The Role of Organizations in Fostering Public Service Motivation Author(s): Donald P. Moynihan and Sanjay K.

Pandey Source: Public Administration Review, Vol. 67, No. 1 (Jan. - Feb., 2007), pp. 40-53 Published by: Wiley on behalf of the American Society for Public Administration Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4624539 . Accessed: 18/04/2013 02:33
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Donald P. Moynihan Universityof Wisconsin-Madison Sanjay K. Pandey Universityof Kansas

on Work The Role of Organizationsin Fostering Essays and Motivation PublicServiceMotivation the Workplace

In seekingto explain the antecedentsofpublic service DonaldP.Moynihanisanassistant ofpublic affairs intheRobert M. professor motivation,James Perry focuses on theformative role ofPublic La Follette School Affairs, context. theory ofsociohistorical His ofWisconsin-Madison. University 7his study testsPerry's research public management analyzes and examines the role that organizationalfactorsplay inthearea and reform, capacity especially in shapingpublic servicemotivation, basedon responses ofperformance management. from a national surveyofstate governmenthealth and E-mail: dmoynihan@lafollette.wisc.edu.
SanjayK.Pandeyisanassistant atthe ofpublic administration professor ofKansas. Heconducts research University inpublic and health policy. management II Phase ofthe Most hedirected recently, Studies National Administrative Project. E-mail: skpandey@ku.edu.

human servicemanagers. The findings supportthe role ofsociohistoricalcontext,showing thatpublic service motivation is stronglyand positively relatedto level of education and membershipin professionalorganizathe significant influence tions. Theresultsalso underscore institutions, indicating that red tape of organizational are negatively and length of organizational membership related to public servicemotivation, whereashierarchical authority and reformeffortshave a positive relationship. Therefore, public organizationshave both an opportunity to createan environmentthat allows and a responsibility tofeel they are contributingto thepublic good. employees

remainsin disputebecauseof the use of different or of PSM and incompletetheoriesof indirectmeasures A series how PSM occursand the effectsit generates. removed a of publications by JamesPerry greatdealof the about theoretical and empirical apambiguity that areappropriate for studyingPSM. Perry proaches PSM in deviseda seriesof scalesto measure carefully evidenceon the causes 1996 and providedempirical the most of PSM in 1997. In 2000, he articulated of the of PSM thus far, causes theory comprehensive as sociohistorical context a primary identifying influence. research on Our model addsto the limitedempirical the PSM by partially testing theoryproposedby Perry (2000) and deepeningthat theoryby focusinggreater institutions.In attentionon the role of organizational model to accountfor the effectof extendingPerry's institutionson PSM, we employa organizational variables: numberof organizational organizational reformorientation,and culture,red tape,hierarchy, We also include membership. lengthof organizational factorsidenin the model some salientsociohistorical in tifiedby Perry(levelof educationand membership a number of with along professional organizations), controls(age,gender,and income).We demographic fourdimensionsof test this model on two of Perry's to policy makingand commitment PSM (attraction to publicinterest/civic duty) exhibitedby a sampleof in the 50 state healthand humanservicemanagers governments.

lthoughit is of recentvintage,the conceptof

public service motivation (PSM) represents a positive example of theory development in administration. This theory has significant public deals with the relationship as it relevance, practical between motivation and the public interest. The construct of the public interest is central to traditional public administration scholarship (Appleby 1945; Herring 1936). In recent years, this theoretical development has been gradually joined by empirical work as scholars have sought to operationalize what public interest means for employees, why they develop a strong sense of public service, and how that sense influences their behavior (e.g., Alonso and Lewis 2001; Brewer and Selden 1998; Brewer, Selden, and Facer 2000; Crewson 1997, Houston 2000; Perry 1996, 1997). Despite such research, there remains a need for more empirical work to validate and test this theory, which has continued to expand. Thus far, much of the researchhas focused on establishing the existence of PSM, usually by comparing employee motivations across sectors. The relevance of much of these findings 40 Public Administration Review * JanuaryIFebruary2007

of PublicServiceMotivation The Importance

The literature on PSM has been thoroughlyreviewed Brewer and Selden 1998; elsewhere (see,in particular, Mesch,and Paarlberg 2006). Perry2000; Perry, we simplyhighlightthe majorcontribuTherefore, of the topic. tions to underlinethe importance PerryandWise providethe widelyaccepteddefinition to respondto of PSM:"anindividual's predisposition or uniquelyin public motivesgroundedprimarily and Wise 1990, institutionsand organizations" (Perry

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Selden,and Facer(2000) note, PSM 368).' As Brewer, is importantnot just to motivationbut also to proaccountductivity, practices, improvedmanagement in trust it one of the and ability, government, making in of administration majortopics investigation public of PSM, thoughparticularly today.The relevance high for government, is not limitedto this sector,as employeesin the privateand nonprofitsectorsalso exhibitPSM to varyingdegrees(Wittmer1991). the PSM not only helps us understand Therefore, betweenthe public,nonprofit, traditional differences and privatesectors,but, giventhe increasingly blurry betweensectors,it is usefulin understandboundaries in organizations behaviors that ing public-regarding levels of arecharacterized by varying publicness (Bozeman1987).

rationaland self-interested theoriesof motivation, which tend to focuson pecuniary rewards. It is also to how illustrate PSM can beliefs and possible shape behavioral outcomes.Thusfar,research on the sources of PSM has pointedto institutions, with Perryfocuson the roleof sociohistorical instituing particularly tions. Earlier work (Perry1997) confirmsthe influenceof education,family,and religionin shaping PSM. The next sectionfurtherinvestigates Perry's processtheoryof PSM and our contributionto it.

ExtendingPublicServiceMotivation The Roleof Organizations Theory:

