1 811 +

+7
1

6- 5 41)


0=IJ= AIJA FK J

A JANJ

DA

I JH=>= =@ A

H@A =@=I ?=HJA = GKA BKAH KJE

IE= =I AN?AFJ A A FH > A = @A = F CE = $   A E =@=I ? H@A =@=I F =HAI -

K?D I FH > A =I @A B IE?= @AFA @EA @ ? LEA A KJE E =H ? H@A =@=I CA AH= IE

@A = IE AJH = FH FE= @A ?=@= ?=I

E =@=I GKA FAH EJ= IE F E ?=H =I A?K=?E IA JH=J= @A AIJK@E=H A E= ? =I ?

AI > IE?=I )I F H A A F

LE EA J @A F=HJ ?K =I A ?= F I ?

IE AJH = =N

H@A =@=I =FH FE=@=I IAH H@A =@=I AIB HE?=I

=I F =HAI O IE = IE AJH = AI AIB HE?=

LA @H KI=H ?

- CA AH= IE IA JEA A K AIF=?E @A N @E A IE K J @A ? H@A =@=I ?=HJAIE= =I x k @ = K IEIJA = @A ? AI

AI @AI?HEJ ?

K ?

@A k = 1, ...N  IA FKA@A D=?AH K = A=I xk @A E@= F H K

JH= IB H =?E ?

H@A =@=I ?KHLE

K J @A N A?K=?E

x i = x i (x1 , x2 ...xN ) i = 1...N.

2 HAA F ? A @E A IE AI AI =I ? H@A =@=I F =HAI {, } IA @A

1  A

=I JH= IB H =?E

x = cos y = sen ,
O A ! @E A IE AI =I ? H@A =@=I AIB HE?=I {r, , } AIJ @=@=I F H

x = r sen cos y = r sen sen . z = r cos sen .



+)2 67

1 811 +

+7

6- 5 41)

2=H= ?= ?K =H A A A A J @EBAHA ?E= @A ? H@A =@=I JA

CEJK@ A ?K= GKEAH IEIJA = @A

I GKA IJA JEA A = B H =

ds2 = mn dx m dx n
A K AIF=?E ? JHE?= AK? E@E= = 6 = @ A ?KA J= GKA dx i =

( x i /xn )dxn HAIK J= ds2 = mn

-IJ= B H K = IA FKA@A HAAI?HE>EH A

x m i x n j dx dx . xi xj
=B H =

1 

ds2 = gij dxi dxj ,

@ @A IA D= @A E@

1 !

gij = mn
= -? 1 ! AI = CA AH= E =?E E

x m x n . xi xj

1 "

@A JA HA = @A 2EJ C H=I F=H= @EIJ= ?E=I H@A =@=I xi = = =JHE IE

EJAIE = AI A ?K= GKEAH IEIJA = @A ?

JHE?=

gij @A N N IA A = = JA I H
-A F  - ?

JHE? F H H=

AI GKA IA LAH

I =@A = JA

H@A =@=I F =HAI

ds2 = d2 + 2 d2 .
-A F
- ? H@A =@=I AIB HE?=I

1 #

ds2 = dr2 + r2 d2 + r2 sen2 d2 .

1 $ H@A =@=I

- AH?E?E  - ? JH=H = B H = @A A A A J @A
A EFI E@= AI FH =J=I (, , )

CEJK@ A ?

x = a senh sen cos , y = a senh sen sen , z = a cosh cos ,

IEC E?E K AIF=?E AK? E@E= JEA A J @ I I J H E I dx2 A A A A A J @A CEJK@ ds2 ? F IEJEL - ?= >E A K AIF=?E @A E MI E ds2 = dx dx 2 HGKA gij AIJ @A E@= F H = -? 1 ! @ @A =F=HA?A ? JH=E@= ? A FH @K?J dxi dxj GKA AI IE JHE? F H ? IJHK??E
 2 H @A

1 

@A a AI K = ? A AH?E?E

IJ= JA

- CA AH= IE IA F=I= @A K IEIJA = @A ? =I @EBAHA ?E= AI IA JH= IB H = @A =?KAH@ ?

H@A =@=I = JH

xk x k

= B H K = dxk dx k = =JHE @A N N @A = JH= I

(x k /xn )dxn GKA E L K?H= = =

IA = = B H =?E

=JHE x k /xn -IJ=

=JHE
=?

=? >E= =
@E?E

O IK @AJAH E = JA AI A =? >E= @A ?

F=H= GKA K = JH= IB H =?E IA= ?AH E?E

H@A =@=I JA C=

E LAHI= AI GKA IK =? >E= + = =JHE

=? >E= = IA FKA@A @=H K = @A A K

CA AH= @A LA?J HAI AI AI K H@A =@=I

O JA I HAI 5A @A ?

LA?J H ?

JH=L=HE= JA A

N @E A IE

K J @A N BK ?E

AI Ak GKA = JA K ?= >E CA AH= @A ? =I ?

k

xk x k IA JH= IB H = J= ?

A JAI dxk AI @A?EH 1 %

Ak A =

x k n A xn

)IE EI

= @ A ?KA J= GKA @A>E@ = = HAC = @A = ?=@A = =I = HA =?E 1 & AI Ak GKA =

@AHEL=@=I IA JH= IB H = IAC

xn = , xk x k x k xn
IA @A A K LA?J H ? L=HE= JA ? K ? K J @A N BK ?E

= JA K ?= >E CA AH= @A ? HAC =

H@A =@=I IA JH= IB H = @A =?KAH@ ?

Ak A k =
8A I =D H= GKA =I JH= IB H =?E I

xn An . x k
HA J KJE E =@=I A

1 ' I ?=F JK

AI @A

I = JAHE HAI I ? A @A

K ?=I F=HJE?K =H @A JH= IB H =?E =JHE @A

AI E A= AI A JHA
HA J @A E@=

H@A =@=I ?=HJAIE= =I -I ALE@A JA GKA = = FHE AH= F=HJA @A AIJA E>H AI = HA J
=JA JE? = A +=H =? >E &" &#

=JHE

=? >E= = @A = JH= IB H =?E

!2 H A

"

+)2 67

1 811 +

+7

6- 5 41)

- AIJA ?=F JK

I IK>IECKEA JAI KJE E =HA

I = @A

E?E

I CA AH=

@A LA?J H @=@= F H =I -GI 1 % O 1 ' L E@= F=H= ?K= GKEAH JH= IB H = ?E @A ? H@A =@=I O I K = E A= )IE EI EI =I JH= IB H =?E = @A E?E @A JA I H

IA FKA@A ANJA @AH = AI=I K JA I H @A H= C

AI CA AH= AI F H A A F AI Tab GKA =

? L=HE= JA AI K ?

K J @A N N BK ?E

= JA K ?= >E CA AH= @A ? HAC =

H@A =@=I IA JH= IB H = @A =?KAH@ ?

Tab T
= CA AH= E =?E

ab

xm xn Tmn . x a x b

1 

= JH I H= C I JEA A K = B H = >LE=

- F=HJE?K =H @A = -? 1 " IA LA GKA gab IA JH= IB H = KIJ= A JA ? K JA I H ? L=HE= JA @A H= C F HA IA = = A JA I H

JHE?

-IJA

JA I H AI @A BK @= A J= E F HJ= ?E= F HGKA FAH EJA ?= ?K =H = @EIJ= ?E= A JHA @ I FK J I ? @E?AI F H = B H K = F=H= ds2 )@A AI I FAH EJA IK>EH O >= =H

A@E @A =I HA =?E

Ai = gij Aj
)GK IA D= @A E@ g ij ?

y Ai = g ij Aj .

1 

A E LAHI @A gij AI @A?EH

k gij g jk = i .

1  

)IE EI

A FH @K?J AI?= =H @A @ I LA?J HAI IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ?

gij Ai B j = Ai B i ,
? >LE=I CA AH= E =?E AI
1 ,AHEL=@= ? L=HE= JA

7 = LA @A

E@ K

JA I H = JA JH= IB H =?E

AI CA AH= AI @A ?

H@A

=@=I GKA@= F H =? =H=H IE = @EBAHA ?E= IEA @ K JA I H 8A= = -? 1 % J = @

= @AHEL=@= @A K JA I H IECKA JH=L=HE= JA IAC

I A ?=I IE F A @A K LA?J H ? = @EBAHA ?E= IA >JEA A

k

dAk dA =

x k x k n dA + d An , xn xn

1 !

1 

@A @

@A IA LA ? =H= A JA GKA @A>E@ = IACK @ J H E IA JH= IB H = ? K LA?J H = E?= AN?AF?E

= @EBAHA ?E= ?KHHA IE IA JH=J= IAH = K GKA AIA

dAk

@A K = JH= IB H =?E 2 H AA F IACK @ J H E JH= IB H =?E ?

E A= A ?KO ?=I AIA IACK @ J H E AI @A HA J I E A= AI F H

=I JH= IB H =?E AI K AI @A O A ?

IA?KA ?E= = @EBAHA ?E= @A K JA I H = JA I HAIJHE CE I =

HA J IECKA IEA @ K JA I H IE

H@A =@=I ?=HJAIE= =I 2=H= JH= IB H =?E AI I CA AH= AI @A ? I A AI ? H@A =@=I = =JKH= A = @A IE@

JA I HE= @A = @AHEL=@= = GKA

H@A =@ I ?= >E= @A @EHA??E H@A =@=I ?=HJAIE= =I +

K FK J = JH AN?AFJ IE IA JH=J= @A ? AHA I K ?= F LA?J HE= Ak (xn ) @A

E@ A J @ A AIF=?E

AI @A?EH A ?EAHJ= HAC = K ?= >E @A

?=@= FK J xn IA JEA A =I ?E=@ K LA?J H Ak @A =?KAH@ ? 2=I=H @A K FK J xn = JH FK J xn + dxn E F E?= J= >E = HEA J=?E J= J @A I A AI ? H@A =@ I J= ? IA LA A

= .EC 811  2 H

F=H= I=>AH GK J= J ?= >E= K LA?J H Ak A A FK J xn + dxn ? F=H=H =I ? F A JAI Ak (xn + dxn ) ? =I

HAFA?J = FK J xn IA @A>A ? ? F

A JAI GKA JA @H = A LA?J H Ak (xn ) = IAH JH= IF HJ=@ F=H= A = A JA @A>E@ = = L=HE=?E F @A =I ? H@A =@=I

= FK J xn + dxn )D H= >EA EI =I @A K FK J = JH =I ?

