore, reasonably adequate to consider the effects of the translational and rotational components of the excitation of the tank wall and to ignore the effects of rotation of the base plate itself. This is tantamount to deleting the term 6h in Eq. 5.3. The direct evaluation of A(t) from Eq. 5.3 is of course not possible since the quantity @ is not known. ‘The evaluation of A(¢) is described later. With this approximation, the uplifting tank-liquid system may be represented by the model shown in Fig. 5.4 in which the mass m is concentrated at height h, and the rotational spring at the base represents the resistance of the base plate to rocking. In fixed-base conditions, the model exhibits same damping as the model 5.2. The relationship between the discussed previously for the system shown in Fig. base moment, M, and the spring rotation, #, is obtained by the application of method described in Chapter 4 (where M is denoted by Mr), making due provision for the variation of the base pressure in time and location. In the model used for this purpose the plate is represented by eight semi-infinite beams each of uniform width 6 = 7R/4.Fig. 5.4 Model of Unanchored Tank-Liquid System98 It should be recalled that, in addition to the validity of the approximation referred to above, the analysis presented here assumes that: (i) in fixed-base conditions, the tank-liquid system responds in its fundamental impulsive mode; and (ii) the con- vective component of response is negligible. The effect of the second assumption is explained later. 5.4 Equations of Motion ‘The equations of motion for the system are conveniently formulated by reference to the model shown in Fig. 5.4. Equilibrium of forces on the mass m requires that, mig + Cte — ph) + k(uo — ph) = —mé,(t) (5.5a) whereas equilibrium of moments at a section just above the rotational spring requires that, [elite — Bh) + k(u, — wh)] h = M(w) (5.5b) where tp = the overall displacement of the mass relative to the horizontal displacement of the base; = the base rotation; #,(t) = the horizontal ground acceleration at any time t; ¢ = 2wm = the damping coefficient; k = wm = the stiffness of the superstructure; and M = the moment in the spring, which is a function of base rotation, #99 Because the M-y relationship is nonlinear, Eqs. 5.5a and 5.5b are solved incre- mentally, assuming linear relationship between the moment increment AM, and rotation increment Ay, i.e. AM = K,Av (5.6) where Ky = the instantaneous value of the rotational spring stiffness. With prefix used to denote a small increment for each of the remaining responses in Eqs. 5.52 and 5.5b, these equations may be written as: mo|| Aa, c -c}} Au + + 0 0} | Adk ~c oc] { Avh ko =k mAS,(t eo) af?) (5.7) —k k+ Ky/h? Avh 0 ‘To avoid the problems of accuracy and convergence normally encountered in the numerical solution of equations such as these with a singular mass matrix, the fol- lowing approximate relationship between Au, and Ay is established from the second of these equations by considering c = 0. { Au, 1 : “| ke ot (5.8) Aygh Ke where K,, the effective stiffness of the system, is given by, 1 1 1 + (5.9) K/RB100 On substituting Eq. 5.8 into Eq, 5.7 and premultiplying the resulting expression by the transpose of vector on the right side of Eq. 5.8, one obtains the following single differential equatior mA, + CeAtig + KeAue = —mAi,(t) (5.10) in which C,, the effective viscous damping coefficient for the system, is given by, a G.=e (&) (5.11) Inasmuch as K is smaller than k, the viscous damping coefficient for the unanchored system may be much smaller than for the anchored system. In addition to the value of uo, of interest in the solution of Eq. 5.10 are the values of the base rotation, #, and of deformation of the superstructure, u. The computation of these quantities is described in the following section. It may simply be noted here that u, is related to u and ¥ by, uy =utvh (6.12) 5.5 Method of Solution The solution of Eq. 5.10 is obtained by the linear acceleration method [33], in which the acceleration ii, is assumed to vary linearly over each time increment At. Let the values of ii, tip and u, and of rotational spring stiffness Ky (hence K, and C,) be known at time tp, and let it be desired to obtain the corresponding values at time tnt = tn + At. The desired solution is implemented as follows:101 1. Assuming linear variation of di, over the time increment At, the following expres- sions for velocity increment Ait, and displacement increment Au, are obtained: Aig = tio(tn) At + aa. St (5.13a) 2 2 Aug = tielty)At + I(t) + aac (5.13b) ‘These expressions are substituted into Eq. 5.10 to yield following algebraic equa- tion in Aii,: 2 m+ oA s KAP) aig = ~mAi, ~ Ciel ty) At [ietwa + alta] (5.14) 2. Using the value of Aii, computed in the previous step, Ati is first obtained from Eq. 5.18a, and then the acceleration and velocity at time t,4, are obtained from, tio(tn41) = to(te) + Aite (5.154) tio(tn41) = tlo(tn) + Atty (5.15b) 3. The moment in the spring at time tn41 is obtained from, M(tna1) = lito(tn41) + Fp(tn4r)] mA (5.16)102 4. The base pressure for the uplifted region of the plate is computed by su- perimposing the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressures. The latter pres- sure is determined from Eq. 5.1b assuming that its radial variation within the uplifted region is negligible and using the value corresponding to the plate boundary. Furthermore, the pseudoacceleration in this step is approximated by Altai) © —tio(tn+1) — #9(tn41), Which is reasonable for small values of viscous damping considered. The resulting expression is: PCR, O,tna1) = pig H — a(R) pr R liio(tnss) + Ep(tn+1)] C05 $ (5.17) 5. By application of the method described in Chapter 4, the spring rotation is computed using the moment and base pressure determined in steps 3 and 4, respectively. In the process of this computation, one also evaluates the uplifting force and the plastic rotation at the end of the beams used to represent the base plate. 