(2000) processtheoryof PSM offersthe most Perry's theoretical in the topic since significant development PerryandWise (1990). The theoryarguesthat individualbehavior is not just the productof rational, workoffersevidence self-interested choicesbut is rootedin normative and Althoughsome of the empirical of no difference betweenpublicand privateorganiza- affectivemotivesas well. Simplystudyingmotivation tions on extrinsicand intrinsicmotivators (Buchanan from a rational,incentive-driven perspective provides of motivation.We also 1975; Gabrisand Simo 1995), the bulk of the empiri- only a partialunderstanding cal evidencesupportsthe existenceof a publicservice need to studythe socialprocesses that shapeindividuethic amongpublicemployees.Carefulinvestigation als'normative beliefsand emotionalunderstandings of of the PSM constructsupportsits validity(Brewer, the world.Similarto Perry(1997, 2000), our analysis forthsharesa focuson the institutional of indiSelden,and Facer2000; Courseyand Pandey, shapers than focuson but, rather coming;Perry1996, 1997). Supportfor PSM can also vidualbeliefsand behavior, be found in cross-sector institutions,we examineorganizational sociohistorical Rainey(1982), comparisons. for example,found that publicand privatemanagers institutions.Indeed,Perryexplicitlycallsfor such a showedsignificant in theirperceptions differences of of organizational influences study:"Investigation In conthe importance of differenttypesof rewards. should seekto assessthe effectsof organizational trastto privatemanagers, and policieson the publicservicemotivapublicmanagers experiences regarded service and work that is to others as tion of members overtime"(1997, 193). public helpful whereas and important, higherpay,status, prestige wereless important. Wittmer(1991) cameto a similar Perry(2000) points to Marchand Olsen's(1989) conclusionin his examination of reward basisfor asserting preferences work on institutionsas a theoretical that institutionsfostera logic of appropriateness in hybrid,and businesssector amonggovernment, the mindsof individuals-ratherthan a morerationalmanagers.2 choicelogic of consequentiality-which causes Thus,PSM providesa theoryof motivationthat links them to developPSM. Marchand Olsen defineinstithe pursuitof the publicinterestwith administrative tutionsas "collections of interrelated rulesand roubehavior. and Wise that individutines that define in action termsof (1990) Perry argue appropriate alswith a high senseof publicinterestaremorelikely relations betweenrolesand situations" (1989, 21).4 Thisbroaddefinitionof institutionsnot only conto selectpublicservicecareers, an assertion that is formsto the idea of sociohistorical institutionslevelsof PSM supportedby evidenceof different betweenthe publicand privatesectors(Houston Marchand Olsen explicitlyconsiderthe roleof educationand socialization-but also is consistent 2000; Rainey1982; Wittmer 1991). Havingjoined an organization, memberswith high levelsof PSM with the conceptof organizational institutions.The appearto contributein positiveways:Theyaremore emphasison rulesand routinessuggeststhat both to protectthe willing to engagein whistle-blowing formallymandatedand informalaspectsof organizaand Selden 1998); they exhibit tions provideinstitutional public interest(Brewer influences.5 commitment(Crewson higherlevelsof organizational Our key theoretical 1997); they believethat theirjobs areimportant, contribution to Perry's workis to which, in turn,leadsthem to workharder(Wright extendthe understanding of institutionsthat shape and PSM to includeorganizational 2003); they aremorelikelyto be high performers institutions.We argue and are less to that satisfaction; work-related rulesand normsareorganizational enjoyhigherjob they likely leavetheirjobs (Naffand Crum 1999).3 institutionsthat shapenot only the administrative behavior of publicservants but also the basicattitudes In relationto the motivationliterature, that theseactorshold aboutthe valueof public Perry(2000) asserts the importance of PSM as an alternative Our theoretical to does not model, therefore, service.6
The Role of Organizations in Fostering PublicServiceand Motivation 41

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seek to directlycontradict theorybut ratherto Perry's test whetherone aspectof that theory--the work environment-deservescloserattentionas a signifiof employeebeliefs.Essentially, cant predictor we arguethat PSM may be formedby sociohistorical but it factorsbeforeemployeesenterthe organization, environwill also be influencedby the organizational ment in which employees find themselves.7 is consistentwith the theoretical Our approach premises that Perry(2000) placesat the heartof PSM and affective protheory:that rational,normative, cessesmotivatehumans;that peoplearemotivatedby or values that preferences theirown self-concept; shouldbe endogenousto any theoryof motivation; arelearnedin socialprocesses. and that preferences arenot just a meansto produce Publicorganizations are also socialinstitutionsin which outputs;they interactand influenceeachotherin the individuals contextof a structured Conformityto environment.8 clear instance of the norms is a likely organizational March nature of individual preferences. endogenous and Olsen (1989) observethat expectations, preferof the actions and interpretations ences,experiences, within institutions. of othersareall constructed basedon what Actorsconstructbeliefsand behaviors in light of theirenvironment and the is appropriate of those aroundthem.Therefore, normsof behavior beliefsaboutpublic we expectthat publicemployees' serviceareat leastpartlyinfluencedby the natureof the organizations they area partof. Sociohistorical Context Perry(2000) arguesthat PSM dependson how individuals aresocialized throughsociohistorical relations, religion, institutions-primarilyparental observational learningand modelingduringthe courseof theirlives,education,and professional training.Perry(1997) testedthe effectof some of a composite these factorson fivedependentvariables: to measure of PSM and foursubscales (attraction policy making,commitmentto publicinterest/civic In his 1997 and self-sacrifice). duty,compassion, had a mixedimpact that found Perry analysis, religion on PSM, with churchinvolvement being negatively relatedto PSM and closenessto God being positively relatedto PSM.A thirdreligionvariable, religious had no significant worldview, impactin eitherdirecmixedresultsfor parental tion. He found similarly had The extentto which respondents relations: fromtheir or helpingbehavior learnedaltruistic parentshad a strongpositiveeffecton overallPSM The degreeto which and civic duty in particular. with at leastone relations had respondents good a not have did strongimpacton PSM. parent Perry(1997) found that educationhad a significant of PSM with his overallmeasure positiverelationship commitmentto publicinterest/ and two subscales,
42 Public Administration Review * JanuarylFebruary2007

In the 1997 model, educacivic duty and compassion. tion was includedas a demographic control,but in his of recogformulating processtheory PSM, Perry roleof educationin shapingbeliefs, nizedthe primary findingthat the levelof educationwas significantly and positivelyrelatedto the overallPSM scaleand all of the subscales, with the exceptionof compassion. Thisleadsto our firsthypothesis: Levelof educationis positivelyrelatedto Hi: PSM. The secondaspectof educationoutlinedby Perryis identification and professional throughmembership in a professional To a activeinvolvement organization. greater degreethan levelof education,which is typicallycompletedpriorto joining an organization, is a type of socialization that membership professional in the the experience parallels employee's organization. seekto help theirmembers Professional organizations makesenseof and succeedin theirorganizational in we expectmembership environments. Therefore, a to have influence organizations strong professional on PSM. Perry(1997) confirmsthe strengthof this influence, remains unclear. but the directionof the relationship that he had professional hypothesized Although an individualto ethical socializes identification shouldbe positivelyrelated behavior-and therefore to PSM-Perry found that it had a mixedeffecton to the PSM. Overall,it had no significant relationship was and PSM scale; composite negatively significantly to policy making;was positively relatedto attraction associated with commitmentto and significantly and had duty and self-sacrifice; publicinterest/civic with compassion.Perry no significant relationship of his arguesthat theseareamongthe most interesting conflict between a about questions raising findings, valuesand a tolerancefor politics.Given professional the relevance of thesemixedfindings,we retestthem herewithout specifyingthe directionof the relationand PSM: membership ship betweenprofessional in a professional societyaffects H,: Membership PSM. an employee's Organizational Institutions To examineorganizational institutions,we survey in of theirworkenvironments employees' perceptions red tape, the areasof culture,hierarchical authority, We also test the effectsof and reformorientation. of membership. length organizational therearea varietyof As Barnard (1938) observes, formaland informalmechanisms throughwhich of and behavior the beliefs may shape organizations of informalinstitutheirmembers. Any description tions inevitably bringsus to the conceptof culture.

