TDEM

The potentiaI of Time-Domain EM Sounding to
resoIve the presence of fauIts or fauIt zones

KiIle Damtew Tessema
March, 2005

The Potential of Time-Domain EM Sounding to resolve
the presence of faults or fault zones

by


Thesis submitted to the International Institute Ior Geo-inIormation Science and Earth Observation in
partial IulIilment oI the requirements Ior the degree oI Master oI Science in Geo-inIormation Science
and Earth Observation, Specialisation: (Applied Geophysics)

Thesis Assessment Board

ProI. Dr. F.D. van der Meer Chairman
ProI. Dr. C.V. Reeves External Examiner
r. R.J. Sporry 1
st
Supervisor
Dr. M. van der Meijde 2
nd
Supervisor
Dr. P.M. van Dijk Program Director

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR GEO-INFORMATION SCIENCE AND EARTH OBSERVATION
ENSCHEDE, THE NETHERLANDS

I certiIy that although I may have conIerred with others in preparing Ior this assignment, and drawn
upon a range oI sources cited in this work, the content oI this thesis report is my original work.
Signed


Disclaimer

This document describes work undertaken as part of a programme of study at the International
Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation. All views and opinions expressed
therein remain the sole responsibility of the author, and do not necessarily represent those of
the institute.

Dedication:

'This thesis is dedicated to my Iather Damtew Tessema who never lived to see the Iruits oI my
academic achievement, may God rest his soul in peace
i
Abstract

In the Iramework oI the ProIessional Master (PM) and Master oI Science (M.Sc) course, the Applied
Geophysics division in the ESA department oI ITC conducted geophysical investigations applying
diIIerent geophysical techniques Ior groundwater exploration in the areas oI Carboneras Fault Zone
(Spain), Lake Naivasha (Kenya) and Moura (Portugal). One oI the geophysical methods widely
applied in these areas was Time-Domain EM sounding. In all the study areas, geophysical results
revealed valuable inIormation regarding the stratiIied earth but the issue oI delineating Iaults and
Iracture systems are not yet well understood. The need to determine the location oI Iractures, Iaults or
Iault zones within soil and rock and to map their lateral and vertical extent is a common requirement
Ior hydrogeologic projects.

The main objective oI the research was to study the potential oI Time-Domain Electromagnetic
(TDEM) sounding method to delineate Iaults or Iault zones in these localities.

For this research the TDEM sounding data oI year 2002 Ior Lake Naivasha and Moura and TDEM
sounding data oI year 2003 and 2004 Ior Carboneras Fault Zone (Spain) were used. Other available
inIormation such as aerial photos, TM images and existing reports were also used in determining the
geology and structures oI the study areas.

The TDEM sounding data were re-processed, re-interpreted with an emphasis on the detection oI
Iaults and integrated with other existing inIormation resulting in a number oI apparent resistivity type
curves, true resistivity sections and maps showing locations oI identiIied Iaults Ior all the study areas.

The TDEM results revealed that a 100m depth oI investigation could be achieved over most oI the
study areas with 50X50 transmitter loops and exact location oI Iaults could be determined with close
station intervals oI 50m.

The results obtained Irom this work demonstrate that the Time-Domain EM sounding method with
closely spaced intervals can be applied eIIectively in locating Iaults and Iault zones.

Correlation oI TDEM results with other geophysical techniques like DC resistivity and Frequency
Domain Electromagnetic (FDEM) suggest that better lateral and vertical resolution and deeper depth
oI investigation were achieved using TDEM sounding.

Further geophysical work incorporating Electrical ProIiling (EP) and closely spaced TDEM soundings
are recommended in the La Serrata and Naivasha area to see the north-eastern extension oI the
Carboneras Iault Zone and to have better understanding oI the structures respectively. In addition
boreholes are recommended to be drilled at selected sites oI the study areas to conIirm the
interpretation oI TDEM results.
ii
AcknowIedgements

I would like to extend my outmost gratitude to the Netherlands Government Ior awarding me the NFP
scholarship to pursue this course. I am also grateIul to the Government oI Ethiopia Ior Iacilitating and
granting me permission to undertake this course at ITC. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to
my employer, the Geological Survey oI Ethiopia, Ior nominating and making arrangements Ior me to
be trained in Applied Geophysics.

I am highly indebted to my Iirst supervisor Ir. Rob Sporry Ior his constructive guidance in selecting
the title Ior my research, Ior his guidance, scientiIic criticism, and helpIul suggestions without which
this thesis would not have been viable. I am also grateIul to my second supervisor Dr. Mark van der
Meijde Ior his constructive comments and valuable suggestions he gave me both during proposal and
mid-term presentation, which gave a great role to shape this study in the present Iorm.

I also wish to extend my heart-Ielt gratitude to Dr. Jean Roy Ior giving me a very interesting
geophysical Iield experience and supervision in Spain.

Special thanks to my Iellow course mates especially Applied Geophysics Mr. Sami Agag (Libiya),
Getachew Baimeta (Ethiopia) and Getachew Ebuy (Ethiopia).

My heartIelt gratitude goes to my beloved Iamilies especially to my wiIe W/o Yeshimebet
Alemayehu, my sons Michael and Flimon and my daughter Meron. I am most appreciative oI my wiIe
Ior her endorsement in love and prayers she did and ensuring me a peace oI mind by bearing maternity
care to our sons and daughter.

My deepest gratitude and appreciation goes to my brother Dessalegn Damtew Ior his support and
hospitality to my Iamilies in the absence oI me and Ior his tireless eIIort he made to enable me to
reach the apex oI my academic career.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my mother Workinesh Beshir who took care oI me by sharing
her unreserved support to my educational success since my childhood.
iii
TabIe of contents
1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Problem DeIinition .................................................................................................................1
1.2. Objectives ...............................................................................................................................1
1.2.1. General objective................................................................................................................1
1.2.2. Research Objectives ...........................................................................................................1
1.3. Data sets available ..................................................................................................................2
1.4. Methodology...........................................................................................................................2
1.5. General concept about TDEM Sounding................................................................................4
1.6. Previous Geophysical work ....................................................................................................6
2. Description oI the study areas..........................................................................................................9
2.1. Carboneras Fault Zone, Spain.................................................................................................9
2.1.1. Location and layout oI geophysical survey lines ...............................................................9
2.1.2. Geology and Structures ....................................................................................................11
2.2. Lake Naivasha, Kenya ..........................................................................................................12
2.2.1. Location and layout oI geophysical survey lines .............................................................12
2.3. Moura, Portugal ....................................................................................................................19
2.3.1. Location and layout oI geophysical survey lines .............................................................19
3. Aerial Photo and Satellite Image Interpretation.............................................................................24
3.1. Carboneras Fault Zone..........................................................................................................25
3.2. Lake Niavasha.......................................................................................................................28
3.3. Moura....................................................................................................................................29
4. Time Domain Electromagnetic (TDEM) Sounding.......................................................................32
4.1. Data Processing and presentation.........................................................................................32
4.2. Results and Interpretation.....................................................................................................35
4.2.1. Carboneras Fault Zone .....................................................................................................35
4.2.2. Lake Naivasha ..................................................................................................................48
4.2.3. Moura, Portugal................................................................................................................62
5. Discussion oI the results ................................................................................................................69
5.1. Carboneras Fault Zone..........................................................................................................70
5.2. Lake Naivasha.......................................................................................................................72
5.3. Moura, Portugal ....................................................................................................................75
6. Conclusions and Recommendations...............................................................................................78
6.1. Conclusions...........................................................................................................................78
6.2. Recommendations.................................................................................................................80
ReIerences ..............................................................................................................................................81
Appendices.............................................................................................................................................82

iv
List of figures
Figure 1-1 Flow chart oI Methodology....................................................................................................3
Figure 1-2 Time domain EM waveIorms (a) and TDEM Eddy Current Flow, early time (b), Late time
(c) Source: (McNeil 1990).....................................................................................................................5
Figure 1-3 2D-Resistivity section along Line 1000E, La Serrata (topography not included) .................8
Figure 1-4 Geo-electric section along Line 1000E (TDEM), La Serrata.................................................8
Figure 2-1 Locations oI TDEM survey lines in La Serrata and San Isidro areas, South-eastern Spain 10
Figure 2-2 Location oI the intramontane sedimentary basins and the main Iault pattern in the south-
eastern Internal Betic Cordilleras, adapted Irom (Paul Huibregtse 1998) .............................................12
Figure 2-3 Location oI the study area and positions oI survey lines Ior Time Domain EM Sounding.13
Figure 2-4 Geological map oI the study area (aIter WRES Database, ITC)..........................................16
Figure 2-5 Tectonic setting oI East AIrican RiIt System (adapted Irom Baker, B.H., et. al., 1971) .....18
Figure 2-6 Map oI Portugal and Moura (aIter Khuut Tseedulam, et. al., 2002)....................................20
Figure 2-7 Location oI TDEM survey Lines..........................................................................................21
Figure 2-8 Geological map oI Moura, aIter Omara Patrick Otim (2003) ..............................................22
Figure 3-1 Landsat TM image band-7 aIter applying directional Iiltering (NE-SW)............................25
Figure 3-2 Landsat TM image band-7 aIter applying directional Iiltering (E-W) .................................26
Figure 3-3 Landsat TM image band-7 aIter applying Laplace Iilter......................................................26
Figure 3-4 Digitized lineaments on a colour composite TM band 731 as a background.......................27
Figure 3-5 Rose diagram showing direction oI lineaments in the study area ........................................27
Figure 3-6 Digitized lineaments on a Ialse colour composite TM band 432 as a background..............28
Figure 3-8 Landsat TM image band-7 aIter applying linear Iilter (DFDY)...........................................29
Figure 3-10 Digitized streams and lineaments in the study area............................................................31
Figure 4-1 Flow diagram showing TDEM processing steps..................................................................32
Figure 4-2 Main data processing window Ior TDEM............................................................................33
Figure 4-3 a, b Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and groups oI identical type curves
(Observation interval, 25m) ...................................................................................................................37
Figure 4-4 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and groups oI identical type curves (Observation
interval, 50m) .........................................................................................................................................39
Figure 4-5 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and groups oI identical type curves (Line 1200E)
................................................................................................................................................................41
Figure 4-6 True Resistivity section along Line 1000E with 200m observation interval .......................43
Figure 4-7 True Resistivity section along Line 1000E with 25m observation interval .........................43
Figure 4-8 True Resistivity section along Line 1000E with 50m observation interval .........................43
Figure 4-9 True Resistivity section along Line 1000E with 100m observation interval .......................44
Figure 4-10 True Resistivity section along Line 1200E, La Serrata......................................................44
Figure 4-11 a, b Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and group oI identical type curves along
Line 1, San Isidro ...................................................................................................................................46
Figure 4-12 True Resistivity section along Line 1, San Isidro ..............................................................47
Figure 4-13 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and groups oI identical type curves along Line
2, Lake Naivasha....................................................................................................................................49
v
Figure 4-14 True Resistivity section along Line 2, Lake Naivasha.......................................................49
Figure 4-15 Observed TDEM apparent Resistivity data and groups oI identical type curves along Line
3, Lake Naivasha....................................................................................................................................51
Figure 4-16 True Resistivity section along Line 3, lake Naivasha ........................................................51
Figure 4-17 Comparison oI inversion results between Line 2 and Line 3 at the intersection point and
correlation with Borehole log Bh.B (Pivot B) .......................................................................................53
5, Lake Naivasha....................................................................................................................................55
Figure 4-19 True Resistivity section along Line 5, Lake Naivasha.......................................................55
8N, Lake Naivasha .................................................................................................................................57
Figure 4-21 True Resistivity section along Line 8N, Lake Naivasha ....................................................57
10............................................................................................................................................................59
Figure 4-23 True Resistivity section along Line 10, Lake Naivasha.....................................................59
Figure 4-24 True Resistivity section along Line 7S, Lake Naivasha.....................................................60
Figure 4-25 True Resistivity section along Line 7N, Lake Naivasha ...................................................61
Figure 4-26 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity curves and true resistivity section along Line 1
(Carascas)...............................................................................................................................................63
Figure 4-27 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity curves and true resistivity section along Line 2
(Carascas)...............................................................................................................................................64
Figure 4-28 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity curves and true resistivity section, Monte Juntos ..65
Figure 4-29 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and group oI identical type curves, Calatroia.66
Figure 4-30 True Resistivity section along the survey Line, Calatroia..................................................66
Figure 4-31 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity curves and true resistivity section, Lameira...........68
Figure 5-1Integrated results oI TDEM soundings and Image interpretations, Carboneras Fault Zone.71
Figure 5-2 Integrated results oI TDEM and image interpretations, Lake Naivasha ..............................74
Figure 5-3 Resistivity map at diIIerent depth levels, Lake Naivasha (Note: the colour scale is not
consistent Ior the 4 diIIerent maps)........................................................................................................75
Figure 5-4 Integrated results oI TDEM and image interpretations, Moura ...........................................77

vi
List of tabIes

Table 2-1 Detail description oI TEM soundings and survey lines (Lake Naivasha) .............................14
Table 2-2 Description oI Legend oI Geological map oI the Naivasha basin.........................................17
Table 2-3 Stratigraphic Succession in the project area, Moura (aIter Omara Patrick Otim, 2003).......23
Table 4-1 Survey parameters used Ior TDEM sounding........................................................................34
THE POTENTAAL OF TME-DOMAN EM SOUNDNG TO RESOLVE THE PRESENCE OF FAULTS OR FAULT ZONES
1
1. Introduction
1.1. ProbIem Definition

In the Lake Naivasha (Kenya), Moura (Portugal) and Carboneras (Spain) areas, geophysical results
revealed valuable inIormation regarding the stratiIied earth. In all the study areas the issue oI
delineating Iaults and Iracture systems are not yet well understood. Many researchers have underlined
the inIluence oI Iaulting and Iracture systems on the aquiIer structure and groundwater movement.
Groundwater movement through the Iractures and Iaults is one oI the least well understood areas oI
investigation in hydrogeology. The need to determine the location oI Iractures, Iaults or Iault zones
within soil and rock and to map their lateral and vertical extent is a common requirement Ior
hydrogeologic projects. In this research, there is a need to determine the applicability oI Time Domain
EM sounding method to map the presence oI Iaults or Iault zones in these areas by analyzing the
available TDEM data sets.

