involving hrrndreds of movie personlrel, intricate phy'sical apparatus, ar:{l

complex technical processes, is completely controlled by one man. the clirector.

The cii,ema has a wide . range of expression. It is like printing be-
capse.it is also a visual composition on a tr*'odimensional surface, the
screen hiDg the equivalent of the painter's canvas. It combiges the essen-
'tial
elements of. music, literature, and the. theater ar.ts, such as plot, set-
ting charaiter, 6ound, and spectacle.
Tlu EJemerr'rr. ol thc Cinema
TIME
Since the images of moving pictures lrrove in time, time is the mcxt
important element . of the cinema. In the cinema it is subject to con-
traction, expansion, breaks or leaps through the manipulation of the director.
The three aspects of time in the cinema are phgsical, psychological, and
dramatic Iime.
Physical time. Physical time is the time taken by an action as it rs
being filmed and as it is being projected on the screen. A film may ac-
tually show what is happening in real. llfe-a man walking, a horse run-
ning, a car in pursuit of another. tsut the film does not capture these
events in actual motion. In the cinema, a series of still photographs are
l'igures 3.9 and 3-l(1. Cultural (lenter projected on the screen, each "frame" visible only for one. forty-eiglith
of the Philippines I)ance (ionrpanr
membere in t*o ol their peiforDl- o[ a second. While one iniage is being replaced by another, the screen
ances. is dark for another forty-eighth of a second. Thus, in a sound film pro-
jecUng'twenty-four framls per second, there are pictures for half the iime
and none at all during the other half. But we do nOt notice the blank
screen because our eyes hold the image for a longer period of time than
is required for the projection of a frame.
Physical time in the cinema can be distorted through slout motion,
accelerated ,rwtiotl, reoerse fltotion, and, stopped. motion. Slorv motion hap-
pens when the camera takes pictures faster than the projector can show
them on the screen. Accelerated .motion occurs when the camera takes
pictures slorver than the projector can run them on the screen. Reverse
motion conveys an undoing of time. The end of an action is shoivn Srs{;
then the motion is retraced to its beginning. We can take a motion picture
F* of a glass falling from a table to the floor and breaking to pieces. If w.e
a?
reverse this, we would be showing pieces of glass all over the floor coming
together and becoming a drinking glass going to the table top. Reverse
motion is used for magic or comic eff'ects. Stopped motion is not often used
Instead of stopping the action of an otherwise moving sequencr, still ptroto-
graphs are used.
Time expressed within a shot in a film is fixed and cannot he chauged.
But time can be altered between shots. It is.possible to rttir. l],i::,!, lt,re-
senq aqd future in sny order througb the use of flertslfuuak a_nci .l&ash-
lgtziail .' ,' ". .

In- flastrbacks, where the chronological flow of events is intemrpted

'''': . images
,by of past events, aid in flash-forwards, where future evepts- in-