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normson beliefsand The influenceof organizational in the organizational behavioris widelyasserted cultureshapesbeliefs cultureliterature. Organizational Schein and practices 1992) and (Kaufman1960; otheraspectsof administrative behavior, including of interorganizational and reform interaction patterns (Ban 1995), implementation (Ginger1998), the potentialfor learning(Mahler1997), and entrepreneurship(Moon 1999). To examinethe roleof culture,we employQuinn and of distinctvalue (1984) categorization Kimberly's and rational hierarchical, types:group,developmental, with a focus on cultures.Groupculturesareassociated than the organization, people rather flexibilityrather than control,employeecohesion,and morale.Develareassociated with a focus on the opmentalcultures and readiness, flexibility, adaptability organization, acquisition.Hierarchical growth,and resource culturestend to focus on people,control,management of information and communication, and rational cultures are stability. Finally, organizational with organizational associated goals,control,planAll ning, goal setting,production,and efficiency. arelikelyto exhibitthesetypesto organizations varyingdegreesratherthan simplyfall into one type or another(Zammutoand Krakower 1991). we test the influenceof the presence of Therefore, each type of organizational cultureon PSM. Given the difficultyof measuring culture-and the absence of discussionof organizational culturein previous work on PSM-our proposals hereareclearlyexploratory,and we do not specifythe directionof the relationshipbetweencultureand PSM, with one culturestend to exception.Giventhat hierarchical controlof employees(liketradiemphasizerule-based tional bureaucracies) and bureaucratic personality cultureto be (Merton 1940), we expecthierarchical with PSM: associated negatively

Bozemanand colleagues(e.g., Bozeman1993, 2000; Bozemanand Scott 1996; Pandeyand Kingsley2000; Pandeyand Scott 2002; PandeyandWelch2005; and Bozeman1995) has provided Rainey,Pandey, clearer for conceptualand measurement specifications the red tapeconcept.This definitionmoreclosely matchesthe perceptions of individualpractitioners: Not all formalrulesarered tape,just those that frustrate employeesin achievingtheirgoals. Examinations of the relationship betweenred tape and individualbeliefsdetecta greater tolerance for red with lower tapeamongemployees job satisfaction, greater personalalienation,and higherinsecurity, pessimism,and mistrust(Bozemanand Rainey1998; DeHart-Davisand Pandey2005; Pandeyand and Bozeman1995). Kingsley2000; Rainey,Pandey, areat odds with the profileof Thesecharacteristics with high levelsof PSM, who arecharacemployees terizedby higherlevelsof performance, achievement, and satisfaction commitment, organizational job and Selden 1998; Crewson1997; Perry and (Brewer Wise 1990).9Indeed,in explaininglowerjob involvement on the partof publicemployeescompared to theirprivatesectorcounterparts, Buchanan(1975) with red tapeas the points to employeefrustration cause.Therefore, we expectthat employees primary who perceive as workingin an organization themselves dominatedby red tapewill havelowerlevelsof PSM: who experience redtapehave H,: Employees lowerlevelsof PSM.

If publicsectorstereotypes such as bureaucratic and entrenched red tapeareindeed personality for reducingPSM,we expectthat reform responsible effortsdirectlytargeted at battlingthese maladies will improvePSM. Recentreformeffortsfallingunderthe bannerof the reinvention movementhaveadopted this approach. Reinvention explicitlyassumesthat wish to valuable and, employees provide publicservices culture an affects with the removal of red and can be constraints, Organizational employee's tape H3: PSM. moreeffective in doingso (Gore1993;Moynihan 2006). To publicmanagers, the adoptionof reformscommuwho experience a hierarchical nicatesthat leaders areintent on pursuingchangethat H4:Employees culturehavelowerlevelsof PSM. allowsworkers to do theirjobs effectively (e.g., Dilulio is likelyto orientation, therefore, 1990). A reformist The definitionof redtapeofferedby Bozemanreduceemployeecynicismaboutexistingbarriers to and procedures that remainin "rules, regulations, publicserviceand give employeeshope for greater forceand entaila compliance freedomto operatein a way that is consistentwith burden,but do not advancethe legitimate theirconceptionof publicservice.Naff and Crum purposesthe ruleswere intendedto serve" (2000, 12)-underscores the found a relationship between (1999) havealready effortsat the federallevel,and conflictbetweenred tapeand the emphasison actively PSM and reinvention we extendthis research to the statelevel: PSM servingthe publicinterestthat characterizes beliefs.Earlywork (e.g., Goodsell 1994; Kaufman 1977) tendedto offera spiriteddefenseof red tapeas who experience H6:Employees employeea "procedural in the publicsectorwithout reforms that seekto cut safeguard" friendlyorganizational red tapeand empoweremployeesdisplayhigher specifyingwhatwas meantby red tape,thus limiting levelsof PSM. furtherresearch on the topic. Recentworkby
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with many areassociated levelsof hierarchy Increased the abilityto of the effectsof redtape,frustrating achievegoals,and therefore might be expectedto have a similarly negativeeffecton employeeoutcomes. we controlfor the primary However, negativeeffects of hierarchy throughthe inclusionof a red tapevariof hierarchical culturebasedon an ableand a measure of formal rules and procedures. Controlling emphasis for the dysfunctional aspectsof hierarchy promptsus and the reasonwhy to considerits functionalpurposes it has persisted. (1990) points to a tenWildavsky towarda in administration scholarship dency public the because of for distaste hierarchy-in part inequality it invokes-while takingfor grantedits virtuesof Hierarchical continuity,and predictability. stability, levelsprovidea meansto managethe complexityof to undertake enablingmanagers largeorganizations, actionsthat areconsistentwith taskcomplexityand the time spanrequired (Jaques1990). Levelsof hierarin a a to also chy provide way manageaccountability fashion.Theseissuesarelikelyto be of structured majorconcernfor our respondents-mid-levelto senior-level managers-as they attemptto successfully contributeto the deliveryof publicservices.By conlevelstend to who criticizehierarchical trast,reformers and urge of frontlineworkers focus on the perspective as a meansof the removalof mid-levelmanagers and its associated problems reducinghierarchy Given the competingclaimsaboutthe (Gore 1993). we proposethe following: benefitof hierarchy,

the ineffectiveness employeesmaygradually recognize in achievingits goals,further of the organization who joinedan organizaPSM. Members undermining tion with a strongcommitmentto publicservicemay as time passes, find themselves frustrated increasingly as theirhopes to contributearedashed(Romzekand Hendricks1982). In short,lengthof organizational effectsof being in reflectsthe cumulative membership overtime, both good a particular workenvironment we and bad. Given theseconflictingarguments, the propose following: membership H,: Lengthof organizational affectsemployeelevelsof PSM.

