WELDING METALLURGY AND WELDABILITY OF METALS

IT IS ESTIMATED THAT THERE ARE MORE THAN 40,000 METALLIC ALLOYS CURRENTLY IN USE . THIS LARGE NUMBER OF METALLIC ALLOYS OFTEN MAKE IT DIFFICULT: - TO IDENTIFY THE PARTICULAR TYPE ON HAND, AND, - TO IDENTIFY THE WELDING TASKS THAT ARE FIT FOR PURPOSE IN ALL KINDS OF SERVICE.

CRITERIA IN INITIAL SCREENING OF METALLIC ALLOYS AND THEIR WELDABILITY: PERFORMA NCE REQUIREMENTS: - WHAT IS IT? - WHAT DOES IT DO? - HOW DOES IT DO IT? WELDABILITY REQUIREMENTS R ELIABILITY REQUIREMENTS RESISTANCE TO SERVICE CONDITIONS

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF METALLIC ALLOYS: FERROUS IRON-BASED NON-FERROUS NON-IR ON-BASED

FERROUS METALLIC ALLOYS: STEELS ACCOUNT FOR OVER 60% OF THE METALLIC ALLOYS USED IN THE INDUSTRY CAST IRONS

NON-FERROUS METALLIC ALLOYS FOR MAJOR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS: NICKEL ALLOYS TITANIUM ALLOYS COPPER ALLOYS ALUMINUM ALLOYS

3 BASIC TYPES OF PLAIN CARBON STEELS: LOW-CARBON STEELS ( MILD STEELS ) < 0.2% C MEDIUM-CARBON STEELS ~ 0.5% C HIGH-CA RBON STEELS ~ 0.8% C

PREPARING A METALLOGRAPHIC SPECIMEN FOR MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS CUT A SECTION OF THE METALLIC ALLOYS FOR MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS. GRIND THE SPECIMEN IN SUCCESSI VELY FINER SILICON CARBIDE ABRASIVE GRITS OF 120 / 320 / 600 / 1200. POLISH THE FINELY GROUND SPECIMEN ON NAPPED POLISHING CLOTHS IN, FIRST, COLLOIDAL CHROMIUM OXIDE SUSPENSION, THEN, IN COLLOIDAL ALUMINUM OXIDE SUSPENSION. DIP THE BUFFED S PECIMEN IN A 3% NITRIC ACID SOLUTION. THE SPECIMEN IS NOW READY TO BE VIEWED UNDER A METALLOGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE.

THE ETCHED SPECIMEN CAN NOW BE VIEWED UNDER AN OPTICAL METALLOGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE CAPABLE OF UP TO 1000X MAGNIFICATION.

A MORE SOPHISTICATED SCANNING ELECTRON METALLOGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE CAPABLE OF UP T O 10,000X MAGNIFICATION.

A TYPICAL MICROSTRUCTURE OF A LOW-PLAIN-CARBON STEEL SHOWING GRANULAR FERRITES ( a ). BECAUSE OF THE VERY LOW CARBON CONTENT, ALL THE CARBON IS DISSOLVED AND FINELY D ISPERSED IN THE IRON MATRIX. THE GRANULAR FERRITES STRUCTURES ARE VERY SOFT, LOW-STRENGTH AND DUCTILE. THE GR ANULAR FERRITES IN A LOW-PLAIN-CARBON STEEL DO NOT TRANSFORM TO A DIFFERENT STRU CTURE EVEN AFTER CYCLIC HEATING AND COOLING TRANSLATING TO VERY GOOD WELDABILITY OF THE LOWPLAIN-CARBON STEEL STRUCTURE

IMPACT STRESSES TENSILE / COMPRESSIVE STRESSES IMPACT STRESSES THE GRANULAR FERRITES, WHEN SUBJECTED TO IMPACT STRESSES, JUST FLATTEN, AND WHEN SUBJECTED TO TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE STRESSES, JUST ELONGATE. THE FERRITE GRAINS ACT AS SLIP PLANES, GIVING THE MICROSTRUCTURE A CERTAIN AMOUN T OF DUCTILITY.

ANY EXCESS CARBON IN A MEDIUM-PLAIN-CARBON STEEL, WHICH CAN NOT BE DISSOLVED IN THE IRON MATRIX, COMBINES WITH IRON TO FORM HARD AND BRITTLE IRON CARBIDES ( CEM ENTITES ) WHICH APPEAR AS PEARLITES. THE MICROSTRUCTURE CONTAINS FREE GRANULAR F ERRITES AND LAMELLAR PEARLITES. PEARLITES CONTAIN PARALLEL LAYERS OF FERRITE GRAINS AND CEMENTITE. THE PARALLEL LAYERS ACT AS SLIP PLANES, GIVING THESE METALLIC ALLOYS A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF DUCT ILITY. ON THE OTHER HAND, THESE METALLIC ALLOYS START BECOMING HARD AND BRITTLE BECAUSE CARBIDES BEGIN TO FORM.

THE PLAIN-HIGH-CARBON STEEL CONSISTS OF FULLY PEARLITE MICROSTRUCTURES. THE MICR OSTRUCTURE IS CALLED PEARLITE BECAUSE IT LOOKS LIKE MOTHER OF PEARLS AS SEEN UNDER T HE MICROSCOPE. PEARLITES ARE LAMELLAR OR LAYERED ALTERNATE PLATELETS STRUCTURES OF FERRITE ( WHITE STREAKS ) AND CEMENTITE ( DARK STREAKS ) THE PLATELETS STRUCT URES ACT AS SLIP PLANES, INDUCING A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF DUCTILITY. THE PRESENCE OF CARBIDES, OF AROUND 35% IN THE OVERALL STRUCTURE, PROMOTES HARDENABILITY, STREN GTH AND RIGIDITY.