148 149

:'::.,''
 we are no longef sure about their size. Are they d; trees? Or does
terruDt the foru'ard movement' several devices may be resorted
to ie?p the the ioot belong to a giant? If a house which is smhller than the trees
;;;i;;r;iJinct from the present, and ro pror,ide lransitions from one is shown, we conclude that a giant is standing by the trees and the house.
i;;;';ih"r. An explicit .efere;ce to the pasr in the .dialogue, changes in Filn spectacles, whether about prehistoric times or episodes of war, make
;;r;";, o, th"rie or melody may precede each interruption' use of models on a tiny scale taken at close range to create an impression
" impression of of actual dinosaurs and battleffelds. On the other hand, by making props
Peychological Time. Ps-vchological time is our emotional
watch a film. In real and sets very iarge, human beings as well as big animals can be represented
the duiation if the action tirat we- expcric:"- as we
iii; ;;; mental state afiects the way time passes for us' Time seems to as du'arfs.
*oue- fart when we are happy' Botldom, idleness' or tragedy makes time Another way in which the screen and camera can "deceive" us about
i"*. ft ift" cinema, tirae also a$ects our mental state' Rapid action or srze of oblects is through the location of the camera in relation to the
ffi;, i;"d" ;;;; ;"k"t time go quickJv and induces in usaa melancholy feeling of gubject. Depending upon the distance ol the camera from the object be-
exhilaration and excitement' *hile i p^"" can induce ing photographed or upon'the type.of camera lens used, the size of ob-
and slou' down time'
'lo* jects can be changed. Three different sizes of shots may be taken: long-
mood or grief
shot, medium shot, and close-up.
Suspensb consists of delaying
- the resolution of a situation so as to
by withholding some; it 'roiig-shot is taken u'hen the camera is positioned very far from the
arouse and maintain interest. S.ripense is achieved
t1:, oblect and therefore there is a wide view on a small scale. Its purpose
itritg ftotn the audience or from one of the characters to
. get litl*^"
to tne -lt
re- is to shos the extent of the location and to show the relationship between
time'seemS slow because of our impatience or eagemess
the characters and the setting.
solution.
A medium shol is taken from an average distance and is the view of
Dramatic fime. Dramatic time refers to the time taken up by the
medium extent on a tnedium scale. A person's medium shot u'ould be his
events which are depicted in the film' The cinema
may use- a - story-line
or the whole history of photograph fronr his head to his rvaist.
ifr"i a single iay in the lif'e of a character
"ot"., a long period of time may utilize A close-tqt results fronr lhe camera rvhich is situated so close to the
a civilization. A . story that embraces object that $e can distinguish the smallest f€atures of the object.
include a p-togu" or an epilogue'- or exclude the inessential
flashbacks,
depicts a brief
,.,f,"";l;-"i;;, be controile. f-rom shot to sho1. A film thatdifferent aspects Lighting. This is another means used to give the illusion of deptb in the
p"lf"a ii*" -"y be extended through repetition of film. Ily the position of lights, a filnrmaker can create areas o[ light and
of the events or the inclusion of scenes which to us may seem to
flash dark, and increase or decrease depth.
across the screen x'hen in truth it covers a few minutes'
Shooting Angle. The camera may record scenes from different angles.
Angles are varied to allorv the director to show his concept of the ob-
SPACE jecf or the character in the film. Shooting angles can express subiectioelg
from our expe- what things are like as they are seen from the point of view cf a cha-
Our experience of space in reality is very, different physical space racter. We may see a scene from the eyes of a moving person or one in a
riencl of ,p^ce in the cinema. We can move about in the perception of reclining position, for instance.
iirui ,or.ouna, us, but space on the screen is flat, and our The director may take pictures from several angles: verlically upwards,
depth is just an illusion.
verticalll' dourtr,r'ards, and horizontally.
The carnera lens captures the images we- see on the screen
When
of its and feel its volume' A The camera may be directed oefticallg upusarils' Taking the picture
*" l,ook at a desk, we see several sides
Unless an at- of a building from ielow would show violent foreshortening. The tuild-
oicture of it reveals what the camera has photographed. ii ing would appear la.ge. than reality. A person filmed from tle same
i"rnni-tt *"d. to make the three-dimensionality of the desk appareni' ."y ,eem po*etful, forceful, and majestic even if he is not so in
*iU-ioof. flat on th" s"reerr. The three-dim"niion"lity and "realness".of "t1gl" since he appears to tower over the audience.
person,
th" a"rt and other objects are achieved through the use of scale' shooting
lighting ihe rudiments of the art of the film' A shot takep at an angle above the object is called a Nrti$iit'lq dnun'
"rgfa ""J - u;ard, shol. It produces an effect opposite that of the vertia'a$3' upward
' Scale. Scale refers tc the size of objects on the screen and their
re-
on film is
shot. The object shown seems small and insignificant, i:ir:';r '/'r':l seem to
lation to the surrounding area' Out perception of the size of objects see it from a great height. It makes us feel. supeiior,
artificial and very much unlike our everyday experienc'e-s' 'When *'e
see
with no other objects ne-ar them, The third direction is hodzantal. It'cieates an irnpression-of closeness
onlv one or a few trees on the screen,
or, equality among the characters on the scene: it makes the viemer feel
assume that they are as tall as the ordinary trees we
iuu''irt
;; ;""d us.
'But we sed a man's foot which is as big as the trees'
"ont"iouslln if t,i
that ire is'part of-or on the same level as the cbaracters'