A JAI @A Ak (xn ) JH= IF HJ=@=I F=H GKA JEA A = B H = 1 " A ?= >E @A>A IAH FH F H I ? A ?EA JAI

= A = A JA = FK J xn + dxn ?= >E= F H K J H E
m n Ak = k mn A dx ,

O= GKA A FHE AH H@A @A dxn = =FH NE =?E ?E = J= J = = =C EJK@ @A Ak ?

= = @EIJ= ?E= dxn

k mn IA = = I
K F ? ;= ?

>

I @A +DHEIJ

A " O IK B H = ANF ?EJ= IAH @A@K?E@=

I =@A = JA AIJ= =? =H=?E IA @A A A LAH@=@AH ?= >E A JHA Ak (xn ) O

Ak (xn + dxn ) ? DAk = dAk Ak =

" 2 H - * +DHEIJ

Ak m + k dxn , mn A xm

1 #

A & ' '

=JA

JE? = A

+)2 67

1 811 +

+7

6- 5 41)

A ?K= AI F H @A = ? J=?E

E?E

K LA?J H ? L=HE= JA =O =

KIK= F=H= = @AHEL=@= ? L=HE= JA AI A FK J O ? 2 H AA F

= IE F A   F=H= = @AHEL=@= ?

,a = /xa O =

@AHEL=@= ? L=HE= JA @A Ak AI

Ak;j =
GKA AI K JA I H @A H= C

Ak m + k mj A , xj
AI CA AH= AI @A ?

1 $ H@A =@=I

= JA JH= IB H =?E

5E IA JH=J= @A LA?J HAI ? L=HE= JAI = @AHEL=@= ? L=HE= JA AI

Ak;j =
?K= IA @A KAIJH= AI K AI?= =H AI @A?EH =@=I - ?

Ak m kj Am , xj

1 %

J= @ GKA A FH @K?J AI?= =H @A @ I LA?J HAI An Bn @A>A ?= >E=H = JA JH= IB H =?E AI @A ? H@A

IA?KA ?E= = F=I=H @A K FK J = JH @A AIF=?E ?K= E F E?= An Bn = An Bn F H

s Bn = m ns Bm dx ,

IA JEA A

(An Bn ) = 0

GKA 1 &

O IA AC= =I = = B H K = 1 % = CA AH= E =?E = JA I HAI @A ?K= GKEAH H= C AI ? =H= 2 H A A F

T kj ;l =
AJ? JAH= 8A= BA JA I =D H= ?

T kj m m k + k ml Tj jl T m , xl

1 '

I @AJ= AI =I FH FEA@=@AI @A

II

>

I @A +DHEIJ B F A JA

I FHE AH GKA F=H= K AI?= =H GKA JEA A K = I = ? @A ?

E L=HE= JA = JA K = JH= IB H =?E @A>A IAH =

H@A =@=I = @AHEL=@= ? L=HE= JA J= J

EI = GKA = @AHEL=@= IE F A F H

,a AI K LA?J H

? L=HE= JA )IE EI @A @ @A IA JEA A GKA

= @AHEL=@= ? L=HE= JA @A ,a AI ,a;b = ,a,b n ab ,n

n ,a;b ,b;a = (n ba ab ),n ,

1  KJ=

= @ A ?KA J= GKA =I @AHEL=@=I ?

K AI ?

,a,b = ,b,a 2 H
H@A

JH= F=HJA ,a;b ,b;a AI K JA I H @ I LA?AI ? L=HE= JA GKA A ? =@=I ?=HJAIE= =I JA @H = J @=I IKI ? F A JAI K =I F HGKA

D=>H =

1 

@EBAHA ?E= A JHA @AHEL=@=I ? L=HE= JAI O @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI ? A J >E ?AI @A>E@ = = HAC = @A JH= IB H =?E @A>A IAH K @A

K AI 2AH

I JA I HAI ,a;b ,b;a J= H@A =@=I ,A = A?K=?E A @A>A IAH IE JHE? I

A ?K= GKEAH JH IEIJA = @A ? II > I @A +DHEIJ

1  IA @A@K?A FKAI GKA A IKI @ I @E?AI E BAHE HAI

n n ba = ab .

1  II > I @A +DHEIJ A

2 @A A J H E

IA ?

JH=H =D H= = B H = ANF ?EJ= @A JHE? gab 2=H= A AI DAa = gab DAb JA

I @A JA I H

I FHE AH GKA IE DAa

AI K LA?J H J= >E J= J

?K= E F E?= Dgab = 0 2 H

n gab;c = gab,c n ac gnb bc gan = 0.

1 I @E?AI =>=

-I ?

LA EA JA @A

EH A I

>

@A +DHEIJ

A ?

J @ I

ab,c = gnc n ab ,
@A @ @A HAIK J=

1 !

gab,c = ac,b + bc,a .

2AH KJA I ? ? E?= A JA I @E?AI A AIJ= JE = A?K=?E

1 "

gbc,a = ba,c + ca,b , gca,b = cb,a + ab,c ,

O IK A I =I JHAI JE =I A?K=?E = AI J 1 #

= @ A ?KA J= GKA ab,c = ba,c

HAIK J= = B H K =

1 ab,c = (gcb,a + gac,b gab,c ) 2

GKA FAH EJA ?= ?K =H ab,c ANF ?EJ= A JA =I ? -I E F HJ= JA IA = =H GKA JH= IB H =?E II > I @A +DHEIJ
cn c ab = g ab,n

1 $

JA I HAI = JA

AI CA AH= AI @A ?

H@A =@=I

- AH?E?E

,A KAIJHA GKA = JA K = JH= IB H =?E

a l a bc bc = mn

xk x k
1 %

x a xm xn 2 xl x a + . xl x b x c x b x c xl

&

+)2 67

1 811 +

+7

6- 5 41)

,A AIJ= HA =?E A AH?E?E 8A= I = ?

HAIK J= ALE@A JA GKA a bc

AI K JA I H

JE K=?E

= CK =I B H K =I JE AI F=H= @AHEL=H ? L=HE= JA E F HJ= JA E L K?H= A @AJAH E

A JA LA?J HAI O JA I HAI 7 = HA =?E = JA g @A JA I H

JHE? gab ,=@ GKA gab AI K JA I H IA JH= IB H = @A =?KAH@ = = B H K = 1  F H GKA g IA JH= IB H = = IK LA @A =?KAH@ ?

b g = J (xa , x ) g,

1 &

@A J (xa , x b )) AI A =? >E= ?E g AI K FIAK@ AI?= =H# 5E IA E JAHFHAJ= = JA I H gab ?

@A = JH= IB H ?E

xa x a 2 H @A

K =

=JHE ?K=@H=@= O = g ab ? E A=

IK

E LAHI= IA FKA@A KJE E =H K = B H K = > IE?= @A ? ?K

dg = gg ab dgab = ggab dg ab ,
@A @ @ I @A HAIK J= = F=HJEH @A = A? 1 $ GKA A I @E?AI ? JH= @ I IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ? > @A +DHEIJ

1 ' A ?

n an
-IJ= HA =?E AI

ln( g ) 1 mn gmn = g = . 2 xa xa

1 !

KO JE F=H= F

AH @ELAHI=I B H K =I GKA E L K?H= @AHEL=@=I I I > I @A

? L=HE= JAI A B H =I GKA +DHEIJ A -IJ IA @A = ?

E F E?= JA AH GKA ?= ?K =H K A AH?E?E

- AH?E?E 7JE E = @ = HA =?E

= =F =?E= ,) A >AHJE=

1 ! @A KAIJHA =I IECKEA JAI B H K =I @A K AI?= =H

1 mn ;n ,n = gg g xm xn
> ,ELAHCA ?E= @A K LA?J H Aa

1 n An;n = gA g xn
J (xa , x b )k
# - CA AH= K FIAK@ JA I H @A H= C k IA JH= IB H = ?

K JA I H AN?AFJ F H K B=?J H =@E?E

8-+6 4-5 *)5-

'

? ,ELAHCA ?E= @A K JA I H = JEIE

JHE? F ab = F ba

1 F an F an = g ;n g xn xn
A AH?E?E 2 H JE ?= ?K A I A A A A J @A L K A A ? AI O A ? H@A =@=I ?KHLE A=I

- K AIF=?E @A N @E A IE

H@A =@=I ?=HJAIE= =I A A A A J ?K= IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH @A N N ?KO A A A J IA?KA ?E= A K KAL

@A L K A AI IE F A A JA dV (N ) = dx 1 dx 2 ...dx N ?

dV (N ) = det[Dab ] @
F

@A [Dab ] AI K =

=JHE

Dab AI = ?
IEIJA = @A ?

A JA b @A = @EBAHA ?E= dx a - ?

H@A =@=I

dV (N ) = J ( xa , xb )dx 1 dx 2 ...dx N ,
@ @A J AI A =? >E= @A = JH= IB H =?E

x a xa 2 H JH= F=HJA
1  IA AC= = =

HA? H@= @ GKA gab IA JH= IB H = IAC B H K = > IE?=

= A?K=?E

dV (N ) =

gdx1 dx2 ...dxN .

1 ! I AA

- AH?E?E ,A KAIJHA GKA A ? H@A =@=I ?E @HE?=I O AIB HE?=I

A J I @A L K A I HAIFA?JEL= A JA O

dV (3) = d d dz
A AH?E?E
1

dV (3) = r2 sen dr d d.

8A?J HAI >=IA

0=IJ= =GK A AIJA ?=F JK O?

LE

I =I @A

E?E

AI @A JA I HAI ? L=HE= JAI @E?AI F H

JH=L=HE= JAI O = B H = @A HA =?E

=H I IK>EH O >= =H

A@E @A JA I H -

JHE? gab O IK E LAHI g ab F H A A F I? LA EA JA @A AI @

Aa = gab Ab

= FH ?JE?= HAIK J= = LA?AI

(i)

EH K = >=IA @A LA?J HAI @E?A @A A A=@= JA I H IA FKA@A

F A JAI @A

K EJ=HE I ea

A A=@= A N @E A IE

@A J= J A

(i) ?

A @A ?

H@A =@= a L= @A  = N 7 LA?J H

$ - CA AH= A A A A J @A L K A AI A @AJAH E = JA @A = =JHE B H =@= F H =I ? ?=@= LA?J H @EBAHA ?E= FAHFA @E?K =H = =I IKFAH ?EA xN =? IJ= JA



+)2 67

1 811 +

+7

6- 5 41)

HABAHEH = AI= >=IA

= A A=@= ?K F A = ?
(j )

@E?E

@A HJ

H = E@=@ 1 ! 

i) ab e( = (ij ) , a eb g

GKA AGKEL= A J= >E

=
i) e( a eb (ij ) = gab . (j )

1 !! I @A IKI FH OA?