IN ORDER TO FULLY APPRECIATE THE EFFECTS OF WELDING HEAT TO PLAIN CARBON STEELS, WE WILL ATTEMPT TO EXPLAIN THE BASICS OF HEAT TREATMENT. HEAT TREATMENT IS THE CONTROLLED HEATING AND COOLING OF METALS TO ALTER THEIR PROPERTIES SUCH AS HARDN ESS AND STRENGTH WITHOUT CHANGING THE PRODUCT SHAPE. WHEN A HIGH-PLAIN-CARBON ST EEL IS HEATED TO AROUND 1,000C, ALL THE STRUCTURES FERRITES, CEMENTITES, PEARLITE S TRANSFORM TO THE AUSTENITE PHASE ( g ). IT IS IN THE DIFFERENT COOLING RATES, FR OM THE AUSTENITE PHASE, THAT THE HIGH-PLAIN-CARBON STEEL WILL TRANSFORM BACK TO DIFFERENT STRUCTURES TO ROOM TEMPERATURE, AND ALTER ITS PROPERTIES. THE DIFFEREN T COOLING RATES ARE AS FOLLOWS:

FULL ANNEALING ( FURNACE-COOLING ) SOFTENING VERY SLOW-COOLING RATES, ALLOWING A LL THE CARBON TO GET DISSOLVED AND FINELY DIFFUSED IN THE IRON MATRIX. A FULLY F ERRITIC MICROSTRUCTURE IS FORMED, WHICH IS VERY SOFT, LOW-STRENGTH AND DUCTILE. NORMALIZING ( AIR-COOLING ) TOUGHENING QUICKER COOLING RATES THAN ANNEALING, FRE E FERRITES AND PEARLITES ARE FORMED. START OF HARDENING OF THE MICROSTRUCTURE DU E TO FORMATION OF CARBIDES, BUT SOME DUCTILITY IS RETAINED DUE TO THE FREE FERRI TES AND THE PLATELET STRUCTURES OF PEARLITE. OIL QUENCHING ( RAPID-COOLING ) HAR DENING MICROSTRUCTURE BECOMES VERY HARD AND BRITTLE THROUGH THE FORMATION OF MAR TENSITES. WATER QUENCIHING ( DRASTIC RAPID COOLING ) HARDENING COARSE, JAGGED, R OUGH AND DISORIENTED MARTENSITES ARE FORMED, WHICH ARE EXTREMELY HARDER AND MORE BRITTLE, COMPARED TO MARTENSITES FORMED BY OIL QUENCHING.

MARTENSITES ARE FORMED BY RAPID COOLING, WHICH TRAPS THE CARBON ATOMS THAT DO NO T HAVE TIME TO DIFFUSE OUT OF THE IRON MATRIX, AND CHEMICALLY COMBINE WITH THE I RON TO FORM IRON CARBIDES. A TYPICAL MICROSTRUCTURE OF MARTENSITES HAS ACICULAR, SHARP, NEEDLE-LIKE APPEARANCE. MARTENSITES ARE VERY HARD AND BRITTLE AND ARE US UALLY NOT WELDABLE.

UNTEMPERED MARTENSITES, WHILE VERY HARD AND STRONG, ARE TOO BRITTLE TO BE USEFUL FOR MOST INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. AFTER WATER OR OIL QUENCING, THE STEELS ARE T EMPERED, TO AROUND150C ~ 550C, TO IMPART TOUGNESS. AT THESE TEMPERATURES, THERE IS NO CHANGE IN THE MICROSTRUCTURES OF THE STEELS. WHAT HAPPENS IS THAT THE MARTENSITES ARE REFINED AND RE-ORIENTED. AFTER WELDING, THE TERMS USED FOR THIS HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS ARE STRESS-RELIEVI NG, OR PWHT.

IN WELDING, THE EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT IS SOMETIMES INADVERTENTLY DONE. THE WE LDING HEAT INPUT MAY RAISE THE TEMPERATURE OF THE PLAIN CARBON STEELS IN EXCESS OF 800C. THE HIGHER THE CARBON CONTENT, AND, THE FASTER THE COOLING RATE, RESULT IN THE FORMATION OF MORE CARBIDES. THIS WILL MAKE THE PLAIN CARBON STEELS MORE S USCEPTIBLE TO CRACKING DURING WELDING. IN WELDING, NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS SHOULD ALREADY BE TAKEN TO AVOID THESE FORMATION OF CARBIDES IN MEDIUMAND HIGH-PLAIN-CA RBON STEELS .

FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF WELDING, CARBIDES IN PLAINCARBON-STEELS ARE HARMFUL, BECAU SE OF THEIR CRACKING TENDENCIES. HOWEVER, THERE ARE ATTRIBUTES OF THESE CARBIDES WHICH ARE VERY BENEFICIAL TO MANY INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS.

LONG-SPAN BEAMS, SUPPORTING HEAVY LOADS ALONG THEIR AXIS, MUST HAVE RIGIDITY, OT HERWISE THE BEAMS WILL SAG. CARBIDES IN PLAIN-CARBON STEELS GIVE RIGIDITY TO THE BEAMS.

MANY INDUSTRIAL PARTS ARE MANUFACTURED FROM HEAT-TREATED, HIGH-HARDNESS STEELS F OR METAL-TO-METAL WEAR RESISTANCE.

REALIZING THE STRONG INFLUENCE OF CARBON ON THE HARDNESS AND STRENGTH OF PLAIN-C ARBON STEELS, AND THE CONSEQUENT BENEFICIAL EFFECTS, THE TENDENCY IS TO ADD MORE CARBON TO THE PLAIN-CARBON STEELS. HOWEVER, THERE IS A MAXIMUM LIMIT ON THE SOL UBILITY OF CARBON IN STEELS, BEYOND WHICH ANOTHER DIFFERENT MICROSTRUCTURES WILL BE FORMED WHICH ARE CAST IRONS, TO INDUCE THE SAME EFFECT AS CARBON, ALLOYING E LEMENTS ARE ADDED INSTEAD, WITH EACH HAVING THEIR INDIVIDUAL CARBON EQUIVALENT. THESE ALLOYED CARBON STEELS LOW-ALLOYED OR HIGH-ALLOYED OR TOOL STEELS VARY IN T ERMS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS, STRENGTH AND DURABILITY.

THE CARBON EQUIVALENT SCALES THE CONCENTRATION OF EACH ALLOYING ELEMENT BY ITS A BILITY TO PROMOTE CARBIDE FORMATION. C.E. = %C + %Mn + %Ni + %Cr + %Cu + %Mo 6 1 5 5 13 4 THE ALLOYING ELEMENTS INTERACT WITH CARBON TO PRODUCE DESIRED COMBINATI ONS OF HARDENABILITY, STRENGTH AND TOUGHNESS CARBON STRONG CARBIDE FORMERS. CHRO MIUM NEXT TO CARBON AS STRONG CARBIDE FORMERS. MANGANESE / NICKEL / MOLYBDENUM / VANADIUM MILD CARBIDE FORMERS; IMPROVES TOUGHNESS AND STRENGTH.