6. The deformations u and u, at tay are finally determined from, ute) = —Lieltenn) + eure m+ Cetio(tnaa) (65.18) Uo(tng1) = U(tnta) + Y(tng) A (5.18b) and the pseudoacceleration appearing in the expressions for the hydrodynamic wall pressures and the associated tank forces is computed from, A(tng1) = ©u( tnt) (5.19)5.6 103 It should be noted that the latter quantity in this approach is determined with- out reference to Eq. 5.3. Numerical Results ‘Two tanks with the following characteristics are examined here: The first tank, which conforms to the API Standard 650 [30], is a very large capacity, broad steel tank of 80 ft radius and 64 ft height which is filled with water to a height of 48 ft. The shell of the tank consists of eight courses, each of 8 ft height and thickness ranging from 1.14 in. for the bottom course to 0.31 in. for the top course. A uniform base plate thickness of h = 0.57 in. is assumed. The material properties of the tank are: Young’s modulus of elasticity, E = 29 x 10° ksi; yield stress, 7, = 36 ksi; and Poisson’s ratio, v = 0.3. The unit weights of the water and the tank material are: wv = pg = 624 pef, and 7 = pg = 490 pef. The weight of the tank wall, W = 846 kips. The dynamic properties for the first impulsive mode of vibration are obtained from ‘Table 5.1 using a value of H/R = 0.6 and an equivalent uniform shell thickness of he = 0.80 in. These properties are: mg = 21,272 kips, h = 226 in. and f =w/2x = 3.94 cps. Modal damping is assumed to be 2% of its critical value. ‘The elastic constraints at the boundary of the base plate are computed for the base course shell thickness of hy = 1.14 in.104 * The second tank which is typical of those found in nuclear power sites of low seismic intensity was previously examined in Ref. [31]. It is a relatively tall tank of 20 ft radius filled with water to its full height of 37 ft. The shell thickness varies from 0.38 in. for the bottom course to 0.19 in. for the top course. The thickness of the base plate is taken as h = 0.19 in. The material properties of this tank are the same as those for the first tank. The weight of the tank wall, W = 44 kips. Determined from Table 5.1 for H/R = 1.85 and an equivalent uniform shell thickness of he = 0.23 in, the dynamic properties for the first impulsive mode of vibration are: mg = 2,012 kips, h = 214 in. and f = w/2n = 6.43 cps. Modal damping is taken as 2% of its critical value. ‘The end constraints for the base plate are computed for the base course shell thickness of h, = 0.38 in. ‘The base excitations considered are scaled versions of the N-S component of the 1940 El Centro earthquake ground motion record, the acceleration, velocity and dis- placement traces for which are shown in Fig. 5.5. The pseudoacceleration response spectra for systems with ¢ = 0.02 and ¢ = 0.05 subjected to this ground shaking are shown in Fig. 5.6. Response of broad tank ~ The top two curves in Fig. 5.7 represent the pseu- doacceleration histories of the tank-liquid system to the El Centro record for fully anchored and unanchored conditions of support. It should be observed that, com-2 7—0.31 g 20.3 g 3 5 0 3 8 $0.3 : 3 15 (14 in/sec < s So 3 3 3 > -15 /— 8.28 in. 2 8 3 4 z 0 a 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t, sec Fig. 5.5 N-S Component of 1940 El Centro Earthquake Ground Motion Record106 IX} wo a Normalized Pseudoacceleration, A/X, 0 2 4 6 8 10 Frequency, cps Fig. 5.6 Pseudoacceleration Response Spectra for Systems Subjected to El Centro Recordfr anchored tank Non +O-2 Vo tee eee eee +o Normalized Pseudoacceleration, A(t)/x, coc ni a Joell AMMA i, ey Fig. 5.7 Pseudoacceleration and Deformation Histories for Broad Tank Subjected to El Centro Record (Unless otherwise noted, the resvonses are for unan- chored condition)108 pared to the response history of the anchored tank, the corresponding history of the unanchored tank, © has significantly longer periods of oscillation and a significantly smaller peak value; « exhibits nearly uniform amplitudes for major part of the response; and @ decays at a much slower rate after the end of the excitation. ‘The first of these trends may be appreciated by noting that the unanchored system is the softer system with a longer natural period than the anchored system. In fact, if the unanchored system were linear, its natural period 7 could be related to the corresponding period of the anchored system, T, by the equation T/T = ula (5.20) in which u, and u are the instantaneous values of the deformations identified in Fig. 5.4. If the response is dominated by the free vibrational characteristics of the system then the same equation would also relate the dominant periods of the responses of the two systems. For the example considered, the histories of these deformations are displayed at the bottom of Fig. 5.7. It is of interest to note that on using the peak values of u, and u, which are 1.09 in. and 0.44 in, respectively, and taking T = 1/f * 0.25 sec, one obtains a value of T 0.4 sec which is very close to the average period in the vicinity of the peak response. A good estimate of the average response period is, therefore, obtained by the use of this equation.109 ‘The increase in period may in turn explain the reduction in the peak pseudoac- celeration. As can be seen from the response spectra plots in Fig. 5.6, an increase in period from 0.25 sec to 0.40 sec (or a decrease in frequency from 4 eps to 2.5 eps) would result in a significant reduction in the pseudoacceleration amplitudes. The actual reduction is, however, even greater than the one predicted from the response spectra, probably because it is the period at the