1.2. Objectives

1.2.1. GeneraI objective
The general objective oI the research is to determine the potential oI the TDEM Sounding method to
delineate Iaults or Iault zones in a number oI study areas.

1.2.2. Research Objectives

To evaluate the applicability oI TDEM Sounding in detecting Iaults in diIIerent geological
environments
To map the location, lateral and vertical extent oI Iaults or Iracture systems
To interpret TDEM soundings with an emphasis on the detection oI Iaults
To establish the advantages and limitations oI TDEM Sounding versus other methods
To correlate the results with satellite image interpretations

2
1.3. Data sets avaiIabIe
The data sets used in this research work are:
Topographical maps, aerial photographs and satellite images
TDEM sounding data oI year 2002 Ior Lake Naivasha and Moura (Portugal) and TDEM
sounding data oI year 2003 and 2004 Ior Carboneras Fault Zone (Spain)
Reports on other geophysical studies (magnetic, gravity, electrical resistivity and TDEM
sounding)

1.4. MethodoIogy
The research work involved the Iollowing stages:
1) Review and organizing the available data
2) Aerial photograph and satellite image interpretation
3) Re-interpretation oI selected TDEM sounding data set
4) Integration oI the results with aerial photo and satellite image interpretations
5) Analysis and conclusions

1. Review and organizing the available data: This stages include:-

Collection oI the available data like top map, satellite images and aerial
photographs
Organizing the available TDEM sounding data and make exploratory
analysis
Review oI the relevant available literatures Irom existing Iiles, reports and
libraries

2. Aerial photograph and satellite image interpretation
In this step a detailed interpretation oI aerial photo and satellite images were done and surIace
inIormation regarding the locations oI Iaults and other geological Ieatures were extracted. In the
satellite image interpretation, to enhance the linear Ieatures directional and non-directional Iilters
were applied to the Land sat TM images.

3. Re-interpretation on selected TDEM sounding data set
Re-interpretation oI the TDEM sounding data with a speciIic concentration on the analysis oI eIIects
caused by the presence oI Iaults were analyzed at this stage. In order to see the lateral discontinuity
along the survey lines similar type curves oI observed apparent resistivity along the traverse were
grouped. From the inverted results the true resistivity sections were prepared using TEMRES
soItware.
4. Integration oI the results with the other disciplines
At this stage the interpretation oI the aerial photograph, satellite image and TDEM interpretations
were integrated. The integration and overlay analysis oI the processed results were done using the
Geographical InIormation System (GIS) soItware package ILWIS.

3

5. Analysis and conclusions

This step included the reporting on the entire work (data analysis and interpretation) and
establishment oI recommendations Ior Iuture developments.

Figure 1-1 Flow chart of Methodology

4

1.5. GeneraI concept about TDEM Sounding

SurIace geophysical methods allow subsurIace Ieatures to be located, mapped and characterized by
making measurements at the surIace that respond to physical, electrical and chemical properties.
The TDEM method is an electromagnetic induction technique, with which the response oI the earth to
an electromagnetic impulse is measured in the time domain. The TDEM soundings are made with a
receiver and transmitter unit attached to a receiver coil and a large transmitter loop respectively or,
since the transient Iield measurements are made aIter the primary Iield has been turned oII, the
transmitter loop can be used as a receiver. The transmitter passes a constant current through the loop
which produces a primary magnetic Iield. To satisIy Faraday`s law, a current is induced in the ground
which instantaneously maintains the primary magnetic Iield. This current system, which Ilows in
closed paths below the transmitter loop, produces a secondary magnetic Iield. Changes oI the
secondary magnetic Iield with time induce a voltage in the receiver coil. The time rate oI change is
then measured by a receiver coil. Because the magnitude and distribution oI the current intensity
depends on the resistivity oI the ground, the voltage gives inIormation about the resistivity oI the
ground. The locus oI the maximum amplitude oI the induced currents diIIuses downward and outward
with time, thereby giving inIormation about deeper regions as time increases. The signal recorded by
the receiver is called a transient (Fitterman D.V, 1986).
The decay rate, recorded as a Iunction oI time aIter the current in the transmitter loop is turned oII,
can thereIore be interpreted in terms oI subsurIace conductive structure. BrieIly, TEM measurements
involve sending an intermittent current into a transmitter loop so as to induce electrical currents in the
ground. During times when the transmitter is oII, a receiver loop is used to measure electromagnetic
Iields caused by the decay oI those currents.
Figure 1.2a shows the wave Iorm oI the primary magnetic Iield generated by the transmitter and the
primary electric Iield (electromotive Iorce) accompanying that magnetic Iield. The primary Iield
impulse (transient) creates eddy currents immediately below the transmitter loop, approximating a
mirror image. As the initial near-surIace eddy currents decay, they in turn induce eddy currents at
greater depths. The third panel in Figure 1.2a shows the wave Iorm oI the secondary magnetic Iield,
generated by the series oI eddy currents induced in the ground.
The magnitude and rate oI decay oI those secondary currents depend on the conductivity oI the
medium, (i.e. the electrical conductivity oI the soil) and on the geometry oI the conductive layers. The
TDEM receiver measures the magnetic Iields created by those secondary currents.
In time-domain electromagnetic techniques the inducing signal is a sharp pulse, or transient signal.
The induced currents in the earth are initially concentrated immediately below the transmitter loop.
This is shown schematically in Figure 1.2b. With time, those currents will diIIuse down and away
Irom the transmitter as illustrated schematically in Figure 1.2c. An analogy with smoke rings is oIten
used to describe the behaviour oI the currents in the ground. Initially strong currents Iorm in the
ground adjacent to the transmitter loop. The 'smoke ring then expands, weakens, and travels down
through the earth. The rate oI diIIusion depends on the earth conductivity. In resistive media the
currents will diIIuse very rapidly. In conductive media the currents will diIIuse more slowly. DiIIerent
rates oI decay reIlect geologic units with diIIerent electrical conductivities (McNeil, 1990).

5

Figure 1-2 Time domain EM waveforms (a) and TDEM Eddy Current Flow, early time (b), Late time (c)
Source: (McNeiI 1990)

The time domain electromagnetic method has been very eIIective Ior a variety oI hydrogeophysical
investigations and has been increasingly successIul in mapping buried valley structures in Denmark. It
has proven to be an eIIicient and successIul method Ior delineating buried valley structures eroded in
the tertiary clay basement (Flemming Jorgensen, 2003).
6
According to Taylor et. al, Transient Electromagnetic survey was conducted as part oI
hydrogeological investigation in Washoe County, Nevada to help deIine the location oI Iaults and clay
rich areas. The locations oI the interpreted Iaults may be inIerred Irom geologic maps, but their exact
location, which is critical Ior the detailed hydrological investigation, can only be determined with a
close station spacing oI TEM survey. The close station spacing oI this survey allows the nature and
extent oI geologic Ieatures to be determined. In addition, it allows the assumption oI lateral
homogeneity to be evaluated to determine the applicability oI a 1D model (Taylor, Widmer et al.
1992).

The advantages oI Time Domain Electromagnetic Method are:
High lateral and vertical resolution
Does not require intrusive ground contact (no problems injecting current into resistive surIace
layer)
Low sensitivity to geologic noise (anisotropy, dipping layers and near-surIace
inhomogeneities), (KauIman, 2001)
Ambient noise can be removed by stacking
The limitations oI Time Domain Electromagnetic Method are:
Sensitive to conductive inhomogeneities around the receiver coil
Sensitive to below and above ground EM noise (Electrical/Magnetic storms)
As mentioned above, the advantages are signiIicant and TDEM is becoming a widely used tool Ior
geo-electrical sounding.

1.6. Previous GeophysicaI work

International Institute Ior Geo-InIormation Science and Earth Observation (ITC) has been carrying out
hydrogeological, hydrogeophysical and environmental studies in the Naivasha basin, Moura
(Portugal) and Almeria (Spain) in the Iramework oI the ProIessional Master (PM) and Master oI
Science (M.Sc.) courses. The main results obtained Irom the investigations are presented below.
a) Naivasha, Kenya
(Gressando, 1999) Irom the WREM division oI ITC did his M.Sc thesis work on the topic
'Application oI geophysical techniques Ior groundwater investigation in the Lake Naivasha area,
Kenya.
The geophysical methods applied were Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES), Resistivity ProIiling and
well logging. From his Iindings he concluded that 'Electrical resistivity surveying can not be used to
detect the shallow groundwater tables around the lake and on the Melewa Fan. The various clay and
saturated sand layers do not have suIIiciently diIIerent resistivity contrast. However, with the methods
used, not enough power and cable length was available to measure at the depths required. To a
signiIicant degree the TDEM surveys has now superseded the resistivity sounding method since it
requires less work Ior a given investigation depth and generally provides more precise depth estimates
(Taylor, Widmer et al., 1992)

7
(Tsiboah, 2002), Irom Applied Geophysics Division oI ITC Ior his M.Sc. work on the topic '2D-
resistivity and Time-Domain EM in aquiIer mapping: a case study, north oI Lake Naivasha, Kenya.
The geophysical methods he used Ior his study were 2D-resistivity imaging and time domain EM
sounding. He concluded the Iollowing Irom his analysis.
'The TEM soundings results allowed a distinction to be made between the Iresh water saturated zone,
the high resistive unsaturated material at the top and the low resistivity clay and/or saline water
saturated zone at the bottom. The geological interpretation oI the surveys correlated very well with the
borehole data. Vertical Iaults have resulted in minor down-throwing oI blocks in areas close to the riIt
wall on the east.
The very low resistivities at depths greater than 80m have been identiIied as a mixture oI clayey
materials and saline water. This warns Ior the danger oI 'up-coning oI deep saline water that exists
particularly in areas Iar way Irom the Karati River and also in areas near Lake Naivasha. Groundwater
quality also deteriorates with larger distances away Irom the river to the N and NW.

b) Moura, Portugal
(Khuut Tseedulam, 2002), Report on the Iieldwork near Moura, Portugal,
The geophysical methods used during their study were, Induced polarization (IP), Time Domain EM
sounding and 2D-resistivity imaging. The main results were as Iollows.
'From the interpretation oI the IP data it can be concluded that the area oI study is complex Irom the
point oI view oI structure and geologic setting.
There is a considerable thickness oI younger Iormation over the basement in the NE oI the IP proIile
and it decreases towards SW until it becomes zero at where the dolostone anticline outcrops. There
are also metavolcanic rocks below the sediments and over the dolostones. This result shows a good
correlation with the borehole data.
From the 2D-resistivity imaging result at Carascas, there is an interesting structure at a distant oI
about 320m Irom the start oI the line. An area oI relatively low resistivity is Ilanked on both sides by
areas oI high resistivity. This could be either a Iault or the core oI a syncline having low resistivity.

c) Carboneras Fault Zone, Spain
(Linjun Zhang, 2003), the Iieldwork report on Carboneras Iault zone, San Isidro Southeast Spain.
The study area was investigated Ior groundwater potential and in relation with the structural elements.
'In San Isidro area, survey start at the Ioothill oI the ridge zone and at Iirst 600 m oI the survey line
shows six (6) or more anomalous responses in both Slingram and TEDM data, which do not appear in
the surIace. NE parts oI this section overlap with IP survey line and in both sections presence oI
narrow vertical discontinuities in the conductive layer conIirm the presence oI the Iault, which is
parallel to the main trend oI the Carboneras Iault.
Most part oI the San Isidro survey line covered by TDEM, IP and 2D-resistivity Imaging method.
Depth penetration capacity oI these methods is not similar. From IP, up to 45m and in 2D RI up to 76
m depth inIormation can be obtained where as Irom TDEM 100m or more can be achieved.