STAINLESS STEELS THE BASE METAL COMPOSITIONS ARE TYPICALLY THAT OF CARBON STEELS , WITH THE ADDITION OF AT LEAST 11% CHROMIUM. THIS IS THE MINIMUM AMOUNT OF CHRO MIUM NECESSARY TO FORM A STABLE, PASSIVE CHROMIUM OXIDE FILM. IT IS THIS FILM TH AT IS THE BASIS FOR THE CORROSION RESISTANCE OF ALL STAINLESS STEELS, THAT GIVES STAINLESS STEELS THAT UNIQUE STAINLESS STEEL LUSTER.

THE BASIC CLASSIFICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEELS ARE: AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS ( 300 SERIES ) WITH A MINIMUM OF 11% CHROMIUM AND 8% NICKEL, THE HIGH CHROMIUM AN D NICKEL FREEZE THE AUSTENITE PHASE DOWN TO ROOM TEMPERATURE. THE NICKEL FURTHER ACTS AS AUSTENITE STABILIZER DURING THERMAL CYCLIC CONDITIONS. THERMAL CYCLE CA USED BY WELDING HAVE LITTLE INFLUENCE ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES. THE ADJACENT BAS E MATERIAL TEMPERATURE, THOUGH, HAS TO BE CONTROLLED DOWN TO A MAXIMUNM OF 250C T O PREVENT CARBIDE PRECIPITATION ALONG THE GRAIN BOUNDARIES. PRE-HEAT AND PWHT AR E SELDOM REQUIRED. AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS ARE TOUGH AND NONMAGNETIC. THE TW O TYPES OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS MOST COMMONLY USED ARE: 304 FOR GENERAL C ORROSION RESISTANCE. 316 WITH THE ADDITION OF A MINIMUM OF 2.5% MOLYBDENUM; FOR SEVERE CORROSION RESISTANCE.

A TYPICAL MICROSTRUCTURE OF AN AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL APPEARING AS AUSTENITE GRAINS, g ) WHICH ARE SOFT, HIGHLY-DUCTILE, TOUGH AND NON-MAGNETIC. (

THREE KINDS OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE IN STEELS GRANULAR FERRITES ARE BODY-CENTERED C UBIC. GRANULAR AUSTENITES ARE FACE-CENTERED CUBIC, BEING MORE COMPACT, ARE TOUGHER . CEMENTITES AND MARTENSITES ARE HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED, THOUGH MORE COMPACT, ARE LESS STABLE.

DURING WELDING AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS, WHEN THE TEMPERATURE REACHES 500C ON THE BASE METAL, CHROMIUM CARBIDES PRECIPITATE PREFERENTIALLY ALONG THE GRAIN BOU NDARIES OF THE AUSTENITE MICROCTRUCTURES, ALSO CALLED SENSITIZATION. THIS DETERIOR ATION MAKES THE AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO CORROSION ATTACK S, AND IS THE MOST COMMON REASON IN WELD FAILURES OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS

THE HEAT-TINT VISUAL APPEARANCE OF THE WELD AREA IS DUE TO CARBIDES PRECIPITATIO N, OR SENSITIZATION.

THE 400 SERIES STAINLESS STEELS THESE ARE THE STRAIGHT-CHROMIUM, WITHOUT THE ADD ITION OF A MINIMUM OF 8% NICKEL. THE TWO TYPES OF 400-SERIES STAINLESS STEELS AR E: FERRITIC GRADES STAINLESS STEELS THESE STAINLESS STEELS ARE FERRITIC AT ALL T EMPERATURES, WITH THE ADDITION TO BASIC 400-SERIES STAINLESS STEELS OF FERRITE S TABILIZERS HIGHER CHROMIUM, SILICON, MOLYBDENUM, COBALT, TITANIUM. FERRITIC STAI NLESS STEELS ARE SOFT, DUCTILE AND HIGHLY MAGNETIC. A TYPICAL APPLICATION FOR FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS ARE IN MAGNETIC TRAPS IN PIP ELINES, WHICH FACILITATE TRAMP METAL SEPARATION FROM CORROSIVE FLUIDS.

MAGNETIC TRAPS MADE FROM WIRE MESH OF FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS FACILTATE TRAMP METAL SEPARATION FROM CORROSIVE LIQUIDS.

MARTENSITIC GRADES STAINLESS STEELS THESE ARE ESSENTIALLY 400-SERIES STAINLESS S TEEL ALLOYS OF A HIGHER CHROMIUM AND CARBON CONTENTS THAT POSSESS A FULLY MARTEN SITIC MICROSTRUCTURE IN THE HARDENED CONDITION. THE MARTENSITIC GRADES STAINLESS STEELS ARE HIGHLY MAGNETIC AND ARE HARDENABLE BY HEAT TREATMENTS. A TYPICAL APP LICATION OF MARTENSITIC GRADES STAINLESS STEELS ARE INDUSTRIAL KNIFE BLADES. THE MARTENSITE MICROSTRUCTURES AND EXCESS CARBIDES MAINTAIN CUTTING EDGES AND CORRO SION RESISTANCE.

KNIFE BLADES USED IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY ARE SOME OF THE TYPICAL APPLICATIONS FOR MARTENSITIC GRADE STAINLESS STEELS REQUIRING HARDNESS ON CUTTING EDGES BE MAINTA INED AND SUPERIOR CORROSION RESISTANCE IN SERVICE.

DUPLEX GRADES STAINLESS STEELS THEY GET THEIR NAME BECAUSE THEY CONTAIN BOTH FER RITIC AND AUSTENITIC MICROSTRUCTURE IN EQUAL AMOUNT. IN FULLY AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS REQUIRING EXTENSIVE AND HEAVY WELDING, PREC IPITATED CARBIDES FORM ALONG THE GRAIN BOUNDARIES OF THE AUSTENITE MICROSTRUCTUR ES, THESE PRECIPITATED CARBIDES ARE VERY PRONE TO CORROSIVE ATTACK, WHICH MAY RE NDER THE PART IMPRACTICAL, SPECIALLY IN APPLICATIONS REQUIRING RESISTANCE TO VER Y AGGRESSIVE MEDIA. DUPLEX GRADES STAINLESS STEELS WERE FORMULATED FOR FABRICATI ONS OF STAINLESS STEELS REQUIRING EXTENSIVE AND HEAVY WELDING WORK. THE FERRITIC STRUCTURES IN THE MATRIX REDUCE CARBIDES PRECIPITATION. TYPICAL USES OF DUPLEX GRADES STAINLESS STEELS ARE FOR HEAT EXCHANGERS, CHEMICAL TANKS, REFINERIES, PRE SURE VESSELS AND OFFSHORE APPLICATIONS.