+ ?E

= JAHE H IA FKA@A ANFHAI=H K LA?J H Aa A J H E AI I >HA ?=@= LA?J H >=IA

(i) i) a e( a A = A ,

1 !"

= JAH =JEL= A JA
i) Aa = A(i) e( a .

1 !# = =JHE (ij ) - A ?=I

JAIA GKA

@E?AI @A >=IA IK>A O >= = ? JHE?= gab IA= @E=C

F=HJE?K =H @A GKA = ? @E?E

= AI @A?EH gab = 0 IE a = b =

= JAHE H IA HA@K?A IE F A A JA =

A(i) =
5E IA JH=J= @A K AIF=?E @A ?

1 gii Ai = Ai . gii

1 !$
(i)

MI E IA FKA@A AI? CAH K = J JH=@= e @E?E AI

i = 0, 1, 2, 3 GKA I=JEIB=?A =I ?
(j )

i) e( e (ij ) = ,

1 !% EI = B H = GKA = JHE?=

@ @A

@A IA D= KJE E =@ =D H= = E

=JHE (ij ) ?

MI E AI @A?EH (ij ) = @E=C(1, 1, 1, 1)

- AH?E?E ,A KAIJHA GKA K = F IE> A >=IA A ? H@A =@=I AIB HE?=I {r, , }
AI = JHE=@=
r) e( a = (1, 0, 0) , ) e( a = (0, r, 0) , ) e( a = (0, 0, r sen ).

) F=HJEH @A =GK A ?KA JHA = HA =?E @A K LA?J H Aa O IKI ? F

A JHA =I ?

A JAI ?
(a)

JH=L=HE= JAI

A JAI JHE=@E= AI A(a) = ea Aa O @A KAIJHA H@A =@=I AIB HE?=I

= B H K = F=H= = @ELAHCA ?E= A ?

A=
A AH?E?E

1 2 (r) 1 1 () (r A ) + (sen A() ) + A . 2 r r r sen r sen

1 ! -52)+1 5 +748 5
1! -IF=?E I ?KHL I



1 =CE A A = 6 ? @E?E A

I = IKFAH ?EA @A K = AIBAH= I A A A A J @A A= A ?

A@EH @EIJ= ?E=I I >HA C= I =

H@A =@=I AIB HE?=I O F IJ= JA @A = AIBAH= =

r=R @

@A R AI A H=@E ?

= IKFAH ?EA

@A = AIBAH= AIJ=H @AI?HEJ= F H =

JHE?= >E@E A IE

dl2 = R2 (d2 + sen2 d2 ).

-IJ= ANFHAIE FAH EJA A@EH = CEJK@ A JHA @ I FK J I ?KO=I ?

1 !& H@A

=@=I O AIJ JAHHAIJHA AIJ=I ?

AIFA?E ?=@=I F H A A F H@A =@=I I =

IE IA JH=J= @A = IKFAH ?EA

CEJK@ O = =JEJK@ .EC 811  JEA A = B H = ?=HJAIE= = AI GKA -NEIJA

-LE@A JA A JA = K = JH= IB H =?E F=I=H = K =

JHE?= = JAHE H @A ?

H@A =@=I A @ I @E A IE = HAIFKAIJ= AI

I FAH EJ=

JHE?= ?=HJAIE= =

AC=JEL= F H K = H=

GKA @A>A IAH E JKEJEL= AI E F IE> A =F = =H = IKFAH ?EA @A K = AIBAH= IE @EIJ HIE K LEA =H = O F H A @A IE = JAH=H =I @EIJ= ?E=I A JHA FK J I  FH > A = @A = ?=HJ CH=B = 5E >EA A K = HACE ?K= AI

IK ?EA JA A JA

FAGKA = = IKFAH ?EA @A = 6EAHH= F=HA?A F = = IA JH=J= @A K = IKFAH ?EA CA KE = A JA ?KHL= 2=H= ANFHAI=H >=IJ= = JAHE H A K = B H = =JA

AI = CH= AI?= = F HGKA

JE?= A JA

I HECKH I=

J=H GKA = @EIJ= ?E= E

EJAIE = I >HA K = IKFAH ?EA >E@E A IE

= JEA A = B H = dl2 = gab dxa dxb ? F IAA A CA AH= JHAI ? F

a, b = 1, 2 O A JA I H

JHE? gab

A JAI E @AFA @EA JAI g11 g22 O g12 )F = JH=H K = JH= IB H =?E JHE?= J @A ? H@A =@=I

=H AIJ= IKFAH ?EA AGKEL= A = A ?

xa x a J= GKA A A

KAL IEIJA = =

= = B H = ?=HJAIE= = AI x a = x a (xb ) GKA

dl2 = ab dx a dx b 2AH AIJ E F E?= A ?

I=JEIB=?A =I JHAI ? @E?E AI

JH=H @ I BK ?E

gab = mn
+ AIJ

x m x n . xa xb

AI F IE> A A CA AH= IA @A@K?A GKA K = IKFAH ?EA ?KHL= = IKFAH ?EA

IA FKA@A =F = =H IE @AB H =H = I= L ?=I I AIFA?E= AI ?

+)2 67

1 811 +

+7

6- 5 41)

@A K ?E E @H %  = JAHE H IKCEAHA = F IE>E E@=@ @A ANJA @AH A ? L = ? I @A @ I @E A IE A ? K J @A J @ I @A N AI ,A = I K AIF=?E ?AFJ @A AIF=?E ?KH @A N @E A IE ?=@= K = I =@A ? I = AI

I FK J I GKA IA E@A JE ?=

K = ? A??E

AH I HA= AI (x1 , x2 ...xN ) O @A

@EIJ= ?E= A JHA @ I FK J I F H

A@E @A K = B H K = ds2 @=@= F H =I K AI

N (N + 1) ?

A JAI E @AFA @EA JAI @A K JA I H gab ,A DA?D AI AIJ @A

F=?E @A N @E A IE

E@ FHA?EI= A JA F H IK JA I H gab JH=H K ? K J @A N BK F A JAI @A

AIA ?E= AI GKA A CA AH= ?E

AI F IE> A A ?

AI x a = x a (x1 , x2 ...xN ) GKA JH= IB H A ANEIJA J= JH= IB H =?E

=I N (N + 1) ?

gab A ab IE

A AIF=?E AI ?KHL

2 HAA F I =H

A A ?=I @A KAIJH AIF=?E JEA F @A ?K=JH @E A IE =I  ? @A =I " ? F A JAI @A JA I H g FAH IE

AI F @A

D=O E CK = JH= IB H =?E E MI E

H@A =@=I GKA HA@K ?= AIJA JA I H = = B H = @A ?AI A AIF=?E JEA F AI ?KHL A ? ?AFJ @A

g A J
8A= ?KHL

I =D H= GK IK?A@A ?

A= HA?J= A K AIF=?E = @A K = AIBAH= IA

5 >HA K = IKFAH ?EA E JH IA?= A JA ?KHL= ? A@EH IK CEJK@ F H

FKA@A JH= =H ?KHL=I O

A@E @A = B H K = BK @=

A J= F=H= ds2 -LE@A JA A JA FAH IE I=>A =GKA = @A ? I ? A@EH =

FKA@A D=>AH HA?J=I I >HA AI= IKFAH ?EA CEJK@ @A K = ?KHL= AI B=?JE> A >KI?=H

E =

CEJK@ GKA K = A JHA I @ I FK J @=@ I ) K = ?KHL=

@A = HA?J=

AI= FH FEA@=@ IA A = = CA @ IE?= O AI = CA AH= E =?E E =

GKA AI = ?KHL= @A F= = 2 H AA F =H? I @A @E AJH

CEJK@ A JHA @ I FK J I >HA K = IKFAH ?EA =I CA @ IE?=I I A JA AH

I >HA = IKFAH ?EA @A K = AIBAH= NE ? FKA@A LEIK= E =HIA B ?E

5A FKA@A A ? @A @E A IE =

JH=H CA @ IE?=I A K AIF=?E ?KHL @A ?K= GKEAH ?A = B H K = F=H= F=H= A@EH @EIJ= ?E=I E

AI IE IA ?

EJAIE = AI

CEJK@ @A K = ?KHL= ?KO= A?K=?E

JHE?= AI xa ( ) O GKA K A @ I
D=O GKA

% 7 ?E E @H AI E JH IA?= A JA ?KHL F HGKA =@ EJA ? H@A =@=I ?=HJAIE= =I {x, y } I E@A JE ?=H K FK J x ? JH x + P @ @A P AI A FAH AJH @A ?E E @H

1 ! -52)+1 5 +748 5

!

FK J I P1 O P2 AI = E JACH= @A
P2

A=
P2

s=
P1

ds =
P1

x a ( )x b ( )d
HAIFA?J = F=H AJH 

1 !' = CA @ IE?=

A FK J HAFHAIA J= = @AHEL=@= ? AI =GKA = ?KHL= GKA @A A= AI >EA ?

E E E = s 2AH A FH > A = @A ?E@ A A? E?= ? IE?= ? LE

E E E =H K = E JACH= I A A ?=F JK 18

IJA AI A FH > A = @A -K AH =CH= CA - ? FKAI = HAI LAH AI=I A?K=?E =??E - ? ?HAJ

JH=H K = CA @ IE?= IA HA@K?A CEJK@ s ? K =

AI E JAHFHAJ= @ = =

d L d x a
@ @A A =CH= CE= AI L =

L = 0, xa

1 "

x a ( )x b ( )
AI ? LEA A HA@A EH I @A

) JAI @A @A@K?EH = B H = ANF ?EJ= @A AIJ=I A?K=?E K =CH= CE=

L = L2 GKA FAH EJA IE F E ?=H

= =B H =

I ? ?K I - J H E

L AI B ?E LAH GKA = A? 1 " J d L d x a

L 1/2 d 1/2 L = L L xa d x a = L1/2 d2 s L , d 2 x a

E?E 1 "

@A IA D= J

=@ A ?KA J= GKA F H IK

EI = @A = ?