t5l
150
i1'
a
'lr.
:!ii
 of a man's face, followed by a shot qf a basket of fruits, then of a group
,. children playing in the park. This succession of shots can imply that
the man is looking at the fruits, then at t}-le children. Depending upon
the expression on his face as x'ell as the angle of the camera, this com-
bination of shots could mean that the man is hungry for he is looking at
the fruits with hungry eyes and that the children at the park will suggest
to us that he has children at home who ale probably as hungry ;- re is.
lr{ontage then is shooting pictures of objects or scenes and joining them
together to produce a particular sense or rneaning.
Montage enables the director to show only the scenes the story requires
to further its action and provide variety. It helps him eliminate un\ ianted
scenes. He sometimes takes several shots of a particular scene and selects
only those that are important to his story. He uses cutting to build
up a picture of an object, an.action, or a person. Cutting can also make
space seem larger. A number of shots taken of a crowd can exaggerate its
size while a half dozen shots of a small room from diflerent points of view
taken in succession may make it look large and impressive.
The juxtapositions made by cutting are readily accepted because most
A stteet scene taken -
from 3 Figure 3-12' A chge Ehot fmm u ugle
Figure 3-Il.
- ^i;ri"]^" pmuer appar powarful often cutting is made invisible. The director makes use of transitions so that
'"rir"arr:
a.*'*.J "r'..,i"e ** **":* we are hardly avlare of changes from shot to shot; or, if he so desires, he
can make these transitions from one shot to another very obvious to em-
''
T*,o shooting angl€s are illustrated in Figures 3-11 and 3-12' phasize the change.
Ccnrral Techniques of the Cinema' In everydal' life'. ue f::9 Y"tl' Some of these transition devices are: fade, dissolve, wipe, iris-in, iris-
little difficulty in bringing our attention to objects around us' vve look out and turn-over. A laile shows the old image gradually fading out
at objects that interest u", by ,tn"ontciously moving our heads or eyes' and a brief period of darkness comes to the screen before the new scene
In the cinema, however, the camera eye controlled by the cameramen gradually becomes visible. It is used to show a change of time and a
,"prnau"", the whole scene u'hich it facei The director then has to choose change of place. Dissotroe, sometimes called mir, involves the superimpci-
ond f ,r." scenes that are signifiiant to his film' sition of the last por'tions of the previous shot over tlte nascent portions of the
next shot to show two events happening at t}e same time' Iris-in-iris-out,
The clirector chooses from a series of points of vie*' and arranges
his
they are and unified' He makes use of cutting' a favorite cievice in silent movies, involves fades from the edges of the
shots so that coherent
screen to the center after which the image grows in a widening circle
camera rnovement. and framing' from the center of the screen. Turn-ooer shows the whoie screen turning
CUTTING (}'IONTAGE OR EDITING)' In real life' we see everv- over and continuing to the other side.
rvithin our e.ve span. We leam to isolate portions of space by
focusilg
thiug
"attention
on them and unconsciously ignoring the rest' In a sense' CAMERA MOVEMENT. A change of view may be made by the con'
our
trsion is limiied by our movement' When we walk' for instance' tinuous movement of the camera while shooting instead of switching from one
rr"iJ ;f
shot to another. Camera movement helps us experience the gradual growth
;;; ;;t;e; we see change, not abruptlv but graduallv' w:.it htY.'-:?;
"";
would strlr of ideas or .emotions. If the whole camera is moved bodily while taking
rvell thai afier u'e lose sight of what comes to our vision'
pictures of a scene, a tracking shot is taken. The camera may rgl ve for-
be there.
ward, backwarC, vertically, diagonally, or horizontally. ,{t m'ay slart off
In the cinema, on the other hand, we experience space andsucceeds objects
with a long shot of a scene antl then move forward, clese:i to the o!:ject,
-th"y b'fotu trs'oceans
continuotlsly. Diflerent parts of space appear One scene
apart' Or- a for further concentration. It may show tle window oi ,: irouirll ,i-,,.;ir. then
'{t rhay
another without intqrruption altiough -uy be move backwarti . to show the entire house and its surtoirndings.
in the"present' This is made possible bv thot
;;;;;; the past replaces one follow.an elevator going up and down.
changes called cdting ot nofiaEe' t- t
-*1
''n ' . If th. camera'is kept in the sime plice but tumed'on its'axis,'the
Cutting consists ,of joinini,o;e 'hoi of:, a.'scgob to a shot of
another'
We -may, for"example' have a close-up
:7"b
movement is called panning. In a pannirig shot what is to conoe is un-
botll-h*uirri a logical "tir.recliott'' 's
153
152 ,r*l
.',fi
,ds