TYPICAL MICROSTRUCTURES OF DUPLEX GRADES STAINLESS STEELS, WHICH ARE A MIX OF 50 / 50 FERRITES AND AUSTENITES MICROSTRUCTURES. THE DARK AREAS ARE FERRITE MICROS TRUCTURES AND THE WHITE AREAS ARE AUSTENITES MICROSTRUCTURES.

FABRICATION OF A FRACTIONATION TOWER OF DUPLEX GRADES STAINLESS STEELS. EVEN IN VERY EXTENSIVE AND HEAVY WELDING, THE PART IS NOT PRONE TO CARBIDES PRECIPITATIO N BECAUSE OF THE PRESENCE OF THE FERRITIC MICROSTRUCTURES IN THE MATRIX.

BECAUSE OF THE HEAT INPUT DURING WELDING DUPLEX GRADES STAINLESS STEELS, THE BAL ANCE OF THE FERRITES AND AUSTENITES MICROSTRUCTURES MAY BE ALTERED. IF THE FERRI TES ARE TOO LOW BECAUSE OF TRANSFORMATION, CARBIDES PRECIPITATION MAY TAKE PLACE . ALTERNATIVELY, IF THE FERRITES BECOME HIGH, THE STAINLESS STEELS ARE PRONE TO CORROSION BECAUSE OF THE DEPLETION OF THE AUSTENITIC MICROSTRUCTURES. THE FERRIT E DETECTOR IS USED TO DETERMINE THE FERRITE NUMBER ( FN ) OF DUPLEX GRADES STAIN LESS STEELS. THE VOLUME PERCENTAGE OF FERRITES CAN BE ESTIMATED AS ABOUT 70% OF THE FN. OF

THE FERRITE DETECTOR IS A NON-DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION INSTRUMENT BASED ON THE MUT UAL ATTRACTION OF A PERMANENT BAR MAGNET TO A KNOWN STANDARD AND AN UNKNOWN MATE RIAL.

IRON-IRON CARBIDE PHASE DIAGRAM

THE IRON-IRON CARBIDE PHASE DIAGRAM IS ESSENTIALLY A MAP OF THE PHASES THAT EXIS T IN IRON AT VARIOUS CARBON CONTENTS AND TEMPERATURES UNDER EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIO NS.

AUSTENITIC MANGANESE STEELS THESE TYPICALLY CONTAIN 1.2% C AND A MINIMUM OF 12% MANGANESE. A UNIQUE COMBINATION OF PROPERTIES IS ACHIEVED IN THAT IT IMPARTS HIG H TOUGHNESS AND DUCTILITY WITH HIGH WORK-HARDENING CAPACITY AND, GOOD RESISTANCE TO WEAR. TOOL STEELS MAY HAVE HIGH-WEAR AND ABRASION RESISTANCE, BUT IN SOME IN DUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS, MAY NOT BE ABLE TO WITHSTAND THE HIGH-IMPACT LOADS BECAUS E OF THEIR CRACKING TENDENCIES. AUSTENITIC MANGANESE STEELS ARE PRIMARILY USED I N EARTHMOVING, MINING, CEMENT PLANTS, QUARRYING, OIL WEL DRILLING, RAILROADING, DREDGING. IN THE AS-CAST CONDITION, AUSTENITIC MANGANESE STEELS ARE RELATIVELY S OFT. THEY CAN BE MACHINED TO SHAPES IN THIS CONDITION. ONCE THESE ARE USED AND S UBJECTED TO CONSTANT IMPACT LOADS, THEY WORK-HARDENED ( OR, COLD-HARDENED ), ACH IEVING HIGH-HARDNESS TOGETHER WITH THEIR HIGH-IMPACT PROPERTIES.

THE RAIL WHEELS AND THE RAIL TRACKS ARE MANUFACTURED FROM AUSTENITIC MANGANESE S TEELS, REQUIRING METAL-TO-METAL WEAR RESISTANCE AND HIGH-IMPACT LOADS..

AUSTENITIC MANGANESE STEELS ARE USED EXTENSIVELY IN EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENT FOR B UCKETS, SHOVELS, TEETH, WHERE VERY SEVERE WEAR AND IMPACT LOADS ARE ENCOUNTERED.

IN ROCK-CRUSHING MACHINERIES FOR MINING AND CEMENT PLANTS, AUSTENITIC MANGANESE STEELS ARE EXTENSIVELY USED FOR HANDLING AND PROCESSING EARTHEN MATERIALS SUCH A S CRUSHERS, GRINDING MILLS. MANGANESE STEELS PROVIDE TOUGH, RUGGED, HIGH-WEAR RE SISTANCE AND HARSH IMPACT PROPERTIES FOR THE RUGGED APPLICATIONS.

THERMIT RAILROAD WELDING THIS IS A PROCESS OF IGNITING A FORMULATED PYROTECHNIC POWDER MIX OF EXOTHERMIC, HIGH-ENERGY ALUMINO-THERMIC METAL ALLOYS, PRODUCING A SUPER-HEATED LIQUID METAL THAT IS POURED BETWEEN THE RAILTRACKS END-JOINTS, TO F ORM A WELDED JOINT. THE CHEMICAL REACTION IS AS FOLLOWS: 8Al + 3Fe3O4 + FeMn ( M n Alloys ) + M ( IGNITER ) = 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + HEAT TYPICALLY THE ENDS OF THE RAIL S ARE CLEANED, ALIGNED FLAT, AND SPACED APART, AROUND 2 INCHES. A GRAPHITE MOLD IS CLAMPED AROUND THE RAIL ENDS. THE RAILS ENDS ARE PREHEATED TO AROUND 500C. THE POWDER MIX IS IGNITED IN THE REFRACTORY CRUCIBLE AND ALLOWED TO REACT TO COMPLE TION. THE REACTION CRUCIBLE IS THEN TAPPED AT THE BOTTOM ( LEAVING THE ALUMINUM OXIDE IN THE CRUCIBLE ), THE MOLTEN STEEL FLOWS INTO THE MOLD, FUSING WITH THE R AIL ENDS, AND FORMING THE WELD. AFTER COOLING, THE MOLD IS REMOVED AND THE WELD IS CLEANED AND GRINDED TO PRODUCE A SMOOTH JOINT.

THERMIT RAIL WELDING CRUCIBLE AND MOLD.