L1/2 = ds/d
F=H AJH = A A =@

,A = A?K=?E = CEJK@

= JAHE H AI ALE@A JA GKA IE IA J EI = s A@E@= =

=HC @A = ?KHL= A J H E AIJ= ? LA ?E

@AHA?D @A AI= A?K=?E ? =CH= CE=

IA = K = + ?K= IE F E ?=

IA FKA@A KJE E =H L

I ? ?K I

- AH?E?E ) F=HJEH @A =CH= CE=

IF J = =B H =

L=x a (s)x b (s) O =I A?K=?E

AI ? HHA

@EA JAI @A -K AH =CH= CA @A KAIJHA GKA = A?K=?E

b c d 2 xa a dx dx + = 0. bc ds2 ds ds

@A =I CA @ IE?=I

1 " 

,A KAIJHA GKA AIJ= A?K=?E

AGKEL= A =

Dua = 0,

ub ua;b = 0,

1 "!

"

+)2 67

1 811 +

+7

6- 5 41)

@A ua = dxa /cd AI A ?K=@HELA?J H K EJ=HE @A LA ?E@=@ 1 JAHFHAJA AIJ= JE = HA =?E A AH?E?E

1" /A AJH = HEA = E= =

8E

I A

= IA??E

= JAHE H GKA AI F IE> A @A JHE? gab

EH K AIF=?E ?KHL = A K AIF=?E @A JHE?

F=HJEH @A IK JA I H

I AIFA? ?= A JA IA @A

4EA =

&

K AIF=?E @A N @E A IE

AI GKA F IAA K JA I H >

gab GKA FAH EJA ?= ?K =H @EIJ= ?E=I A JHA FK J I O I

I @A +DHEIJ B

BA @=@=I F H = B H K = 1 $ GKA FAH EJA ABA?JK=H JH= IF HJAI F=H= A I O @AHEL=@=I ? L=HE= JAI 2AH ?= @=@= AI HA= ? JE K=?E 4ACHAIA IE F AI ? >E =? A JA ?KHL ? I=>AH IE K AIF=?E ? K = JHE I=

- JA I H @A 4EA =

GKA E JH @K?EHA

FAH EJA @AJAH E =H = ?KHL=JKH= I= ? KJ= ?AFJ @A @AHEL=@= ? L=HE= JA 5=>A FAH D=O H= I GKA =I @AHEL=@=I

F=H= GKA AI= FH FEA@=@ IA ?K F = J= ? IA IJH=H = ? JE K=?E

F=H= @AHEL=@=I ? L=HE= JAI ,A DA?D KJ=?E

@A =I @AHEL=@=I ? L=HE= JAI AI A A A A J AIA ?E= F=H= @A 6 A I FKAI K LA?J H ? L=HE= JA

JAH E =H = ?KHL=JKH= @A K AIF=?E

Aa F H ?

IJHK??E

J= J

= FHE AH= @AHEL=@= ? L=HE= JA

n Aa;b = Aa,b + a nb A ,

= IACK @=
n n a Aa;b;c = (Aa;b ),c + a nb A ;c bc A ;n ,

1 "" KJ=@ H

JA I HAI @A H= C

O ! HAIFA?JEL= A JA )@A
a Aa ;b;c A;c;b

I A ?

J= >E = A?K=?E
? JHE>K?E

AI K JA I H @A H= C ! 5E =D H= IA E JAH?= >E= 1 "" O IA HAIJ=

AI = =I =JA

@E?AI bc A K F ? @A
IA @A>A K?D=I

=I @ I ANFHAIE

AI IA >JEA A ?
= GKEA

& / . *AH D=H@ 4EA =

& $ &$$ E F HJ= JA =JA JE? = A JE?=I O A F=HJE?K =H = = CA AJH = @AH =

1 " /-

-64 ) 41- )

1) )

#

CA>H= HA? H@= @ GKA =I @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI I ?

KJ=  1 "#

Aa;bc Aa;cb = Radbc Ad ,

@ @A IA D= @A E@ A JA I H @A 4EA =
a a n a n Radbc a dc,b db,c + nb dc nc db .

1 "$

5A JH=J= ABA?JEL= A JA @A K JA I H O= GKA A AI K JA I H @A H= C ! F H O? GKA A

EA >H E GKEAH@ @A 1 "# @A>A IAH

EA >H @AHA?D J= >E

Ad AI K LA?J H @A H= C  Radbc @A>A IAH K JA I H @A H= C "

HA? H@A I GKA A K AIF=?E F = IEA FHA AI F IE> A F=I=H =

)D H= >EA

K IEIJA = @A ?

H@A =@=I ?=HJAIE= =I A A GKA =I @AHEL=@=I ? L=HE= JAI IA J= J ? ?AH A KJ= A JHA I -IJ E F E?= ? H@A =@=I ?=HJAIE= =I F A JAI A

LKA LA @AHEL=@=I F=H?E= AI O F H GKA J @=I =I ? 2AH F

A JA @A Rabcd I

IEA @ Rabcd K JA I H J= >E

IA = K =H

J @=I IKI ?

?K= GKEAH JH IEIJA = @A ? @A I JA I HAI ?

H@A =@=I @A>E@ = =I HAC =I @A JH= IB H =?E IA FKA@A @A IJH=H FAH GKA@= BKAH= )I IA

JH=HE J= >E

@A = ?= ?A @A AIJA JANJ  Rabcd = 0 E F E?= GKA A AIF=?E AI F = AC= = JA HA = BK @= A J= @A = CA AJH = 4EA = E= =

7 AIF=?E AI F = ? F

A K = HACE I

@=@= IE O I

IE J @=I =I

A JAI @A JA I H @A 4EA =
=HIA ?

?AH A AI= HACE

=K IE A AIF=?E E= IA FKA@A

4A?K H@AIA GKA A K = LA?E @=@ IK ?EA JA A JA FAGKA = @A K FK J A AIF=?E FKA@A J AI C >= ANFHAI=H A JA ?KHL =FH NE =@= A JA F =

-IJ= FH FEA@=@ @A K AIF=?E HEA =

I FHA?EI= A JA @A = IECKEA JA B H = - K FK J @=@ @A K E= AI @A?EH ?= A JA ANEIJA IEA FHA K = JH= IB H = AH gab A B H = ?=HJAIE= = O = K =H I IA JEA A

AIF=?E HEA = ?E I > @A ?

H@A =@=I GKA FAH EJA F A GKA ? F

I @A +DHEIJ

JEA A FHE AH=I @AHEL=@=I @A gab  FAH A JAI @A JA I H @A 4EA = @ GKA ?

FKA@A = K =H J @=I =I ?

IACK @=I @AHEL=@=I @A gab  ,E?D @A JH A ? JH=H K IEIJA = @A ?

A J @ FK J IA FKA@A ?= A JA =I FHE AH=I

H@A =@=I A A GKA

$

+)2 67

1 811 +

+7

6- 5 41)

@AHEL=@=I @A gab I @A H@A IKFAHE H

K =I FAH

A CA AH=

=I IACK @=I @AHEL=@=I

=I

) CK =I FH FEA@=@AI @A JA I H @A 4EA =

- AIJ= IA??E JA I H @A 4EA =

FHAIA J=HA

I = CK =I B H K =I JE AI HA =?E LEA A @A EH A JA I H ?

=@=I ? J @ I

A I

2=H= A FA =H ?

@E?AI ? L=HE= JAI

Rabcd = gan Rnbcd .

7I= @ = B H = ANF ?EJ= @A I ? A ?EA JAI @A +DHEIJ A

1 "% @=@= F H =

A? 1 $ IA AC= = = B H = ANF ?EJ=

Rabcd =

1 2 gad 2 gbc 2 gac 2 gbd + 2 xb xc xa xd xb xd xa xc

n m n + gmn m bc ad bd ac .

1 "& ,A AIJ= B H K = IA @A@K?A IE AJH = @A JA I H @A 4EA = @EHA?J= A JA =I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI @A

Rabcd = Rbacd Rabcd = Rabdc Rabcd = Rcdab Rabcd + Radbc + Racdb = 0.

) F=HJEH @A =I ? IJH=H GKA A I H @A 4EA = @E A IE E A= @E?E AI E FKAIJ=I F H AIJ=I A?K=?E F A JAI E A= 1 "' AI IA FKA@A @A

AH @A ?

A JA E @AFA @EA JAI @A JA AI' F A JA

AI N 2 (N 2 1)/12 IE A AIF=?E JEA A N @E A IE

AI K = IKFAH ?EA ?KHL= AIJA JA I H JEA A K = I = ? A

A JA E @AFA @EA JA A AIJA ?=I IA @A

Rabcd = K (gac gbd gad gbc ),

' = B H = @A @A

1 #
=JHE IE JHE?= @A N N

IJH=H ? @A N = N (N 1)/2 AI A

IEIJA A E JAHFHAJ=H = Rabcd ? AH @A F=HAI @A @E?AI = JEIE

K = JHE? I

1 " /-

-64 ) 41- )

1) )

%

@A K AI K AI?= =H = =@ ?KHL=JKH= /=KIIE= =  - ! @E A IE JEA A $ ?  IKI ? F F A JAI E A=

AI

A JA I H @A 4EA = " @E A IE AI I - ?

A JA E @AFA @EA JAI O A

A JAI

- AH?E?E

JH=H A L= H @A = ?KHL=JKH= /=KIIE= = K F=H= JHE?= ds2 = d2 + sin2 d2 JHE?= ds2 = d2 + sinh2 d2

= = IKFAH ?EA @A K = AIBAH= ? > = L=HEA@=@ @A A AH?E?E ) F=HJEH @A = HA =?E 1 "& IA @E A IE AI ?

>JEA A

=I

= =@=I E@A JE@=@AI @A

*E= ?DE  GKA HA =?E

= = A JHA I =I @AHEL=@=I @A JA I H @A 4EA =

Rabcd;e + Rabec;d + Rabde;c = 0.

6= >E 4E??E
!

1 # EH A JA I H @A

= F=HJEH @A JA I H @A 4EA =

IA IKA A @A

Rab Rnanb ,
GKA I=JEIB=?A = ? @E?E @A IE AJH = Rab = Rba =I ?

1 #  A AI?= =H @A

4E??E

R g ab Rab .
- " @E A IE E A= AI F H A A F A JA I H @A 4E??E F IAA  ? F

1 #! A JAI

A JA E @AFA @EA JAI @A IJH=H K = B H K = @A IA LAH A A ?=F JK @E?AI a ?

