PREFERRED GENERAL MUSIC CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AMONG LOW-INCOME, URBAN-MINORITY MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate ‘School of The Ohio State University By Yvonne P. Johnson, B.S., M.A. ‘The Ohio State University 1994 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Dr, Jere L. Forsythe Dr. Timothy A. Gerber Dr. James E. Major Dr. William T. MeDanielACKNOWLEDGMENTS express appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Timothy Gerber for his vision and guidance, and :© members ofthe dissertation committee, Drs. Jere Forsythe, James Major, and ‘Ted McDaniel, for their encouragement and support. ‘Thanks is also extended to Dr. James Bishop, Director, Dr. Philip Newman, Senior Researcher, and to students who were subjects for this study in the Young ‘Scholars Summer Institute at The Ohio State University. Special thanks to Dr. and ‘Mrs. Harry Robertson, Josephine Thomas and Robert Camphell for their expertise nd encouragement. Gratitude is expressed to Karen Huxtable Jester and Joan Hertvik for their suggestions and assistance with the statistical computations. Thanks to Lou Vandiver and Wayne Ross for their data services. I extend sincerest appreciation to Sandra Strider and William Jelinek, typists [My deepest gratitude and appreciation to Dr. LaPointe Davis, Music Department Chairman at Delaware State University and to Mrs. Truda Burke, for belping to make this endeavor become a reality, Finally, I wish to dedicate this work to my mother, Mrs. Georgia M. Pigler, for her encouragement, moral support, prayers, and love. Thank you for always believing in me.vira September 3, 1937 ................. Bom - Brooklyn, New York 1989 : BS., State University of New York at Potsdam 1959-1960 General Music Teacher, ‘Andrew Jackson High School ‘Cambria Heights, Long Island 190-1968 eee ee eees sees String/General Music Teacher, ‘Walter J. Damrosch Junior High School Bronx, New York 1968-1969 eee eee eeee General Music Teacher, Fitz Simmons Junior High Schoo! Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1970-1971, arr MA., New York University New York, New York 1971-1991 Assistant Professor, Department of Music Delaware State University Dover, Deiaware 19921993 eee Graduate Teaching Associate, ‘The Ohio State University Columbus, OhioFIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Music Studies in Music Education. Professors Timothy Gerber, David Butler, Judith Delzell, Patricia Flowers, Jere Forsythe, Joan Lehr, Jerry Lowder, Alexander Main, James Major, and Ted McDaniel.TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Vira, iii TABLE OF CONTENTS «20... 00-00000+ v LIST OF TABLES + Nill LIST OF FIGURES «00.00.0000 ccc eee eee eevee ese eee ees xi CHAPTER PAGE Introduction . 1 Purpose of Study... 3 Statement of Problem 4 Specific: Questions... 4 Definition of Terms Used In This Study 5 Limitations of the Study 7 Need for the Study 9 M Related Literature... eee eee eevee eves eeee B Musical Preference... Determinants of Listening Preferences Progression of Musical Attitudes... . Popular Music and Musical Preference. | Preference and Music Teaching Philosophy Urban-Minorty Students and Curriculum Mile Scho! MuticuturalCursiclum Diverse Music Curricula Il, Methodology Introdsction « -. . coteteee ees Subjects Used For This Study | : 34Sab as Panipat nthe Young Scholars Program ‘Administration of Pilot PMAS ‘Administration of Pilot PMAT 37 ‘Administration of PMAS . 38 ‘Administration of PMAT 3 ‘Treatment of the Data 40 IV. Report and Discussion of Data from Student Surveys. wee Introduction. Student Demographics Frequency of Classroom General Music Activities. Preferred Classroom General Music Activities . - Enrollment Patterns in Middle Schoot Music Courses 46 Research Question #1 49 Research Question #2 50 Research Question #3 « 1 Listening Activities ar ‘Singing Activities... 35 Movemen/Dancing Activities - 259 ‘Piaying Activities eee ote Creating Activities 220200222 IIITS : D6 ‘Analyzing Activities a Research Question #4 70 ‘Summary 7 = eR V. Report and Discussion of Data from Student Interviews n Introduction... 7 ‘Questions Asked of Students (Research Question #1, #4, #5, 596, and #7)... 78 Positive Nature of Most Comments D Common Characteristics 3 Research Question #5.» 80 Verbatim Positive Comments | 7 2-80 Negative Comments 7 2.82 Research Question #5 7 83 Listening Activities. - nt eee Singing Activities. <. . - “85 Movement Activities... : 86 Playing Activities ee eae Creative Activities Bacay 289 Research Question #4 <0. soso i 90 Research Question #6 = 1.91Research Question #7 ‘VI. Summary, Conclusions, and Interpretations; and ‘Recommendations for Further Research a1 ‘Summary . . eee Conclusions and Interpretations Saece ee te 106) Iinplications for Teacher Education MI ‘Recommendations for Preservice General Music Teachers ML ‘Recommendations For Further Study... - eae) APPENDICES ‘A. Preferred Musical Activity Survey Instrument 0 ese 02 ee se05 6+ 18 B. Solicitation to General Music Survey Participants... : 121 C. Preferred Musical Activity Survey Instructions = 123 D. Figure 1: Results from Preferred Musical Activity Interviews (MAI) . . 125 Tle 52: Female Responses to PMAS Open-Ended Quesions (738 and #39)... seed F, Table 33: Male Responses to PMAS Open-Ended Questions (#38 and #39) 132 G. Preferred Music Activity Interview Form - - 13s H, Verbatim Comments Regarding General Music Teachers 138 LIST OF REFERENCES... . oS idlLIST OF TABLES TABLE 1 2, 13, ‘Student Demographics by Grade Level, Gender, and Ethnic Group Frequency Distribution of Students Enrolled In General Music and Performance Group Classes Patterns of General Music Course Length and Meeting Times ‘Student Recollections of Activities in General Music Classes. . ‘Student Recollections of Frequency of Listening Activities in General Music Classes for Grades R7-RO 2. - Student Recollections of Frequency of Listing Activites Sn General Music Classes for All Students and by Gender ‘Student Recollections of Frequency of Listening Activities in General Music Classes for Grades R7-R9 ‘Student Preferences for Listening Activities in General Music Classes for All Students and by Gender . . ‘Student Preferences for Listening Activities by Grade Level Student Realectons of Frequny f Singing Asvies for Al Students and by Gender... Stan Recollections of Frequency of Singing Actvies by Grade Level. Student Pefereess for Singing Atv for All Sens end by Gender Student Preferences for Singing Activities by Grade Level PAGE “4 a7 48 0 sl 2 3 st 55 56 37 5814. 15, 19. 20, 2 2. 23. 24, 21, 28, 2. ‘Student Recollections of Frequency of Movement Activities for All Students and by Gender . . Sturt Realetos of Fequney of Movement Actives by Grade Level Student of Preferences for Movement Activities for All Students and by Gender Student Preferences for Movement Activities by Grade Level Sem nections of Frequy of Paying Actives for AN Students and by Gender aa Student Recollections of Frequency of Playing Actviti by Grade Level . : Stadt Pefetenoes for Paying Active for Al Stade nd by Gender Student Preferences for Playing Activities by Grade Level Students Recollection of Fruency of Creing Activities for Al Students and by Gender... - ‘Student Recollections of Frequency of Creating Activities by Grade Student Preferences fr Creating Actives for Al Students and by Gender. oe ‘Student Preferences for Creating Activities by Grade Level Student Recollections of Fequny of Anyi Actives for Al ‘Students and by Gender . : Studs Recollections of Freeny of Analysing Aces by Gade Level Student Preferences for Analyzing Activities for All Students and by ‘Student Preferences for Analyzing Activities by Grade Level 59 61 Gr30. 