instant when the peak response oc- curs and not the average period in the vicinity of the peak response that determines the response amplitudes. ‘The nearly uniform pseudoacceleration amplitudes of the response also imply nearly uniform moment amplitudes as the two quantities are proportional to each other. The reason for this uniform behavior lies in the ‘flat’ nature of the M- di- agram (shown later in Fig. 5.13), which shows only a slight increase in the moment for values of > 0.05°. ‘The small rate at which the response amplitudes, following the termination of the excitation, decay is an indication of small system damping. This is due primarily to the reduced deformations and velocities in the superstructure which make its viscous damping mechanism nearly ineffective. Similar loss of damping is also observed in the response of structures supported on flexible soils [32]. Additional insight into the damping characteristics of an unanchored system is provided later on. Response of tall tank - The response of this tank is obtained for scaled El Centro record with peak ground acceleration of , = 0.159. On noting that110 the height of this tank is nearly same as that of the previous tank but its radius is only 1/4th that of the previous tank, and keeping in mind that the rotational spring stiffness, Ky, is proportional to R®, one would expect significantly larger base rota- tions and much longer periods in the response of this tank. That this is indeed the case is clearly shown by the pseudoacceleration and deformation response histories that are shown in Fig. 5.8 The ratio T/T, computed from Eq. 5.20, is 5.3 for this tank as compared to 1.6 for the previous tank, The significant increase in period in turn results in large reduction in the pseudoacceleration response amplitudes. The response histories of deformations shown at the bottom of Fig. 5.8 reveal that after uplifting nearly all the deformation is absorbed by the base plate, with the superstructure (tank wall-liquid system) experiencing a more or less rigid body motion. The loss of viscous damping is, therefore, nearly complete in this case. Critical responses - The performance of an unanchored system can not be judged by pseudoacceleration alone. The critical responses for an unanchored system are the base uplift, plastic rotation at the plate-shell junction, and the axial compres- sive stress in the tank wall. The maximum values of these quantities occur at points 1 and 2 of the tank, shown in Fig. 5.1. The base uplift and plastic rotation at these points are, of course, equal to those of the corresponding beams used to model the base plate. The response histories of these quantities are shown in Figs. 5.9 and 5.10 for the two tanks. The maximum.qd For anchored tank Normalized Pseudoacceleration, A(t)/x, 1 0 A 21 Us Z rs 3 20 £ 5 O44 a Fig. 5.8 Pseudoacceleration and Deformation Histories for Tall Tank Subjected to Scaled El Centro Record with @, = 0.159 (Unless otherwise noted, the responses are for unanchored condition)12 For anchored tank = my For point 1 For point 2 o °o onontroranrtrotoror (Bi UE NED 280 yoy ee ug HL SS8ONIS oassonduED , SEC t, Fig. 5.9 Critical Responses of Broad Tank Subjected to El Centro Record (Unless otherwise noted, the responses are for unanchored condition)113 For point 1 For point 2----- For anchored tank Teel ual Nnrorn ur yuidn, eseg 12 ts ©Q0No soomop u0r1ze,0Y I19Se[ qT T m1 OF t~oOoOtTotrod Isy ‘ssaayg oatssordurog Fig. 5.10 Critical Responses of Tall Tank Subjected to Scaled El Centro Record with 2, = 0.159 (Unless otherwise noted, the responses are for unan- chored condition)414 base uplift of 5.5 in. for the broad and 2.6 in. for the tall tank calls for suitable flexibility in the design of any piping that may be attached to the tank wall. The plastic rotation, because of its cyclic variation, is a potential source of fatigue damage at the plate-shell junction. For the mild-steel plates examined here, the maximum plastic angle of 8° and 14° computed for the broad and the tall tank, respectively, are not considered to be unduly high ‘The maximum axial compressive stress in the tank wall was evaluated approxi- mately following a suggestion made in Ref. [28] on the basis of experimental obser- vations. Specifically, it is assumed that after uplifting the contact between the wall and the foundation is confined to an arc of central angle of 40° and that the stress distribution over the contact length is in triangular shape with its peak at the center. If Q1 is the reaction at point 1 at an instant when the tank base is rocking about that point (see Fig. 5.1) the compressive stress at that point is computed from, -—& ° = S]9Rh, For the base plate model considered, the reaction @y is simply the force at the end (5.21) of beam through point 1. For the anchored system, the compressive stress at point 1 is computed from, MR IT Ww 2h, (5.22) where J = R°h, = the moment of inertia of the shell cross-section. Compressive stresses, obtained by the use of Eqs. 5.21 and 5.22 for the unanchored and anchored system, respectively, are displayed at the bottom of Figs. 5.9 and 5.10.1s As expected, base uplifting results in significantly increased maximum compressive stress in the tank wall which is 8.7 ksi for the broad and 8.15 ksi for the tall tank. Each of these values is in fact slightly larger than the maximum value allowed by the API Standard 650 (30] in its guidelines against buckling failure. The latter value, implicit in which is a safety factor of 1.5, is 7.0 ksi for the broad and 7.5 ksi for the tall tank. It was obtained from the following formula: OPh, oR Fea + 600VE (5.23) in which F, = the maximum allowable longitudinal compressive stress in the shell in pounds per square inch; H and R = the height and radius, respectively, in feet; and hh, = the