A GRAPHITE MOLD IS CLAMPED AROUND THE RAIL ENDS. THE RAILS ENDS ARE PREHEATED TO AROUND 500C.

THE POWDER MIX IS IGNITED IN THE REFRACTORY CRUCIBLE AND ALLOWED TO REACT TO COM PLETION. THE REACTION CRUCIBLE IS THEN TAPPED AT THE BOTTOM ( LEAVING THE ALUMIN UM OXIDE IN THE CRUCIBLE ), THE MOLTEN STEEL FLOWS INTO THE MOLD, FUSING WITH TH E RAIL ENDS, AND FORMING THE WELD.

IN WELDING MANGANESE STEELS, THE BASE METAL SHOULD NOT REACH MORE THAN 250C. TO D O THIS, SKIP / INTERMITTENT WELDING IS DONE. THE WELD AREA ITSELF IS SHOWERED WI TH WATER AFTER PAUSING EVERY AFTER LAYER.

IN HARDFACING STEELS, BUFFER LAYERS SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 45RC. THE 45RC HARDF ACING ELECTRODES CAN BE WELDED MULTI-PASS. THE 60RC HARDFACING ELECTRODES CAN BE WELDED ONLY AT SINGLE-PASS LAYER. WELDING THE 60RC HARDFACING ELECTRODE MULTIPA SS WILL CAUSE CRACKING AND / OR SPALLING OF THE WELDS.

IN HARDFACING STEEL PARTS SUBJECTED TO METAL-TOMETAL CONTACT WEAR, ONE PART SHOU LD HAVE A 10RC LOWER HARDNESS THAN THE OTHER PART.

IN THE TRANSITION FROM STEELS TO CAST IRONS, AT AROUND 2% CARBON, WHITE CAST IRO NS ARE FORMED, IN WHICH THE CARBON IS PRESENT FULLY AS CARBIDES, OR CEMENTITES. THE WHITE CAST IRONS MICROSTRUCTURES ARE VERY HARD, SUITABLE FOR APPLICATIONS RE QUIRING METAL-TO-METAL CONTACT HIGH-WEAR, RESISTANCE. THEY CAN ONLY BE CASTED, T HEY CAN NOT BE MACHINED, WROUGHT ( FORGED, ROLLED, EXTRUDED ), HEAT-TREATED NOR SUBJECTED TO IMPACT. THEY ARE USED IN SERVICE FROM THEIR AS-CAST CONDITION AS TH EY CAN NOT BE SUBJECTED TO ANY FURTHER PROCESSING WHITE CAST IRONS ARE NAMED AFT ER THEIR WHITE FRACTURED SURFACE DUE TO THE CARBIDES.

WHITE CAST IRONS MICROSTRUCTURES SHOWING NEARLY COMPLETE CARBON SOLUTION IN A MA TRIX OF MASSIVE, ACICULAR, NEEDLE-LIKE CEMENTITES, WHICH ARE VERY HARD AND BRITT LE..

A TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF THE INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF WHITE CAST IRON IS IN THE MIX ER BLADES OF SAND MULLERS.

GRAY CAST IRONS AT 3.0-4.0% CARBON CONTENTS, THE CARBON REACHES A SUPERSATURATED CONDITION WHERE THE EXCESS CARBON CAN NO LONGER DIFFUSE INTO THE IRON MATRIX, N OR COMBINE WITH THE IRON. THE SUPERSATURATED EXCESS CARBON WILL JUST FLOAT AS FR EE CARBON, IN THE FORM OF GRAPHITE FLAKES IN A MATRIX OF FERRITES AND PEARLITES. THE GRAPHITE FLAKES ACT AS STRESS RAISERS WHICH MAY INITIATE FRACTURE WHEN THE GRAY CAST IRONS ARE SUBJECTED TO MODERATE IMPACT. WHEN SLIGHTLY HEATED, DURING E XPANSION AND CONTRACTION, THE GRAPHITE FLAKES ACT AS CRACK-PROPAGATORS. WITHOUT THE GRAPHITE FLAKES, THE MATRIX IS JUST LIKE PLAIN-CARBON STEELS, WHICH CAN HAVE A TENSILE STRENGTH OF UP TO 70,000 PSI. THE GRAPHITE FLAKES IN GRAY CAST IRONS FORM VOIDS AND ARE POROUS, REDUCING THE STRENGTH DOWN TO AROUND 25,000 PSI.

MOST COMMERCIAL GRADES OF GRAY CAST IRONS CONTAIN 3.0-4.0% CARBON. THE SUPERSATU RATED CARBON WHICH CAN NOT DIFFUSE NOR REACT WITH THE IRON ANYMORE, APPEARS AS FR EE GRAPHITES IN A TYPICALLY STEEL MATRIX OF FERRITES AND PEARLITES.

IN MANY ENGINEERING MATERIALS, WITH INTRICATE DESIGNS OF COMPLICATED SHAPES AND SIZES OF THICK AND THIN SECTIONS, WHERE THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF 25,000 PSI IS SU FFICIENT ENOUGH FOR THE APPLICATION, GRAY CAST IRONS ARE HIGHLY BENEFICIAL. THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF GRAY CAST IRONS ALLOW MASSIVE CASTINGS TO BE FORMED, FOR EXAMP LE A 10-TON OPEN GEAR. THE GRAPHITE FLAKES ACTS AS CHIP BREAKERS, MAKING THE GRAY CAST IRONS HIGHLY MACHINABLE. THEY TEND TO DAMPEN MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS, HELPING T HE MACHINERIES RUN SMOOTHLY. GRAY CAST IRONS ALSO HAVE GOOD CORROSION RESISTANCE . TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF PARTS MANUFACTURED FROM CAST IRONS ARE CYLINDER BLOCKS, HE ADS AND GEARBOXES. GRAY CAST IRONS ARE NAMED AFTER THEIR GRAY FRACTURED SURFACE DUE TO THE GRAPHITE FLAKES.

A SPIRAL MOLD TESTS THE MEASURE OF FLUIDITY OF A MELT. THE HIGH CARBON CONTENT O F GRAY CAST IRON MAKES THE MELT HIGHLY FLUID TO FORM INTRICATE THICK AND THIN SE CTIONS. PLAIN-CARBON STEELS EASILY SOLIDIFY IN THE SPIRAL PASSAGE. HENCE, CAST STEELS AR E LIMITED TO MASSIVE, SIMPLE, UNCORED DESIGNS.