=I E@A JE@=@AI @A *E= ?DE 1 # FAH EJA

BK @= A J= E F HJ= ?E= A HA =JELE@=@ CA AH= ? IECKEA JA = @A E?E = ANFHAIE 1 # IA ? JH=A I

c O KI= @

1 #  IA JEA A
n Rbd;e Rbe;d + Rbde ;n = 0;

 D= +=H .HEA@HE?D /=KII %%% &## @EIJE CKE@ =JA JE? = A @ELAHI=I H= =I @A =I =JA JE?=I  KECE *E= ?DE &#$ ' & =JA JE? EJ= E=  /HAC HE 4E??E +KH>=IJH &#! ' # =JA JE? EJ= E= ! ) LA?AI IA @A A R = Rn GKA @E AHA @A KAIJH= @A E?E A K IEC ab abn

GKA ?

JHE>KO =

KO

&

+)2 67

1 811 +

+7

6- 5 41)

JH=OA @ K = LA

I I >HA

@E?AI bd O J

= @ A

?KA J= =I

HA =?E

AI 1 "' IA AC= = = ANFHAIE

1 b Rba a R 2

;b

= 0.

1 #"

-I @A?EH = @ELAHCA ?E= @A JA I H Rab 1 g R AI ?AH 2 ab

11 8111

) 6- 4 ) ,- ) /4)816)+1

,- -1 56-1

8E

IA

I ?=F JK I = JAHE HAI @A@E?=@ I = = HA =JELE@=@ AIFA?E= GKA A F IJK =@ BK @= A J= @A AIJ= JA H = J @=I =I AOAI @A = AI @A HA J @A K IEIJA = JH

@A =?KAH@ ? B IE?= I

? L=HE= JAI BHA JA = =I JH= IB H =?E 2AH GK F=I= A IEIJA =I

E AH?E= = JH

E AH?E= AI -E IJAE A ?

= HAIFKAIJ= HA?KHHEA @ = = AGKEL= A ?E= B H = GKA ANEIJA A JHA K IEIJA = =?A AH=@ O K ?= F CH=LEJ=?E = = GKA IA >=I -E IJAE IA ? AIJA FHE ?EFE ANEIJA K = ? ?A

= AO BK @= A J= @A = =JKH= A = A ?

2HE ?EFE @A -GKEL= A ?E= 5AC

=I= E AH?E= O
EI = =?A AH=?E /= E A A

F AJ= AGKEL= A ?E= A JHA

=I= CH=LEJ=?E
HA?K H@AIA A B=

= ?K= IA = J @ I

= E AIJ= F H A DA?D A F HE? @A GKA A K ?= F CH=LEJ=?E I ?KAHF I ?=A ? =

I ANFAHE A KAIJH= LE@= = C ALE =

J GKA IKFKAIJ= A JA HA= E ? JE@E= = @A JA FAH I DA

= J HHA @A 2EI= =H AIJA FHE ?EFE ?

I =? IJK >H=@ = J

A HA= E@=@

JEA A E CK = ANF E?=?E =JAHE= GKA A FHE ?EFE

>LE= F HGKA HA =?E

@ I FH FEA@=@AI @A = ? ANE

@A>AH = JA AH E CK =

A JHA I -IJ= @ I FH FEA@=@AI I = = AO @A AMJ

F H K = F=HJA = E AH?E= GKA

=F=HA?A A

O AI K = HAIEIJA ?E= = ?= >E=H A AIJ=@ @A

LE EA J  O F H JH= F=HJA = BKAH = @A CH=LA@=@ K = @A =I BKAH =I BK @= A J= AI @A = =JKH= A = = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA E AIJ ? KH= A = ? F=H= @ =I= E AH?E= O CH=LEJ=?E = IA FKA@A F AH @A =

= CH=LA@=@ ?

JH=I BKAH =I BK @= A J= AI @A = =J = BKAH = I >HA K = F=HJ ?K = @A = IACK @=

F HAA F

= A A?JHE?E@=@

=I= E AH?E= min O ?=HC= A ?JHE?= q AIJ @=@= @A =?KAH@ ? AO @A AMJ O = AO @A + K > F H =B H K=

.KAH = = min a =
'

Qq , r2

+)2 67

11 8111

) 6- 4 ) ,- ) /4)816)+1

,- -1 56-1

@A Q AI = ?=HC= @A ?KAHF GKA FH @K?A A ?= F

)I

= =?A AH=?E

@A K = ?=HC= @A FHKA>= q AI

a=
O @AFA @A @A = H= HA =?E

q Q min r2
ANEIJA E CK = GKA

q/min - FK J AIA ?E= AI GKA

A JHA = ?=HC= A ?JHE?= O = FKA@A J

=I= E AH?E= @A = F=HJ ?K = F H

= =?A AH=?E

=H ?K= GKEAH L= H E ? KI ?AH IE = F=HJ ?K =

JEA A E CK = ?=HC= A ?JHE?= ?= >E IE IA JH=J= @A = CH=LA@=@ A AGKEL= A JA @A = ?=HC= AI = =  mgrav GKA =F=HA?A A = AO @A AMJ F=H=

= =@=  =I= CH=LEJ=?E = CH=LA@=@

.KAH = = min a = @ @A Mgrav AI = =I= CH=LEJ=?E

Mgrav mgrav , r2

= @A ?KAHF GKA FH @K?A A ?= F =  FAH ANJH= AI GKA AI I ?KAHF I =

- HA= E@=@ mgrav AI K = ?=HC= CH=LEJ=?E IEA FHA FH F H?E ?=A ? IA J = = ? = = = =I= E AH?E= H=

F H = ?K= J @ I

EI = =?A AH=?E

6= AI =I GKA

=I= E AH?E= O CH=LEJ=?E JH=@E??E

AIJHE?J= A JA ECK= AI IE GKA HAIK JA E CK = ? GKA IK?A@A ?

min = mgrav ) @EBAHA ?E= @A

> A @AI?=HC=HCH=LEJ=?E E AH?E= 0=IJ= = BA?D= -GKEL= A ?E= 1I==? JA @E ?=>= ANFAHE A J= ? =

= A A?JHE?E@=@ AI E F IE IK =I=

A JA K ?KAHF IE GKEJ=H A J= >E

D=O E CK = ANF E?=?E AMJ ?K= @ @AI?K>HE

LE ?A JA @A 2HE ?EFE @A = CH=LEJ=?E EI K ELAHI= A ? H

A JA A IEC E ?=@ @A AIJA FHE ?EFE O A JA D=?EA @ I?E =H F EI

@K I @A @ELAHI I F=H= J @ I A I -

=JAHE= AI F=H= = =?JK= E@=@ @A D=IJ= K =

FH >=H GKA A FAHE @ AI A

A FHE ?EFE @A AGKEL= A ?E= IA D= LAHE ?=@ ? F=HJA A 1012

K = FHA?EIE

 - A IEC :1: -H AIJ =?D FH FKI GKA = E AH?E= @A K ?KAHF IA @A>A = = =JH=??E CH=LEJ=?E = @A J @ I I @A I ?KAHF I A A 7 ELAHI ?K= F @H = IAH = ? =LA F=H= ANF E?=H = HA =?E A JHA CH=LA@=@ A E AH?E= = E@A= AI E JAHAI= JA FAH I ANFAHE A J I F=HA?A ? H =H =

,A>E@ = GKA J @ I

I ?KAHF I ?=A ? FKA@A

EI = =?A AH=?E

>IAH

L=@ H GKA AIJ A ?= @= E>HA -IJA DA?D ? I A @E

J=H E CK = BKAH = @A CH=LA@=@ =H IEIJA =I E AH?E= AI

= ? =LA = -E IJAE F=H= HA =?E

= CH=LA@=@ -E IJAE FH FKI A IECKEA JA ANFAHE A J = F=H=@= A

A J= K = FAH

= 6EAHH= A K A AL=@ H A HAF I IEA JA K = =?A AH=?E EI A AL=@ H AIJ A ?= @= E>HA J @ A ?=A ? =

D=?E= =>= = ,A

FAH IE A

EI = =?A AH=?E EI @

O =F=HA JA A JA @AI=F=HA?A A ?= F CH=LEJ=?E

K = FAHI

= A K = =LA AIF=?E= GKA IA AIJ =?A AH= @ =@ @A IK LAD ?K = @A = C F H GKA FKA@A FA I=H GKA

IEA JA K = BKAH = D=?E= K AIJ A A ?= F CH=LEJ=?E -IJ I ANFAHE A J I

F = AJ= .EC 8111 

A J= AI

KAIJH= GKA AI E F IE> A @A@K?EH = FHAIA LE EA J @A K = E?= F=HJ ?K

?E= @A K ?= F CH=LEJ=?E = 5E A >=HC = I ABA?J I @A = IEJK=?E

= = F=HJEH @A

AI @EIJE J= IE IA JEA A @ I F=HJ ?K =I @A>E@

=HA= @ I F=HJ ?K =I A ?= @= E>HA JEA @A = =?AH?=HIA = IA LA A = .EC

A@E@= GKA IA =FH NE = = ?A JH @A = 6EAHH= J= ? 8111  ) F=HJEH @A AIJ=I ? HA?KAH@= A LE EA J = IE@AH=?E AI -E IJAE

J GKA = IEJK=?E

=HC @A CA @ IE?=I I >HA K = IKFAH ?EA ?KH IK ?EA JA A JA FAGKA = K = F=HJ ?K = IA JE K= IK ?EA JA A LE EA J =

L= .EC 8111 ! A K = HACE KALA ?=IE A

A= HA?J= FAH IE IA ?