31 22 33, 35, 36. 31. Student Preference for Activities in General Music Classes Student Preference for Musical Activities in General Music Classes for Grades R7-R9 PMAS Summary of Listening and Dancing Preferences and Most Frequently Engaged in Activities by Grade Level PMAS Summary of Singing and Playing Preferences and Most Frequently Engaged in Activities by Grade Level PMAS Summary of Creating and Analyzing Preferences and Most Frequently Engaged in Activities by Grade Level... Favorite Classroom Musical Activity ty Grade Level Female Responses to PMAS Open-Ended Questions (#38 and #39) . Male Responses to PMAS Open-Ended Questions (#38 and £39) . in 1 44 .75 16 12 .1a7LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE Results from Preferred Musical Activity Interviews (PMA) - 123(CHAPTER I Introduction In the lives of middle school students, puberty isa time of significant changes, ‘This isthe stage in which early adolescents begin to make choices that ultimately will impet the rest oftheir lives. In adation, these youngsters must cope with the biological and psychological changes that develop during adolescence. As ealy adolescents, they have entered the "most volatile period in ther lives, ..* Gerber, 1992, p. 39, ‘Unfortunately, in addition tothe developmental changes experienced by all carly adolescents, many low-income, uban-minority students live under disadvantaged conditions and fail reach their educational potential. As a result, these youngsters sometimes develop negative atitues toward schooling. Obviously, these conditions present great challenges for the music education profesion (Anderson, 1991; Boardman, 1990; Campbell, 1991, 1992; Gerber, 1992; LeBlanc, 1982, 1983; Lounsbury, 1992; Regelski, 1979; Reimer, 1978, 1989). Educators concerned about urban-minority students, have argued fora relevant curriculum that will address their needs and interests (Banks, 1987; Collier & Powell, 1986, Dawkins & Snyder, 1972; Edeburn & Gripp, 1978; Ford, 1985; Franklin and Nicholson, 1978; Henderson and ‘Washington, 1975; Jacob & Jordan, 1993; McCormack-Larkin, 1985; and Powell, 1991).‘The diversity ofthe population of the United States in the 1990's requires that Schools provide music curricula that includes music of many cultures and styles (Anderson, 1991; Anderson and Campbell, 1989; Shehan, 1985). In a transultural society, musial activities must reflect the times, needs, and ethnicities of students themseives. One option for urban-minority music programs isthe inclusion of world music into the curriculum; much of it provides music of composers Who are current, and music to which students can relate (Campbell, 1992, p. 26; Gamble, 1983, p 39). In addition, as we move into the twenty-first century, music educators must continue to meet the challenge of including popular music inthe curiculum without losing musical integrity 1In 1990, The Symposium for the Advocacy of Music Teaching from a ‘Multiculural Perspective was presened by the Music Educators National Conference (MENC), the Society for General Musi, the Society for Ethnomusicology, and the ‘Smithsonian Institute. Participants in the Symposium studied the musical styles of canic groups represented in the current study: Aftican-Americans, Asians, Hispano, [Native Americans. One oftheir gouls was to have participants experience and ‘understand musical styles of various ethnic groups in American schools. The conference was partially an outgrowth ofthe realization by educators that as a ‘multicultural nation, there is a need 10 include the music of diverse cultures into the public schoo! music program. ‘While an awareness of diverse music in the education of students is gaining in Importance, it is curious to note that studies of low-income, urban-minority middleSchool students and their musical preferences have been notably scarce. Perhaps this is because there has never been a crescendo of voices reacting to the inertia or lack of tention toward the musical preferences of minority students. For the frst time in American Mstory, the United States Congress has ‘established the ats a8 a discptne in Which every student shouldbe able to demonstrate competence: “Goals 2000: Educate America Act” Cthe Schoo! Music Program: A New Vision, 1994, p, 1) ‘This program provides a model or framework for curriculum content and student music learning forall schools ofthe twenty-first century. Having high musical standards is basic tothe development of high-quality music courses for all students, Its hoped that dats from this study wil heighten the awareness of music ‘educators regarding urban-minorty dent preferences for modes of music study. Purpose of Study (1) The purpose of this study was to determine preferences for various types of activites for music leaning among low-income, uran-minoriy mile school students, This investigation provided data pertaining to preferred activities of sixh-, seventh, an eighth-grade students toward participatory classroom musical acivities i... singing, dancing, playing musical instruments, listening, and creating. (2) The study also sought to identify classroom musical activites that low-income, urban minority middle school students rarely or never do and consider to be important. (@) Another purpose this research was to develop recomendations for preservice general music teachers in urban districts. As the urban-minority student4 population increases, prospective music teachers willbe required to provide them with ‘more meaningful and vaied classroom musical activities. The influence of music ‘educators in effecting students’ musical preferences and attitudes its crucial. Its hoped thatthe data generated from this study wi te helpful to those concerned with ‘music teacher education in urban setings. Statement_of Problem ‘The basic problem of this study was to asertain prefered general music activites among low-income, utban-minorty middle school students enrolled in ‘general music clases. This project also atempted t identify and describe the ‘musical activites that these students considered 10 be educationally important. tn addition, this investigation sought o determine the degree to which they liked or Aisliked general musi classes by listening to both the comments and tone of responses in personal interviews ‘Soesific. Questions Im order to address the base problems ofthe study, the following research ‘questions became the basis for data acquisition: 1. Which classroom musical activities did students report they engaged in most frequently and prefer? 2. How did the frequency and preference of these activity patterns differ among the middle-grade levels? 