THE CYLINDER BLOCKS, HEADS, ETC., OF GENERATOR SETS ARE MADE OF GRAY CAST IRONS

TURBINE HOUSINGS ARE MADE OF GRAY CAST IRONS.

THE CYLINDER BLOCKS, HEADS, TRANSMISSION HOUSINGS, GEARBOX CASES, EXHAUST MANIFO LDS, ETC., OF MOTOR ENGINES ARE MADE OF GRAY CAST IRONS.

IN WELDING GRAY CAST IRONS, THERE IS A TEARING EFFECT ON THE BASE METAL AS IT EX PANDS AND CONTRACTS, SINCE THE STRENGTH OF THE BASE METAL IS LOWER THAN THE WELD METAL. THIS CAN BE COUNTER-ACTED BY PEENING THE BASE METAL, TO PUSH BACK THE TEAR ING FORCE.

WHEN WELDING GRAY CAST IRONS, THE HEAT GENERATES GASES FROM THE MOISTURE, OILS, CHEMICALS ABSORBED BY THE GRAPHITE FLAKES. THE GRAPHITE FLAKES THEMSELVES OXIDIZ E TO FORM GASES. THESE GASES RISE AND FLOAT AT THE SURFACE, FORMING A GAS FILM W HICH CAN NOT BE PENETRATED BY THE WELDING ARC. THE SURFACE IS SEARED BY RUNNING AN OXY-ACETYLENE FLAME AT THE SURFACE AND BRUSHING THE CARBON SOOT FORMED BY THE G AS FILM.

IF THE GRAPHITE FLAKES IN GRAY CAST IRONS WERE ROUNDED INSTEAD FLAKE-LIKE SHAPES, THEY ACT AS CRACK-STOPPERS AND INCREASE THE STRENGTH SIMILAR TO CARBON STEELS OF 7 0,000 PSI. ROUNDED EXCESS CARBON IS PRODUCED EITHER BY MALLEABILIZING HEAT TREATME NTS OR INOCULATION OF THE WHITE CAST IRON MELT WITH EITHER MAGNESIUM OR CESIUM,

MALLEABLE CAST IRONS ARE MADE BY HIGHTEMPERATURE HEAT TREAMENTS OF WHITE CAST IR ON CASTINGS. AT THE MALLEABILZING TEMPERATURE OF 950C, THE CEMENTITES DECOMPOSE A ND THE CARBON LIBERATED FORMS ROUNDED GRAPHITES.

THE INOCULANTS MAGNESIUM OR CESIUM ARE HIGHLY VOLATILE. THEY GO FROM SOLID TO GA S IN CONTACT WITH THE MELT. THIS PHENOMENA NODULARIZES THE EXCESS CARBON, FORMING NODULAR, OR SPHEROIDAL, OR DUCTILE CAST IRONS.

A TYPICAL MICROSTRUCTURE OF MALLEABLE CAST IRONS FORMED BY MALLEABILIZING HEAT T REATMENTS OF WHITE CAST IRONS OR DUCTILE CAST IRONS ( ALSO CALLED NODULAR OR SPH EROIDAL CAST IRONS ) FORMED BY INOCULATION OF GRAY CAT IRONS WITH MAGNESIUM OR C ESIUM. THE EXCESS CARBON IS ROUNDED, INCREASUING THE STRENGTH UP TO 70,000 PSI A ND IMPROVING WELDABILITY OF THE MICROSTRUCTURE.

PIPE FITTINGS ARE MADE OF MALLEABLE CAST IRONS.

CRANKSHAFTS ARE MADE OF DUCTILE CAST IRONS.

THERMAL SPRAY WELDING IS WIDELY USED, WHERE MELTED MATERIALS ARE SPRAYED ONTO TH E SURFACE OF PARTS, THE COATINGS PROVIDING WEAR, IMPACT, TEMPERATURE OR CORROSIO N RESISTANCE. THERMAL SPRAYING CAN PROVIDE THIN ( AROUND I MM ) TO THICK EVEN CO ATINGS ( OF SEVERAL MM ), OVER LARGE AREAS AT HIGH DEPOSITION RATES.

REBUILDING THE WORN-OUT SURFACE OF A NOZZLE SEGMENT COMBUSTOR COMPONENT IN A GAS TURBINE USING THE HOT METAL SRAY FUSION PROCESS WITH COBALT-BASED VACUUM-BRAZED METAL ALLOYS.

SPRAYING MAGNESIUM-ZIRCONATE THERMAL BARRIER COATING ON THE INSIDE SURFACE OF A TRANSITION PIECE COMBUSTOR COMPONENT IN A GAS TURBINE USING THE POWDER FLAME SPR AY PROCESS.

REBUILDING THE WORN-OUT SHAFTING OF THE HELICAL PINION GEAR OF THE ROLLING MILLS GEAR BOX USING THE COLD EXOTHERMIC METAL SPRAY PROCESS WITH NICKEL-CHROMIUM NIC KEL ALLOYS.

REBUILDING THE SHAFTING BUSHING SURFACE OF THE SCREW CONVEYOR USING THE COLD EXO THERMIC METAL SPRAY PROCESS WITH ALUMINUM-BRONZE METAL ALLOYS.

COATING A SINK ROLL USED IN A STEEL MILL PLANT WITH ZIRCONIA OR TUNGSTEN CARBIDE POWDERS ON A HIGH-VELOCITY-OXYGEN-FUEL SPRAY GUN.

SPRAY COATING FOR EROSION AND CORROSION PROTECTION OF BOILER TUBES IN POWER GENE RATION PLANTS.

HIGH-VELOCITY-AIR-FUEL SPRAY COATING PROCESS ON A TURBINE BLADE.

WE HAVE A HYPOTHETICAL SITUATION JOINING 2MM PLATES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS AND STAIN LESS STEEL. ARE THESE WELDABLE ? YES USING THE FRICTION STIR WELDING TECHNIQUE.

WE HAVE A HYPOTHETICAL SITUATION CLAD-WELDING BOTH SURFACES OF TWO DIFFERENT PLATES THICKNESSES OF ALUMINUM ALLOY S AND STAINLESS STEEL. ARE THESE WELDABLE ? YES USING THE EXPLOSION WELDING TECHNIQUE.

EXPLOSION WELDING USES THE ENERGY OF A CONTROLLED EXPLOSIVE DETONATION TO CREATE A METALLURGICAL WELD BETWEEN METALS.