(Getachew Ebuy Tedla and Getachew DigaIie Baimeta, 2004), the Iieldwork report on Carboneras
Fault zone Southeast Spain
'The results obtained Irom the 2D-resistivity and Time-Domain Soundings shows three resistivity
zones. Lower resistivity values 28 ohm-m (denoted by letter C), intermediate resistivity values
between 28 ohm-m and 63 ohm-m (B) and relatively higher resistivity values greater than 63 ohm-m
8
(A) were identiIied (Figure 1.3). From the resistivity section it was possible to map a probable Iault
trending in the NE direction around station 300S (Figure 1.3). The close station spacing (25m) oI the
TDEM survey allows the nature and extent oI geologic Ieatures to be determined. The Iault mapped
by 2D-Resitivity imaging was also reIlected in the detailed TDEM results (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1-3 2D-Resistivity section along Line 1000E, La Serrata (topography not included)

Figure 1-4 Geo-electric section along Line 1000E (TDEM), La Serrata
9
2. Description of the study areas
2.1. Carboneras FauIt Zone, Spain
2.1.1. Location and Iayout of geophysicaI survey Iines

The Survey area is bounded between UTM coordinates oI (572725, 586975 E) and (4081600,
4090000 N). As part oI the academic course Ior the 2003 and 2004 PM and MSc degrees, geophysical
work was conducted in the Carboneras Iault zone (Spain). One oI the geophysical techniques applied
was the TDEM sounding. The location oI the survey lines are indicated in Figure 2.1, Ior the TDEM
soundings.

T
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11

2.1.2. GeoIogy and Structures

The south-eastern Spain represents a region in the Betic Cordilleras, characterized by complex strike-
slip Iault systems, Neogene volcanism and sedimentology. The Carboneras Fault Zone (CFZ)
represents an active set oI sinistral strike-slip Iaults in the Betic Cordilleras oI south-eastern Spain
(Figure 2.2) accompanied with pressure ridges and pull-apart basin. It is part oI the Trans-Alboran
shear zone, which is a major NE-SW trending sinistral strike-slip system that has been active Irom the
Neogene to Quaternary. The Trans-Alboran shear zone is several hundreds oI kilometres long and
may extend Irom SE Spain to the eastern RiI in Morocco.

The survey area (year 2003) is located in the Nijar basin (Figure 2.2) which is within the Betic zone,
several intramontane sedimentary basins oI Neogene age occur. Some oI these basins are Iormed
along major strike-slip Iaults and their evolution is kinematically linked to the strike-slip deIormation.
Neogene to Quaternary sedimentary sequences and architecture along the Iault zone oIIer a good
control on the timing oI diIIerent phases oI Iault activation. DiIIerent reIlection patterns suggest a
multiple Iaulting history within diIIerent sectors along the Carboneras Fault Zone, indicated either by
marked Iaults or syn-tectonic sediments associated with these Iaults. The basin is limited by Sierra
Alhamilla and Sierra Cabera basement blocks to the NW and N, by the Cabo de Gata volcanic suite to
the E and SE, and by the Mediterranean Sea to the S and SW. The Cabo de Gata volcanic suite
consists oI thick pile oI Miocene ignimbrites, rhyolites and andesites (15 to 7 Ma), (J. V. A. Keller,
1995).
The CFZ displaces the Cabo de Gata Block (Neogene volcanics) against Neogene basinal sediments
and the metamorphic basement oI the Alpujarride Complex and Nevado-Filbride Complex along
individual northern Iault strands.
The Carboneras Fault Zone has been divided into several minor Iaults named Almeria Fault or Serrata
Fault along the La Serrata ridge, Sopalmo and Colorados Faults in the north-eastern part around
Carboneras. The Carboneras Iault system is composed oI an array oI Iirst-order NE-SW-trending leIt-
lateral strike-slip Iaults and second-order E-W to ENE-WSW-oriented strike-slip Iaults. The exposed
portion oI the Carboneras Iault system is 40 km with a width that varies between 1.4 and 2.5 km; (J.
V. A. Keller, 1995).

12

Figure 2-2 Location of the intramontane sedimentary basins and the main fault pattern in the south-
eastern Internal Betic Cordilleras, adapted from (Paul Huibregtse 1998)

2.2. Lake Naivasha, Kenya
Lake Naivasha is located at latitude 05`S and Longitude 3620`40`È in the semi-arid central riIt
valley region. It is at an altitude oI 1890m which is the highest oI the riIt valley lakes. The study area
is in the Northern and North-eastern plains. It lies between 039`15``S and 042`15``S latitude and
between 3620`40`È and 3621`54`È Longitudes with an area oI 40km
2
(Figure 2.3).
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14
The details oI the TEM soundings and survey lines are described in the Iollowing table (Tsiboah,
2002).
Table 2-1 Detail description of TEM soundings and survey lines (Lake Naivasha)

The oldest dated rocks in the area are sediments and pyroclastics on the Kinangop. They are dated as
belonging to the Kanjeran stage oI the upper middle Pleistocene. Below are rocks oI the upper
members which are believed to be oI Kamasian age. Whilst the oldest rocks Iound in situ in the
Naivasha area may belong to the Tertiary era, they are taken to be oI lower Pleistocene age because
there is a lack oI evidence. Some rock Iragments ejected by the numerous volcanoes in the area may
be Tertiary or older in age.
According to their age Irom younger to older, the rocks in the Naivasha area are thus successively
classiIied as Iollows.
1. Holocene volcanics, lake and Iluviatile sediments.
2. Upper Pleistocene volcanics and lake sediments.
3. Upper middle Pleistocene volcanics and lacaustrine sediments.
4. Lower middle Pleistocene (?) volcanics and lake sediments.
5. Pleistocene (?) volcanics.

The volcanic rocks in the area consist oI tephyrites, basalts, trachytes, phonolites, ashes, tuIIs and
Ielsic lavas (rhyolite, pumice, comendite and obsidian). The lake beds are mainly composed oI
reworked volcanic material or sub-aqueously deposited pyroclastics (Gressando, 1999).

The geology oI the Naivasha basin part oI the riIt valley Iloor is a succession oI late Tertiary and
Quaternary volcanics with inter-leaIing lacustrine beds and alluvium oI principally reworked volcanic
debris (see Figure 2.4). There are also reports oI diatomite beds. Precambrian Basement rocks are
postulated to underlie this volcano sedimentary succession at or below sea level.

The Pleistocene volcanic rocks, the oldest materials locally, occur mainly along the eastern margins oI
riIt valley Iloor. They include the Eburru pumice which is composed oI pentlandite and trachytic
pumice and ash Iall deposits; the Kedong valley tuII, comprising trachytes, ignimbrites and the
associated pyroclastics; Kinangop tuIIs; Limuru trachyte and Longonot alkaria pumice. Beneath or
between lava Ilows, sediments may occur, comprising sands and clay and pyroclastics (scoriae,
pumices, and tuIIs)(Aquasearch-Ltd., 2001).

15

The rest oI the study area is covered by Lake beds laid down during pluvial periods in the late
Pleistocene and Holocene times. The lacustrine sediments (sand, silt and clay), are overlaid by recent
alluvial sediments Irom the Malewa river north oI the study area, (see Figure 2.4). The thickness oI
the sediments is variable; a recent borehole inIormation Irom the Iarm oI the KARI Iarm, east oI the
Manera Farm indicated that the thickness oI the 'Lake beds exceeds 64m in some places, (Tsiboah,
2002).

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17

Table 2-2 Description of Legend of Geological map of the Naivasha basin
Unit Description
?ep
a
ba2
be1
be2

bn
bt
ep
er2
erw
et1
et2
kb
kbt
kbtm
Imx1
Imx2
Ip8
Ipa
Ipaip8
Ipk
Ipt
Is
It2
It3
Mp
Mp/ep
Mt
N
Op

Or
Ot
P
Tk
Tkm
TI
Tlb
Tlg

Eburru pumice, pantellerite, trachytic pumice, ash Iall deposits
Alluvial deposit
Alkaria basalt, basalt and hawaiite lava Ilows, pyroclastic cones
Older elementeita basalt, hawaiite lava Ilows, pyroclastic cones
Younger elmenteita basalt, basalt, hawaiite and mugearite / benmoreite lava Ilows and
pyroclastic cones
Ndabibi basalt, hawaiite lava Ilows, pyroclastic cones
Surtseyan / strombolian ash cones
Eburru pumice, pantellerite, trachytic pumice, ash Iall deposits
Eastern eburru pantellerite and trachyte pumice, ash deposit
Waterloo ridge pantellerite, welded and unwelded pyroclastics
Older eburru trachyte, lava Ilows and pyroclastic
Younger eburru trachyte, lava Ilows and pyroclastic cones
Kijabe hill basalt
Surtseyan tuII cones
Surtseyan tuII cones with laterally equivalent Iall tuIIs
Lower longonot mixed basalt / trachyte lava Ilows and pyroclastic cones
Upper longonot mixed basalt / trachyte lava Ilows and pyroclastic cones
Longonot ash
Longonot alkaria pumice
Longonot ash and alkaria pumice
Kedong valley tuII, trachyte ingimbrites and associated Iall deposit
Longonot volcanic, pre-caldera welded pyroclastics and lava Ilows
Lacustrine sediments
Lower longonot trachyte, lava Ilows and pyroclastic cones
Upper longonot trachyte, lava Ilows and pyroclastic cones
Maiella pumice, trachyte, pantellerite pumice and ash Iall deposits
Maiella pumice/trachyte pumice
Magaret trachyte, unwelded and welded pyroclastics
Ndabibi comedite lava Ilows, domes and pyroclastics
Olkaria comendite, pyroclastics (include pre-Ipk lacustrine sediments, reworked
pyroclastics in ol Njorowa gorge
Olkaria comendite, lava Ilows and domes (include Njorowa pantellerite lava and welded
pyroclastics
Olkaria trachyte, lava Ilows
Ndabibi pantellerite lava Ilows
Kinangop tuII (eastern riIt margin)
Mau tuII (western riIt valley)
Limuru trachyte
Karati and ol mogogo basalt
Gilgil trachyte

18
The Kenyan RiIt Valley (KRV), as part oI the eastern branch oI the more extensive East AIrican RiIt
Valley System (EARS), is linked to the regional dynamics oI this system and its structural
development (Figure 2.5). Active seismicity, volcanic activity and heat Ilux deIining the edges oI
lithospheric plates characterize this system.

Figure 2-5 Tectonic setting of East African Rift System (adapted from Baker, B.H., et. al., 1971)

The tectonics and volcanism associated with the RiIt System resulted in the Iormation oI the lake
basins which include Lake Naivasha, Iault scarps, mountain ranges and geothermal activities. The
earliest riIting in the KRV started in the Early Miocene Iollowed by up doming and extreme basaltic
and phonolitic volcanism. The concept oI a broad dome or shield structure has been considered by
several authors as an integral stage oI the KRV Iormation. The Iloor oI the riIt is highest in the centre
between Lakes Nakuru and Naivasha and decreases in altitude northwards towards Lake Turkana and
19
southwards towards Lake Magadi. These early volcanic rocks overlie Late Proterozoic schists and
gneisses oI the Precambrian Mozambique Belt.
RiIt Iaulting started during Late Miocene Iollowed by basaltic, phonolitic and trachytic volcanism
and extreme Iaulting in the Late Pliocene resulting in large volumes oI trachytic ignimbrite tuII
deposited in the Naivasha Sector. These rocks include the Mau and Kinangop TuIIs. UpliIt and
graben Iaulting created the riIt structure by the end oI the Pliocene. Fissure eruptions oI trachytes and
basalts on the graben Iloor occurred during the Early Pleistocene. Extreme riIt Iaulting Iollowed until
Mid-Pleistocene, which resulted in the Iormation oI horst and graben structures on the riIt Iloor.
Subsequent volcanism occurred in the Late Quaternary. The volcanic materials include Pleistocene-
Holocene rhyolites, trachytes, basalts and phonolites (Nabide, 2002).
2.3. Moura, PortugaI
Figure 2.6 shows the general location oI Portugal where the study area is located. The TDEM survey
was conducted in 4 localities (Figure 2.7) whose UTM coordinates are given below.
Lameira Lies between 640250E, 4214125N and 644000E, 4217250N.
Monte Juntos - Lies between 644400E, 4213000N and 64800E, 4218250N.
Calatroia Lies between 644000E, 4213200N and 644700E, 4214400N
Carascas Lies between 646200E, 4216200N and 645100E, 4215400N.

At Lameira one survey line trending in NE-SW direction was surveyed having a length oI 675m. The
survey line at Monte Juntos has a length oI 450m while at Calatroia longer line having a length oI
712.5m was surveyed. At Carascas two TDEM survey lines (Line 1 and Line 2) were laid in SE-NW
direction. Both Lines have a length oI 450m (see appendix-A).
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22

Three main anticlines run Irom northwest to southeast between Moura and Ficalho. These are
reIlected topographically in the pronounced ridges Iormed by the Cambrian dolostones, which outcrop
in the anticlinal cores. Some important northeast-southwest Iaults appear to be present which split
these anticlines into separate blocks (down Iaulted to the northwest), such that the depth oI erosion in
the south-eastern part oI the area appears to be deeper than to the northwest. A major east-west Iault
occurs just north oI Moura which appears to displace the anticlinal structures to the west, and similar
lithologies to those described below are reported to occur in the area south oI Portel. This major Iault,
reIerred to as the Vidigueira Iault, is reported to be still seismically active (Khuut Tseedulam, 2002).

SurIace lithologies in the study area include conglomerates, dolomites, Moura schists, marble and
dolomitic limestone. The conglomerate lies on the meta-volcanic and covers considerable part oI the
study area. The most prominent geologic Ieatures in the study area are the dolomite ridges. These are
ridges oI crystalline limestone oI marble appearance, with calcite, dolomite and ankerite composition
(Omara Patrick, 2003).