3. Within each musical activity (.., listening, singing, moving, et.), how ‘id students rank their preferences for music genres?4. What specific types of classroom musical activites (listening, singing, ‘moving, playing, creating and analyzing) did low-income, urban-minority middle school students prefer? More specifically, a) Which classroom musical activities did these sudents report they liked most? b) Which musical activities did they report, they liked least? ‘5. What i the overall stitde that low-income, urban-minority mide school students reported about classroom general music activities? 6. What did low-income, urban-minority mile school students report they ould like to do in general music classes that they never ar rarely did? 7. Which classroom musical activities did low-income, urvan-minority middle school students report that they considered important? Definition of Terms Used In This Study “The specialized or operational terms used inthis study include the following: “Musical Atitude: A general disposition or feeling regarding classroom seneral music activites. General Music: The part of the school music curriculum that pertains 10 ‘musical outcomes tobe attained by all tudems, This isthe music course which is offered to a majority of public school middle and junior high school students. The primary goal isto provide musical participation and understanding to all students, Preference: An act of liking, valuing, and ultimately choosing one thing over another.Musical Preference: Witten and verbal response to musical activities and genres which reflects the degree to which the music i liked or dislike. Musical Actviy: A musical procedure, atin, or prformarce in general susie class in which students actively participate through listenin, singing, moving, playing, creating, or analyzing Musical genre:_ Specific categories within each musical activity, ie, rap, jaz, reggae, or classical musi Atiude: An atitde sa feting, opinion, or belief about s given phenomenon. Tn this study it refers to feeling and opinion toward classroom musical activites and mosial genres. Rising: The term *rising™ was used for students promoted 10 the next prospective grade level. For example, rising seventh-grade student was one who completed the sixth-grade in June of 1993 and in the next semester would enter the seventh-grade. Designations for students in this study were as follows: (1) Rising seventh-grade students - R7GS, (2) Rising eighth-grade students - R8GS, and (3) Rising ninth-grade students - ROGS. Preferred Musical Activity Survey: identified as PMAS, is a thirty-nine item survey instrument designed to gather quamtiative data pertaining to the musical attitudes of low-income, urban-minority middle school students. Preferred Musical Activity Interview: identified as PMAI, consisted of student interviews conducted with a sample of rising seventh-, eighth-, and ninth- grade students. The purpose of the interviews was to (a) ascertain their favorite‘musical activities, (b) determine musical activities in which they seldom or never paricipated, and (€) reveal the musical activites which these students considered most important Low-income - Federal Poverty Level: According tothe Socal Security Spring Bulistin for 1993, the federal poverty level eurrent guideline ceiling for a family of four is $4,350 dollars per year. In addition, parents of the sample student population (who are Young Scholars Summer Insite participates) do not have college degrees. Urban-minority: Typically these are minority persons residing in low-income areas of a city. Inthe current study, these mincsty groups are African-American, ‘Asian, Hispanic, Native American, and White Appalachian students whose parents are in the low-income bracket. These students are residents of nine cites in the state of Ohio. White Appalachian (White App.): Refers to students whose parents once resided in economically deprived Appalachian regions, and currently reside in urban centers in the state of Ohio. Family income and literacy rate for these families are lower than the national average for other Caucasian groups. ‘Specialized/Special Population: Low-income, urban-minority middle school students, Limitations of the Study ‘The best method of gathering data abou: student opinion is to ask students themselves. Therefore, a combination of written surveys and personal interviewswere used to gather data needed inthis study. These surveys and all personal interviews were administered during the summer quaner of 1993, on the campus of The Ohio State University. The extent ofthe influence of this special environment is not considered in generalizing the results ofthis study. The possible effect ofthe fact that hese students were studying inthe summer, and were learning on a university ‘campus, may have influenced their opinions; however, these potential influences were ‘ot able to be measured reliably. ‘Therefore, these considerations were not within the Scope of this invesigation. in ation: 1. Surveys and interviews were administered only to low-income, urban- minority sist, seventh, and eighth-grade students enrolled in The Ohio State Universiy’s Young Scholars Summer Istiut. 2. Although several ethic groups may be implied by the term urban- minor, the present study adhere closely to the definitions offered earir. ‘Therefore, the results of this study may not be generalizable to all urban minorities, particularly Hispanic or Asian students. 43. This sudy primarily analyzed the variables of gender, grade level, ethnicity, number of weeks and minuts per general music class, and membership in a performing group. 4, In responding to survey questions, i is possible that some of the terms or musical genres used tothe instrument were not understood by some students. is 5. In order to understand the data reported in their proper context, ‘important to realize that all responses were reflections by students oftheir classroomexperiences from the past school year. IC has been assumed throughout that these recollections were honest and accurate remembrances and altitudes concerning instructional activity. However, the vividness of students’ recollections may have ‘been diminished in some cases by the mere passage of time. 6. When this study was conducted (in July and August of 1993), students in the seventh grade (R8GS) were enrolled in a African Music and Movement course in the Young Scholars Summer Institute. In addition, eighigrade students (RIGS) ‘were enrolled in the same course in the summer of 1992. Therefore, despite the fact that all students in this study were instructed to answer questions based on classroom ‘general music activites conducted in their respective schools, itis possible that some Of their responses were influenced by their present or past enrollment in the African ‘Music and Movement course in the Young Scholars Summer Institute, ‘Need_for_the Study ‘Since the early years of this century, atitudinal research has been conducted by those in the field of social science (Alport, 1935; Brueckner, 1945; LaPiere, 1934; Likert, 1932; Thurstone, 1929). During the 1920's and 1930's, researchers ‘were conducting studies on attitudes in children, racial minorities, and social groups ‘These studies adopted the self-report format for gathering data and investigated relationships between variables such as intelligence, musical aptitude, age, gender ‘and/or