EXPLOSION WELDING PROCESS IS USED FOR THE METALLURGICAL JOINING OF DISSIMILAR ME TALS. THIS PROCESS IS USED MOST COMMONLY TO CLAD A THICKER PLATE ( BACKER ) WITH A THINNER LAYER OF CORROSION RESISTANT MATERIAL ( ALLOY CLADDER STAINLESS STEEL, NI CKEL ALLOY, TITANIUM OR ZIRCONIUM ).

IN PREPARATION, THE BACKER AND THE ALLOY CLADDER MATING SURFACES ARE GROUND.

THE PREPARED BACKER AND THE ALLOY CLADDER ARE THEN FIXTURED PARALLEL AT A PRECISE SP ACING. A MEASURED QUANTITY OF A SPECIFICALLY FORMULATED EXPLOSIVE IS PLACED ON T HE CLADDING METAL SURFACE.

THE EXPLOSIVE IS THEN DETONATED AND THE DETONATION FRONT TRAVELS UNIFORMLY ACROS S THE SURFACE FROM INITIATION. THE CLADDING METAL BENEATH THE DETONATING EXPLOSI VE IS PROPELLED TO COLLIDE WITH THE BASE METAL AT A SPECIFIC IMPACT VELOCITY AND ANGLE. THE MATING SURFACES COLLIDE UNDER PRESSURE. THE EXTREME PRESSURE PRODUCE S A CONTINUOUS METALLURGICAL WELD. ALTHOUGH THE EXPLOSION CLADDING GENERATES INT ENSE HEAT, THERE IS INSUFFICIENT TIME FOR THE HEAT TO CONDUCT INTO THE METALS AN D NO BULK HEATING OCCURS.

THE EXPLOSION WELDING CLADDED-PLATES ARE THEN FLATTENED AND CUT.

TESTING AND INSPECTION ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF BOND PHISICAL MEASUREMENT CERTI FICATIONS

A TYPICAL MICROSTRUCTURE OF THE ZONE OF AN EXPLOSION WELDED JOINT BETWEEN PLAINLOW-CARBON STEEL AND STAINLESS STEEL.

AS-EXPLOSION CLAD FLAT PLATE CONSISTING OF 20MM THICK STAINLESS STELL CLAD ON 20 0MM THICK CARBON STEEL.

EXPLOSION-CLAD 6MM THICK TITANIUM PLATE TO 45MM THICK CARBON STEEL PLATE FOR BOI LER TUBE SHEET BLANKS, AFTER POST EXPLOSION WELDING FLATTENING.

FINISHED VESSEL FABRICATED FROM EXPLOSION CLAD PLATE.

A 5 METER DIAMETER DOME OF 5MM THICK TYPE 410 STAINLESS STEEL ON 80MM THICK TYPE A387 STAINLESS STEEL FORMED FROM EXPLOSION CLAD PLATE.

GALVANIC CORROSION SERIES CORRODED END (ANODIC OR LEAST NOBLE) MAGNESIUM MAGNESI UM ALLOYS ZINC ALUMINUM ALUMINUM 28 CADMIUM ALUMINUM 17ST STEEL OR IRON CAST IRO N CHROMIUM-IRON (ACTIVE STAINLESS TYPE 410) NICKEL-RESIST CAST IRON 18-8 CHROMIU M-NICKEL IRON (ACTIVE STAINLESS TYPE 304) 18-8-3 CHROMIUM-NICKEL-MOLYBDENUM IRON (ACTIVE STAINLESS TYPE 316) LEAD-TIN SOLDERS LEAD TIN NICKEL (ACTIVE) INCONEL-N ICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOY (ACTIVE) HASTELLOY ALLOY C (ACTIVE) BRASSES COPPER BRONZES COPPER-NICKEL ALLOYS MONEL-COPPER ALLOYS SILVER SOLDERS NICKEL (PASSIVE) INCONEL -NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS (PASSIVE) CHROMIUM-IRON (PASSIVE STAINLESS TYPE 410) TIT ANIUM 18-8 CHROMIUM-NICKEL-IRON (PASSIVE STAINLESS TYPE 304) 18-8 CHROMIUM-NICKE L-MOLYBDENUM-IRON (PASSIVE STAINLESS TYPE 316) HASTELLOY C (PASSIVE) SILVER GRAP HITE GOLD PLATINUM PROTECTED END (CATHODIC OR MOST NOBLE)

GALVANIC CORROSION AN ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL, OR VOLTAGE, DIFFERENCE WILL EXIST BE TWEEN TWO DIFFERENT METALS THAT ARE IN ELECTRICAL CONTACT AND IMMERSED IN A CORR OSIVE SOLUTION. THIS POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE CAUSES CURRENT TO FLOW AND THE LESS NO BLE, OR MORE ANODIC. METAL SUFFERS INCREASED CORROSION RATE. THE SEVERITY OF ATT ACK DEPENDS UPON THE RELATIVE VOLTAGE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE METALS, THE RELATIV E EXPOSED AREAS OF EACH, AND THE PARTICULAR CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENT. IN WELDING, T HE SELECTION OF THE DISSIMILAR METALS TO BE JOINED, AND THE FILLER METALS TO BE USED, MUST TAKE INTO CONSIDERATION THE PHENOMENA OF GALVANIC CORROSION. A CLEAR EXAMPLE WHERE GALVANIC CORROSION FINDS USEFUL APPLICATION IS IN CATHODIC PROTECT ION. A SACRIFICIAL METAL IS ATTACHED TO THE METAL TO BE PROTECTED. CATHODIC PROT ECTION SYSTEMS ARE MOST COMMONLY USED TO PROTECT STEEL, FUEL PIPELINES, OFFSHORE OIL PLATFORMS AND ONSHORE OIL WELL CASINGS.

THE SACRIFICIAL ALUMINUM ANODE IS USED TO PROTECT THE STEEL STRUCTURE AT AN OFFS HORE OIL PLATFORM.

THE CHEAPEST, MOST ECONOMICAL, FASTEST, RELIABLE AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE METAL IDENT IFICATION IS BY CHEMICAL REAGENT REACTION TEST, WHICH ARE SHOWN ON THE FOLLOWING DIAGRAMS.

THE ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETER TECHNIQUE TYPICALLY USES A FLAME TO ATOMIZE T HE METAL SAMPLE. A BEAM OF LIGHT PASSES THROUGH THIS FLAME, ABSORBING A SET OF Q UANTITY OF ENERGY ( LIGHT OF A GIVEN WAVELENGTH ). EACH WAVELENGTH IN THE SERIES IS SPECIFIC TO ONLY ONE PARTICULAR ELEMENT.