*&
 ' of the story so that dialogue ls rninimized.
known and what is left behind is gone. For instance, we may see a se- Long moments may pass in
ries of faces as though part of a crowd, then some buildings' and then a film without any sound at all because it- i p.""ir"ty
conveys. the meaning more_. forcefulry --ll*"i'"i"r,i"r,
this silence that
other objects. - o, p.oiu"", irr"
a sound might fail to do. There ;;.;il,-J'" ;;;;'"h:;"_
Camera movement gives rise to transference effects. The camera may "."'r"*o,'io,
ters talk behind a qtass window, inside a o, iiri"r*,'rra
be moved in such a way as to create a famili-- experience. Take, for although we do noi hear them, *" ;; "t-oli
.";;;;w "".,
eware of what they are
instance, an earthquake scene. We are shown a building swaying from talking about from suggestions greaned rro*
irru preceding scenes and the
side to side, tables turning and glasses breaking into pieces. lVe Lrro*' scenes that come.soon,after.- Sometirno, 'exists
very well that it is the camera ihat is actually being moved and yet we
,ouna to-;ffi;-;;; :r-
,is a prevarent device l"--,iirr"^^'*d suspense pictures. Thd
Iences' This
do not hesitate to believe what we see. absence of all sounds except-footsteps or the g"ntt" ."pfing'"i'l#
,n" window pane only stresies the ,".1p*r,r"rri'f,-;"r";";-.ill" *ira
A subjective effect may be given by camera movement, too. With ;Tj[:,
panning, the camera may catch the expressions, attitudes, movements, or
conversations of characters as they react to a particular person or sittta- iThe cinema is thus an art form r,r.hich is entirely different from
tion. theater in its treatment of reality. i; ;;i.;; ur" of th.u" the
space, and sound over elements: time,
FRAMING. The picture in a film is a fixed rectangle rvhich sho*'s only .the
othei elements p."r"nt in theater arts. It can
repeat' extend, abbreviate, or reverse time and events on the screen with-
a fragment of reality. Because of the cinema's limitations, the director out danger of being labeled unreal
has to choose, isolate, or limit the subject or shou' only that rvhich is
significant. Framing brings aboul the balance and unity that one sees Its space has a structure of properties different
in a film for it is used as the basis of the design. It can give a highly It has conventions of its own. It Iacks the depth, from theater space.
dramatic effect and can capture and hold the audience's attention. expanse, and conti_
nuous existence of real space but afiords
what .""1 ,p"""
divide space, expand it, atolish distarrces
SOUND or shorten them. "^.,nor_1i""",,
Sound, its third element, is also produced
Real life is a world filled w'ith sounds, but a film need trot recortl difierently from sound in
the Stage dialogue is relativeiy continuous
all these sounds to project its own reality on the screen. In fact, thr' -theater'
hand, the film makes use of silence
whirg on the other
film artist is free to select only those sounds that he deems useful and ti,"rrr" meiodies.,

relevant to the unraveling of his thoughts and ideas. Just as he limits

"ni
the focus of his camera to only those scenes that he finds significant-
so can he select sounds that he feels are equally significant and purposivc, THE PERCEPTION OF ART
The intensity, pitch, volunre, and texture of these sounds are recorded in
their optical equivalent on the strip of negatives parallel to the images. , To "see" a painting, a.piece of sculpture, or a building takes but a
few. moments. Other art. objects, p".hrpr,
Then a light shining through the sound tract as the film is projected iurns take a Iittle l";";;; a*Jr"-
these optical variations back into sound u'aves rvhich lr'e hear through hend. Surely, one can ..appreciat",, of these vrcrks "cii:hi* lhoge
loudspeakers as u,e see the pictures on the screen """h The discussi'n
moments of "seeing" or listening to them.
.,, .t", ;r"r;;;;;,
of the different arts, however, makes it seem that understanairg
It must be remembered that it was not until 1927, in the film lhe ' *".['"i
art takes "technicar" knowledge and at reast an hour "
Jazz Singer, that the world witnessed its first film with sounds. But even ,ilrkd.
before this, filmi were not entirely without sounds. The so-called "silent
Is this so? "r "r"iyit"
films" were accompanied bj' orchestral music to explain, heighten, or fortify Because there .are works of art that immediately
the action and emotions flashed on the screen. Before 1927, mories rvere which we feel we "understand".ufi"rrl".;i,-;;'Lgrn appeal to us, and
in the real sense moving pictures in that only pictures and movements, about elements_and- principles does *o vrornder if ralkins
with the exception of the sub-titles, were used to convey the story to the an art objeet. Besides, if a
oJ i""l-.rr".direct,i 6;;dJ;";?
audience. '*ork of art is so complicater:i iim.!. !ir!a eannot
understand it.urithout-going through; p;fri;;il.,,
it? If art is universal, .hojd ,n" oo, ,.*a,,,, ffiii
we not just ignore __
We must never coirfuse the dialogue in the film with that on the u,.pr"t
stage. Stage dialogue is relatively continuous since .it is dialogue, more objec-t(if it is "good") ";;; to
'story .to be easiry "ri i,nriii.,ery understandabre
us? Is it not the artisfs.job
than dnything else, that :.tells the audience. the of the play. Film- to make h" il;t"g clear and unmistakable?
lmaking has at its dispoial innumerable devices that would aid in the telling
l"Li"
a sign of his faiiure tr,"r r,i, ;rk;;;L enalyzed to be under-.

ts
larJ