thickness of the bottom shell course in inches. Due to a lack of general consensus on the value of critical buckling stress, use was also made of the formula given in Ref. (5, Eq. 7-78], which after providing for a safety factor of 1.5, gives critical buckling stress of 8.3 ksi for the broad and 10.1 ksi for the tall tank. Uplifted regions of the base plate ~ The uplifted regions of the base plate at selected times are shown in Fig. 5.11 for the broad tank and Fig, 5.12 for the tall tank. The maximum uplifted area for the broad tank occurs at t = 4.3 sec and is nearly 6% of the total base area, whereas that for the tall tank occurs at t = 5.2 sec and is nearly 8% of the total base area. These relatively small values confirm the validity of the assumption made in the analysis regarding the effect of base uplift on the hydrodynamic pressures.116 Fig. 5.11 Uplifted Regions of Base Plate at Selected Times of Response of Unan- chored Broad Tank Considered in Fig. 5.7Fig. 5.12 Uplifted Regions of Base Plate at Selected Times of Response of Unan- chored Tall Tank Considered in Fig. 5.8118 It may be noted that a small annular portion of the plate uplifts even at time t=0. The reason for this was described in Chapter 4 where it was shown that the hydrostatic pressures on the tank wall cause a portion of the plate adjacent to its boundary to uplift even when the boundary itself does not. Damping in unanchored systems - The damping in an uplifting system is due partly to the viscous action in the superstructure and partly to the hysteretic action in the rotational spring. As noted earlier, the effectiveness of the former damping is greatly reduced in an uplifting system. To appreciate the presence of the latter, one needs to look at the M-y diagrams of the rotational spring which are shown in Fig. 5.13 for the two tanks. Due to the ‘pinched’ nature of these diagrams one would not expect the hysteresis damping to be significantly large in these cases. ‘An estimate of the damping in an unanchored system was obtained from the rate of decay of the response amplitudes under the free vibration conditions. The stated response, obtained for an initial velocity of 20 in/sec for the broad and 10 in/sec for the tall tank, is displayed in the form of histories of velocity and deformations in Figs. 5.14 and 5.15 for the two tanks. It may be noted that the deformations in these cases are nearly the same as those experienced by the tanks in their response to base excitation. ‘The computations done on the basis of the rate of decay of velocity amplitudes [33, Eq. 4-41] indicate the presence of 3% and 5% equivalent viscous damping for the broad and the tal] tank, respectively. These values of damping are, however,119 -0.2 5 0.1 0.2 wu, degrees For Broad Tank -0.4 . 0.2 0.4 uw. degrees -0.1 For Tall Tank Fig. 5.13 Base Moment-Rotation Diagrams for Unanchored Tanks Examined in Figs. 5.7 and 5.8120 For anchored tank INNA A Anan craman ee AAA Ae Fig. 5.14 Free Vibration Response Histories of Broad Tank (Unless otherwise noted. the responses are for unanchored condition)121 Va anchored tank °o Velocity, tt, in/sec Oo o 4 Deformations, in. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t, sec Fig. 5.15 Free Vibration Response Histories of Tall Tank (Unless otherwise noted, the responses are for unanchored condition)122 for the first cycle only. The damping values for subsequent cycles are significantly smaller (< 1%) due to smaller hysteresis loops for these cycles. Therefore, despite the hysteretic action, the unanchored systems may in fact exhibit smaller damping than the corresponding anchored systems. Effects of ground motion intensity ~ The base excitations of different intensi- ties were obtained by scaling the El Centro record to different values of peak ground acceleration, #5, while keeping its history the same. The maximum responses obtained for different intensities are presented in Tables 5.2 and 5.3 for the broad and the tall tank, respectively, and selected histories of pseudoacceleration responses are shown in Figs. 5.16 and 5.17. As expected, an increase in intensity results in a ‘softer’ system (with longer period 7) and smaller normalized peak pseudoacceleration, A/Z,. The absolute value of A, expressed in g’s, however, does show an increase. The responses that are found to change most significantly with intensity are the maximum base up- lift, wmasy and the plastic rotation, Ader. The responses that change at a slow rate are the pseudoacceleration, A, and the maximum compressive stress in the tank wall, maz For example, a more than three fold increase in , (from 0.15g to 0.50g) results in only about 50% increase in both A and Omer for the broad tank. The small change in these quantities is due to the ‘fat’ M-y diagram of the rotational spring which puts a limit on the maximum forces that may be transmitted to the superstructure. It may be noted that both A and ¢,,,2 would have increased in the same proportion as a corresponding increase in #, if the tank were fully anchored at its base.123 Table 5.2 Maximum Responses of Unanchored Broad Tank Subjected to Different Intensities of El Centro Record i, | A A Cmax Woz AOmax Taz gs |e gs ksi in. degrees sec o14|]347 049 0.83 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.15 |] 340 051 6.68 0.07 0.00 (0.26 0.16 |} 332 053 6.89 0.16 0.00 0.26 0.18} 3.17 057 7.26 0.40 0.00 © 0.27 0.20 || 3.01 0.60 758 0.95 0.40 0.29 0.23 |} 2.74 0.63 791 1.93 2.27 0.32 0.26 |} 2.53 066 819 3.07 4320.35 0.28 |} 239 067 818 3.78 537 0.36 031226 070 870 5.50 8.00 0.39 0407193 0.77 953 8771195 OK 045/171 077 9.51 «87097 OK 0.50 | 1.51 0.76 9.38 8.08 11.22 0.44124 Table 5.3 Maximum Responses of Unanchored Tall Tank Subjected to Different Intensities of El Centro Record fy | A A omar mez ABmez Tras gs] gs ksi in, degrees sec 0.02 | 4.13 0.08 0.59 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.03 | 3.67 9 0.11 5.39 0.11 0.00 0.26 0.04 | 2.57 0.10 5.08 0.07 0.00 0.23 0.05 | 2.23 0.11 545 0.12 0.00 0.27 0.06 | 2.02 0.12 5.89 0.23 0.46 0.33 0.08 | 1.53 0.12 5.96 0.25 0.66 0.33 0.10 | 151 0.15 7.02 151 8.34 0.71 0.12 | 155 0.19 8.57 3.00 15.66 0.95 0.15 | 117 0.18 8.15 2.62 14.09 0.84 018 | 127 0.23 10.12 447 21.45 0.96 0.20 | 1.23) 0.25 10.81 5.05 23.24 0.98 0.25" | 1.59* 0.40" 16.38" 9,52" 32.76" 1.06" “Base uplifting in this case is so large that the suitability of the model is questionable. ‘Moreover, the response of the system is considered to be unacceptably high.