Figure 2-8 Geological map of Moura, after Omara Patrick Otim (2003)
23

A summary stratigraphic succession Ior the area is given below.

Table 2-3 Stratigraphic Succession in the project area, Moura (after Omara Patrick Otim, 2003)

24
3. AeriaI Photo and SateIIite Image
Interpretation

Interpretations oI aerial photos and satellite imagery have long been one oI the most eIIective methods
Ior obtaining inIormation to support geospatial analysis.
The use oI aerial photos and satellite images are the techniques that are available to geologists Ior
locating and mapping linear Iaulted structures which can be Iaults or Iaulted zones (lineaments).
Remotely sensed lineaments are oIten used as indicators oI major Iractures in near surIace. On the
satellite images, lineaments usually appear as lines or linear Iormations whose pixels are either lighter
or darker than the background pixels.

The Landsat TM subscenes have been digitally processed to enhance the visibility oI lineaments in
the study areas. The images oI all TM bands were compared in terms oI contrast and deIinition oI
geological Ieatures (lineaments). As a result oI visual evaluation Landsat TM band 4 data which
record the inIormation at a wavelength between 0.76-0.9 m Ior Lake Naivasha and TM band 7 which
record the inIormation at a wavelength between 2.08-2.35 m Ior Carboneras and Moura were
selected.

The directional (gradient) and non-directional (Laplacian) Iilters were applied to these images.
Gradient Iilters are directional Iilters and are used to enhance speciIic linear trends. They are designed
in such a way that edges running in a certain direction (e.g. horizontal, vertical or diagonal) are
enhanced. In their simplest Iorm, they look at the diIIerence between the DN oI a pixel to its
neighbour and they can be seen as a result oI taking the Iirst derivative (i.e. the gradient).

Laplacian Iilters are non-directional Iilters because they enhance linear Ieatures in any direction in an
image. The Iilter values Ior the directional Iilter are taken Irom templates oI John A. Richards,
Remote Sensing Digital Image Analysis (Richards, 1993).

All lineaments extracted Irom the aerial photos and the Iiltered images oI TM band 4 (Lake Naivasha)
and TM band 7 (Carboneras and Moura) were digitized. AIter digitizing all lineaments, their
orientations and lengths were determined and then analyzed by preparing rose diagrams Ior analysis
and interpretation.

25
3.1. Carboneras FauIt Zone

The Carboneras Iault system is composed oI an array oI Iirst-order NE-SW trending leIt-lateral strike-
slip Iaults and a second order E-W to ENE-WSW oriented strike slip Iaults. The exposed portion oI
the Carboneras Iault system is 40 km with a width that varies between 1.4 and 2.5 km (J. V. A. Keller,
1995). In order to trace these Iaults Irom the satellite images directional and non-directional Iilters
were applied to the Landsat TM image oI band 7.
As described above, directional Iilters are designed to enhance Ieatures which are oriented in a
speciIic direction. Figure 3.1 and 3.2 shows the Iiltered Landsat TM band 7 image using the edge
detecting template (NE-SW, E-W) taken Irom the book entitled as Remote Sensing Digital Image
Analysis (Richards 1993). From the Iigures the NE-SW and E-W trending lineaments are highlighted
and easily traceable.

Figure 3-1 Landsat TM image band-7 after applying directional filtering (NE-SW)
26

Figure 3-2 Landsat TM image band-7 after applying directional filtering (E-W)

Figure 3-3 Landsat TM image band-7 after applying Laplace filter
27

Figure 3-4 Digitized lineaments on a colour composite TM band 731 as a background

Figure 3.4 shows the digitized lineaments overlaid on a colour composite TM band 731 as a
background. As displayed on the Iigure, most oI the structures are aligned in NE-SW direction which
is associated with the major Carboneras Iault. Some structures trending in NW-SE and E-W directions
are supposed to be the secondary Iaults.

The Landsat TM rose diagram (Figure 3.5) shows three principal statistical trends. The dominant
trend is in a NE-SW direction (30-60) with lineaments longer than 2 km, in E-W direction mostly
having intermediate length and in NW-SE direction with short lineaments.

Figure 3-5 Rose diagram showing direction of lineaments in the study area
28

3.2. Lake Niavasha
Prominent structural Ieatures were not much in the mainly sedimentary environment oI the study area.
However, vertical and sub-vertical Iaults occur in areas close to the riIt wall that marks the eastern
margin oI the study area.
The digitized lineaments Irom the aerial photo and Iiltered Landsat TM band 4 image are shown in
the Iollowing Figure 3.6 overlaid on a Ialse colour composite (FCC) TM band 432 image as a
background.

Figure 3-6 Digitized lineaments on a false colour composite TM band 432 as a background

From the analysis oI the rose diagram (Figure 3.7), it was possible to outline the direction and lengths
oI the Iaults in the study area. Most oI the Iaults are oriented in NW-SE and N-S direction. The N-S
trending Iaults and Iractures are common in the axial region oI the riIt and represent the latest tectonic
activity.

29

3.3. Moura
A subscene oI the study area is created Irom the Landsat band 7 panchromatic image and Iiltered with
a linear Iilter type with DFDY Iilter name to enhance the lineaments (Figure 3.8).
Figure 3.8 shows enhanced lineaments trending in NE-SW, NW-SE and E-W directions. The NE-SW
trending Iaults crosses the pronounced ridges aligned in NW-SE direction in the study area.

Figure 3-8 Landsat TM image band-7 after applying linear filter (DFDY)


30

The Landsat TM rose diagram shows three principal statistical trends (Figure 3.9). The dominant
trend is in NW-SE (120-150) with lineaments mostly having length oI greater than 1km while the
other two peaks are in NE-SW (30-60) with lineaments mostly having intermediate length and in E-
W direction with short lineaments (Figure 3.9).

Figure 3.10, shows the identiIied Iaults Irom the aerial photo and Iiltered image overlaid on digitized
streams Irom the 1:25000 topo map oI the study area. As it can be seen Irom the Iigure some Iaults are
aligned along the streams which indicate that these streams are structurally controlled (Figure 3.10).
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32

4. Time Domain EIectromagnetic (TDEM)
Sounding
4.1. Data Processing and presentation
For the processing oI the TDEM data TEM-RES program was used. TEM-RES program is the tool Ior
data processing oI TDEM data and inverse problem solution. The program reads the Iield data measured
by TEM-FAST48 instrument (and/or any previous model) makes analysis oI the data and determines
convenient cross-section in the class oI gradient or layered structures. The maximum number oI layers is
8. The package gives a user possibility to construct 2D apparent resistivity section and 2D true resistivity
sections. The steps Iollowed during processing are shown in the Ilow diagram (Figure 4.1).

Select file with field
data (.tem)
Select (maximum 6)
data files for processing
Edit data (exclude bad
data points)
Smoothing
Design a starting layer
model
Run forward model
Run inversion
Save accepted model (.int
format) for section construction
NO
YES

Figure 4-1 Flow diagram showing TDEM processing steps

33

Figure 4-2 Main data processing window for TDEM
Model
curve
Observed curve
Window Model
Smoothing
Editing
Res window with design model
curve in black block diagram
InIormation
window
34

Inversions were carried out using apparent resistivity rather than normalized voltages. The use oI apparent
resistivity Iacilitates the choice oI starting parameters by suggesting an approximate layered earth model.
Several trials were necessary to obtain the Iinal matches between observed data and calculated curves
(Figure 4.2). Forward models were computed to help obtain better estimates oI starting parameters.
EIIorts were made to Iit the observed TDEM data using two, three, Iour and Iive-layer models.
In the data processing data Irom the earliest time channel less than 8s and Irom the late time channel
greater than 1000s were not considered because Ior the earliest time channel the recording does not start
until about 8s and Ior the late time channel the data mostly becomes noisy greater than 1000s. In most
cases the inIormation about the behaviour oI the apparent resistivity curve between 8s and 1000s is
generally suIIicient to allow the interpretation to determine relatively accurately the resistivity oI the
basement without use oI the Iull resistivity sounding curve. At the end, aIter the Iinal check up and
modiIication oI coordinates X, Y, Z oI the sounding points, true resistivity section were produced (Irom
.int Iiles).
The parameters used Ior the TDEM survey in the survey areas are tabulated as Iollows:

Table 4-1 Survey parameters used for TDEM sounding
Area Year Line Observation
Interval (m)
Loop size
(m)
Length (m)
La Serrata 2004 1000E 25 50 (230N-495S),
(1425S-1650S)
La Serrata 2004 1000E 50 50 (880N-470S),
(1650S-1700S)
La Serrata 2004 1000E 200 50 (200N-1870S)
La Serrata 2004 1200E 50 50 (1050S-0N)
San Isidro 2003 Line 1 50 50 (0- 2500)
Lake Naivasha 2002 * 75 75 * see table 2.1 Ior the details
Moura 2002 * 75 75 * see appendix-A Ior the details

Methodology
The interpretations are presented in the Iorm oI apparent resistivity type curves and resistivity sections.
Qualitative interpretation oI the subsurIace resistivity distribution can be perIormed by observing the
shape oI the apparent resistivity curve. To recognize the lateral discontinuity along the line, TDEM
apparent resistivity soundings oI the same curve type were grouped together. By classiIying the apparent
resistivity curves into groups discontinuities could be mapped along the survey traverse between the two
diIIerent groups oI curves qualitatively. This procedure is well demonstrated in the Time Domain
electromagnetic soundings at the Nevada Test Site, Nevada (F.C. Frischknecht, 1984). The Iorm oI
apparent resistivity type curves obtained by TDEM sounding over a horizontally stratiIied medium is a
Iunction oI resistivity oI the ground. II the ground is composed oI three layer resistivity p1, p2, p3 the
resistivity section is described according to the relation between the values oI these resistivities. The
distribution oI resistivities oI diIIerent subsurIace layers is described below.

35
p1~p2 p3 ... H-type
p 1p2 ~ p3 ... K-type
p1~p2 ~ p3 ... Q-type
p1p2 p3 ... A-type
For a multilayer medium the letters H, K, Q and A are used in combination to indicate the variation oI
resistivity through time (with depth). KQ, HK-type, and so on, represent Iour layer apparent resistivity
curves (KauIman, 2001).

In the Lake Naivasha area, the greater survey coverage permits depth level maps (20m, 40m, 60m and
80m) to be prepared to see the aerial distribution oI the resistivity with depth. For the Carboneras Fault
Zone (Spain) the TDEM survey lines were very limited while Ior Moura (Portugal) the TDEM survey
lines were scarce (located Iar apart to each other) to prepare maps to see the aerial resistivity distribution
in the study areas (see Figures 2.1 and 2.7).

4.2. ResuIts and Interpretation
4.2.1. Carboneras FauIt Zone
Lines 1000E and 1200E

The results obtained Irom the re-interpretation oI TDEM data along Line 1000E and 1200E (La Serrata)
will be discussed as Iollows.
In order to have a general picture oI the subsurIace along line 1000E, a resistivity section was prepared
Ior the whole line Irom TDEM sounding S1 to S60 using coarser observation interval 200m (4 times the
loop size), Figure 4.6.
As clearly seen Irom the section, higher resistivity values are observed at the southern and northern
extreme oI the survey line while the central part is characterized by low resistivity values. The boundary
between the lower and higher resistivity values may indicate a lithological contact. A markedly low
resistive zone was observed nearby sounding S46 (station 1020S) interpreted as a Iault indicated by E
which is also clearly seen on the results oI 2D-resistivity imaging (Figure 1.3).
However, detailed and signiIicant geological inIormation regarding the exact location oI the Iaults were
achieved with a station spacing oI 50m. For the station spacing oI 200m (4 times the loop size)
signiIicant geologic details would not be detected.
The apparent resistivity curves (Figure 4.3) obtained using observation interval oI 25m, can be classiIied
into Iour groups. The Iirst group, represented by TDEM soundings S15 to S24 leads to a Iour layer KQ
type model. The resistivity oI the second layer is higher than the resistivity oI the Iirst and bottom layers
having a conductive basement. The second group represented by soundings S25 to S26 which consists oI
sounding curves with monotonically decreasing apparent resistivities through time (Q-type) and S27 to
S34 consists oI two layer soundings with a conductive basement.
36

4-3a)

RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S15
S16
S17
S18
S19
S20
RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S21
S22
S23
S24

RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S25
S26
RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S27
S28
S29
S30
S31
S32

First group Irom S15 to S24, KQ Type
curves
Second group, S25-S26 and S27-S32 Q-
type and two layer curves respectively
37

4-3b)

O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S33
S34
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S35
S36
S37

O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S38
S39
S41
S42
S43
S44

Figure 4-3 a, b Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and groups of identical type curves (Observation
interval, 25m)

The third group represented by soundings S35 to S37 oI a Iour layer HK type model and is characterized
by a resistive layer at the top and at the third layer and with a conductive basement. TDEM soundings
S38 to S44 represent the Iourth group which is interpreted as a three layer H-type curves with a
conductive intermediate layer and resistive basement.