Controls Demographic

we employa In additionto the foregoingvariables, controls:gender,age, and numberof demographic results income.Thesecontrolsled to some unexpected thereis value in Perry's 1997 study,and consequently, in seekingto replicate his findings.Perryfound, at leastin relationto commitmentto publicinterest/ civic duty,that men weremorelikelyto havehigher to one hypothlevelsof PSM thanwomen. Contrary inlevels of individual found that esis, Perry higher with PSM associated come werenegatively among in termsof commitmentto employees,particularly duty.He arguesthat this may be publicinterest/civic betweenthe the resultof a growingclassseparation to reduced sense a and other classes, wealthy leading of civic involvement on the partof wealthyindividua als. Finally, he found that age had, as hypothesized, levelsin an H,: The numberof hierarchical it is not clear on PSM, affectsemployeelevelsof PSM. although positiveimpact organization difference whetherthis is the resultof a generational environments or different the between we test the impactof lengthof organizational respondents Finally, of differentages,giventhe inclufaced that over It has been on PSM. by respondents argued membership in Our sampleis madeup the of sion students survey. time, organizational loyaltyand commitmentare we can of as a resultof organizational membership exclusively publicemployees,and therefore strengthened as membership a (Romzek1990). Crewson(1997) found that seniority employlengthof organizational to better in additionto the agevariable, variable, of lengthof organizaand pay grade,both correlates the natureof this relationship. understand to had a positiverelationship tional membership, there are commitment. However, organizational Data,Methodology,and Measurement aboutthe effectof lengthof conflictingarguments The datafor this studywerecollectedas partof Phase of most employmenton PSM.A basicassumption StudiesProject II of the NationalAdministrative formsof government is that bureaucratic reforms sap The 2002-03. (NASP-II) responseratefor the during workers(Gore 1993). of well-meaning the enthusiasm was 53 Merton(1940) arguesthat bureaucratic organizations survey approximately percent(274 responses). Additionaldetailon the data-collection processis leademployeesto adopta bureaucratic personality 1 in includedin appendix and Pandey(2003). as rule that is characterized by goal displacement of the orgathe originalpurposes observance replaces The theoretical population of interest for this study nization.Formost publicpositions-and certainly healthand humanservices-the basicgoal of helping consistedof managers engagedin information health at state-level citizensis consistentwith PSM. However,fromemactivities primary management Caudle with Consistent service human and less clear become thesegoalsmay agencies. ployees'perspective, information of a definition broad we because (1990), employed the longerthey remainwith the organization workpatternsto the includingnot only thosewho manage management, they must adapttheireveryday but also information demandsof the bureaucracy, systemsapplications becomingpartof and and evaluation, involvedin research managers systemsthat areenmeshedin a managers directingmanagement In addition, dealingwith publicinformationand communication, web of rulesand reporting requirements.

44

Public Administration Review * JanuaryIFebruary2007

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The average and top-levelprogram administrators. age we surveyed was almost50 years, of the managers almosthalfwerewomen, the average lengthof stayin was more than 15 years,and the the organization was $50,000-$75,000 (seeTable1). salary average Thisdemographic soundsmoreconsistent description with our expectations of a typicalcareer manager in a healthand humanserviceagency,not the popularimageof information technologystaffas men who young frequently changeemployment. However,as with any surveyof a particular group, in generalizing cautionshouldbe exercised study findings.

Measurement
Thissectiondiscusses how we measured the more A full complexvariables employedin this analysis. listingof the questionsemployed,the originalsource of thesequestions,and the Cronbach's alphasof the scalesemployedcan be found in appendix2.

resultof a different We groupof respondents: in the service in surveyed working managers public the areasof healthand humanservices, whereasPerry his surveyto a widervarietyof responadministered and undergraduate dents,includinggraduate students, university employees,publicemployees,and managers in different Anotherexplanation publicorganizations. is that we employedonly a subsetof the compassion surveyquestions(fourof the eight itemsin Perry's compassionscale),and the alphais dependenton the numberof items in the scale.Forthe attraction to we all three scale, publicpolicy making employed items used by Perry, obtaininga Cronbach's alphaof For the civic duty scale,we used four of the five .72. items employedby Perry, in a Cronbach's resulting alphaof .67. Our overallPSM scale,madeup of the to publicpolicy makingand civic duty attraction scales,had a Cronbach's alphaof .67.

Our measure of cultureexaminesthe perceived values in and normsof the organization terms of directly The surveyincludedthreeof Perry's four measures of sharedsocialmeanings.Measuring culturehas proved PSM:attraction to policy making,commitmentto difficult(Schein1996), partlybecausedefiningorgaAs interest/civic and culturealong a unidimensional scalefailsto duty, public compassion. survey nizational choicewas questionswerebeing selected,a deliberate capturethe complexityof competingculturesin almadeto excludequestionspertaining to the selfmost all organizations. Thiscomplexitygaveriseto sacrifice dimension,largelybecauseit was not inof (1981) categorization Quinn and Rohrbaugh's cludedin the originalconceptionof PSM and because distinctvaluetypes,which arguesthat organizational of its conceptualsimilarity to and overlap with the to performance varyalong threedimenapproaches dimension.In constructing scalesfor each sions:(1) organizational focus (peopleversusthe compassion items item, we useda selectionof the Likert-scale aboutstructure (2) differing preferences organization), In this we chose versus (1996). and different foci on by Perry analysis, suggested (control (3) flexibility), not to employthe compassion variable becauseof and outcomes importantorganizational processes concernsoverthe internalconsistency of the scale. (meansand ends). Quinn and Kimberly (1984) The scaleemployedfor this variable had a Cronbach's categorize the fourculturaltypesemergingfromthis standards. model as group,developmental, and alphaof .40, belowminimallyacceptable hierarchical, measures rationalcultures. Thesetypeswereconvertedinto Perry(1996) reportsalpha rangingfrom The .69 to .74 for the PSM scalesthat he developed. (1991) surveyquestionsby Zammutoand Krakower in the scalereliability differences and adaptedfor use in the NASP-IIsurvey. reportmay be the
Table l Descriptive Statistics Variables Mean Standard Deviation 4.1007 2.7420 2.5467 0.6506 0.5009 1.0076 1.1460 1.0902 1.0245 1.9824 6.8975 2.1785 10.6607 7.6192 0.8394 0.4998

Publicservicemotivation 25.0554 Attractionto policymaking 9.6630 Commitmentto publicinterest/civic duty 15.4022 Education 2.4142 Professional identification 0.4964 3.5693 Groupculture 2.8723 Developmentalculture Hierarchical culture 3.5036 Rational culture 2.7701 Redtape 6.4210 Reformorientation 18.3059 Hierarchical 6.0239 authority 15.4388 Lengthof organizational membership 49.8910 Age Income 2.4335 Gender(Female) 0.4664

Attitudestowardstructural attributes-such as the of formalization and the distribution of power degree and discretion in the organization-are shapedby the way employeesperceiveformalrulesor entrenched normsthat communicate valuesand organizational our measures of red tape,hierarTherefore, practices. chicalauthority, and reformorientationreflectemployeeattitudesaboutthesemorestructural aspectsof the organization. Forthe measure of reformorientation,reforms such as contracting out or privatization may producea effect on morale. we Therefore, negative employee a measure of reform that excludes downsizemployed but includesreinvention reform ing or privatization thatwe expectwill capturea senseof strategies purposeand actionthat is consistentwith our hypothesis by enhancinga focuson resultsand managerial authority(Moynihan2006). In testingthe existence
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of a reformorientation, we employeda preexisting measure of reinvention(Brudney, Hebert,and Wright the extentto whichworkers 1999). Ourmeasure gauges of reinvention observedthe implementation efforts duringthe previousfouryears,assumingthat high levelsof implementation raisePSM. The modelstestedin the studysatisfied least ordinary we estitherefore, squares regression assumptions; matedthe effectsof eachindependent variable on PSM while holdingthe otherindependent variables The descriptive statistics for the dataare constant.10 reportedin table1.