&, < 0.15g w o o t Normalized Pseudoacceleration, A(t)/%, . t,sec Fig. 5.16 Pseudoacceleration Histories for Unanchored Broad Tank Subjected to Different Intensities of El Centro Record126 Normalized Pseudoacceleration, A(t)/. t, sec Fig. 5.17 Pseudoacceleration Histories for Unanchored Tall Tank Subjected to Dif- ferent Intensities of E] Centro Record127 Effects of base plate and wall thicknesses - By virtue of their significant effect on the uplifting resistance of the base plate, seen in Chapter 4, the thicknesses of the base plate and the tank wall are expected to significantly influence the seismic response of unanchored tanks. Solutions for different values of base plate thickness, presented in Tables 5.4 and 5.5, show significant reductions in wnar and A@maz with increase in plate thickness. As expected, an increase in plate thickness causes a significant reduction in the re- sponse period, 7’, which in turn effects the pseudoacceleration and the compressive stress, accordingly. The effect of increasing wall thickness is three-fold: i) it increases the frequency of the superstructure, f, which is proportional to the square root of the wall thickness, Eq. 5.4; (ii) it increases the uplifting resistance of the base plate by increasing the resistance against inward displacement at the plate boundary; and (iii) it increases the weight of the tank wall, W. The results for different values of wall thickness, presented in Tables 5.6 and 5.7, show that the periods become smaller as wall thickness increases and base uplift, plastic rotation and compressive stress reduce significantly. Effects of convective action - In the solutions presented so far the convective action was completely ignored. Strictly speaking, this action must be considered in the computation of hydrodynamic wall pressures and the associated overturning base moment. The fundamental convective period of vibration, obtained from Ref. (7], is 8.15 sec for the broad and 3.65 sec for the tall tank. This is significantly larger128 Table 5.4 Maximum Responses of Unanchored Broad Tank with Different Base Plate Thicknesses Subjected to El Centro Record h A Gmaz Umer Omar Trnae in. a, ksi in. degrees sec 0.38, 1.95 7.35 5.88 13.50 0.71 046 | 208 797 579 10.94 = 0.41 057 | 22 870 550 8.00 0.39 086 | 268 1085 409 190 0.35 1d 2.89 12.01 2.40 0.00 0.31 Table 5.5 Maximum Responses of Unanchored Tall Tank with Different Thicknesses Subjected to Scaled El Centro Record with h A Omez War AOmaz Dna in, &, ksi in, degrees sec 0.13 132 862 4.04 23.83 (0.98 0.16 | 192 815 316 = 18.58 0.72 o19 || 147 8.15 2.62 14.09 0.84 029 | 164 144 373° 13.21 0.84 0.38 | 128 9.08 0.40 0.00 (0.35, Base Plate 15g129 Table 5.6 Maximum Responses of Unanchored Broad Tank with Different Shell Wall Thicknesses Subjected to El Centro Record hy hel a w A maz Was Abmaz — Tmar in. in. eps kips |] #2 ksi in. degrees sec 057 040 2.75 423/289 15.34 6.36 9.06 0.50 0.86 0.60 3.26 638 | 2.85 10.08 3.22 457 0.40 114 0.80 3.94 846 |347 870 550 8.00 0.39 143 1.00 4.19 1058 /3.14 7.03 3.12 419 0.33 L71 1.20 4.62 1269 | 244 5.85 1.73 1.74 0.28 the = effective wall thickness used in the computation of f from Eq. 5.4. Table 5.7 Maximum Responses of Unanchored Tall Tank with Different Shell Wall Thicknesses Subjected to Scaled El Centro Record with 2, = 0.159 hy het is Ww A maz Wmaz AOmas Tmaz fy ksi in, degrees. sec in. eps kips 0.19 (0.12 4.52 22 | 1.32 17.40 5.09 27.96 LU 0.29 017 541 33 102 937 2.06 1157 O81 0.38 (0.23 643 44 | 117 815 262 14.09 0.84 050 0.29 7.38 55 149 8.03 3.69 1743 0.88 057 (0.35 7.51 66 11.57 7.09 3.62 1627 0.85 the = effective wall thickness used in the computation of f from Eq. 5.4.130 than the effective response period after uplifting, which is 0.39 sec for the broad and 0.84 sec for the tall tank. It is, therefore, considered reasonable to completely uncouple the convective response from the impulsive response. In the approximation employed here, the convective response was separately com- puted using a SDF model of the fundamental convective mode which essentially con- sists of a mass m, supported through a flexible cantilever, of height h., fixed at its base. The overturning base moment computed from this model, for prescribed base excitation, was added to the impulsive moment M(t) at each time step to yield the net moment which was used in the computation of base rotation, y. The properties of the fundamental convective mode used in these computations are obtained from Ref. [7]. These are: meg = 36,746 kips hp =314in f- = 0.12 cps for the broad tank; and ai2in fe meg = 711 kips 0.27 eps for the tall tank. Modal damping was assumed to be 2% of its critical value. ‘The histories of pseudoaccelerations and base uplift responses with convective ac- tion included are compared with those with convective response excluded in Figs. 5.18 and 5.19 for the two tanks. The convective pseudoacceleration A,(t) for the broad tank is negligibly small and so is its effect on the impulsive pseudoacceleration and the base uplift. For the tall tank, however, the convective pseudoacceleration is not negligible131 Convective action: Considered—— __ Ignored Oo A,(t)/% S Aclt)/Re oo o [For