personality (Cook & Sellitz, 1970; Summers, 1970). According to Kuhn's (1979) review of research on attulinal measurement "a self-report rating measure is the most efficent, and in all likelihood, is quite adequate” (p. 21).10 More recently, researchers in many areas of music education have tured their tention to atitudes regarding music study. Notably among these are Boswell, 1991; Price and Swanson, 1990; Krueger, 1989; Pogonowski, 1982; and Vander Ark, Nolin and Newman, 1980. ‘The major emphasis in music attudinal research has shifted from subject variables to situational variables; ic, familiaity with the music, teaching methodology, peer group influences, and socio-economic status (Wapnick, 1976, p.2). The present research reveled that lacking in the literature is information Pertaining to preferred general music classroom activites of low-income, urban minority middle school students. ‘This study was needed in order to sensitize the music education community to the musical attiudes and preferred general music classroom activities of urban- minority students. If future music educators who will eventually teach this specialized Population ae to be effective, they must provide general music activites that wil lead to the development and exploration of students! needs, and talents However, many turan-minority students are plagued with problems that decrease their accessibility to these experiences, (One imporant question hat characterizes current school goals and objectives is: What do educators want eatly adolescents to know and be able ‘0 do upon the completion of ther educational and school related experiences? Leaders in music ceucation, politics, business, and in the general public agree that each student should receive musical and ars instruction because they are essential to proving students ‘with 2 balanced curriculum (The School Music Program: A New Vision, 1994, p. 1).n Content Standards from this program (p. 17) for grades five through eight are as follows: 1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music 2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music 3. Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments 4. Composing and arranging music within specified guidelines 5. Reading and notating music 6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music 7. Evaluating music and music performances 8. Understanding relationships between musi, the other arts, and disciplines outside the arts 9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture In order to become more effective, music educators need to become more cognizant Of the preferred musical activities of low-income, urban-minority middle school students. At the same time they should adhere to the Content Standards as objectives for student musical achievement. Clearly, the findings of this study will help to provide important information regarding musical activity preferences of urban- minority students 1s imperative that music educators become more aware of the types of ‘musical activites in general musi, choir, band, and orchestra that will increase music participation, influence the musical attitudes of students, and ultimately sustain urban-2 minority students interest in music. What is know is that ufbar-minority students usally like general music classes and find them exciting. The music clas shouldbe 4 place where music of all styles, mes, places, and cultures may be explored, Hopefully, this study will provide music educators of this specialized population with information that will lead to the exploration of relevant and creative musical activites.(CHAPTER I Related Literature Musical Preference “The fact tat most adolescents have musical preferences is undeniable, However, in order for music educators to effect change and expand upon preferences, itis necessary for them to become more aware of the sources that influence musical preference, LeBlanc (1980) began a series of investigations on musical preference that reauted in the development of a model for the "Sources of Variation in Music Preference” (LeBlanc, 1981, p. 144). He purposed an eight-level hierarchical model a8 a symbolic representation ofa single music preference decision. Essentially, this ‘model postulated three primary areas of influence which determine music preferred by the listener: (1) stimulus or musical characterises, (2) cultural and social factors, and (G) personal characteristics ofthe listener. “The LeBlanc (1982) hierarchical model Was transformed into "An interactive theory of music preference” (p. 28), in which variables of influences availble for input into making decisions are vital. Inthe interactive theory, decisions regarding music preferene are based upon the interaction of listener characteristics and input {information or musical stimulus, and the cultural environment of the listener (p. 29)4 ‘The physical properties, complexity, and referential meaning of the musi stimulus, a5 well asthe quality ofthe performance through which itis heard, influence the musi preference decison. Incidental conditioning of the listener, as wel asthe opinions of the listener's peer group and family, influence the musc preference decision. Educators, authority figures, and the media influence music preference Aecisions. These influences will vary in itensity and direstion at different stages ofthe listener's life. (LeBlanc, 1982, p. 31) ‘The LeBlane theory provides concepts that are helpful in understanding the ‘musical activity preferences of students. For example, the musical characteristics or ‘ariables that inluence the preferences of some thes urban-minority mide school students are chythm/beat and danceability. Theit preference for shythem and blues (R&B) music could result from the influence of a culture ( parents, siblings, etic, and peer group) in which dancing isa central aspect oftheir community and social affiliation. 1 is possible that dese cultural factors helped to create an envionment forthe evelopment of ther musical activity. However, iis erroneous to suggest that because stuens are of the same ethnicity, socio-economic stats, or ‘environment they would necessarily prefer the same msi. In addition, students’ personal characterises; €.,enthusiam, energy, outgoing personality, may aso influene their preference for R&B music which is characterized by high energy and rhythm. ‘The LeBlanc interactive theory presents an exhaustive account of sources of variation which are applicable to making music activity preference decisions. This1s theory can astist music educators in understanding how musi activity preferences of low-income, urbarsminoriy middle school students develop. In reference to LeBlane’s interactive theory, one could assume that musical activity preference was a fixed process (Geisler, 1990, . 