was sample,lengthof organizational membership with PSM, significantly associated for the negatively overallmeasure of PSM and attraction to policy makingand slightlyabovegenerally acceptedsignificancelevelsfor commitmentto publicinterest/civic controlsproved duty.None of the demographic with the that womenweremore significant, exception to policy making,counterto Perry's attracted (1997) finding. of PSM arethe socioThe most powerfulpredictors historical variables: higherlevelsof educationand The resultsreinforce earlier professional membership. findings(Perry1997) on the positiverelationship betweenlevelof educationand PSM. Giventhe on clarityand strengthof theseresults,futureresearch this topic might benefitfromexamininghowthe educational valuesof PSM ratherthan processimparts of the level education. simplymeasuring The resultsfor professional werealso identification This and is uniformlypositive. partlyinconsisstrong tent with Perry's (1997) findingsthat professional identification had no overallpositiveeffectandwas a to policy making.The negativeinfluencefor attraction consistent with Perry's are, however, findings original on that the role positive hypothesis professional organizationsplayin shapingthe ethicalnormsof their in resultsmay be attributable members.The difference to measurement-we used a simpledummymeasure in a professional whereas of membership organization, in and used a scale that tracks attitudes activity Perry the towardprofessional Alternatively, organizations. difference may be explainedby the wide varietyof

and Discussion Findings

The explanatory as R2, powerof our models,expressed and levels that are consistent between .15 .22, ranged with the resultsof Perry(1997) (seetable2). The offerstrongsupportfor the resultsof our analysis of the sociohistorical contextbut also importance the influence of institutions recognize organizational to the of PSM tested here-attraction on aspects policy makingand commitmentto publicinterest/ civic duty.Althoughour culturemeasures did not we found strongsupportfor other provesignificant, for our general variables and, therefore, organizational is an that the organization importantvenue premise to for shapingPSM. The existenceof red tapeappears that reducePSM. On the otherhand,the perception reforms is a the organization is activelyimplementing for PSM the and of predictor positive significant overallcommitmentto publicinterest/civic duty scale, is a and the measure of levelsof hierarchical authority of PSM acrossall scales.Forour positivepredictor

PublicServiceMotivation to Explain Table2 Regressions PublicServiceMotivation Independentvariables Education identification Professional Groupculture Developmentalculture culture Hierarchical Rational culture Redtape Reformorientation Hierarchical authority membership Lengthof organizational Age Income Gender(Female) N
R2

Attractionto PolicyMaking B (std. error) .536 (.274) .834 (.363) .089 (.198) -.074 (.179) -.050 (.188) -.097 (.181) -.337 (.101) -.034 (.027) .179 (.094) -.030 (.017) -.030 (.028) .356 (.226) .857 (.357) 238 .160 3.303 .0001 Beta .127* .151* .032 -.030 -.019 -.035 -.244**** -.083 .138* -.116* .076 .107 .155**

Commitmentto Public Interest/Civic Duty B (std. Error) .565 (.257) 1.095 (.341) .264 (.186) .178 (.168) .033 (.176) -.118 (.171) .087 (.095) .054 (.025) .203 (.088) -.026 (.016) -.004 (.026) .020 (.213) -.343 (.335) 237 .151 3.067 .0003 Beta .144* .213**** .102 .079 .014 -.046 -.068 .145** .168** .109 -.012 .007 -.066

B (std. error) 1.093 (.398) 1.913 (.527) .332 (.288) .117 (.260) -.009 (.273) -.237 (.264) -.431 (.147) .088 (.039) .378 (.137) -058 (.025) .029 (.040) .347 (.330) .543 (.519) 237 .220 7.768 .0000002

Beta .172*** .230**** .079 .023 -.002 -.057 -.207*** .145** .193*** -.148* .049 .069 .065

F Significance

significantat .05. significantat .01; *statistically significantat .005; **statistically ****Statistically significantat .001; ***statistically Note: Significancelevelsare one-tailedtests if matchinga predicteddirection,two-tailedtests otherwise.

46

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respondents that Perry surveyed, which ranged from undergraduate students to managers and employees in different types of organizations. Our more homogenous set of respondents in the health and human services field might be expected to have a less varied and more uniform relationship, with a smaller range of relevant professional organizations. Overall, our results suggest that, at least in the area of health and human services, professional identification appears to have a positive effect for the aspects of PSM that we measure here. The organizational culture variables were not found to be significant predictors of PSM. The null results for all of the measures of organizational culture were somewhat unexpected. Given the results of in-depth case analysis on the role of culture in shaping beliefs, it is hard to dismiss this variable; Kaufman (1960) and Wilson (1989) offer classic examples of how culture shapes beliefs and behavior. Although the validity of the categories and measures that we employed is confirmed by other studies (Zammuto and Krakower 1991), we acknowledge the difficulty of measuring cultural attributes across organizations. In addition, as noted before, our scales do not cover all aspects of PSM but instead focus on a limited set of public employees. Thus, our results on culture should be viewed as preliminary, and there is value in testing this relationship with alternative measures of culture, additional survey populations, and the full PSM scale. Red tape was negatively and significantly related to the overall measure of PSM and attraction to policy making but not to commitment to public interest/ civic duty. Consistent with the message of reform advocates in the public sector, well-meaning employees may become unmotivated in intensely bureaucratic organizations. Red tape discourages employees from believing they are serving the public good, but active reform efforts to increase managerial authority and focus on results can reinvigorate PSM among managers. The reinvention movement that provides the basis for our reform scale is broadly associated with generally positive reform rhetoric based on assumptions that organizational systems rather than public employees are to blame for public failures and that public employees play a central enabling role in achieving public goals (Gore 1993; Moynihan 2006). For public employees who value public service and may be frustrated by perceived goal displacement in their organizations, such reforms are likely to be viewed positively and reinforce the belief that the organization provides a venue in which employees can fulfill their public service motivation. The results from our sample suggest that this effect is especially pronounced among employees who are interested in policy making. However, the findings from our sample question recent reforms' emphasis on the negative effect of