point 1 ° (For point 2 Base Uplift, in a t, sec Fig. 5.18 Effect of Convective Liquid Action on Response Histories of Unanchored Broad TankConvective action: Considered ——— __Ignored---- Fig. 5.19 Effect of Convective Liquid Action on Response Histories of Unanchored Tall Tank133 which, therefore, has significant effects on both impulsive pseudoacceleration and on the base uplift. Effect of hydrodynamic base pressures ~ The effects of hydrodynamic base pressures are seen by separately computing and then comparing two sets of results: one with hydrodynamic pressures included in the computation of base plate resis- tance, and another with hydrodynamic pressures excluded in this computation, The comparisons are made in Fig. 5.20 for both the tanks. Since the relative magnitude of the hydrodynamic pressures in comparison to the hydrostatic pressures is small for the tall tank, the effect of disregarding them is also small for this tank. For the broad tank, however, the effect is not negligible. Since hydrodynamic pressures are negative on the uplifting side of the base plate they assist in base uplifting. The solutions obtained by ignoring the hydrodynamic base pressures, therefore, underestimate the magnitude of base uplift. ‘The solutions presented in the following section are obtained by ignoring the hydrodynamic base pressures in the computation of base plate resistance to uplift. 5.7 Partially Anchored Tanks In practice, tanks are anchored by means of pretensioned bolts, spaced evenly around the tank perimeter. A typical anchor detail is shown in Fig. 5.21, in which one end of the bolt is embedded in a concrete foundation while the other rests on a ‘chair’ attached rigidly to the tank wall at some height. The bolt length, denoted by /,Hydrodynamic base pressures: Considered —— __Ignored---- A(t) /%q Base Uplift, in Base Uplift, in t, sec Fig. 5.20 Effect of Hydrodynamic Base Pressure on Response Histories of Unan- chored Tanks 134Fig. 5.21 Typical Anchor Bolt Detail 135136 is typically in the range of 20-40 in. Denoting the maximum value of the moment immediately above the tank base by Mmoz, the total bolt area required to ensure full fixity is given by, Mraz = Me A= Se 5.24) . opk 624) where Mynin = the moment required to initiate base uplift in the corresponding unan- chored tank; and oy = the yield stress of the bolt material. Implicit in this expression is the assumption that the area As is distributed uniformly around the tank perimeter. ‘The objective of this section is to examine the behavior of tanks for which the bolt area provided is actually less than that given by Eq. 5.24 For the bolt lengths used in practice, negligibly small amount of stretching is re- quired to mobilize the full resistance; as an example, a 30 in. bolt with oy = 36 ksi requires only 0.036 in. of elongation to reach its yield resistance. For the solutions presented herein the load-displacement relationship for the bolts is, therefore, con- sidered to be of the rigid-plastic type. With the anchorage detail shown in Fig. 5.21, the bolts can, of course, undergo only stretching. ‘The resisting mechanism of the yielding bolts can be understood by reference to the sketches shown in Fig. 5.22. Sketch (a) in this figure refers to the instant when the tank base has just started to uplift. For the rigid-plastic bolt resistance considered, each of the bolts at this instant would participate in resisting the base uplifting and undergo a plastic elongation equal to the amount of base uplift at the bolt location.137 (c) Fi ig. 5.22 Bolt Resistances at Different Stages of Base Uplift138 The overturning moment due to hydrodynamic action is, therefore, resisted in part by the base plate and in part by the bolts. If, after further uplifting, the overturning moment reduces, the forces in the bolts also reduce, until they become equal to zero, at which instant the bolts are disengaged and resistance is provided solely by the base plate. Sketch (b) refers to an instant half a cycle later than that referred to in sketch (a). ‘The inclined solid e in this sketch denotes the current position of the tank base, whereas the inclined dashed line denotes the previous extreme position of the base. In this case, only those bolts for which the corresponding base uplift is at least equal to the plastic elongation are engaged while the rest remain disengaged. The former are shown by solid vertical lines, while the latter are shown by dashed vertical lines. Sketch (c) refers to an instant during the second cycle at which the base rotation is equal to the extreme counterclockwise rotation during the first cycle. In contrast to the corresponding instant during the first cycle at which all the bolts were engaged, at the current instant only the two rightmost bolts are engaged. In essence, the nature of anchorage provided by bolts is such that the maximum resistance is offered only at the instant when the base first uplifts. At subsequent instants the bolt resistance is reduced, as only those bolts for which the corresponding base uplift is at least equal to the plastic elongation are engaged. In Figs. 5.23 and 5.24 the histories of pseudoacceleration and base uplift for the partially anchored broad and tall tanks are compared with the corresponding histories139 Partially anchored Fully anchored ~ ° tion, A(t)/x, eo Partially anchored \ Unanchored ‘ w ° Normalized Pseudoaccelerat oo Base Uplift, in RNOND A Fig. 5.23 Histories of Pseudoacceleration and Base Uplift for Fully Anchored, Par- tially Anchored and Unanchored Broad Tanks Subjected to El Centro Record (For partially anchored tank, As = 40 in?)140 Partially anchored. Fully anchored i bons b Normalized Pseudoacceleration, A(t)/%, 4 Partially anchored Unanchored 2 x 0 Arf 2 4 g-, Partially anchored y Unanchored 7" {For point 1, Base Uplift, in ° o Fig. 5.24 Histories of Pseudoacceleration and Base Uplift for Fully Anchored, Par- tially Anchored and Unanchored Tall Tanks Subjected to Scaled El Cen- tro Record with Z, = 0.15g (For partially anchored tank, As = 14 in?)141 for the unanchored and fully anchored tanks. The bolt area for the partially anchored tanks in these solutions is approximately 55% of the area required for complete fixity. The following trends are worth noting: 1. The maximum values of the pseudoacceleration for the partially anchored sys- tems are nearly equal to those for the fully anchored systems and are signifi- cantly greater than those for the unanchored systems. 