=HC @A @ I CA @ IE?=I A FEA = = F

= EBAIJ=HIA = ?KHL=JKH= 2 H A A IA = E AIJ= I >HA AI?= =I

= ?KHL=JKH= @A = IKFAH ?EA JAHHAIJHA I

CH= @AI 5 >HA = >=IA @A AIJ= = = C = CA JHE?= -E IJAE FH FKI I IECKEA JAI

F IJK =@ I BK @= A J= AI @A = HA =JELE@=@ CA AH=

1o - AIF=?E JEA F B IE? AI K AIF=?E @A 4EA =
@A E@ F H K = JHE?= ds2 = g dx dx ? @A " @E A IE AI

, = 0, 1, 2, 3 ?KO=

?KHL=JKH= IA @A>A = ?= F CH=LEJ=?E

= +=@= FK J @A AIJA AIF=?E =@ EJA E MI E O IA HA@K?A =

K AIF=?E J= CA JA GKA AI A AIF=?E JEA F @A

AIA AIF=?E JEA F A =KIA ?E= @A CH=LA@=@ 7 = F=HJ ?K = A ?= @= E>HA IA

+)2 67

11 8111

) 6- 4 ) ,- ) /4)816)+1

,- -1 56-1

KALA = @A = K

=HC @A K = CA @ IE?= @A AIA AIF=?E HEA = A F=HJE?K =H AI K = CA @ IE?= @A =HC K

E=

 = JH=OA?J HE=

ds2 = 0
AI CA

2o 6 @=I =I AOAI B IE?=I I

AH= AI @A ? F CH=LEJ=?E -

? L=HE= JAI BHA JA = JH= IB H =?E E=

H@A =@=I A A AIF=?E JEA F HEA = = = CA

=I ?E=@ = K ?=

= JA H = @A = HA =JELE@=@ CA AH=

AJH = IA LKA LA @E

E?=

= CH=LA@=@ ?KHL= A AIF=?E JEA F O = JH=OA?J HE= @A K = F=HJ ?K = AI AGKEL= A JA = K = ?KHL= CA @ IE?= 2=H= LAH = HA =?E FH > A = @A = = =??E F H
t2

A JHA CA @ IE?=I O JH=OA?J HE=I B IE?=I HACHAIA GKA AIJK@E= I A A ?=F JK 18 8E

I= I GKA

E = =??E

@A K = F=HJ ?K = E>HA A =KIA ?E= @A ?K= GKEAH BKAH = AIJ @=@=

t2

S=
t1

Ldt = mc2
AI

1
t1

v2 dt, c2

11 

?K= E F E?= GKA A =CH= CE=

L = mc2
A?

v2 1 = mc2 + mv 2 + 0(c2 ). 2 c 2
@A T AI = A AHC = ?E =I= m A

11  JE?= O V K ?= F

E?= ? IE?= L = T V @ -

= F JA ?E= CH=LEJ=?E

F=HJE?K =H F=H= K = F=HJ ?K = @A

= @=@ F H K F JA ?E= V IA JEA A

1 L = mv 2 m, 2
@ F + @A = V /m AI A F JA ?E= CH=LEJ=?E = F H K E@=@ @A

11 ! =I= F H A A =I= M FK JK= 

= GM/r IE IA JH=J= @A ?= F FH @K?E@ F H K =

F=H= @ 11  O 11 ! LA I GKA A = CH=CE=

@A = F=HJ ?K = A K

?= F CH=LEJ=?E

= @A>A JA AH = B H =

1 L = mc2 + mv 2 m + 0(c2 ) 2
A = =FH NE =?E

11 " J= J 11 #

v/c

= =??E

S IA LKA LA F H 1 v2 + 2 dt, 2 2c c

S = mc2

@AIFHA?E= @ J H E CH=LEJ=?E

I @A H@A (v/c)4 IKFAHE HAI

= F=HJ ?K = A A ?= F E =

= IACKEH K = JH=OA?J HE= J= GKA S IA=

2AH AIJ AI

AGKEL= A JA = FA@EH GKA = JH=OA?J HE= IA= K = CA @ IE?= A K AIF=?E JEA F ?KO A A A J @A CEJK@ AI

ds =
GKA AI EI

v2 + 2 cdt, 2 2c c

ds =
IEA FHA @AIFHA?E= @ J H E

v 2 2 2 2 1 2 + 2 c dt , c c
I @A H@A ? KIE

(v/c)4 6

= @ A

?KA J= GKA

v 2 = (dr/dt)2
A ?KAIJE AI

AC=

I= =?

@A GKA =

JHE?= @A AIF=?E JEA F

ds2 = 1 +
O A JA I H

2 2 2 c dt + dr2 + 0(v 2 /c2 ), c2

11 $

JHE? JEA A = B H =

g00 = 1 + g0a = 0(c2 )

2 c2

+ 0(c4 ) a, b = 1, 2, 3
11 %

gab = ab + 0(c2 ).
EJ=?E HEA = IK = A ? = AI B H = E= JH=H JH=OA?J HE=I @A A JA AGKEL= A JA = A ? E = =??E A K ?= F CH=L

JH=H CA @ IE?=I A K AIF=?E JHE?= 11 $ E JAIA MI E

@A ?K=JH @E A IE

AI @AI?HEJ F H =

A F=HJE?K =H GKA @E?D= ?K= @ A ?= F CH=LEJ=?E

JHE?= IA HA@K?A = = @A AIF=?E @A = AIJ =KIA JA

?K= AI @A AIFAH=HIA FKAI

= ?KHL=JKH= @A AIF=?E JEA F IA @A>A AN? KIEL= A JA = = FHAIA ?E= @A =I=I CH=LEJ= JAI 6= >E IKFKAIJ GKA =I LA ?E@=@AI I O GKA =@A JAIA GKA A FAGKA =I ? = =FH NE =?E KJE E =@= IA D=

HAIFA?J = = @A = K v

I A F JA ?E= CH=LEJ=?E JE = ? @E?E

= F H K E@=@ @A

=I= AI J= GKA @A ?= F @ >E A A ?JHE? >E= F H A

c2 = AIJ=

IA A = = =FH NE =?E

2 H GK = E@A= = JAHE H AA F

IA =F E?= = JH I ?= F I ?

2 HGKA E ? KI A A ?=I

I IE F A @A K ?= F ? K

"

+)2 67

11 8111

) 6- 4 ) ,- ) /4)816)+1

,- -1 56-1

F JA ?E= AI V = Qq/r O A ? AI = q/m Q/r

IA?KA ?E= A F JA ?E= F H K E@=@ @A

=I=

,A>E@ = GKA

D=O K FHE ?EFE @A AGKEL= A ?E= A ? ?EA JA q/m FKA@A J =H

A JHA = ?=HC= A ?JHE?= O = ?K= GKEAH L= H O F H ?KHL J= J

=I= E AH?E=

HAIK J= E F IE> A @A I >EA

EH K AIF=?E JEA F D=>H = GKA KJE E =H A L= H @A q/m

E? F=H= A ?= F @A = ?=HC= Q

AIF=?E JEA F I @EIJE J I F=H= ?=@= ?=HC= @A FHKA>= IAC - ?= >E IE IA JH=J= @A K ?= F CH=LEJ=?E

= A FHE ?EFE @A AGKEL= A ?E=

C=H= JE = GKA IA FKA@A =I ?E=H K L ?= A JA K AIF=?E JEA F ?KHL = K EI ?= F I = AIF=?E JEA F ?KHL @A E@ F H = A? 11 $ 4A? H@A I

8 L=

GKA A HA =JELE@=@ AIFA?E= IA @A

A A JEA F FH FE @A K = F=HJ ?K = ?

K AI?= =H ? IJHKE@ = F=HJEH @A = IAK@ CEJK@ @A IK A= @A K ELAHI d = ds2 /c A JEA F B IE? A@E@ F H AK HA AI IJA O t GKA AI I K =? H@A =@= -LE@A JA A JA AIJ= @A E?E @A JEA F FH FE IA

FKA@A ANJA @AH = AIF=?E I ?KHL I O= GKA = IAK@ @EIJ= ?E= ds2 IECKA IEA @ K AI?= =H E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A IEIJA = @A ? F=HJE?K =H F=H= K = F=HJ ?K = A HAF I A = C K ?= F CH=LEJ=?E AIJ @=@ F H
1/2

HA@A =@=I GKA IA KIA FK J H = ? J= J IJ= JA A

= IA JEA A dH = 0 O F H

IK JEA F FH FE

d =
-IJ= A?K=?E

1 + 2/c 1 + /c
2

dt
11 &

dt.
I A J= A JA A FHAIA ?E=
A JEA F A@E@ F H K

E F E?= GKA A JEA F JH=I?KHHA

@A K ?= F CH=LEJ=?E
>IAHL=@ H A = =O H

A ?

F=H=?E

F=H= A ?K=

D=O CH=LA@=@ O= GKA AI AC=JEL O @A

=C EJK@ ?AH?= @A K ?KAHF CH=LEJ= JA F H A IE@AHA

= GM/r

I AIFA? ?= A JA ? D=O

I K AIF=?E JEA F AIJ JE? AI @A?EH = ?= >E= ? A JEA F  A A

LE EA J O A ?= F CH=LEJ=?E

GKA IA A ?KA JH= @ I F=HJ ?K =I A O B

I A rA O rB HAIFA?JEL= A JA

11 

)5 -+7)+1

-5 ,- -1 56-1

5KI

A=I @A K ELAHI I

IA

KAIJH= A

= CKH= 8111 " 5E ) A EJA

K FHE AH H=O @A K = JEA F I tA O K IACK @ H=O = JEA F tA + dtA

I HA?E>A =

I JEA F I tB O tB + dtB HAIFA?JEL= A JA - JEA F FH FE AI AI

A@E@ F H A A JHA =I @ I A EIE

dA =
O A JEA F FH FE

1+

1 (rA ) dtA c2
AI ? HHAIF @EA JAI AI

A@E@ F H B A JHA =I HA?AF?E

dB =

1+

1 (rB ) dtB . c2
= JH=OA?J HE= @A IB J AI JEA A =

,=@ = GKA A AIF=?E JEA F AI AIJ JE?

EI = B H = E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A JEA F @A A EIE O F H J= J

=I GKA dtA = dtB

1 + (rB )/c2 dB = , dA 1 + (rA )/c2

>EA @AIFHA?E= @ J H E I @A H@A /c2

dB = 1 +

(rB ) (rA ) dA . c2
J =@A = J= = K HA > K HA ?

11 ' A

- AH?E?E
= 6EAHH= ?

7IA = A? 11 ' F=H= ?= ?K =H ?K HAIFA?J = K ? A

= IKFAH ?EA @A 5 A A IKA

?=@ =

K = = JKH= @A 10 A AH?E?E

HAIFA?J = K

11 

=I A?K=?E

AI @A -E IJAE

)?=>=

I @A

IJH=H GKA K

?= F CH=LEJ=?E

= ?

F JA ?E= F H ? AI

K E@=@ @A

=I= IA FKA@A HA =?E E= ?KO JA I H

=H A K = FHE AH= =FH NE =?E JHE? g AIJ @=@ F H =I A?K=?E

K AIF=?E HEA =

11 $ -IJ= B H = @A JA I H AI L E@= F=H= @A E MI E A =KIA ?E= @A I GKA A

c2 O IA HA@K?A = =

JHE?=

=I=I GKA @AB H A A AIF=?E JEA F A? E?= AMJ E= = K = @EIJHE>K?E A@E

I

2 H JH= F=HJA HA? H@A @=@= @A

=I= FH @K?A K F JA ?E= CH=LEJ=?E

= @AJAH E =@ F H
GKA

,A =GK A =@A = JA ? = KAIJH= = JAHE H J=?E

IE@AH=HA I AIF=?E JEA F I @A " @E A IE AI F H @A AJH=I CHEAC=I F=H= I @E?AI GKA L= @A  = !