The 1-D inversion oI these TDEM apparent resistivity curves conIirms the useIulness oI qualitative
groupings outlined above. A resistivity cross-section (Figure 4.7) displays intermediate resistivity values
range Irom 20-63 ohm-m at the top Irom TDEM soundings S13 to S25 having an average thickness oI
20m. This Iormation may be attributed to the weathered part oI the sedimentary rock possibly limestone.
Beneath this layer between the same soundings higher resistivities (~ 63 ohm-m) were mapped which
could be the Iresh part oI the sedimentary rock units that seems to be displaced by the inIerred Iault (C)
Third group HK-type
curves

Fourth group, H-Type
curves
Second group, S33-S34
Q-type curves
38
near by sounding S25. This layer outcrops at the location oI the inIerred Iault (C) and getting shallower
towards south and disappears around TDEM sounding S35. The third and the Iourth layers at these
locations are characterized by low resistivities less than 15 ohm-m which is interpreted to consist oI the
clay Iormation.

As indicated on the resistivity section (Figure 4.7), Iour Iaults are identiIied denoted by A, B, C and D
which are located near by soundings S41, S35, S25 and S11 respectively. The Iirst Iault A was also
detected by the 2D-resistivity imaging survey (Figure 1.3), near by station 420S. The second Iault B
identiIied by TDEM was also mapped by a Slingram, VLF and 2D-Resistivity imaging surveys along line
1000E in the Iieldwork 2004 (Getachew Ebuy Tedla and Getachew DigaIie Baimeta, 2004) near by
station 300S. The third Iault C is obtained Irom TDEM and satellite image interpretations. Resistivities oI
the upper layers in the region between TDEM soundings S35 and S37 are variable. The cause Ior this
variability may be related to the nearby Iault, and including rapid changes in lithology.

The TDEM results along line 1000E which covers Irom station 500S to 880N represented by soundings
S1 to S44 with observation interval oI 50m (equal to the loop size) will be discussed as Iollows. The
apparent resistivity curves were grouped into Iive along this line. The Iirst group represents H-type curves
oI TDEM soundings S1 to S11 with a conductive intermediate layer and resistive basement (Figure 4.4).
The second group represented by TDEM soundings S15 to S23 which is interpreted as a Iour layer case oI
KQ-type. Here we have a conductive basement with a second resistive layer. The third group is
represented by TDEM soundings S25 to S33. Sounding curve S25 represents a curve with monotonically
decreasing apparent resistivity through time (Q-type) and the rest were interpreted as a two layer case
with conductive basement. The Iourth and IiIth groups oI sounding curves are represented by TDEM
soundings S35 to S37 (HK-type curves) and S39 to S44 (H-type curves) respectively.

39

O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S7
S8
S9
S10
S11
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S15
S17
S19
S21
S23
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S25
S27
S29
S31
S33

O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S35
S37
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S39
S41
S43
S44

Figure 4-4 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and groups of identical type curves (Observation
interval, 50m)

First group Irom S1 to S11 H-type curves
Second group Irom S15 to
S23, KQ Type curves
Third group, S25 (Q-type), S27-
S33 (two layer)
Fourth group S35-S37
HK-type curves

FiIth group, S38-S44
H-type curves

40

From TDEM soundings S15 to S44, the survey line 1000E was covered with both observation interval
(25m and 50m). As displayed on the apparent resistivity curves Figure 4.3 (25m) and Figure 4.4 (50m) no
signiIicant changes were observed on the apparent resistivity type curves.
As indicated on the resistivity section Figure 4.8, an additional structural Ieature is observed near by
TDEM sounding S11 which is interpreted as a Iault (D). Starting Irom sounding point S1 to S11 the
section displays low resistive layer in the middle which is less than 10 ohm-m that could be attributed to
the clayey Iormation.

A clear boundary is demarcated near the inIerred Iault D between a resistive and a conductive basement.
To the south oI this Iault the basement is characterized by low resistivity values less than 15 ohm-m while
to the north oI this Iault it is characterized by relatively higher resistivity values. The Iault denoted by D
is obtained Irom the TDEM interpretation. When we compare the results obtained Irom the detailed
observation interval 25m and 50m on the coincidence between TDEM soundings S15 and S44, the
diIIerence in lateral resolution is not signiIicant. The Iaults A, B and C are detected by both observation
intervals.

For a coarser observation interval oI 100m, the apparent resistivity curves become variable except Ior
TDEM soundings S1 to S11 (see Appendix-B). The boundary between the conductive and resistive
basement detected on the detailed observation interval (25m and 50m) near by sounding S11 is also
observed on the resistivity section Figure 4.9 which is produced Irom the observation interval oI 100m
(twice the loop size) but the detail inIormation regarding the location oI Iaults in some parts were not
clear as that oI the detailed ones. The location oI the identiIied Iaults by the detailed observation intervals
are indicated by dashed line on Figure 4.9.

Line 1200E is located approximately 200m east oI line 1000E (Figure 2.1). The apparent resistivity
curves along this line revealed Iour groups oI type curves. The Iirst group oI curves is represented by
TDEM soundings S1 to S5. From this group oI curves TDEM soundings S1 to S3 are interpreted as a two
layer case with a conductive basement while S4 and S5 are Q-type curves with monotonically decreasing
resistivity through time. The TDEM sounding curves S6 to S11 represents the second group oI curves
which are highly variable. This group oI curves indicates a lateral change along the line which could be
associated with the lateral inhomogeinity oI the ground or near surIace expressions oI Iaults. TDEM
soundings S12 to S14 represent H-type curves which indicate a resistive basement with a conductive
intermediate layer. The Iourth group oI curves represented by TDEM soundings S15 to S22 is similar to
the Iirst group (Q-type).
41
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S6
S7
S8
S9
S10
S11
RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
S12
S13
S14

RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S15
S16
S17
S18
S19
S20
RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S21
S22

Figure 4-5 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and groups of identical type curves (Line 1200E)

First group, S1 to S3 two-layer
andS4 & S5 are Q-type
Second group, S6 to S11, Variable type
curves (HK, Q, H, HK, Q, and HK
respectively)

Fourth group, S15 to S22, Q-type curves

Third group, S12 to S14
(H-Type curves)
42
As indicated in the resistivity section Figure 4.10 Iour Iaults are identiIied Irom the interpreted TDEM
results. The Iault (F) is located between TDEM sounding S14 and S15 which is also identiIied Irom the
satellite image interpretation (Figure 3.4). The three Iaults A, B and C could be a continuation oI the
Iaults indicated as A, B and C on Line 1000E (Figure 4.8). The Iault (A) which is situated between
TDEM soundings S10 and S11 is also visible Irom the satellite image analysis. From Iield observation
there is an E-W trending crick at this location which could be associated with this Iault.

The Iault (C) is revealed Irom the TDEM and satellite image interpretation. The third layer resistivity at
sounding S11 is 2000 ohm-m. Such an anomalously high value may be the result oI Iitting a layered earth
model to a sounding curve which has been aIIected by lateral changes in the upper layers resistivities.
Values obtained Ior the third layer resistivity at other stations close to sounding S11 are considerably
lower and evidently more reasonable.

The higher resistivity values to the north oI TDEM sounding S7 might be the continuation oI the same
unit mapped on line 1000E to the north oI TDEM sounding S35. This Iormation could be associated with
the slightly weathered to Iresh sedimentary unit possibly limestone.
43

Figure 4-6 True Resistivity section along Line 1000E with 200m observation interval



44


Figure 4-10 True Resistivity section along Line 1200E, La Serrata

Line 1, San Isidro
From the year 2003 Iieldwork data at San Isidro, Nijar re-interpretation oI TDEM sounding data was done
along Line-1 which has a length oI 2500m (Figure 2.1). Along this line other geophysical surveys like
Slingram and 2D-resistivity imaging were also conducted.
As indicated in Figure 4.11a and b, the apparent resistivity curves are grouped into 10 along the survey
line. The TDEM soundings S1 to S4 are highly variable which could be caused by the lateral
inhomogeinity oI the ground or the nearby Iaults (F1 and F2). Qualitatively one can suggest Irom the
group oI type curves the presence oI discontinuities along the traverse. These Ieatures are clearly
observed on the resistivity section Figure 4.12.

45

4-11a)

RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
SS1
SS2
SS3
SS4
RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S10
S11
S12
S13
S14
S15
RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S16
S17
RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S18
S19
S20
S21
RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S22
S23
RESISTIVITYvs. TIME
O
h
m
-
m
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
time, s
1
10
100
10
3
S25
S26
S27
S28

S10 to S15 H-type
curves
S16 to S17 H-type
curves
S18 to S21, K-type
curves
S22 to S23, Q-type
curves
S25 to S28,
H-type curves
S1 two-layer, S2 Q-type,
S3 & S4 HK-type curves
(Variable type curves)
46

4-11b)

Figure 4-11 a, b Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and group of identical type curves along Line 1,
San Isidro

As indicated in the resistivity section (Figure 4.12), six Iaults are detected Irom the results oI TDEM
interpretation which is also correlated with the results oI Slingram and 2D-Resistivity imaging. The Iirst
Iault (F1) is located between TDEM sounding S1 and S2. This Iault is also detected on the Slingram
results around station 40 (Perez, 2003). The second Iault (F2) is situated near TDEM sounding S4 which
is also identiIied by Slingram near station 140. The third Iault (F3) which is located near sounding point
S18 is visible on the satellite image and detected by Slingram and 2D-resistivity imaging too around
station 620. The Iourth Iault (F4) is located near by TDEM sounding S23 which is obtained Irom the
interpretation oI the TDEM data. The IiIth Iault (F5) is obtained Irom the TDEM interpretations Iound
near sounding point S33 while the sixth Iault (F6) is situated near sounding S42 and also detected by 2D-
resistivity imaging near by station 2000 and Irom satellite image interpretation. Additional possible Iault
locations are indicated with the dashed line nearby sounding S10, S30 and S46 (Figure 4.12).
T
H
E

P
O
T
E
N
T
A
A
L

O
F

T
M
E
-
D
O
M
A
N

E
M

S
O
U
N
D
N
G

T
O

R
E
S
O
L
V
E

T
H
E

P
R
E
S
E
N
C
E

O
F

F
A
U
L
T
S

O
R

F
A
U
L
T

Z
O
N
E
S

4
7

F
i
g
u
r
e

4
-
1
2

T
r
u
e

R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

a
l
o
n
g

L
i
n
e

1
,

S
a
n

I
s
i
d
r
o

48

Summarizing, in the La Serrata area along Line 1000E Iive Iaults are identiIied. Four Iaults (A, B, C and
D) are identiIied using the detailed observation intervals (25 and 50m) and one Iault (E) using coarser
observation interval (200m). From these Iaults only one Iault (C) was delineated Irom the satellite image
interpretation while the rest are identiIied Irom the TDEM sounding data interpretations. In addition, the
result revealed Irom the detailed observation interval (25 and 50m) along line 1000E allows the exact
location oI Iaults to be determined. From the results obtained along Line 1200E the Iaults F, A and C
were also identiIied on the satellite image interpretation while the Iault B is delineated using TDEM
sounding interpretation. The Iaults identiIied on line 1200E indicated as A, B and C are believed to be the
continuation Irom line 1000E which conIirms the north-eastern extension oI the Carboneras Iault systems.

In San Isidro area (Nijar) along Line-1 six Iaults were identiIied Irom the TDEM sounding
interpretations. From these Iaults only F3 and F6 were visible on the satellite image.

4.2.2. Lake Naivasha
Most oI the geological data Irom existing boreholes were incomplete, the inIormation obtained Irom the
available lithological logs and sources showed that the subsurIace materials are basically clay, clayey silt,
Iine to medium sand, coarse sand pebbles, boulders, tuII and lava. Most oI the material is oI volcanic
origin.

Re-interpretation oI the TDEM sounding data was done along some oI the survey lines like Line-2, Line-
3, Line-5, Line-7N, Line-7S, Line-8N and Line-10 (Figure 2.3). Attention was paid to these lines because
the Iaults occur in areas close to the riIt wall that marks the eastern margin oI the study area and near by
the Karati River.

Line 2
The results obtained Irom the interpretation along line-2 will be discussed as Iollows. This line
incorporates TDEM soundings Irom TEMS8 to TEMS19 (Table 2.1). Four groups oI type curves were
analyzed along this line (Figure 4.13). The Iirst group oI type curves (HK-type) was represented by
TDEM soundings S8 to S12. This group oI curves was interpreted as a Iour layer case with relatively
higher resistivities oI the Iirst and the third layer and lower resistivity oI the second and the Iourth layer
(basement). The second group oI type curves is K-type represented by TDEM soundings S12 to S14. This
group oI curves is characterized by higher resistivity oI the intermediate layer and lower resistivities oI
the upper and bottom layers. Q-type curves whose resistivities monotonically decreasing through time are
represented by soundings S15 to S17 oI the third group. Some irregularities observed in these curves
could be due to the presence oI the buried water pipes and electric cables. The TDEM soundings S18 and
S19 represent the Iorth group oI curves which are KQ-type. The general trends oI all the type curves
suggest the presence oI a conductive basement along the survey line. From the inversion results oI these
type curves resistivity section was produced (Figure 4.14).

49

Figure 4-13 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and groups of identical type curves along Line 2, Lake
Naivasha

Figure 4-14 True Resistivity section along Line 2, Lake Naivasha

50
The interpreted resistivity section Figure 4.14 indicates the presence oI shallow material oI medium to
course sand oI thickness 20m starting Irom sounding S8 to sounding S12.