excessive We found the perceptionthat an hierarchy. has manyhierarchical levelsto be associorganization atedwith higherlevelsof employeePSM. This finding runscontrary to the assumptions of reformefforts as an outmodedand stifling that denigrate hierarchy characteristic. Suchreforms haveadvoorganizational catedflatterorganizations that reducethe distance betweenthe top and bottom of the hierarchy, thereby frontlineemployees.The losersin these empowering reformeffortsaremid-levelmanagers who supervise the workof publicorganizations but aredeemedan nuisanceand targeted for downsizing. unnecessary Wolf (1997) arguesthat such criticisms are However, overstated basedon a mistakenbeliefthat modern levelsof hierarchy. agenciesmaintainpremodern a case of studies of effectivepubmeta-analysis Using lic organizations, Wolf demonstrates that hierarchy hasvirtually zeroeffecton agencyperformance. This is because"agencies of the moderneraaredecidedly less hierarchical thanweretheirpredecessors" and modern are a formalized to agencies degree "most with theirmission"(Wolf 1997, 376). appropriate Ratherthan being the haplessvictimsof an industrial are structure, age organizational publicmanagers in organizations in which the likelyto find themselves levelof hierarchy is basedon an understanding of how best to achieveorganizational goals. As Jaques(1990) argues,hierarchy continuesto persist becauseit remainsthe most logicaland effective way to organizethe multiplecomplextasksundertaken by while maintaining a system largegroupsof individuals of clearaccountability, addingvalueto workas it movesthroughthe organization, and buildingconsensus and acceptance for organizational actions.Few arein a betterpositionto appreciate the benefitsof hierarchy-and also to overlookits failings-than mid-levelmanagers. Hierarchical levelsprovidea structure that allowstheseactorsto perceivethemselvesas exercising a powerfuland positiverolein but consistentwith reasonservices, providingpublic ablelevelsof complexityand accountability. Mid-level in that have managers organizations adopteda flatter facecriticism,may struggleto fully underapproach standtheirrole relative to seniormanagers and frontlineemployees,and must reconceptualize how to add valueand overseea greater number meaningfully of employees.Froma moreself-interested perspective, the presence of manyhierarchical levelsalso improves the potentialfor promotionto a higherlevel of the for thesemanagers. organization Defendinghierarchy have may gone out fashion,but our resultsofferrare for the benefitsthat hierarchy advocacy provides,not workeffectively just in termsof makingorganizations but alsoin termsof the beliefsof employees.It also of the hierarchihelpsexplainthe doggedpersistence cal form in the faceof continuingcriticism.We recogthat this resultmay not be generalizable nize, however, to the PSM of othergroupswho areless tolerantof
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If our surveyhad includedfrontline Conclusion hierarchy. the or results This staff, students, might studyhas offeredevidencethat the PSM of nonprofit employees, This is clearlyan empirical havebeen different: quespublicemployeesis a resultof not only individual of PSM. but also the organizational sociohistorical tion and worthyof attentionin futurestudies background in which employeesfind themselves. environment oursis a preliminary model, and there Clearly, to find that the longer It is somewhatdiscouraging of the remainsa need for additionalanalysis werein theircurrentorganizations, our respondents of PSM. Nonetheless,the resultssupport antecedents the lowertheirlevelsof PSM, at leastwith respectto of organizaon the importance the basicargument to policy makingand the of attraction the measure an tionalinstitutionsto PSM and thus represent of PSM. Thoughit would be combinedmeasure over and theoretical advance prior empirical are temptingto believethat publicorganizations knowledge. the value and communicating effectiveat celebrating to theiremployees,our respondents of theirservices institutions the impactof organizational Recognizing reported declininglevelsof PSM.We arecareful, set of an accompanying on PSM meansrecognizing to cautionthat our resultscome fromone however, One of the perceived and must be functionalareain stategovernment responsibilities. organizational benefitsof PSM is that it both helpsrecruit As othershavenoted, PSM is considered practical preliminary. into the publicsectorand strengthens individuals it a dynamicconstruct,and mayvaryconsiderably ties and acrossfunctionor levelof government employee with the publicsector,providing (Brewer in the provisionof healthand a basisfor loyalty,motivation,and commitment Selden 1998). Workers that is moreeffectivethan monetaryincentives.But socialservicesmaybe particularly likelyto growdisseekto fosterPSM in the toward how can organizations overtime if they see limitedprogress couraged first health place? inadequate solvingthe problemsof poverty, in otherareas services,and othersocialissues.Workers Another must becomeattunedto the Publicorganizations may not perceivesuch a lackof progress. PSM have declined is that effectthat management may among explanation systemsand otherorganizabecauseof such life-cycleconsiderations tionalinstitutionshaveon PSM. This research has respondents than the individual's as workor retirement (rather red some qualifiedinsights:Reducing tape provided with the organization), reformthat clarifies and undertaking althoughit bears experience goalsand controlledfor the effectsof a can have noting that our analysis positiveeffecton employees empowers are these variable. as a research PSM. Other clearly Again, separate age suggeststhat helping employee of that are salientresearch contributif are feel as worthy empirical questions they meaningfully employees reduces to investigation. employeefrustragoals ing organizational commitment(Romzekand tion and strengthens relatedto the generalizability Hendricks1982). The elementcommon in these Two additionalcaveats of encouraging is the importance public suggestions areworthconsidering. of our analysis First,we have that are to feel contributing they personally employees only two of the fourelementsof the standard analyzed a valuableservice, that performs to an organization PSM scale.Perry(1997) found some significant controlson their or restrictions without unnecessary variables in the influenceof independent differences of the research also The efforts. importance suggests on the four different aspectsof PSM, so it is unclear of the to centrality employees public communicating would applyto the compassion whetherour results that benefits the real and role in the their organization elementsof PSM. On the other and self-sacrifice makesto society--an organizatheircontribution as a articulated hand, PSM has been consistently to manypublic unfamiliar is that trait tional currently which singleconceptwith relatedsubcomponents, employees. of our results. would arguefor the generalizability firstarticleon PSM scaledevelopment Indeed,Perry's multidimenAcknowledgments conceivesof PSM as a superordinate sionalconstruct(Edwards 2001), a conceptualization We would like to thankthe threeanonymousPAR The data for makingvaluablesuggestions. reviewers that is in accordwith the intellectual historyof the the under were collected in this in administration. paper Furthermore, analyzed public concept Studies Administrative National of the and auspices empirical provide Pandey(forthcoming) Coursey which is supportedin partby the Forumfor Project, supportfor this viewpointusinga latentvariable and PublicServiceat Rutgers Research the to relates caveat second Policy A independent technique. a grantfrom the RobertWood under here model the University variables presented employed.Clearly, relatedto PSM. JohnsonFoundationto the Centerfor StateHealth does not test all possiblevariables this Becauseof datalimitations,we did not includeother Naturally, University. Policy,also at Rutgers of an endorsement not does as relifactorspreviously necessarily imply sociohistorical tested,such support here. and the analyses opinionspresented relations. gion and parental
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Notes
1. Perry and Wise proposethreemain typesof PSM: rationalmotives,in which individualutilityis basedon creatinggood publicpolicy;norm-based motives,which arebasedon a generalsenseof publicinterestand socialequity;and affective motives,which arebasedon emotionalresponses affectionfor to socialcontextsand particular Perry(1996) latertesteda specificprograms. tools to trackPSM, numberof measurement to policymaking, devisingscalesfor attraction commitmentto publicinterest/civic duty,and compassionand matchingthem to the rational, and affective norm-based, motives,respectively. addedself-sacrifice, an additionalaspectof Perry of PSM that has been identifiedin discussions publicservice. alternatives 2. Offeringa rankingof differentreward Wittmerfound thatprivatesector to respondents, moreconcernedwith weresignificantly managers and than publicor hybrid pay,status, prestige who placedmuch greater emphasison managers, helpingothersand communityservice.Using a nationalsample,Houston (2000) provides furthersupportfor publicemployeereward However,he also reportsthat public preferences. sectoremployeesplacegreater emphasison job security. 3. Alonso and Lewis(2001) offermoremixed evidenceon performance. Employingtwo separatefederalgovernment datasets, they found that PSM is significantly and positively relatedto in one but not the other,identifying performance the need for greater empirical testingof this claim. 4. Our approach to institutions joinswith and extendsPerry's of the workof March application and Olsen (1989, 1995). However, we areaware the term institution that any effortto incorporate with risk into an analyticframework is fraught and disagreement. The successof variousstrands of institutional theory-Hall andTaylor(1996) count threeversions,Peters(1999) countssixencourages a tendency toward overextension (Hall 1996). March and Olsen's definition does point to some common attributes among the different approaches-a distinction between institutions and organizations, with institutions as rules, formal or informal, that are stable over time and have an impact on individual belief and behavior (Peters 1999). 5. For example, in a later work, March and Olsen argue that public servants should be directed not only by formal mandates but also by the need to be socialized into "an ethic of administrative duty and conformity to the law" (1995, 58). Although March and Olsen conceive of the public servant in distinctly Weberian terms, the importance of formal rules and informal socialization assumes a