I HAIJHE CEHA

+)2 67

11 8111 !

) 6- 4 ) ,- ) /4)816)+1

,- -1 56-1

@A = A?K=?E

@A 2 EII

2 = 4G.
@ >E @A = (H) AI = @A IE@=@ @A A ?= F CH=LEJ=?E JHE? g )@A =I= = JA H = @A -E IJAE F H K AI?= =H IE I

11  A ?= F HA

= AIJ @AI?HEJ I = @A

JA I H

=I= O = A AHC =

E @AFA @EA JAI

A HA =JELE@=@ O = @EIJHE>K?E @A A AHC = A J T O AL=H

=I= A AHC = AIJ @AI?HEJ= F H A JA I H E?= BK ?E

F HK =

-IJ

K J ?

FHE ?EFE @A ? L=HE= ?E= @A = A?K=?E @A 2 EII

= -E IJAE = FH F =B H =

AH K = CA AH= E =?E

11  A

G = T ,
@ @A G @A>A IAH K H@A JA I H ? IJHKE@ ?

11 

g O IKI @AHEL=@=I D=IJ=

GKA ? JEA A IACK @=I

IACK @

A = = C=?

= A?K=?E

@A 2 EII

@AHEL=@=I @A A ?K= J = =@ @AHA?D @A AIJ= A?K=?E A JA I H @A A AHC = F H @AJAH E =HIA I=JEIB=?AH =I  A J ?

T @A>A IAH
= E@=@

K = ?

IJ= JA @A FH F H?E

= HA =?E

= JAHE H E F E?= GKA A JA I H G JEA A GKA

EI =I FH FEA@=@AI GKA T AI @A?EH JHE? F HGKA T AI

G AI IE

G ; = 0 F HGKA T ; = 0

2 H

JE

= A?K=?E

11  IA JEA A GKA HA@K?EH = = A?K=?E E=

@A 2 EII

11  A A

EJA AMJ

KIJ= A JA A JA I H @A 4E??E ? @A @A g O AI IE ? >E =?E JHE? )@A

JEA A @AHEL=@=I D=IJ= @A IACK @ IA LE A A ?=F JK

I ?

= JAHE H =

1 R g R 2
JEA A @ELAHCA ?E= ?AH @E?D= ? >E =?E -IJ=I FH FEA@=@AI ? @K AH = -E IJAE = E@A JE ?=H

@A JA I H @A 4E??E R ?
=JA

A JA I H G 2 H JH= F=HJA
KOAH F IJAHE H A JA A 4EA =

! ,A EI 2 EII

%& &"

JE? BH= ? I ?KO I JH=>= I E

11 

)5 -+7)+1

-5 ,- -1 56-1

@=@ GKA g ; = 0 = B H = g ? -E IJAE =I A?K=?E

IA FKA@A AN? KEH A FHE ?EFE K J H E

=@E?E ?

= @A ? KO

IJ= JA O= GKA g ; = 0 - HAIK A

AI @A ?= F @A>A JA AH = B H =

1 R g R + g = T , 2
@ ? @A IA HA =?E =I ? @E?E = = CA AJH = @A AIF=?E JEA F

11   A A =@ E GKEAH@

AI B IE?=I @AI?HEJ=I F H A JA I H T A A =@ @AHA?D AI @A?EH IK ? JH=??E ?

JAIA GKA = JH= = @A AIJ= A?K=?E

g  AI
11 !

R + 4 = T
@ @A T = g T  F H GKA J= >E IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH A

=B H = 11 "

R g = (T g T ).
5 B= J= =D H= ? EJA AMJ F H?E = E= FH >=H GKA IA >JEA A = A?K=?E O @A F=I A ? @A 2 EII

JH=H =I A L= H @A = ?

IJ= JA @A FH F=H=

= E@=@ 2=H= A JHE?= @A

AI A?AI=HE ?= ?K =H A JA I H @A 4EA =

E@= F H = B H K = 11 $ ,A IJH=H GKA I ? A ?EA JAI @A +DHEIJ A F=H= = JHE?=

- AH?E?E
11 $ JEA A

=B H =
2 a b0 = 0(c )

2 a bc = 0(c ) 2 0 ab = 0(c )

a 00 =

0 a0 =

+ 0(c4 ) c2 xa

+ 0(c4 ) 2 a c x 11 # 0 2 00 = 0(c )

- AH?E?E

) F=HJEH @A =GK @A KAIJHA GKA

R00 =
A AH?E?E I 2=H= D=?AH = ? F=H=?E ?

1 2 + 0(c4 ) 2 c

11 $

= A?K=?E

@A 2 EII

KJE E?A

I A JA I H

T F=H= KE@ I FAHBA?J I &  T = (e + p)u u + pg ,

&

+)2 67

11 8111

) 6- 4 ) ,- ) /4)816)+1

,- -1 56-1

GKA E F E?= T = 3p e 4A? H@= @ GKA e = c2 + IA JEA A

1 1 T00 g00 T = c2 , 2 2
? IK J= J H E @ E = JA @A H@A c2  7I= @ =I A?K=?E

11 % AI 11 " HA

1 2 = c4 c2 + 0(c2 ). 2
+ F=H= @ AIJ= A?K=?E ? = @A 2 EII 11  LA I GKA

11 &

=
)I AC= I = =I A?K=?E

8G c4

= 0(c4 )

11 '

AI @A -E IJAE
11  @A = K = BKAH = A=0

8G 1 R g R + g = 4 T , 2 c
@ @A AI = = =@= ? IJ= JA ? I CE?= O ? HHAIF

HAFK IEL= @A = CH=LA@=@ = AI?= = ? I E?=" 2 H FAH ? LAHA IA A JE I ?=F JK @A I ? I

CA AH= IA F

D=O ALE@A ?E=I HA?EA JAI @A GKA CE? I# -IJ=I A?K=?E AI O

IA FKA@A A E E =H A = B H K =?E -E IJAE A =I A?K=?E @A

EJEL= @A = HA =JELE@=@ CA AH= BKAH

FHAIA J=@=I F H

LEA >HA @A '# AI @A -E IJAE 11  I K ? H@A K J @A  A?K=?E AI @EBAH

A ?E= AI = J= A JA 7 = I K?E

E A= AI @A IACK @ AI

F=H= =I  E ? C EJ=I g JH=H E JEA A

CA AH= @A AIJ=I A?K=?E

IA FKA@A A ?

IA JE@ >KI?=H = =HAI GKA ? HHAIF A

GKA I IA FKA@A D=?AH AI HAI LAH =I A ?=I I F=HJE?K @= = IEJK=?E AI B IE?=I >EA @AJAH E =@=I AIJ IA D=H

I IECKEA JAI @ I ?=F JK I - ?=I I IE F A ? HHAIF @A =I= A = GKA @A = @A L=? D=O = HACE ANJAHE H @A K = ?= F CH=L

@EIJHE>K?E EJ=?E

=JAHE= E A AHC = I = A?K=?E

= - AI= HACE A = 0 @A

T = 0 O IAC
? JH=HE

@A -E IJAE

R = 0

IE IA F

R = g  - A E JAHE H @A ?KAHF

" JAIA GKA JEA A K E@=@AI @A (longitud)2 = LA?AI IA AI?HE>A c2 A =I A?K=?E AI @A -E IJAE F=H= GKA JA C= K E@=@AI @A (tiempo)2 #EI -E IJAE IA =HHAFE JE F IJAHE H A JA @A D=>AH E JH @K?E@ A IKI A?K=?E AI O @A? =H GKA D=> = IE@ A AHH H I CH= @A @A LE@= 5E A >=HC = ? IJ= JA ? I CE?= L LE = HA =?AH @AIFK I @A K =HC AJ=HC 8AH ?=F JK :

11 

)5 -+7)+1

-5 ,- -1 56-1

'

=IEL

>LE= A JA R = 0 -I E F HJ= JA F=H= A

J=H GKA R = 0

F E?= GKA A AIF=?E IA= F = K = @A =I  ? ? F F

IA JEA A GKA = K =H J @=I O ?=@=

A JAI @A JA I H @A 4EA =

R O

=I 

A JAI @A JA I H @A 4E??E R I ?=I I =I AIJK@E=@ I I =C JE? @ =GKA I GKA ? HHA

,AIFK I @A ?=I L=? IF

@A = = FHAIA ?E= @A K ?= F A A?JH =C JE?

@A T AIJ @=@

F H A JA I H A A?JH KE@ E@A=

O = = FHAIA ?E= @A

=JAHE= A B H = @A K

!

+)2 67

11 8111

) 6- 4 ) ,- ) /4)816)+1

,- -1 56-1

111 1: +) 2

/4)816)+1

) +

51 -64 ) -5. 41+)

=I A?K=?E

AI @A -E IJAE I

@A =IE=@ ?

F E?=@=I F=H= F @AHIA HA

I LAH ? @A A ? ?E ?E

J @= CA AH= E@=@ 5A FKA@A HAI LAH =FH NE =@= A JA IE IA JH=J= JH=H ? HHA??E AI HA =JELEIJ=I FH @K?E@=I F H K I ABA?J I HA =JELEIJ=I IA J AI AN=?J=I I ? @E?E IA ? ?= F CH=LEJ= FAHJKH>=

= @ >E A ?KO ?=I AI - ?K= J = I K?E

= ?

?A K =I ?K= J=I GKA KO HAIJHE?JEL=I I AI @A -E IJAE O = FHE AH= I K?E =H 5?DM=H I?DE @

@AI?HE>A AIF=?E JEA F I ? ? J= AI HAIJHE??E JH=H I K?E

AI @A IE AJH =

AI AI F IE> A IE F E ?=H =I A?K=?E AI AN=?J=I =K GKA F=HJE?K =HAI AI @A -E IJAE BKA >JA E@= F H

=I A ?