Boulders and Iractured lava oI thickness about 34 to 40m occurs to the SSE oI S15 immediately aIter the
location oI the inIerred Iault (F2). The presence oI this volcanic layer can be seen in the 2D-resistivity
imaging (see Appendix-C) results (Tsiboah, 2002) and in the VES results carried out near the Karati river
(Gressando, 1999).
A layer with an average resistivity oI 13 ohm-m was mapped in the NNW part oI the survey line beneath
the medium to course sand described above which could be associated with the Iine sand and clayey
Iormation. Underlying this horizon higher resistivity values in the range oI 36 to 80 ohm-m were observed
which could be correlated with the medium sand mixed with the course materials and course sand with
pebbles.
The basement along this proIile between sounding points S13 and S18 is characterized by very low
resistivity values ranging Irom 1 to 10 ohm-m which could be associated with the clay Iormation or saline
water. The remaining part oI the basement along the traverse is interpreted to consist oI Iine sand and clay
Iormation with resistivities ranging Irom 10-20 ohm-m. From the analysis oI the type curves and
resistivity section along this line, two Iaults (F1 and F2) are inIerred between soundings S12 and S13 and
nearby sounding S15 respectively. The second Iault (F2) is also detected by 2D-resistivity imaging survey
oI year 2002 around station 510 (Tsiboah, 2002).
Line 3
Survey Line-3 runs almost perpendicular to Line-2. It starts Irom the Ioot oI the Trachyte ridge on the
Three Point Farm and runs approximately E-W. As indicated in Figure 4.15 three groups oI type curves
are encountered along this line. The Iirst group oI curves is represented by TDEM soundings S20 to S23
(QQ-type) whose apparent resistivity is monotonically decreasing through time (with depth). The second
group oI curves is represented by soundings S24 to S28 (K-type). These types oI curves have higher
resistivities in the middle layer and lower resistivities in the upper and bottom layer. Soundings S29 to
S31 represent the third group oI curves (Q-type) whose apparent resistivity decreases through time (with
depth).
From the 1-D inversion results oI these apparent resistivity curves; resistivity section was presented along
this line (Figure 4.16). The results indicate the presence oI relatively higher resistive layer at near surIace
depths starting Irom sounding S20 up to the inIerred Iault (F3) near by sounding S24 which could be
correlated with the boulders oI trachyte. Intermediate resistivity values were obtained beneath this layer
which is interpreted to consist oI silt and silty clay. Underlying this layer there exists a very low resistive
zone which could be attributed to the clay Iormation or saline water. This Iormation is also exhibited to
the WSW part oI the inIerred Iault (F4). Between sounding points S24 and S27 the basement is
characterized by intermediate resistivity values and shows a depression like structure.
51

Figure 4-15 Observed TDEM apparent Resistivity data and groups of identical type curves along Line 3, Lake
Naivasha

Figure 4-16 True Resistivity section along Line 3, lake Naivasha

52
According to the re-interpretation oI the TDEM sounding results along this line two Iaults (F3 and F4) are
inIerred near by sounding S24 and S28 respectively. The Iault F3 is also detected Irom the 2D-resistivity
imaging survey oI year 2002 (Tsiboah, 2002) near by station 320 and the Iault F4 is also identiIied Irom
the aerial photo interpretation which could be the northern extension oI the Iault mapped on Line 8N.
The inversion results oI Line2 and Line3 at their intersection point was Iound to correlate. As indicated in
Figure 4.17 b and c, both inversion results oI sounding S14 (Line 2) and sounding S27 (Line 3) shows
lower resistivities (17 to 18 ohm-m) at the top underlying with higher resistivity values (36 to 45 ohm-m)
with a conductive basement (4 to 5 ohm-m). According to the nearby bore hole, Bh.B (pivot B), result
Figure 17 d, the upper layer may correspond to the Iine to medium sand and the intermediate layer is
interpreted to consist oI medium sand mixed with coarse sand with pebbles. The conductive basement is
characterized by clay and silt Iormation.
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54
Line 5
Line-5 runs NE-SW almost parallel and near to the Karati River (reIer to Figure 2.3 in Chapter 2). This
line incorporates TDEM soundings Irom TEMS52 to TEMS61 (Table 2.1). Two group oI apparent
resistivity type curves obtained along this line (Figure 4.18). The Iirst group is represented by TDEM
soundings S52 to S59 which is interpreted as a Iour layer earth model oI HK-type curves. The second
group oI TDEM soundings S60 to S61 shows a three layer earth model oI H-type curves.

As indicated in the resistivity section Figure 4.19, a top layer having an average thickness oI about 12m
with intermediate resistivity values was mapped. This Iormation could be associated with the Iine to
medium sand. Underlying this unit a layer having thickness ranging Irom 18m to 33m and resistivities
varied Irom 9 ohm-m to 12 ohm-m were mapped which is interpreted to consist oI the clayey Iormation.
Beneath this layer the resistivity section displays higher resistivity values with thicknesses varying
between 44 to 97m that extends up to the inIerred Iault F6 which is attributed to the medium to coarse
sand. The bottom layer (basement) is characterized by low resistivities less than 20 ohm-m which could
be associated with a clay Iormation or saline water.

As the apparent resistivity type curves and the resistivity section displays two probable Iaults between
TDEM soundings S54 and S55 and S59 and S60 denoted by F5 and F6 were identiIied respectively. The
inIerred Iault F6 is also delineated Irom the aerial photo interpretation.
55

Figure 4-18 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and groups of identical type curves along Line 5, Lake
Naivasha


56

Line 8N
The results obtained Irom the re-interpretation oI TDEM sounding data along Line 8N shows two groups
oI apparent resistivity type curves (Figure 4.20). The Iirst group oI type curves is represented by TDEM
soundings S93 to S96 and indicates a Iour layer earth model oI HK-type curves. The second group
incorporates soundings S97 to S104 which are interpreted as K-type model oI a three layer case.

The resistivity section Figure 4.21, depicts a relatively higher resistivity layer overlying a conductive
basement having a thickness ranging Irom 32m to 67m which could be attributed to the medium course
sand, pebbles, gravels and trachytic lava. The conductive basement lies at a depth range oI 60m to 88m
Irom the land surIace which is interpreted to consist oI silty clay material. It is deeper in the northwest
direction and getting shallower in the south-eastern direction (Figure 4.21). A Iault (F4) is inIerred
between TDEM sounding points S96 and S97 which is also delineated with the aerial photo
interpretation. This Iault might be the southern extension oI the inIerred Iault on line 3 indicated by F4.
57

Figure 4-20 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and groups of identical type curves along Line 8N,
Lake Naivasha

Figure 4-21 True Resistivity section along Line 8N, Lake Naivasha

58

Line 10
The apparent resistivity sounding curves (Figure 4.22) along Line-10 can be classiIied into two groups.
The Iirst group, represented by soundings S110 - S117, consists oI K-type curves which have low earlier
time apparent resistivities and increase to maximum in the middle time beIore Iinally decreasing again at
later times. The second group represented by soundings S118- S121 which is characterized by HK-type
curves oI a Iour layer resistivity section.

According to the resistivity section Figure 4.23, a layer with intermediate resistivities were mapped at the
top extending up to the inIerred Iault (F7) having an average thickness oI about 40m which could be
associated with Iine sand. Underlying this unit a layer oI higher resistivities whose thickness ranges
between 28m and 57m were observed which is interpreted to consist oI medium course sand, pebbles,
gravels and trachytic lava. The basement is characterized by low resistivities which may correspond to the
silt clay material and lies at a depth ranging Irom 64m to 85m Irom the land surIace. The resistivity
section suggests a Iault between TDEM soundings S117 and S118. As shown in the resistivity section
(Figure 4.23), possible Iault locations are inIerred in the vicinity oI soundings S112, S114 and S116
indicated by dashed line.
59

Figure 4-22 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and groups of identical type curves along Line 10


60

Line 7S
Line 7S runs in N-S direction (reIer Figure 2.3, Chapter 2) which contains TDEM soundings S82 to S92
(Table 2.1).
The resistivity section along Line7S (Figure 4.24), displays a layer with thickness varying between 2 and
16m at the top having higher resistivities which might correspond to the medium to course sand. The
underlying unit is characterized by low resistivities which could be associated with the silt and clayey
material. The bottom layer to the north oI the inIerred Iault (F8) and the third layer to the south oI it
which exhibits higher resistivities are interpreted to consist oI medium to course sand. The material
getting coarser as on goes Irom north to south along the traverse. A very low resistive zone was mapped
around station 700S which might be associated with saline water.

Figure 4-24 True Resistivity section along Line 7S, Lake Naivasha

From the true resistivity section Figure 4.24 two Iaults are inIerred indicated by F8 and F9 nearby TDEM
soundings S89 and S91 respectively. The higher resistivity Iormation between the two inIerred Iaults
seems to be displaced downward topped up with a conductive intermediate layer. The inIerred Iault F8 is
also visible Irom the satellite image interpretation (Figure 3.6).
Line 7N
Line 7N is a continuation oI Line 7S northwards. The resistivity section along this line generally displays
low resistivity response, however, a relatively higher resistive layer (~15 ohm-m) were observed at the
top which may be attributed to the sandy material (Figure 4.25a). Underlying this unit a very low
resistivity layer with a pinch and swell nature to the southeast oI sounding S75 were observed that may
correspond to clay. An intermediate resistive layer with a thickness ranging Irom 36m to 80m were
observed overlying the conductive basement which is interpreted to consist oI Iine sand and/or
decomposed rock. The bottom layer (basement) is characterized by low resistivity ( 10 ohm-m) which
could be attributed to the clay Iormation or saline water. A Iault is inIerred near by sounding S77.

61

Figure 4-25 True Resistivity section along Line 7N, Lake Naivasha

In the presentation oI the resistivity sections, diIIerent colour scales Ior resistivity are used Ior some lines
Ior visualization. II identical scales are used Ior all lines those lines laid on the low resistive zone could
be a background Ior the lines located on the high resistive zone and diIIicult to see the resistivity contrast
along that line. This is displayed on Figure 4.24b oI Line-7N with the same scale as that oI Line-2 (Figure
4.14) which has little resistivity contrast to see along the line in addition the legend is expressing the
description along Line-2 not along Line-7N.

Summarizing, in the study area oI Lake Naivasha some structural Ieatures (Iaults) are identiIied Irom the
re-interpretation oI TDEM sounding data along lines 2, 3, 5, 7N, 7S, 8N and 10. These lines are located in
the north-eastern and eastern part oI the study area closer to the trachyte ridge and near by the Karati
River. From the aerial photo and satellite image interpretation limited Iaults were visible in the study
area. Most oI the Iaults are identiIied Irom the TDEM interpretation. Some oI the Iaults on line 3 (F4),
line 5 (F6), line 8N (F4) and line 7S (F8) were visible Irom the image interpretation where all other Iaults
are delineated Irom the TDEM results.
62

4.2.3. Moura, PortugaI
The re-interpretation oI the TDEM sounding data was done Ior the surveyed areas oI Carascas (Line-1
and Line-2), Monte Juntos, Calatroia and Lameira (Figure 3.7). The elevation data at the TDEM sounding
points were extracted Irom the Topo-Map oI scale 1:25000 oI the study area Ior the preparation oI
resistivity sections along the survey lines. Most oI the TDEM apparent resistivity sounding curves oI the
study areas are distorted. The causes oI the distortion oI these curves could be due to the presence oI 2D
structure or shallow inhomogeinity.
Carascas Line 1
There were two lines surveyed with TDEM sounding oriented in SE-NW direction in Carascas area. As
indicated Irom the observed TDEM apparent resistivity sounding curves and resistivity section (Figure
4.26a and b), a two layer earth model with a highly resistive basement were mapped. At the south-eastern
part oI the traverse until the inIerred Iault (F) a low resistivity less than 50 ohm-m were observed which
could be associated with the highly weathered and decomposed rock units. To the north-western part oI
the inIerred Iault (F) the resistivity becomes higher (~ 100 ohm-m) which indicates that the degree oI
weathering decreases as one goes Irom SE to NW along the traverse. The thickness oI the overburden
overlying the resistive basement varied Irom 10m to 15.6m Irom the land surIace. As clearly seen Irom
the resistivity section (Figure 4.26b), a marked increase in the upper layer resistivity Irom sounding S5 to
S6 indicates a discontinuity which is interpreted as a Iault (F). This Iault is also mapped with 2D-
resistivity imaging (Appendix-D) near by station 320 (Khuut Tseedulam, 2002) and Irom the image
interpretation (Figure 3.7).
63

Figure 4-26 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity curves and true resistivity section along Line 1 (Carascas)