institutionsin shaping key rolefor organizational the beliefsand behavior of theseactors. 6. Perry(2000) does not completelyoverlookthe He specifiesthe role of role of the organization: as a sourceof influenceon the workenvironment PSM, noting evidenceon the specialcontextof and the need to develop publicorganizations to the logic of the incentivesthat areappropriate worksetting.He does not, however, specifyin detailhow differentaspectsof the publicwork environment that the shapePSM, suggesting workenvironment is of secondary to importance such sociohistorical institutionsas religion, relations. education,and parental To we the PSM differences that 7. illustrate, argue betweenemployeesin different sectorsarenot basedon solelythe productof self-selection PSMlevels.It mayalso be the case preexisting that the way employeesperceivetheirorganizationalenvironments makesthem moreor less likelyto maintainPSM beliefsovertime. As Wright(2001) pointsout, sectoraldifferences into maybe explainednot only by self-selection suitablejobs but alsoby a processwhereby employees adapttheirvaluesto suit the organizaand tionalenvironment (see also Hall, Schneider Nygren 1970; Rosenberg1957). This is consistent with Marchand Olsen'sargument that individualpreferences arenot exogenousand fixedbut rather endogenousto the institutionsin which the individualinteracts, shapedby a logic of appropriateness consistentwith theseinstitutions. Thereis some empirical evidencein the contextof PSM to supportthis claim.Romzek and Hendricks(1982) suggestthat the inability of publicorganizations to satisfya desireto serve will lead to disinterest or hostilityas PSM turns into frustration. Crewson(1997) found that commitmentis partlydependent organizational on the senseof trustand affiliation thatworkers havewith fellowemployees. 8. An acceptance of the role of the workenvironment as a shaperof publicemployeebehavioris
central to traditional public administration scholarship, as illustrated by three giants of the field: Gulick (1937) represents an early acceptance of the central role of formal structures and procedures in shaping employee outcomes, whereas Barnard (1938) points to the role of informal norms. Selznick (1996) notes how deviations from formal structures become embedded normative organizational characteristics over time and the sense of value that institutionalization can infuse in the tasks. This acceptance of institutions-although the term institutions is

rarely employed in the manner that March and Olsen propose-continues in present scholarship. For example, Wilson's (1989) widely cited account of bureaucracy identifies organizational

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as shapers culture,and constraints circumstances, behavior. The publicbudgeting of administrative processand civil servicesystemsareobjectsof studythat reflectthe way that highlyformaland aspectsof the publicsectorinteract procedural with entrenched normsof appropriate and Moynihanand expectedbehavior(Ingraham, Andrewsforthcoming). betweenredtape 9. Quite likely,the relationship and publicservicemotivationis bidirectional. Consistentwith our focuson the influenceof institutions,this studyarguesthat organizational redtape reducespublicservicemotivation. literature However,some publicadministration focuseson the othercausaldirection,arguingthat who areimbuedwith high levelsof managers and workto publicservicemotivationperceive reduceredtape (Scottand Pandey2005). whetherordinary leastsquares was 10. To determine the appropriate estimationtechnique,we exammulticolined our datafor heteroskedasticity, of the data.A histogram and influential linearity, showsa normaldistribustandardized residuals were that the errors tion. A scatterplot illustrates and indepenconstant(homoscedastic) relatively We examinedthe bivariate dent of one another. and the squareroot of the variance correlations inflationfactor(VIF)to detectmulticollinearity were (Fox 1991, 11). The highestcorrelations betweenredtapeand hierarchical levels,which at .466, and between werepositivelycorrelated of culture:bureaucratic the differentmeasures at culturewerecorrelated and developmental culture and and the -.423, developmental group at .406. None of the othercorwerecorrelated variables betweenthe independent relations exceeded0.4, althoughlengthof organizational at and agewerepositivelycorrelated membership .396. The highestVIF for eachmodelwas the red tapevariable, althoughthe squareroot of the VIF did not exceed 1.215 in any model.

ArePublic: 1987. All Organizations Bozeman,Barry. Public and Private Theories. Organizational Bridging SanFrancisco. Jossey-Bass: . 1993. A Theoryof Government "RedTape." Research and JournalofPublicAdministration 3(3): 273-304. Theory -. 2000. Bureaucracy and RedTape. Upper SaddleRiver,NJ: PrenticeHall. and Hal Rainey.1998. Bozeman,Barry, Rulesand Bureaucratic Personality. Organizational American 42(1): 163-89. JournalofPoliticalScience Scott. 1996. and Patrick Bozeman,Barry, Bureaucratic RedTapeand Formalization: Review of UntanglingConceptualKnots.American Public Administration 1-17. 26(1): GeneA., and SallyColemanSelden. 1998. Brewer, in the Federal Civil Service: New Whistleblowers Evidenceof the PublicServiceEthic.Journalof and Theory Public Administration Research 8(3): 413-39. GeneA., SallyColemanSelden,and RexL. Brewer, FacerII. 2000. Individual Conceptionsof Public Review ServiceMotivation.PublicAdministration 60(3): 254-64. L, E. Ted Hebert,and Deil S. Jeffrey Brudney, in the Government Wright.1999. Reinventing and Explaining States:Measuring American Reform.PublicAdministration Administrative Review59(1): 19-30. BruceII. 1975. RedTapeand the Service Buchanan, Between Ethic:Some UnexpectedDifferences Administration & Publicand Private Managers. 6(4): 423-44. Society Sharon L. 1990. ManagingInformation Caudle, in Public Resources StateGovernment. Review Administration 50(5): 515-24. David H., and SanjayK. Pandey. Coursey, PublicServiceMotivation Forthcoming. Versionof Measurement: Testinga Shortened & Society. Scale.Administration Perry's Motivation: Crewson,PhilipE. 1997. Public-Service Evidenceof Incidenceand BuildingEmpirical Research Effect.Journalof PublicAdministration and Theory 7(4): 499-518. 2005. DeHart-Davis,Leisha,and SanjayK. Pandey. Does Perceived RedTapeand PublicEmployees: Rule DysfunctionAlienateManagers? Journalof and Theory Research PublicAdministration 15(1): 133-48. DiIulio,JohnJ. 1990. Managinga Barbed-Wire The Impossible Job of Corrections Bureaucracy: In Impossible Commissioner. Jobsin Public and editedby EdwinC. Hargrove Management, John C. Glidewell,49-71. Lawrence: University Pressof Kansas. The Dillman,Don A. 2000. Mail and Internet Surveys: ed. New York: Method. 2nd Tailored Wiley. Design R. 2001. Multidimensional Edwards, Jeffrey. BehaviorResearch: in Organizational Constructs