A PORTABLE NON-DESTRUCTIVE FIELD ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROMETER.

POSITIVE MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION USING A HAND-HELD ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY FLUOR ESCENCE ANALYZER TO VERIFY ALLOYS OF COMPONENT PARTS

NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS THESE ARE NON-FERROUS METALS WITH HIGH-STRENGTH AND TOUGHN ESS, EXCELLENT CORROSION RESISTANCE, AND SUPERIOR ELEVATED TEMPERATURE PROPERTIE S. NICKEL ALLOYS ARE USED FOR A WIDE VARIETY OF APPLICATIONS, THE MAJORITY OF WHICH INVOLVE CORROSION RESISTANCE AND / OR HEAT RESISTANCE: AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINES ST EAM TURBINE POWER GENERATION PLANTS NUCLEAR POWER SYSTEMS CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEM ICAL INDUSTRIES AMONG THE MOST COMMON NICKEL ALLOYS USED IN THE HEAVY INDUSTRIES ARE: INCOLLOY I NCONEL HASTELOY HAYNES NIMONIC MONEL NICKEL ALLOYS ARE HIGHLY WELDABLE AND NO SPECIAL PRECAUTION IS REQUIRED.

NICKEL ALLOYS ARE PRIMARILY USED IN TURBINE POWER GENERATION PLANTS.

TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS THE COMBINATION OF HIGH STRENGTH-TO-WEIGHT RATIO, EXCELL ENT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES,AND CORROSION RESISTANCE MAKES TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS THE BEST MATERIAL CHOICE FOR MANY CRITICAL APPLICATIONS SUCH AS STATIC AND ROTA TING GAS TURBINE ENGINE COMPONENTS, AIRPLANES, MISSILES AND ROCKET. TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS ARE HIGHLY OXIDIZABLE WHEN WELDED. CARE MUST BE TAKEN TO CONTROL THE HEAT OF THE BASE METAL DOWN TO 250C. OTHERWISE, TARNISHING WILL DEVELOP.

MAIN ENGINE LE7A TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS ARE USED VERY EXTENSIVELY IN THE AEROSPACE INDUSTRY. H2A ROCKET

COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS THERE ARE AS MANY AS 400 DIFFERENT COPPER AND COPPER-ALLOY COMPOSITIONS. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE PRINCIPAL ALLOYING ELEMENTS OF THE MORE COM MON TYPES: PURE COPPER FOR ELECTRICAL APPLICATION BRASS ZINC PHOSPHOR BRONZES TI N ALUMINUM BRONZES ALUMINUM SILICON BRONZES SILICON COPPER NICKEL, NICKEL SILVER S NICKEL COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS HAVE VERY FAST HEAT DISSIPATION RATE. THE WELD AREA REMAIN S ALWAYS COLD DURING WELDING, MAKING EXCESSIVE PREHEAT NECESSARY.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY IS WASTED IN ANY SYSTEM BECAUSE A PORTION OF THE ELECTRICITY F LOWING THROUGH THE CONDUCTOR IS CONVERTED TO HEAT RATHER THAN BEING DELIVERED AS USABLE ELECTRICAL ENERGY. ELECTROLYTIC COPPER ( PURE COPPER ) EXHIBITS HIGH ELE CTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AND HIGH HEAT DISSPATION RATE, MAKING IT VERY IDEAL FOR ELE CTRICAL COMPONENT PARTS, LIKE BUS BARS.

BECAUSE OF THEIR UNIQUE LUBRICITY PROPERTIES, ESPECIALLY WHERE HIGH TEMPERATURES ARE INVOLVED, IN REDUCING FRICTION AND PROLONGING SERVICE LIFE, COPPER ALLOYS F IND VERY GOOD APPLICATION IN BUSHINGS, BEARINGS AND SLEEVES. THEY FIND EXTENSIVE USES IN OFFSHORE, STEEL MILL AND CONSTRUCTION EQUUIPMENT.

AN ECCENTRIC BUSHING MADE OF COPPER ALLOYS USED IN STEEL MILLS.

ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS THEY HAVE A STRONG RESISTANCE TO CORROSION, AND IS RATHE R MALLEABLE. THEY ARE RELATIVELY LIGHT METAL. THEY ARE EASILY MACHINABLEAND CAN HAVE A WIDE VARIETY OF SURFACE FINISHES. THEY ALSO HAVE GOOD ELECTRICAL AND THER MAL CONDUCTIVITIES AND IS HIGHLY REFLECTIVE TO HEAT AND LIGHT. PURE ALUMINUM HAS VERY LOW STRENGTH. HOWEVER, WHEN ALLOYED, MAINLY, WITH SILICON, CAN ATTAIN STRE NGTH COMPARABLE TO CARBON STEELS, WHICH GIVE THE ALUMINUM ALLOYS A VERY WIDE APP LICATION, ESPECIALLY IN THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY. ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS ARE HIG HLY HYGROSCOPIC. THEY ABSORB MOISTURE VERY RAPIDLY. AS A RESULT, THEIR SURFACES ARE OXIDIZED, FORMING ALUMINUM OXIDES. ALUMINUM OXIDES ARE VERY HARD AND HAVE A VERY HIGH MELTING POINT. THIS CAUSES WELDABILITY PROBLEMS. THE BEST REMEDY IS TO GRIND THE OXIDE SKIN BEFORE ATTEMPTING TO WELD ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS.

THE H.M.S. LAURIER LAPIERRE IS THE WORLD'S FIRST ALUMINUM WARSHIP. THE CONCEPT OF AN ALUMINUM WARSHIP IS ECONOMICALLY SOUND. THEY WILL ONLY WEIGH 1/12 OF TRADITIO NAL IRON AND STEEL WARSHIPS. THE COST OF FUEL IS ONLY 1/4 OF THE TRADITIONAL STE EL-HULLED SHIPS. THE LIGHTER ALUMINUM WARSHIPS WILL TRAVEL FASTER AND WITH GREAT MANEUVERABILITY, MAKING THEM LESS SUSCEPTIBLE TO TARGET AND CAN EASILY INTERCEP T ENEMY VESSELS.

ALUMINUM WHEELS GIVE THE AUTOMOBILES A SPORTY DESIGN. ALUMNUM WHEELS ALSO IMPROV E AUTOMOBILE PERFORMANCE BECAUSE OF THEIR LIGHTWEIGHT AND VERY GOOD HEAT DISSIPA TION.

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS IN THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY.

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS IN THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY.

Tht's All Folks