Carascas Line 2

The TDEM apparent resistivity sounding curves and resistivity section (Figure 4.27) along Line-2
(Carascas) discerns a two layer and a three layer earth model. The TDEM soundings Irom S1 to S4 were
interpreted as a three layer case with resistivities increasing with depth and soundings S5 to S7 were
interpreted as a two layer case. The uppermost layer along the survey line has lower resistivities (11 to 19
ohm-m) and thickness varying between 2.7m and 9.6m which could be associated with topsoil. The
intermediate layer appears to the south-eastern part oI the inIerred Iault (F) and disappears to the
northwest oI the Iault. This Iormation has resistivities ranging Irom 25 to 31 ohm-m and thicknesses 4.3
to 14.2m. The basement is characterized by high resistivity (~1000 ohm-m) and getting shallower as one
goes Irom SE to NW oI the traverse. The inIerred Iault near by sounding S5 could be a continuation oI
the Iault mapped at Line-1 which is also appears on the aerial photo and satellite image interpretation
(Figure 3.7). The depth to the bedrock ranges Irom 2.3 to 23.8m. The minimum and maximum depth was
obtained at sounding points S6 and S1 respectively.
64

Figure 4-27 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity curves and true resistivity section along Line 2 (Carascas)

Monte 1untos
The results obtained Irom the re-interpretation oI TDEM soundings oI Monte Juntos area will be
discussed as Iollows. The north-eastern part oI the survey line is represented by soundings S1 to S3 which
are variable AAK, AA and A-type curves. The causes oI this variability could be the near surIace
expressions oI Iaults. The TDEM sounding curves represented by S4 to S7 are KH type with a resistive
basement. A markedly low resistive zone were mapped as intermediate layer between the two inIerred
Iaults F2 and F3 which is also reIlected Irom the results oI 2D-resistivity imaging survey (Appendix-F),
(Khuut Tseedulam, 2002). The thickness oI this Iormation varied Irom 24m to 29m. Between the inIerred
Iaults F1 and F2 a block oI intermediate resistivity Iormation separating the high resistive basement were
observed which could be interpreted as Iractured or sheared zone. The inIerred Iault (F3) is also traced
Irom the satellite image interpretation (Figure 3.7).
65

Figure 4-28 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity curves and true resistivity section, Monte 1untos

Calatroia
The TDEM apparent resistivity sounding curves (Figure 4.29) along the survey line in Calatroia area can
be classiIied into three groups. The Iirst group, represented by soundings S1 to S14 consisting oI
sounding curves with a conductive intermediate layer and resistive basement (type-H). The second group
is represented by soundings S15 to S18. TDEM soundings S15 and S16 are A-type curves whose apparent
resistivities increase through time while S17 and S18 are interpreted as a two layer case with a resistive
basement. The third group, represented by soundings S18 and S19, consisting oI curves which have low
earlier time apparent resistivities and increase to maxima in the middle times beIore Iinally decreasing
again at later times (type- K).

66

Figure 4-29 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity data and group of identical type curves, Calatroia

Figure 4-30 True Resistivity section along the survey Line, Calatroia

67
As indicated in the resistivity section (Figure 4.30), the overburden overlying the resistive basement is
characterized by low resistivity values (62 ohm-m) with a thickness varied Irom 11.6 to 27m to the south
oI sounding S16 which could be associated to the highly weathered and decomposed rock units. Beneath
this layer a high resistive layer (~ 320 ohm-m) is mapped which is interpreted to be the bedrock
(basement). A thin layer oI an average thickness 1.5m were observed Irom soundings S17 and S18 which
could be related to the top soil underlain by resistive bedrock. The bedrock is outcropping to the north oI
sounding S19. A very low resistive zone was obtained on soundings S19 and S20 at a depth oI 100m.
Two Iaults F4 and F5 are inIerred near by soundings S15 and S19 respectively which appears at the top
layer only. The Iault F4 is also discerned Irom the aerial photo interpretation while F5 is clearly seen on
the satellite image (Figure 3.7).

Lameira
The results obtained Irom the re-interpretation oI TDEM sounding data at Lameira area will be discussed
bellow. As indicated in the observed TDEM sounding curves (Figure 4.31a), the curves are highly
distorted. The main causes oI the distortion oI these curves could be related to the lateral inhomogeinity
oI the ground or near surIace expressions oI Iaults. Three groups oI types oI curves (type-H, type-A and
type-K) are identiIied along the survey line.

The resistivity section (Figure 4.31b) depicts a markedly low resistive zone (20 ohm-m) having
thicknesses varied Irom 13m to 21m as a second layer to the north-eastern part oI the inIerred Iault (F6)
between TDEM soundings S1 and S4. According to the nearby borehole log inIormation, this Iormation
could be attributed to the conglomerate. From the MRS results obtained Ior Lameira the existence oI this
conglomeratic aquiIer within the lower level oI the Tertiary sequence was mapped (J. Roy, 2003).
Overlying this layer relatively higher resistivities (~25 ohm-m) were mapped at the top with thicknesses
ranging Irom 14.3m to 18m which is interpreted to consist oI shale. The depth to bedrock ranges Irom 0
to 34m Irom the land surIace. The bedrock becomes shallower as one goes Irom NE towards SW along
the traverse and outcrops starting Irom sounding S8 towards SW. It is characterized by high resistivity in
the order oI 2000 ohm-m which could be associated with the metavolcanic rocks. A Iault is inIerred near
by sounding S4 (F6) and between TDEM sounding S7 and S8 (F7). Both inIerred Iaults F6 and F7 are
also obtained Irom the image interpretation. The Iirst Iault (F6) was justiIied Irom the description oI the
borehole log which is located nearby TDEM sounding S4 (Figure 5.4).
68

Figure 4-31 Observed TDEM apparent resistivity curves and true resistivity section, Lameira

Generally, in the survey areas oI Carascas, Monte Juntos, Calatroia and Lameira the apparent resistivity
curves were highly distorted. The ascending or descending branches oI sounding curves rise or Iall more
steeply than is possible Ior a layered earth, which is a common type oI distortion seen in soundings
(Nabighian, 1991). The causes Ior the distortion oI these curves could be related to the lateral
inhomogeinity oI the ground or near surIace expressions oI Iaults. As obtained Irom the results oI TDEM
soundings lower and intermediate resistivity values mapped at the top could be associated to the Tertiary
layer (shale and conglomerate) underlying with the high resistive Iormation which is interpreted to be the
metavolcanics. The results obtained Irom the TDEM interpretation in Lameira area were in good
agreement with the nearby borehole log inIormation (Figure 5.4).

69
5. Discussion of the resuIts
In all the study areas oI Carboneras Fault Zone (Spain), Lake Naivasha (Kenya) and Moura (Portugal),
the TDEM sounding method was Iound to be eIIective in locating Iaults. Particularly in the Carboneras
Iault zone and Lake Naivasha the study areas were covered with quaternary sediments and Lake
Sediments respectively which makes it diIIicult to identiIy Iaults or Iault zones Irom the image
interpretation. In this regard TDEM sounding survey revealed valuable inIormation in locating concealed
structural Ieatures.

As Gressando (1999) pointed out in his thesis, at the Lake Naivasha area using the Schlumberger
resistivity sounding survey it was diIIicult to achieve subsurIace results at the required depth (Gressando,
1999). For the Schlumberger resistivity sounding to have a depth oI investigation oI 100m, a current
electrode spacing on the order oI 600m would be required. Such a large electrode spacing is not likely to
provide the lateral resolution required and would be diIIicult to interpret due to near-surIace
heterogeneity on that scale. The big advantage oI TDEM sounding over conventional DC sounding is
that Ior TDEM the overall width oI the measuring array is usually much less than the depth oI
exploration. The TDEM results demonstrated that a 100m depth oI investigation could be achieved over
most oI the study areas with 50X50 and 75X75 transmitter loop. This conIiguration results in
considerably greater lateral resolution than the resistivity method and results in Iield operations that are
several times more eIIicient than the resistivity method.

A Iurther advantage oI TDEM sounding is that, iI the geo-electric interIace is not horizontal, but dipping,
the TDEM still gives a reasonably accurate average depth to the interIace. Similarly the TDEM sounding
is much less sensitive (especially at later times) to varying surIace topography (McNeill, 1994).

The TDEM method was Iound to be good at deIining conductive layers, but less eIIective at deIining
resistive layers. Resistive layers usually have to be Iairly thick in order to be resolved, with the thickness
increasing with depth.

In TDEM, measurement is made only oI those transients that occur when the transmitter current has been
shutoII, since in this case the accuracy oI the measurement is not aIIected by small errors in the location
oI the receiver coil. This Ieature oIIers a very signiIicant advantage over Frequency Domain
Electromagnetic (FDEM) measurement which is generally very sensitive to variations in the transmitter
coil/receiver coil spacing since the FDEM receiver measures while the transmitter current is Ilowing.

One oI the disadvantages in TDEM sounding is that, at the present time only one-dimensional
interpretation soItware is available. There Iore, the interpretation assumes that the subsurIace layers are
horizontal and homogeneous. For the 3D structures the interpretation soItware is still under development.

70
5.1. Carboneras FauIt Zone
Due to the absence oI borehole inIormation in the study area it is diIIicult to give a detail geological
interpretation oI the TDEM results with conIidence. However, Irom the subsurIace resistivity
distribution, the study area could be classiIied into three zones oI rock characteristics with low,
intermediate and high resistivities.

The higher resistivities oI greater than 60 ohm-m could be attributed to the Iractured to Iresh sedimentary
rock unit possibly limestone and/or dolomite. This unit covers between TDEM soundings S11 and S35 on
Line 1000E and north oI TDEM sounding S6 on Line 1200E (Figures 4.8 and 4.10). Intermediate
resistivity values ranging Irom 20 ohm-m to 60 ohm-m could be attributed to the partly water saturated
sedimentary units. The lower resistivities less than 20 ohm-m is interpreted to consist oI a clay Iormation.

From the interpretation oI the TDEM data set in the La Serrata area locations oI Iaults were identiIied on
both Lines 1000E and Line 1200E. Some oI these Iaults were also delineated with other geophysical
methods like Slingram, 2D-resitivity imaging and VLF and also some were visible Irom the image
interpretation. The closely spaced station interval (25m and 50m) allows the location oI Iaults to be
determined along the survey Lines (Figure 5.1). As indicated Irom the apparent resistivity curves (Figure
4.3 and 4.4) and true resistivity sections (Figure 4.7 and 4.8) on the southern portion oI line 1000E (Irom
soundings S11 to S44) which is covered by both station spacing 25m and 50m; the diIIerence in lateral
resolution was not signiIicant. For the station spacing oI 200m (4 times the loop size) signiIicant geologic
details would not be detected (Figure 4.6).

As indicated in Figure 5.1, the interpretation oI TDEM sounding along the two proIiles 1000E and 1200E
(La Serrata), enables to determine the continuation oI the Carboneras Fault Zone to the north-eastern part
oI the survey area. Some oI the Iaults are only obtained Irom the TDEM results while not visible on the
satellite image. Since the Carboneras Fault system is composed oI NE-SW-trending leIt-lateral strike slip
Iaults, the identiIied Iaults using TDEM interpretation along Line 1200E indicated by A, B and C could
be the continuation oI the delineated Iaults along Line 1000E (Figure 5.1).
From the results obtained along Line-1, San Isidro (Nijar) about six Iaults are identiIied out oI which Iour
oI them (F1, F2, F3 and F6) are also identiIied Irom other geophysical methods like Slingram and 2D-
resistivity imaging. As indicated in Figure 5.1 only two Iaults (F3 and F6) were obtained Irom the satellite
image interpretation along this Line.

In general, the TDEM sounding interpretation in the La Serrata and San Isidro area revealed several
subsurIace tectonic structures which could be related to the Carboneras Fault system. Some oI these
identiIied Iaults are also supported with other geophysical methods like Slingram, VLF and 2D-resistivity
imaging and satellite image interpretation.

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72

5.2. Lake Naivasha
The main subsurIace material in the study area incorporates clays, silty and sandy clays, Iine to
medium sands, pebbles and boulders oI trachytic lava. From the general resistivity distribution oI the
subsurIace obtained Irom TDEM sounding interpretations, resistivities less than 15 ohm-m could be
associated with clayey material or high level oI dissolved solids (TDS). The silty and sandy clays
could be characterized by resistivities ranging Irom 15 to 30 ohm-m while resistivities ranging Irom
30 to 60 ohm-m are interpreted to consist oI Iine to medium sand. The higher resistivities greater than
60 ohm-m could be attributed to the course sand, pebbles and boulders oI trachyte. The course-
grained material is higher in resistivity than Iine-grained material. As indicated Irom the resistivity
sections in chapter 4, the basement is characterized by low resistivity values along all the survey lines
which correspond to the silty clay material. At some places markedly low resistivity values less than 5
ohm-m were mapped which could be related to the salinity oI groundwater.
Prominent structural Ieatures were not many in the study area. However, vertical and sub-vertical
Iaults occur in areas close to the riIt wall that marks the eastern margin oI the study area. Some oI
these Iaults were identiIied Irom the interpretation oI TDEM soundings along Lines 2, 3, 5, 7S, 7N,
8N and 10 and their locations are shown on the map oI Figure 5.2. A N-S trending Iault (F4)
delineated Irom the aerial photo interpretation starting Irom Line 8N and extends northwards crossing
Line 3 was also identiIied using TDEM sounding results on both Lines. As indicated in Figure 5.2,
some Iaults mapped along Line 3, 5, 8N were also seen Irom the image interpretation but all others
are identiIied Irom the TDEM sounding interpretation. The locations oI these Iaults are important
because they may have a directional inIluence on the Ilow path oI the groundwater in the study area.