34). However, itis evident that perception varies according to diferent individuals and different circumstances. (Blackbur, 1983) When teaching general musi to urban minority students, itis mporant to remember tha based on culture, gender, age, and ethnic group, individual adolesent are likely to perceive musical activities ina varity of ways For example, there are youngsters from ein groups who generally pereive classical music as strange, compe, uninteresting or too dificult fr their comprehension. Other students inthe same clasroom (but with different musical experiences; i.e., membership in performing group or familiarity with classical ‘music) could possibly understand and like classical music. At the same time, as students mature and/or participate in a greater variety of musical activities, their preferences or reasons for liking or disliking a certain type of music are likely to change. In different stages of the student's development, the intensity and direction of influences that impact musical activity preferences will var. ‘Determinants of Listening Preferences Prior to LeBlanc’s Interactive Theory, Prince (1972) developed a listening paradigm, which is "a framework based on crucial decisions on what variables and ‘what relationships between variables are to be investigated” (p. 446). For purposes of ‘the present study, it would be heipful to understand the influence of the variables of16 ‘melody, rhythm and harmony, as they relate to musical preferences of minority sixth, seventh, and eighth-grade students. Which musical component do they consider most important? How can these factors be manipulated to broaden their preferences? This paradigm sought to present a graphic representation of the interrelaionships between factors that account for listener reaction patterns: (1) identifying response variable, 2) identifying subject characteristics, and (3) learning, Processes that affect responses (Prince, p. 446). For many years, researchers have been curious regarding why people like particular types of music (Burke & Gridley, 1990; Gridley, 1987; Holbrook & ‘Schindler, 1989; Muli, 1957). In an effort to predict the extent to which a musical ‘composition will be Hked, the variables of stimulus complexity tave frequently been hypothesized. Researchers have found a relationship between complexity and musical preference. They have discovered that more listeners are attracted by music with moderate levels of complexity (Burke & Gridley, 1990, p- 687). ‘One's perception of musical complexity isa matter of interpretation which {depends partly on the amount of familiarity thatthe listener has had with a particular ‘sical stimulus. The effect that the musical stimuli will have depends on the previous contactor lack of contact with the timull. Musical complexity is often subjective, and a composition considered complex by some students may be thought of as simplistic to others. Much of how the music is regarded, depends on how it is perceived by the listeners and their level of comfort and familiarity with the musical genre. In addition, the attudes acquired regarding music depend, in part, on the"7 {group to which they belong (Marshall, 1977, p. 59). Students often prefer music performed by members oftheir same ethnic group (Haack, 1982; Killian, 1990; McCrary, 1993; Shehan, 1981/1982; Woodard, 1978). ‘Progression of Musical Atitudes Positive attitudes of elemeniary school students toward musical study decline as they progress from grade two to grade six (Broquist, 1961). In the current study, sixth-grade students (R7GS) had positive attitudes regarding general music activities ‘and high enrollment in performance groups. Conversely, seventh-grade students, (RSGS) were less positive in their musical atitudes, and expressed opinions with less enthusiasm. In addition, seventh-grade students had lower enrollment in performing ‘organizations than cither sixth-grade (R7GS) or eighth-grade (R9GS) students. The Positive atitudes and high performance group enrollment of eighth-grade students (RIGS) were similar to those of sixth-grade students (R7GS). Overall, inthe current study, while musical attitudes of sixth-grade students were high, they declined in the seventh-grade and rose in the eighth-grade, ‘The Broguist formula for identifying attitudes in grades three through eight has been applied to research that examined the variables of self-esteem and socio ‘economic status (Nolin, 1973; Nolin & Vander Ark, 1977; Pogonowski, 1982). In the Nolin (1973) study, a random sample of third to sixth-grade students (N- 264) ‘were administered attudinal surveys. Students in title schools or schools with Federally identified poverty-level students had higher or better attitude levels than did18 students from non-ttle schools. This finding suggests that musical atitudes may in some way be effected by socio-economic status (Nolin, 1989, p. 33). ‘Most of the music in the environment of early adolescents is accessible to them without formal instruction. ‘They “pick it up” by rote and are usually very successful at music comprehension. Therefore, when planning musical activites, itis important that music educators be aware of how students feel regarding various aspects of general music classes (Nolin, 1989, p. 36). For example, evidence regarding preference of general music activites by adolescents indicated that the least preferred activity is musiteading (Nolin, 1989); this activity invariahly creates negative student attitudes. ‘The exception to this negativity often occurs when learning to read music takes place in conjunction with the "hands-on" experience of playing a ‘musical instrument, This is the method in which students leam and at the same time develop positive musical atitudes. Learning must be a productive process, i.e., playing, singing, and making music. In order for youngsters to develop the ability to read music, the general music teacher must create the need for music-reading. This ‘eed to know must be felt before the music-reading process can be meaningful (Nolin, 1989, p. 36). ‘Popular Music and Musical Preference In general, music preferences are considered reflections of atitudes toward a particular musical style (Kuhn, 1979; Radocy & Boyle, 1979; Wapnick, 1976). Preferences are often based on stylistic perceptions, and popular genres are often the style of choice for certain populations (Britin, 1991; Christenson & Roberts, 1990).19 For example, a youth music preference study in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1989) revealed that their preferences, like the preferences of students in the current study, centered mainly on popular music. Specifically, the most popular music was dance music, beat music, rock, country, and disco. Opera, like the classical music ‘genre in the present study, was among the least preferred types of music (Foret, 1989, p. 1) ‘The importance of popular music in the lives of adolescents is increasingly discussed in the literature (Boyle, Hosterman, & Noyes, 1981; Denski, 1990; Finns, 1989; isler, 1990; Thompson, 1991, 1994). The emotional fluctuations of adolescence are very challenging, and the affective experience of music during this period is important to adolescent development, ‘These early musical experiences may well extend into adulthood (Denski, 1990, p. 82). There are educators who consider popular music to be both inferior and threatening to Western art music. It is important that rusic educators of low-income, urban-minority students understand and ‘value popular music because of is variety and appeal to the interests of many of these students. In order for popular music to capture the attention of youngsters, it must be ccurrent (Thompson, 1991, p. 16). For example, rap