2. The maximum values of the base uplift for the partially anchored systems are significantly greater than those for the unanchored systems. The corresponding values for the fully anchored systems are, of course, equal to zero. 3. The dominant periods of oscillation for the partially anchored system are greater not only than those for the fully anchored systems but than those for the unan- chored systems as well. ‘The fact that a partially anchored system behaves essentially as a fully anchored system until the bolt resistance is overcome explains why the maximum pseudoac- celeration induced in the two systems is nearly the same. The unanchored system, on the other hand, uplifts sooner than the partially anchored system and, therefore, fails to attain the maximum pseudoacceleration response of the fully anchored sys- tem. It conceivable that the partially anchored system after attaining the maximum pseudoacceleration response of the fully anchored system, in the initial part of the response, may, in some cases, even attain higher values subsequently.142 The maximum base uplifts for the partially anchored tanks are greater than those for the unanchored tanks, firstly because the pseudoaccelerations induced in the for- mer are greater, and secondly because at any given instant only a few bolts offer resistance to base uplifting. Larger base uplifts also explain why the periods of os- cillation for the partially anchored tanks are significantly longer than those for the unanchored or fully anchored tanks. Shown in Tables 5.8 and 5.9 are the maximum responses for the two tanks for different values of anchor area. The same results are shown graphically in Figs. 5.25 and 5.26. The anchor area in these figures is expressed as a percentage of the cross- sectional area of the tank shell at its base, A,. The top two curves in these figures are for the maximum pseudoacceleration and maximum compressive stress in the tank wall, whereas the bottom two curves are for maximum base uplift and plastic rotation at the plate-shell junction. As can be seen, the bolt area needed for full fixity against the corresponding excitation is nearly 0.0124, for the broad and 0.05A, for the tall tank. It is interesting to note that the values of the maximum responses for the partially anchored system do not lie between the corresponding values for the unanchored and fully anchored systems but are in fact significantly greater than both of these. It may also be noted that the tanks with anchor area just short of the area required for complete fixity are the ones that experience maximum response. Interpreted143, Table 5.8 Maximum Responses of Partially Anchored Broad Tan’: with Different Values of Total Anchor Bolt Area (oy = 36 ksi, A, = 6876 in*) rode | A ome Wmaz — APmaz A, | 3, ksi in. degrees 0.00 |) 250 8.55 3.44 7.80 010 | 271 9.23 4.02 9.13 0.20 |) 293 9.90 4.64 10.53 0.30 | 305 10.29 4.26 9.59 040 | 3.10 10.76 3.83 8.68 0.50 3.20 10.94 3.88 8.68 060 |) 352 11.72 4.98 11.01 0.70 | 363 12:19 512 11.49 0.30 |) 3.97 12.66 707 14.90 (0.80)t (3.89) (12.98) (13.80) (25.77) 085 | 4.26 © 13.52 8.85 18.22 (0.85)t | (4.13) (13.69) (15.50) (27.99) 0.90 |} 340 13.04 0.55 1.09 1.00 } 345 13.38 0.10 0.00 1.10 3.47 La 0.00 0.00 *Solutions identified in parentheses are for cases in which the bolts are presumed to fail after undergoing a 6 in. elongation.144 ‘Table 5.9 Maximum Responses of Partially Anchored Tall Tank with Different Values ef Total Anchor Bolt Area (04) = 36 ksi, A, = 573 in?) 1042 | A ome was Aber Ay a, ksi in degrees 0.00 |) 117 8.06 2.48 13.59 040 172 1143 4.00 20.19 0.80 |) 205 12.94 435 21.59 1.20 | 198 12.99 2.74 14.98 1.60 |} 2.70 16.29 495 23.63 2.00 | 299 17.87 Bl 24.00 240 | 332 21.80 547 25.23, 2.60 3.72 23.25 6.04 26.66 (2.60)* | (3.72") 23.20") (11.84) 38.63") 2.80 | 399 24.77 6.69 28.36 (2.80) (3.99") (26.347) (13.53") 41.42") 3.20 || 4.66 28.92 751 30.27 (3.20)¢ | (4.447) (29.17") (04.89°) (43.59") 3.60 | 4.55 28.37 6.08 26.81 4.00 | 5.45 36.85 8.31 31.98 440 5.11 35.21 BAT 28.23, 480 |] 413 3.95 0.00 0.00 *Solutions identified in parentheses are for cases in which the bolts are presumed to fail after undergoing a 6 in. elongation. “Base uplifting in these cases is so large that the suitability of the model is quest- ionable. Moreover, the response of the system is considered to be unacceptably high.145 Omax ksi 12 Abmax degrees 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 100A,/A, Fig. 5.25 Effects of Degree of Base Anchorage on Maximum Responses of Broad Tank Subjected to El Centro Record (A, = 6,867 in?, 44 = 36 ksi)6.0 40 ius Winax 5.0) 4 29 ASmax in. degrees 25 0 4 2 3 4 5 100Ay/As Fig. 5.26 Effects of Degree of Base Anchorage on Maximum Responses of Tall Tank Subjected to Scaled El Centro Record with , = 0.159 (A, = 573 in?, oy = 36 ksi)uz differently, it also means that seismic loads that are marginally greater than those for which base anchorage is designed may lead to very large increase in response. The presumption that because of their hysteretic characteristics the base plate and the bolts may dissipate energy and, therefore, reduce response is dispelled by the results presented here. The