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for PhaseIIof Appendix1: DataCollection StudiesProject the NationalAdministrative

The theoretical populationof interestfor this study consistedof managers engagedin information health in state-level activities primary management and health service human and agencies.Primary humanserviceagencieswereidentifiedon the basisof the definitionusedby the AmericanPublicHuman Association(APHSA),which includes Services relatedto Medicaid, agenciesand housingprograms and for Assistance Needy Families, Temporary The samplingframewas developedwith child welfare. of human the aid of the most widelyused directory APHSA the serviceagencymanagers, namely, resulted of the studycriteria The application directory. the from 50 of in a samplingframe 570 managers size the small D.C. Given statesandWashington, of the samplingframe,a decisionwas made to the surveyto the entiresamplingframe administer (i.e., conducta census). As with most surveyresearch minimizing projects, both to the surveyand to specific nonresponse, items,was a primary surveyadministraquestionnaire tailored Dillman's tion goal. (2000) comprehensive the maximize to designmethodwas employed responserate.This method usesthe following elements: * Questionnaire content with well-designed " Surveyquestionnaire formattedin accordance in cognitiveresearch with the latestadvances * Multiplepersonalized contacts,each craftedmessageto a by carefully accompanied to the encourage respondent completethe survey questionnaire * Use of realstampson returnenvelopes * Use of features such as a pre-noticeletter,a fax a and phone call at key points in the message, surveyadministration of two-day . Use of specialdelivery(combination Mail and Airborne Express Priority deliveryby serviceof U.S. PostalService) The data-collection phaseof the studybeganin the fall of 2002 and concludedin the winterof 2003. one week followingthe initialalert Approximately was mailedto the letter,the surveyquestionnaire a combination 10 About later, days respondents. was thankyou/reminder postcard sent to all responand enwho had responded those dents, thanking as to thosewho had not respond soon as couraging they possiblycould. Nearlya month afterthis postcardwas mailed,a new coverletterand replacement The finalstep in surveyweresent to nonrespondents. took placeabouttwo months surveyadministration weresent a new cover later,when nonrespondents letterand a secondreplacement surveywith a request to completethe survey.

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collectedduringthis Basedon the information of the the size samplingframewas reduced period, from 570 to 518. The principalreasonfor deletion had fromthe samplingframewas that managers beforesurveyadministration left the organization efforts.Otherreasonsfor deletionfrom the and death.By samplingframewereretirement concludedin the the time the surveyadministration had been winterof 2003, a total of 274 responses ratefor the studywas 53 received. Thus,the response
percent.

ReformOrientation to the Summative index .77)of responses (Cronbach's alpha= American State taken from Deil question, Wright's following andWright Administrators 1999): Hebert, Project (Brudney, the way undertake to change timeto time,stateagencies From to whichyour indicate the extent inwhichtheydo things.Please overthe lastfour eachof thefollowing agencyas implemented 5= changes considered, fullyimplemented): years(1=no changes " Training or customer service to improve client programs * Systems satisfaction formeasuring customer " Benchmarks formeasuring outcomes program * Strategic to produce clear mission statements planning * Quality to empower employees improvement programs * Simplification resource rules of human * Greater to carry overfunds discretion * Reduction in hierarchical levels * Decentralization of decision making * Greater in procurement discretion

of Appendix2: Measurement StudyVariables

to PolicyMaking(adaptedfrom Perry1996) Attraction to the index Summative .72)of responses (Cronbach's alpha= see Bozeman2000; RedTape(fromNASP-I; 1 = where from taken (1996), strongly Pandeyand Scott 2002) questions, Perry following and5=strongly agree. disagree rules and Ifredtapeis defined as burdensome administrative effectson the organization's thathavenegative * Politics word.(reversed) is a dirty procedures * Thegive-and-take to doesn't of public performance, pleaseassessthe levelof redtapeinyour appeal making policy between0 and 10, with0 Please entera number me.(reversed) organization. the highest levelof red no redtapeand10 signifying * Idon'tcaremuch forpoliticians. signifying (reversed) tape. to PublicInterest/Civic Commitment Duty see Hierarchical Authority(fromNASP-I; (adaptedfrom Perry1996) and Scott Bozeman 2000; 2002) Pandey the of to index Summative .67) responses (Cronbach's alpha= inyour assessthe extentof hierarchical authority takenfromPerry (1996),where1= strongly Please questions, following between0 and10, with Please entera number organization. and5=strongly agree. disagree of authority and 10 signifying the many 0 signifying few layers " Iconsider service public mycivic duty. of authority. layers * Meaningful isveryimportant to me. service public Gender * Iwouldprefer officials do whatis bestforthe seeingpublic Areyoumale(0)orfemale(1)? evenif it harmed wholecommunity myinterests. * Iunselfishly to mycommunity. contribute Education Level " Some college(1) Culture Rational (adaptedfromZammuto * Bachelor's degree(2) and Krakower 1991) * Graduate degree(3) 1= strongly 5=strongly agree disagree, * Myagencyisveryproduction oriented. Age * A major concern iswithgetting thejobdone. Inwhatyearwereyouborn? to age inyears) (Converted * People involved. aren't verypersonally Membership Lengthof Organizational and (adaptedfromZammuto GroupCulture Howmany forthisorganization? yearshaveyouworked Krakower 1991) Income 1=strongly 5= strongly agree disagree, Which of the following bestdescribes yourincome categories * Myagencyis a verypersonal place. in from the the agency previous year? * Itis an extended family. * Less than$50,000(1) * People seemto share a lotof themselves. * Between $50,000and$75,000(2) Culture Developmental (adaptedfrom * Between $75,000and$100,000(3) Zammuto and Krakower 1991) * Between $100,000and$150,000(4) 1=strongly 5= strongly disagree, agree * Over $150,000(5) * Myagencyis a verydynamic andentrepreneurial place. Professional Identification (based on Aikenand Hage 1968) * People arewilling to sticktheirnecks out andtakerisks. Areyoua member of a professional APHSA, society? (e.g.,ASPA, Hierarchical Culture (adaptedfrom APHA, AMA, ANA) Zammuto and Krakower 1991) * Yes (1) 1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree * No(0) * Myagencyis a very formalized andstructured place. Note:NASP-I refers to Phase Iof the National Administrative * Bureaucratic whatpeopledo. procedures generally govern Studies Project.

The Role of Organizations in Fostering PublicServiceand Motivation 53

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