music is current and popular ‘with many urban-minority youngsters, and therefore, music educators should ‘understand its background, historical context, and relevaney to students, Rap music ‘originated in New York City in the late 1970" ‘may be defined as: ‘A form of popular music that entails talking, or "rapping," to a rhythmic musical background - has proved to have wide appeal andstaying power. Words and rhythm are the heart of rap. A vocalist (or ‘vocalists tells a story set to syncopation, and a dsc jockey (DI) provides he shythm with a drum machine or by *sratching” on a tumtable(apidly moving a record back and forth under the needle to create rays’ famous swishing sound). Rap lyrics concentrate primarily on the contemporary African American experience, andthe music is aimed ata market consisting primarily, but not exclusively, of Aftican ‘American youth. Every issue within the Black community i subject to ‘exposition in the rap arena. Hit rap tunes have breached touchy subjects sich as sex, sexism, racism, and crime, . Indeed, in addition to entertainment, rap music provides @ ‘ignitican: form of informal education for adolescents, one that extends far beyond the confines ofthe classroom and into their peer group circles Whether rap is denigrated or applauded as an artistic product, it cannot be ignored asa dominant means of expression within ‘contemporary African American adolescent culture. For Black youth in particular rap provides a powerful fore for identity, solidarity, and emotional reinforcement. (Powell, 1991, p. 245) In general, the musical preference of early adolescents can be greatly influenced by the radio stations to which they listen. There are stations that design programs for spesial age or ethnic groups. Some researchers have concluded that the trond of radio stations to form an identity with a particular audience is mispuided21 (Deihl, Schneider, & Petress, 1983, p. 48). These researchers conducted a telephone survey with six hundred and seven respondents from a midwestern town with a cros- section of people (Four percent of whom were under eighteen) with rural, small town, and urban influences. This sty grouped musical preferences into the dimensions Which the researchers ascribed as corresponding to the types or classes of people who prefered these particular types of musi. ‘rference and Music Teaching Philosophy “The decision to include popular oF multicultural music into the music curriculum isa philosophical one. It hinges upon what types of music the educator believes tobe of value and importance tothe students’ general musical development Popular music may be included inthe general music curriculum because ofits variety and appeal tothe interests of urbar-minorty adolescents, ‘The rhythm/beat and tempo of much popular music encourages active student participation through clapping, ‘moving, and dancing. ‘These activites may help to enhance and enrich music learning experiences. To be effective, music educators must be committed to providing students with a level of musical quality and diversity upon which they can continue to expand for the ret of their ives. However, withthe awareness of the influence of ‘outside musical activities on adolescent's preferences, the educator must be a facilitator as wel asa salesperson in bringing divergent musical styles into the classroom. "The teacher has neither the practical ability nor the ethical imperative to “prainwash” students by inculeating the values of “good” music (as defined,2 generally, by the teacher)” Regel, 1981, p. 3). Rater, the music educator should ‘encourage the development and refinement of a sussined individual value system, 11s important that music edoatrs start from where ther students ae musically, and progress to more serious music and diverse mosial styles. Youngsters need to know tat educators cre about whatever their students consider important. The invesigtor blives that the ability to converse with students about popular musi send ther the message thatthe teacher is interested in their musical concerns and provides a way to relate more personally to thei interests (Gerber, 1985, 1986; Thampson, 1994), Popular music isan influential form of communication that deserves serio analysis Berry (1989) conducted a two year qualitative analysis of musical, ‘communication experiences among one hundred fifteen low-income, Afiean-American adolescents, Methodologies for the study included interviews, open-ended worksheets, individual and group dscusions, observational analysis, and a weekly smetia diary. This sty examined meaning trough the behavior, ideas, experiences, and understandings of low-income, African-American youth, Adolescents are inexperienced and usually listen only to music that they like. In adition, they are susceptible ant easily influenced by peer pressure (p, 9). Bery's study explored soscal pattems and interpretations as they develo in response to the challenges and Pressures ofthe African-American adolescent adaptation othe society ofthe majority population (p. 11). Berry asters that the exatinaton of the musical experience and its interaction among young adolescents is complex. In addition to this, socially,23 culturally, and historically, music has been essential to the evolutionary struggle of the African-American experience (p. 1). Ultimately, the decision for the irclusion of popular music inthe classroom curriculum should be based on the same criteria as that which is used for any other genre of music. Does the music have sufficient musical quality to justify its inclusion? This question can be answered by using some type of musical analysis technique. (Pembrook, 1991, p. 31) A formal analysis might include melody, hharmony, rhythm, structure, and sound (instrumentation). According to Leonhard & House (1972), there are good elements of popular masic as well as less-than-creative ‘elements in popular music. For students to make intelligent judgments, they must be taught to distinguish between the good and bad elements, ‘There is research to ‘support the fact that concepts learned in popular music can be transferred to other genres (LeBlanc, 1983; Pembrook, 1991). Despite the amount of good popular music available, this music continues to be overlooked and undervalved. If popular music is to be studied in general music clas, whether rap, rhythm and blues, or country and -western, it should be included for its own sake; not as a prelude 1 learning other music, but as another aspect of a comprehensive, balanced, and diversified music program (Cutieta, 1991, p. 28). Music of different genres should maintain their integrity and be taught because they are diffevent and distinctive, but not less valuable to the curriculum, There should be no barriers that separate students from ‘experiencing a broad range of musical styles and genres.4 ‘Urban-Minorty Students and Curriulunt ‘A major challenge for urban educators isto provide quality education to all students (MeCormack-iarkin, 1985; MeKenry, Everett, Ramseur & Carter, 1989; Neiser, 1986; Wiliams, 1972). This includes the responsibility of schools to discover ways in which the educational potential of urban-minority students living in disadvantaged areas may be realized, Woodard (1978) conducted a study