energy loss due to plate yielding and bolt stretching is in fact quite small, firstly on account of the ‘pinched’ nature of the hysteresis loops associated with plate action, and secondly on account of the unidirectional action of the yielding bolts. This fact may be appreciated from the moment-rotation diagrams at the base of partially anchored tanks that are shown in Fig. 5.27. Vertical segments in these diagrams are for instants at which bolts are being engaged or disengaged and correspond to horizontal segments in the response histories of base uplift, Figs. 5.23 and 5.24. Effect of anchor failure ~ In the solutions presented so far, the possibility of anchor failure due to bolt breaking has not been considered. In the event of anchor failure, the part of overturning moment resisted by anchor bolts is suddenly trans- ferred to the base plate which in turn causes a sharp increase in base uplift. Numerical results for cases in which the bolts start breaking after they have experienced a 6 in. elongation are shown in the parentheses in Tables 5.8 and 5.9. Significant increases in base uplift and associated plastic rotation on account of bolt breaking is notewor- thy. The effect on the pseudoacceleration and maximum compressive wall stress is, however, not significant.148, 0.2 ; I 0.1 0.2 v, degrees -0.1 For Broad Tank 0.4 -1.0 . 0.5 1.0 w, degrees -0.4 For Tall Tank Fig. 5.27 Base Moment-Rotation Diagrams for Partially Anchored Tanks Exam- ined in Figs. 5.23 and 5.24149 On the basis of results presented in this section it is recommended (i) not to design tanks as partially anchored as their responses are generally very high; (ii) to appreciate while designing fully anchored tanks that small increase in loads over the design loads may lead to very large increase in the response; and (iii) to use only sufficiently long bolts which can undergo large plastic elongation without breaking. 5.8 Conclusions ‘A highly efficient method of dynamic analysis of uplifting tanks is presented. The method is believed to adequately consider the essential aspects of the problem for practical cases of tank uplifting. The method does not pose any numerical problems. Conclusions drawn on the basis of numerical results obtained in this chapter are as follows: An unanchored tank after uplifting responds in a highly flexible manner with much reduced hydrodynamic action. The performance of an uplifting tank can not be judged by hydrodynamic pressures alone but also by the magnitudes of response quantities such as: base-uplift, plastic rotation, and compressive stress in the tank wall. A significant increase in these responses takes place as a result of uplifting, © The most important parameter in the dynamic response of unanchored tanks is their H/R ratio, Tanks with higher H/R ratio undergo larger base rotations and greater period elongation after uplifting, For these tanks, nearly all the150 deformation after uplifting may be due to base rotation with the result that the tank wall experiences a more or less rigid body motion. ‘An increase in the intensity of shaking results in a significant increase in the responses of uplifting tanks. The responses that increase most rapidly with intensity are the response period, base uplift, and plastic rotation, whereas the responses that increase at a slow rate are the hydrodynamic pressures and compressive stress in the tank wall. For a tank of given overall dimensions, the thicknesses of the base plate and the wall significantly influence its seismic response. An increase in either plate or wall thickness significantly reduces the response period and base uplift. In addi- tion, an increase in plate thickness significantly reduces the plastic rotation and ‘an increase in wall thickness has a similar effect on the maximum compressive stress in the tank wall. Hydrodynamic pressures on the base assist uplifting. Though, negligible for tall tanks, their effect for broad tanks can be quite significant. In spite of the fact that significant period elongation does take place after up- lifting, the convective response, in most cases, may be uncoupled from the impulsive response.151 © A significant loss in viscous damping occurs as a result of base uplifting. Additional damping due to hysteretic action in the base plate or base anchors is likely to be extremely small. © The maximum responses, including hydrodynamic pressures, of the partially anchored tanks are generally greater than those of the unanchored tanks and may be greater than those of the anchored tanks as well. A slight reduction in the anchor area from that required for complete fixity may lead to large increases in the responses. Great caution should, therefore, be exercised in the design of anchored tanks. # Anchor failure either due to bolt slippage or bolt breaking may lead to very large increase in base uplift. Bolt breaking may be avoided by using sufficiently long bolts capable of undergoing large plastic elongation.Bibliography [1] Jacobsen, L.S., “Impulsive Hydrodynamics of Fluid Inside a Cylindrical Tank and of Fluid Surrounding a Cylindrical Pier,” Bulletin of the Seismological So- ciety of America, Vol. 39, 1949, pp. 189-203. [2] Housner, G.W., “Dynamic Pressures on Accelerated Fluid Containers,” Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 47, 1957, pp. 15-35. [3] Housner, G.W., “The Dynamic Behavior of Water Tanks,” Bu! mological Society of America, Vol. 53, 1963, pp. 381-387. [4] Veletsos, A.S., “Seismic Effects in Flexible Liquid Storage Tanks,” Proc. 5th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Rome, Italy, Vol. 1, 1974, pp. 630- 639. [5] Veletsos, A.S., and Yang, J.Y., “Barthquake Response of Liquid Storage Tanks,” Advances in Civil Engineering Through Engineering Mechanics, Proc. 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