Resistivity contour maps Ior 20, 40, 60 and 80m depth level were made using Oasis Montaj to
examine the spatial variation in resistivity at the respective depths. The outputs oI the contoured maps
were imported into the ILWIS (GIS) program where the main Nakuru-Nairobi highway and railway
and the Karati River locations were overlaid to enhance interpretations (Figure5.3).

From the resistivity contour maps at each depth level it was possible to see the aerial distribution oI
resistivities in the study area (Figure 5.3). The resistivity contour map Ior the depth level oI 20m
(Figure 5.3a) shows two contrasting resistivity zones. The low resistivity zone less than 15 ohm-m is
observed in the western part oI the study area whereas the relatively high resistivity zone (greater than
20 ohm-m) is Iound in the eastern part oI the grid.

At deeper level oI 40m (Figure 5.3b), the eastern and south-eastern part oI the survey area in the
vicinity oI the Karati River is characterized by high resistivity values which could be attributed to
course sand and pebbles. For the remaining part oI the survey area this depth level is characterized by
lower resistivity values with exception oI some localized patches oI higher resistivity in the western
part.

73
At a depth oI 60m (Figure 5.3c), a moderately to high resistivity zone (greater than 20 ohm-m) is well
deIined trending in NW-SE direction which could be correlated with the water saturated sand
Iormation. This zone is open towards the south-eastern direction oI the study area. Higher resistivity
values are observed in the central part oI the survey area near the bend oI the Karati River at a depth
oI 80m (Figure 5.3d). The remaining part oI the study area at this depth level is covered by low
resistivity which could be attributed to the silty sand and clay Iormation and salinity.

Comparison oI the resistivity maps oI diIIerent depth levels shows an overall similarity, but there is a
general increase oI resistivity with depth. Patches oI very low resistivities, less than 10 ohm-m were
observed at all depth levels with in the entire survey grid which could be interpreted to consist oI
saline water.

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75

Figure 5-3 Resistivity map at different depth levels, Lake Naivasha (Note: the colour scale is not consistent for
the 4 different maps)

5.3. Moura, PortugaI
From the borehole inIormation in Lameira area the top oI the geologic proIile comprises a Holocene
clayey soil with thickness oI 2m. The clay soil is underlain by tertiary sediment, which extends down to
17.8m and consists oI Shales and conglomerate. Below the Tertiary layer, a sequence oI 115m oI
76
Ordovician metavolcanic rocks underlain by Cambrian rocks (mainly dolomites) was logged. Fault Iilled
with Iractured and weathered metavolcanics was observed Irom 32 to 37m.

From the TDEM sounding interpretation along the survey line at Lameira, the overburden material
overlaid the resistive bedrock could be correlated with the Tertiary sediments with variable thickness
ranging Irom 0 to 34m. The high resistive basement corresponds to the metavolcanic rocks.

In other parts oI the survey area like Monte Juntos, Carascas and Calatroia also the overlying low
resistive zone may be attributed to the Tertiary sediments underlain by the resistive metavolcanics.

The interpretation oI the TDEM sounding in the study areas identiIied some linear Ieatures interpreted as
a Iault. As indicated in the Figure 5.4, locations oI identiIied Iaults with TDEM survey and image
interpretations are shown. Almost all Iaults delineated with the TDEM sounding were identiIied with the
aerial photo and satellite image interpretation except the inIerred Iaults F1 and F2 at Monte Juntos. In
addition, the Iaults mapped by TDEM at Carascas and Monte Juntos were also revealed with 2D-
resistivity imaging survey, (Khuut Tseedulam, 2002), Appendix-D, E and F. An intermediate resistivity
Iormation was obtained between the inIerred Iaults F1 and F2 at Monte Juntos which could be interpreted
as Iractured or sheared zone (Figure 4.28). At Lameira area, the delineated Iault was also conIirmed by
the lithologic log Irom the nearby borehole.
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78

6. ConcIusions and Recommendations
6.1. ConcIusions

Based on the results Irom the interpretation oI TDEM sounding data sets the Iollowing conclusions
could be drawn:-

The results obtained Irom the study areas oI Carboneras Fault Zone (Spain), Lake Naivasha
(Kenya) and Moura (Portugal) demonstrates that the TDEM sounding method with closely
spaced station intervals can be applied eIIectively in locating Iaults or Iault zones.

ClassiIying identical TDEM apparent resistivity sounding curves into groups helps to
recognize the lateral discontinuity along the survey line qualitatively.

The surIicial expression oI some oI the Iaults in the Carboneras Fault Zone and Lake
Naivasha are concealed by quaternary deposits and Lake Sediments respectively. In this
regard TDEM sounding has proven to be an eIIective tool in mapping these concealed
geological structures. The eIIiciency oI the method is supported by the correlation with other
geophysical methods like Slingram, VLF, 2D-resistivity imaging and image interpretation.

In the Carboneras Fault Zone (La Serrata and San Isidro) the result revealed Irom the detailed
observation interval (50m) allows the exact location oI Iaults to be determined. For the station
spacing oI 200m (4 times the loop size) along line 1000E (La Serrata) signiIicant geologic
details would not be detected. From the results obtained along Lines 1000E and 1200E (La
Serrata) the north-eastern extension oI the Carboneras Iault systems were conIirmed.

In the study area oI Lake Naivasha some structural Ieatures (Iaults) are identiIied Irom the re-
interpretation oI TDEM sounding data along lines 2, 3, 5, 7N, 7S, 8N and 10. Since Iaults are
not well exposed within this area limited Iaults were visible Irom the aerial photo and satellite
image interpretation. Most oI them were identiIied Irom the TDEM sounding interpretation.
From the resistivity contour maps at each depth level it was possible to see the aerial
distribution oI resistivities in the study area. Comparison oI the resistivity maps oI diIIerent
depth level shows an overall similarity, but there is a general increase oI resistivity with
depth.

In the survey areas oI Carascas, Monte Juntos, Calatroia and Lameira the TDEM apparent
resistivity curves were highly distorted. The ascending or descending branches oI sounding
79
curves rise or Iall more steeply than is possible Ior a layered earth, which is a common type oI
distortion seen in soundings. The causes Ior the distortion oI these curves could be related to
the lateral inhomogeinity oI the ground and near surIace expressions oI Iaults. As obtained
Irom the results oI TDEM soundings lower and intermediate resistivity values mapped at the
top could be associated to the Tertiary layer (shale and conglomerate) underlying with the
high resistive Iormation which is interpreted to comprise the metavolcanics.

The TDEM method was Iound to be good at deIining conductive layers, but less eIIective at
deIining resistive layers. Resistive layers usually have to be Iairly thick in order to be
resolved, with the thickness increasing with depth.

The TDEM results demonstrated that a 100m depth oI investigation could be achieved over
most oI the study areas with 50X50 transmitter loop. This conIiguration results in
considerably greater lateral resolution than the resistivity method and results in Iield
operations that are several times more eIIicient than the resistivity method.

Correlation oI TDEM results with other geophysical techniques like DC resistivity and
FDEM suggest that better lateral and vertical resolution and deeper depth oI investigation
were achieved using TDEM sounding.

One oI the disadvantages in TDEM sounding is that, at the present time only one-dimensional
interpretation soItware is available. There Iore, the interpretation assumes that the subsurIace
layers are horizontal and homogeneous. For the 3D structures the interpretation soItware is
still under development.

80

6.2. Recommendations

In order to conIirm the results obtained by TDEM sounding some boreholes should be drilled
on selected sites oI the Carboneras Iault Zone, Lake Naivasha and Moura.
Further geophysical studies incorporating Electrical Resistivity ProIiling and closely spaced
TDEM soundings are recommended Iurther to the north-eastern part oI the study area in the
La Serrata with long proIiles that intersects the suspected NE-SW trending Carboneras Fault
systems to deIine the extent oI the structure towards the northeast.
In the Lake Naivasha area, since the data used in this study were collected Ior the
determination oI the hydrostratigraphy the TDEM soundings are clustered around the Karati
River. Additional TDEM soundings in combination with Electrical ProIiling method should
be conducted on long survey lines that cross the N-S trending structural Ieatures in order to
have better understanding oI the structures in the study area.
81
References
Aquasearch-Ltd. (2001). A report describing a Water resources assessment study, Manera Iarm,
Naivasha. Delamere Estates Limited, Naivasha.
F.C. Frischknecht , P. V. R. (1984). "Time-Domain Electromagnetic Sounding at Nevada Test site,
Nevada." Geophysics 49(7): 981-992.
Fitterman D.V , S. M. T. (1986). "Transient Electromagnetic Sounding Ior groundwater." Geophysics
51(4): 995-1005.
Flemming Jorgensen, P. B. E., Sandersen , Esben Auken (2003). "Immaging burried quaternary
valleys using transient electromagnetic method." Journal oI Applied Geophysics 53: 199-213.
Getachew Ebuy Tedla, K. D. T. and S. A. Getachew DigaIie Baimeta (2004). Fieldwork Report oI
Geological and Geophysical Mapping in the Serrata area, Almeria province, Southeastern
Spain. Enschede, International Institute Ior Geo-InIormation Science and Earth Observation
(ITC).
Gressando, Y. (1999). Application oI Geophysical techniques Ior groundwater investigation in lake
Naivasha area, Kenya. WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
(WREM). Enschede, International Institute Ior Geo-InIormation Science and Earth
Observation (ITC): 68.
J. V. A. Keller, S. H. H. a. K. R. M. (1995). "The Geometry and evolution oI a transpressional strike-
slip system: the carboneras Iault, SE Spain." Journal oI the Geological Society 152: 339-351.
KauIman, P. H. a. A. A. (2001). Electromagnetic Soundings, Elsevier.
Khuut Tseedulam, M. E. M. S. A. R., Krishna Kanta Nag , Kelvin Anderson (2002). Report on the
Iieldwork to Moura, portugal. Enschede, International Institute Ior Geo-InIormation Science
and Earth Observation (ITC).
Linjun Zhang, O. C. P., Sultana Nasrin Nury, TesIaye Kassa Mekonnen (2003). The Iieldwork report
on Carboneras Iault zone, Southeast Spain, International Institute Ior Geo-InIormation
Science and Earth Observation (ITC).
McNeil, J. (1990). "use oI Electromagnetic methods Ior groundwater Studies: in Geotechnical and
Environmental Geophysics." 1: 191-218.
McNeill, J. D. (1994). "Principles and application oI Time Domain Electromagnetic Techniques Ior
resistivity sounding." Technical Note TN-27.
Nabide, I. K. (2002). Development oI 3-D conceptual hydrogeological model Ior Lake naivasha area :
based on the integration oI geology, hydrochemistry, isotopic analysis and boundary
conditions.
Nabighian, M. N. (1991). "Electromagnetic methods in applied geophysics." Volume 2, Application
part A.
Omara Patrick, O. (2003). Groundwater chemistry and quality assessment oI the Moura
hydrogeological catchement, Alentejo province, southeast Portugal.
Paul Huibregtse, H. v. A., Matthijs Zaal, Cees Biermann (1998). "Palaeostress analysis oI the northern
Nijar and southern Vera basins: constraints Ior the Neogene displacement history oI major
strike-slip Iaults in the Betic Cordilleras, SE Spain." 79-101.
Perez, O. C. (2003). "Integrated interpretation oI a Geophysical survey in the Almeria Fault Zone."
Richards, J. A. (1993). Remote Sensing Digital Image Analysis.
Taylor, K., M. Widmer, et al. (1992). "Use oI transient electromagnetics to deIine local hydrogeology
in an arid alluvial environment." Geophysics 57(2): 343-352.
Tsiboah, T. (2002). "2D-resistivity and time - domain EM in aquiIer mapping: a case study, north oI
Lake Naivasha, Kenya."
82
Appendices

Appendix-A TDEM data acquisition, Moura.

Appendix B, Observed TDEM apparent resistivity curves along Line 1000E, observation interval
100m

Appendix-C Geological Interpretation oI 2D-resistivity Imaging Lines 2 and 3 (Lake Naivasha)

Appendix-d Measured and Apparent Resistivity Pseudo-sections with the Inverse Model Resistivity
Section in Carascas - Line 1

Appendix-E, Measured and Apparent Resistivity Pseudo-sections with the Inverse Model Resistivity

Appendix-F, Measured and Apparent Resistivity Pseudo-sections with the Inverse Model Resistivity
Section in Monte Juntos

Appendix-G Location map oI some boreholes and TDEM sounding survey lines (Lake Naivasha)

Appendix-H Model results oI VES-17, VES-18 and VES-20 (Gressando, 1999), Lake Naivasha
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84
Appendix B, Observed TDEM apparent resistivity curves along Line 1000E, observation interval
100m

Appendix-C Geological Interpretation oI 2D-resistivity Imaging Lines 2 and 3 (Lake Naivasha)

85
Appendix-d Measured and Apparent Resistivity Pseudo-sections with the Inverse Model Resistivity

Appendix-E, Measured and Apparent Resistivity Pseudo-sections with the Inverse Model Resistivity

86

Appendix-F, Measured and Apparent Resistivity Pseudo-sections with the Inverse Model Resistivity
Section in Monte Juntos

T
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88
Appendix-H Model results oI VES-17, VES-18 and VES-20 (Gressando, 1999), Lake Naivasha

TDEM

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