regarding ‘eaching music by using African-American materials and its effect on the attitudes and ‘musical achievements of low-income, minority students, The current research pertained to student preferenaes of musical activities; e.g. listening, singing, creating, and the Woodard study was divided into the components of melody, harmony, rhythm, and form. The present investigation was administered to a sample Population of six hundred eighty-cight (N = 688) low-income, urban-minority middle school students. In contrast, the Woodard investigation was conducted with a sample population of ninety-one (N = 91) disadvantaged junior high school students. Unlike the present study which used descriptive and qualitative methodologies, the Woodard investigation was experimental. In addition, the Woodard research was conducted in two junior high schools and the current study was administered on the campus of The Ohio State Us sity. In the Woodard study, subjects in the experimental group were instructed with African-American musical materials, while those in the control ‘group were instructed through traditional musical materials. Analysis of the data revealed that: (1) Students in the experimental group performed significantly better (p < 05) on two of the four tests than did students in the control group. (2) Students25 in the experimental group had statistically beter atitude scores (p < .05) than did students inthe contol group. (3) The elements of rhythm, melody, and type of imusi inuenced students’ positive atte toward music Inthe curent study, shythn/beat and musical type or genre appeared tobe influential varabies regarding student’ positive musical attitudes. ‘The findings of the Woodard study reveled that the use of African-American musical materials significantly improved the musical achievements and attitudes toward music of ‘African-American disadvantaged junior high school students. The present investigation also indicated that most low-income, uban-minority students preferred to participate in African-American musical activities and they idicated positive attitudes toward this music, Woodard concluded that seventh- and eighth-grade inner- city students prefered an African-American curriculum and succeeded in designing @ curriculum that was relevant to these students. As a Teslt, the experimental group responded more favorably to the curriculum than did the control group. This was evidenced by the experimental groups’ positive atitudes and music achievement scores. The results from this study suggest that using African-American musical materials can significantly improve musical atituds of disadvantaged adolescents (Woodard, 1978, p. 78) In an urban schoo sysem, Peers (1973) conducted a comparative survey of| student attudes, musi course content, types of music used, musica activities, and ‘materials and equipment used in a general music program. The survey was, administered to three districts: District I low socio-economic status), District I26 (middle socio-economic status), and District II (high socio-economic status). This inquiry examined the students’ attitudes toward general music and their preferences for the types of music in those classes. In general, students from the low socio- ‘economic status indicated more Strongly Dislike and Dislike for general music classes than did students from the middle and high socio-economic status, Results of the Peters study revealed that liking music was not independent ofthe three socio- ‘economic districts in that study. The majority of students from each soci-economiic {group preferred contemporary youth and theater music. Similar to the Peters study, low-income students in the present study aso preferred contemporaty music activities. Researchers have determined that using a relevant curriculum (Henderson & ‘Washington, 1975) is one way to enhance learning experiences. Franklin & Nicholson (1978) conducted a study with six teachers and one hundred fifty-seven elementary students to ascertain whether teacher and student attitude affect achievement when an innovative, culturally oriented curriculum is implemented. The hypotheses for this study were as follows (p. 308): 1, ‘There is no difference in musical achievement of pupils taught by teachers with positive or negative viewpoints toward a culturally oriented music program. 2. There is no difference in music achievement of pupils who hold positive viewpoints towards a culturally oriented music program. 3. There is no difference in the music achievement of pupils who are exposed to a culturally oriented music program when compared to pupils who are exposed to a traditional music program.2” ‘Curriculum wsed in the Franklin & Nicholson study was taken from a traditional and experimental music guide. The traditional curriculum, developed by the school system, was used with two control groups. The experimental curriculum developed by these researchers (Franklin & Nicholson, 1978) was administered to four experimental groups to determine whether oF not it woeld facilitate the music learning of minority students. Findings of the study indicated that student ‘achievement was significantly affected by teacher and pupil attitudes, and by the nature of the materials used in the curriculum. Middle School Mulicultus Curiculum “The primary goal of general misc educators isto present music to all students in such a way that they are motivated to lea. For years, general music programs have provided curricula that were almost exclusively representative of the art music of the Western world, Students were primarily required to study music istory, theory, folk songs, and music appreciation courses from the European tradition and representative composers .e., Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, and Brahms, “Taylor (1981) conducted a study to obtain objective information on an Aftican- ‘American music course of dy and its effect on African-American and white students with different levels of musical aptitude, ‘The study was administered to a cross-section of eighty (N = 80) eighth-grade sudens from three junior high schools inthe same Pennsyvania school istrict. Students in this investigation represented lower, middle, and upper socio-economic backgrounds. ‘The results of this28 investigation indicaed that: (1) Afican-American students benefit significantly more than white students from a general Afican-American music couse of study. 2) ‘Musically select students benefit more from a general African-American music course of study than musically unslect students regardless of cultural background or level of musical aptitude. @) Students with high musical aptitude benefit more from an [African-American musi course of study than students with low musical aptitude, regardless of race or cultural background. Winn (1990) conducted a study to determine whether the exclusive use of Aican-American literature in the general music class would contribute significant, growth in musical achievement among students when compared to the musica achievement of stents not receiving this emphasis. The secondary purpose of the ‘Winn investigation was to determine whether "the systematic and singular use of Aican-American music ina general music course would positively affect the musical achievement of inner-city students in categories of low and high musical aptitude” (Winn, p. 118). Students inthis study consisted of two classes of fith-grade African- American students in Grand Rapids, Michigan who were instructed by Winn. The treatment period lasted for fourteen weeks and consisted of two thirty-minute bi- weekly sessions. Instruction was based onthe fifth-grade musical objectives established by the public schools of Grand Rapids. The experimental group received instruction based on Aftican-American singing and listening activities, and the contol sr0up received instruction without the African-American emphasis. The Winn study indicated that students instructed with African-American singing and listening» activities did not accomplish significant gains in musical achievement greater than students receiving traditional (1985 Centennial Edition of Silver Burdett Music Series) instruction, “The exception to these findings occurted in the results of the Colwell ‘Music Achievement Test #3 with the variables of melody and instrument recognition. ‘These findings were inconsistent with the body of research which indicated the advantages of using African-American music materials. Winn acknowledged that his findings were contradictory to previous findings. He conjectures that his results may have occurred due to time constrains, small sample size, limitations in choice of sample, and the fact that there were only to elementary inner-[elele|elel= uEL 5 Wey OU SHUN TESTED OF BUWAST [OZ Tey Sou = SoRIANDE RATED oF uy auour~ omar GOD | GE wey ow aN y Ge Tu sr Tey vou sou Fun | OF vey aio ~ Buda POMUSCONT ION PIC 1d POAT ‘area ag 0} paat Sio}eaNpa 1Smu Yotym Jo BuryFoWOS 5; sup ‘oxsnW Jo pupy se|NoMed & pasy[sip swuopms Aue ax2Hm ‘25e9 2qf Ut JOKaMOH, -asvodsay ayGuNs % uo paseq uorsnjauoD Jo puny KUR YIEDL Oy aSLAUN '2q pinom xf sasuodsou afBuys 02 poysene aq wes souEuOdu Yan O01 YOU “KysnoIAGD (Gee pur sea) suopsond popug-uodg SyHva 01 sasuodsay peu Te ATV1 stoqpuey Buea T TSununos WRB jo soos Fursas | y CET 1980 PaB H Jan0 pie 1 | a sono 263 day on ‘Bus sures ap Suraus || preoqKoy aun Jo soy Bumureo T duos opie Baidug | T Hoos wevv i sep ah 0 wou] w Burs |v ‘ApeApunos au oF BURNET T sBuos mon Suriag | T T sus Fp Futus | 1 aay BOLI T ‘Huo; pains Suis T 35i0w Kis jo DF BUIST T TRE IDO por oNo sows ow BUTT | T Buon wou Sune T Tinos saw Jo SAT BUTEA | T Shad wy 3H OF BURUND SUT T yoro suns [1 Baar oF Buea i wasps o TonaRT | T spines Fatug T Sane are; NANT T [IRL AGF UMD TRO ADEE Om UR eo] Souda POMISTGAATT ON PI oa PONT (Panupu0d) ze FTaVL1 ‘un op fe ouny, FEU WEN, FuNkera soda, uno sno ut SuBuue ep iano ‘Ajqeon2eid ,3sunqBu0g, Aeyo oy prey 316 HA, sed rersmus pey om voua I L T ‘voy visor jeoon BoEL | T Tonia Fo Sake T eeu Anca | T cr) T spioyp suarer] | 1 ‘SeunopeE T Teup maa | Tungjied 9jd0sd 5 T ‘isnun moqe sepHs BOMPIEN | T WaT 09 © PD OR T wipe aL YT ‘wo nd ow wreBoNd oT UL, T Fouog sea Gn peu aa |T soured (OSHA ‘Ssn URFT oF SMR | y sarzand POM T ‘ouRp OF PamomTe BUG ION | T soup © oF S318 BuNeAID T T upoiep arenbs isn way Sue PPAIG/OAT WON PI 1a PNT (panupu09) Ze ITAVL131 "Huds 205 sou; Sun soudis pur sist Buos plo 01 Surwarsr ‘mnsuy SoS simjoyps SunoA 241 ut Sunedionsed) ‘ASO We asau dn ssejo w a\dood ou, au0dsay POHITCIONT WON PIC Wg PONT (Panuy40>) Ze ITEVLAPPENDIX F (TABLE 33) ‘MALE RESPONSES 70: PMAS OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS (#38 AND #39) 132133 spuoyo put sBunn poe sage Bugg suaigoud BaaTOS Tayamad wy SURE Fa BA FuwwneD | 1 Tuos wasayip aug sou Buel fT nur SUSU -TEDUW WOUY SUBUIS Tuium [e sopranoe Bana soda | wey sou = zee on Rua ni URDU put Ges noqe ATE RHO TON |e | EW a1our -FIROU! Jo sIPEApUTOS OF Tey Siow - sup ‘ey Sou - yu we ae ey sow BBLS aI “aay sou = Sumeay |Z ‘wey a des 6 BUI] sso Sada PPAINCAATT VON PI 1a POT ism yon Jo BuryFowOs ts “orem aq 0} pou ssoveanpa Ww Jo pupy JeInone © poRssHp swaps Ku aIOy s B Uo pastq worsnyouD Jo Pury Ku Yoeas Oi asrA sosuodsoy Pasi. (6E# Pue g¢A) SHONSIND papuy-tedo SyINa ec nav134 ‘3ysna FOIE OF BUAITT S005 919 JO BOW, ‘ism TapuROS OF BUEISTT Wor oF SUMAISTT SRA pO 6 SUNSET BEV Jo SRW OF SURF POMNSIGIOAT WON PI 19a PFT (wonunu0>) Ff TMV.APPENDIX G PREFERRED MUSICAL ACTIVITY INTERVIEW FORM, (Used by the Investigator) 135136 Preferred Musical Activity Interview Form (Used the Investigator) Grade: 7 8 9 Gender: Male Female _ Ethnicity: Asian African-American Hispanic __ White-Appalachian __ ‘Native American Other Middle school general music cases per weeks 1-203 4S [Number of weeks of mide school general music: 6,9, 18, other Approximate number of minutes foreach general music class: 30,45, 60, 90 ‘What instrument do you play? ‘Are you a member of a singing group? __ Yes. __ No 1, Overall, what is your atitue or feeling regarding general music? 2. What is your atte or feling regarding each one ofthe following general music classroom activities? a. listening to music; b. singing songs; ¢. creating, *making-up," or improvising music; 4. playing musical instruments; ‘e. dancing and moving to music; and f other.37 ‘What are your favorite classroom musical activities? 4 playing musical instruments; ». singing songs; . creating, “making-up,* or improvising musi; 4. dancing and moving to music; ¢. listening to music; and f. other. ‘What would you like to do in your general music class that you have never been able todo, oF that you rarely do? (Of everything that you learned in general music, what is most important?APPENDIX. H. VERBATIM COMMENTS REGARDING GENERAL MUSIC TEACHERS 138139 ‘Verbatim Comments Regarding General Music Teachers ‘Through examination of comments tothe PMA, it appeared that most ofthe students? auituds peraning to preferred general music actives were dependant upon their opinions regarding their general music teachers. In response to the question pertaining to music activities that are rarely or never done in general music class, some students commented: *We just had to learn songs like the music teacher had got out of different books, that lke you know, they have to buy. We never got to create our music. We did this year in Young Scholars. “I don’t think the music teacher was that good. I mean he gave us all these sheets on notes and everything which F already knew. We sang baby songs. hate them! We sang stupid stuff "T would like to dance along with the songs, “cause he (music teacher) just like tells us, well he’s the director of the Boy’s (Choir and he doesn’t allow us to dance along with the song "Well, it (general music class) was kinda easy ‘cause everytime wwe had a test, he would let us use our notes and tell us everything that was on the test. But he sorta had a attitude and he would holler at us alot when we didn’t do stuf right.” "I's mostly sit and listen to the teacher tlk" “Tike musi, it really depends on the teacher. Because the more exciting they make it, the better, the more fun itis to learn “It depends on the class and how fun the teacher makes it.” “The teacher being able to be fam to0, "cause if the teacher is boring, the teacher has to be funny and humorous and not boring.140 “Like we did the second year that I was here (Young Scholars ‘Summer Institute at The Ohio State University). 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