AN=?J= @A =I A?K=?E

= FHE ?EFE I @A '$ K F=H @A LAHIE @A EJEL= @A IK JA H =

AIAI @AIFK I @A GKA -E IJAE FHAIA J=H= =

= I K?E @EIJHE>K?E

@A 5?DM=H I?DE @ @AI?HE>A A AIF=?E JEA F CA AH=@ F H K = @A =JAHE= ? = ? IE AJH = AIB HE?= = ?K= ALE@A JA A JA CA AH= AI= EI = IE AJH = .KAH= @A = HACE AIB HE?=

K ?= F CH=LEJ=?E GKA ? JEA A =

=JAHE= IA JEA A T = 0 O =I A?K=?E = I = 0

AI @A -E IJAE E F E

?= F H

J= J GKA R = 0 J

= IE AJH = @A FH > A = @=@ GKA = JHE?= >E@E

FAH EJA E F HJ= JAI IE F E ?=?E A IE

AI F H A A F

= @A = IKFAH ?EA @A K = AIBAH= AI FH F H?E I CK I O =F=HA ?= A

= = d2 + sen2 d2 @A ds2 I A

AI @A AIFAH=H GKA AI= ? A ? >E =?E

= ANFHAIE

5E A JH=H A

I @AJ= AI @A = @A@K??E I?

GKA IA FKA@A ?HAJ=HA I = @=H

JH=H A ?K= GKEAH JANJ @A HA =JELE@=@ CA AH= JHE?= @A 5?DM=H I?DE @

1

= B H = ANF ?EJ= @A =
2

2GM 2 2 2GM ds = 1 2 c dt + 1 2 cr cr

dr2 + r2 d2 +sin2 d2 . 111 

 )IJH O =JA JE? = A &%! '$ .= A?E = F ? JEA F @A >JA AH = I K?E GKA AL= IK >HA = ? IA?KA ?E=I @A K = A BAH A@=@ ? JH= @= A A BHA JA @A CKAHH= -IJ IA FKA@A @A IJH=H HECKH I= A JA ? FKA@A LAHIA A K JANJ =L= =@ @A HA =JELE@=@ CA AH= !

+)2 67

111 1: +) 2

/4)816)+1

) +

51 -64 ) -5. 41+)

-IJ= B H = @A = A? 11 $ ?

JHE?= AI ?

IEIJA JA ?

= =FH NE =?E

@A ?= F @ >E

A F JA ?E= ? IE? GM/r ) = ?= JE@=@

rg
GKA =F=HA?A CH=LEJ=?E = KO ? IFE?K= A JA A

2GM c2
= B H K = = JAHE H IA A = = H=@E = = = =I= @A

@A 5?DM=H I?DE @ -IJA H=@E AI FH F H?E = 5KIJEJKOA @

> AJ GKA FH @K?A A ?= F CH=LEJ=?E ? IJ= JAI =JKH= AI HAIK J= GKA

I L= HAI @A =I

rg 3km(M/M ),
@ @A M AI = =I= @A 5 = JHE? g @A = JHE?= @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ @A ,A 8AHA I I =@A = JA ?K AI A IEC E ?=@

B IE? @A H=@E CH=LEJ=?E JAIA GKA A JA I H FA @A @A JEA F t F H DA?D IA FKA@A @A

GKA IA JH=J= @A K AIF=?E JEA F AIJ JE?

IJH=H GKA AI A
!

E? AIF=?E JEA F ?

IE AJH = AI =IEL= FK I=

B HE?= JA HA = @A *EH D IA ? EJ=?E JH=A

?K= E F E?= GKA IE K = AIBAH=

IA ANF= @A FAH IE H

FAH IK IE AJH = AIB HE?= A ?= F CH=L EI O @AFA @A E?= A JA @A =

= A IK ANJAHE H IECKA IEA @ A

=I= J J= @A = AIBAH= -I ALE@A JA GKA = A A JHE?= @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ IA HA@K?A = = @A E MI E

EJA r O= GKA A ?= F CH=LEJ=?E = JAHE H FAH EJA E@A JE ?=H = =I ?

= IA @AIL= A?A = CH= @AI H@A =@=I r O t ? =I

@EIJ= ?E=I ?

H@A =@=I H=@E= AI O JA F H= AI F=H= K

>IAHL=@ H A =
I ?

5E A >=HC

?AH?= @A H=@E @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ r O t I A AIF=?E JEA F

H@A =@=I GKA @AI?HE>A - F=HJE?K =H =

JEA A K IA JE@ B IE? AIFA? ?

JHE?= @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ A I

= B H = 111  @ELAHCA A r = rg FAH AIJ AI H@A =@=I KJE E =@ E?=I ? F IE IA ?= ?K = A JA I H A JAI @ELAHCA JAI I

K ABA?J @A IEIJA = @A ? ? F AJ

@A 4EA =

IA LAH GKA IKI

@A = B H = rg /r3 F H
! / , *EH D

GKA = IE CK =HE@=@ HA= @A AIF=?E JEA F @A

=JA JE? HJA= AHE?=

&&" '""

111 

81 1- 6

,- 2)46 +7 )5 -

- -52)+1

61- 2

,- 5+09)4 5+01 ,

!!

5?DM=H I?DE @ AIJ A r = 0 ) IEIJA = @A ?

111 

= @A AIJA ?=F JK A ?E

IA FHAIA J=H =@

JH

H@A =@=I GKA

JEA A A FH > A =
A AIF=?E

LE EA J

@A F=HJ ?K =I A

JEA F

@A 5?DM=H I?DE @

8A= CH=LEJ=?E

I FHE AH ? = @A K > AJ

IA

KALA K = F=HJ ?K =I @A FHKA>= A A ?= F =IEL ? A 5 ?K= GKEAH AIJHA = - 5 AIB HE?= AI IK ?EA JA A JA LA@ I I ? HA

AI AN=?J= A JA AIB HE?

FAH

= =FH NE =?E

>KA = F=H= GKA = JA H = @A -E IJAE FHA@EC= HAIK J=@ I IFA?J = = D=C= A? E?= @A AMJ

) JAI @A => H@=H A FH > A = HA =JELEIJ=

I K >HALA HAF=I @A A? E?= ? IE?= A

A? E?= ?A AIJA ? IE?=

=CH= CE=

L = T V GKA @AI?HE>A A

LE EA J

@A K F = AJ= AI

L 1 2 GM = (r + r2 2) + , m 2 r
@ @A m AI = =I= @A F = AJ= M = =I= @A 5 O r = @EIJ= ?E= H=@E=

@A ?A JH @A 5 EJ=?E F H =

= F = AJ= ,A>E@ = = IE AJH = AIB HE?= @A ?= F CH=L EI F=

= H>EJ= @A K = F=HJ ?K = IA HAIJHE CA IEA FHA = K

GKA AI L E@ J

=H = /2 IE FAH@AH CA AH= E@=@ ,=@ GKA A = CK A = E KJ= E @A JEA F A J = CK =H l O = A AHC =

CH= CE=

@AFA @A ANF ?EJ= A JA @A IJ= JAI @A LE EA J

IA JEA A @ I ?

E = >=I J

=@=I F H K E@=@ @A

=I= @A F = AJ= HA?K H@AIA GKA @A>E@ =I= AI EHHA AL= JA F=H= A LE EA J  111 

= FHE ?EFE @A AGKEL= A ?E= AIJ=

l = r2 2, E=
3KA@= F H HAI LAH = A?K=?E

1 2 l2 r + 2 2 r
@A

GM . r

111 ! @EA JA = = L=HE=> A

=CH= CA ? HHAIF

r 2=H= A

AI ?

LA EA JA @A

EH K = KAL= L=HE=> A u = 1/r O ?= >E=H A@E @A = E@A JE@=@ r2 d/dt = BK @= A J= 111 "

=I @AHEL=@=I JA F H= AI = = E KJ= AI F H

ld/d )I ?

K F ? @A

CA>H= IA AC= = = A?K=?E

d2 u GM + u = , d2 l2

!"

+)2 67

111 1: +) 2

/4)816)+1

) +

51 -64 ) -5. 41+)

?KO= I K?E

AI K = ?

E?=

1 GM = u = 2 1 + e cos r l
@A AN?A JHE?E@=@ e 8A= AH= A = @ I =D H= ? =I H>EJ=I AIJ = GKA =F=HA?A CA AH= E =H A =

111 #

EIEI = JAHE H = = HA =JELE@=@ CA @A =I CA @ IE?=I 1 " 

@AI?HEJ=I F H = A?K=?E I ? A ?EA JAI @A +DHEIJ

A GKA IA @A>A AL= K=H F=H= F ? I ?

JHE?= @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ J=H GKA @E?D=I A?K=?E

= FH ?JE?= HAIK J= K

AI IA >JEA A @A K

L = g (dx /d )(dx /d ) @
= F HJE?K = )I F=H= = A JA ? =CH= CE= ?

@A = B H = @A AI A JEA F FH FE = ds2 /c @A IJ =H @EHA?J=

=CH= CE=

JHE?= @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ F @A

= /2
1

L= 1
@ @A A FK J @A

2GM 2 2 2GM c t + 1 2 2 cr cr
J= @AHEL=@= ?

dr 2 + r2 2,

111 $

HAIFA?J = () d( )/d JH= I

,=@ GKA A =CH= CE= @A E A@E=J @ I ?

@AFA @A ANF ?EJ= A JA @A t O A ? LE EA J =I= =I=

IJ= JAI @A

E=

2GM 2 c t A AHC = J J= F H K E@=@ @A c2 r

A J = CK =H F H K E@=@ @A

111 % 111 &

l = r2
-IJ=I ?

IJ= JAI HAIK J= @A E JACH=H =I A?K=?E F A JA t O O CA AH= E = =@E?E F = c2 F=H= E 

AI @A =CH= CA ? HHAIF IJ= JAI @A LE EA J @A =

@EA JAI = =I ? ? IE?=I ?

=I ?

K J H E

= JAH?AH= A?K=?E

CH= CA ? HHAIF @EHA?J= A JA ? GKA

@A = = ? I

A JA r FAH IK E JACH= IA FKA@A >JA AH E?E EI = ds2 /d 2 = c2 F H

J=H GKA F H @A

2GM 2 2GM c = 1 2 c t+ 1 2 cr cr
2

r 2 + r2 2 = c2 .
LE EA J HAIK J=

111 '

5KIJEJKOA @

I L= HAI @A =I ?

IJ= JAI @A

r 2 =

2GM E2 1 2 2 c cr

c2 +

l2 . r2

111 

111 

81 1- 6

,- 2)46 +7 )5 -

- -52)+1

61- 2

,- 5+09)4 5+01 ,

!#

+= >E= @ @A = L=HE=> A = F H

A@E @A = HA =?E = A?K=?E

dr/d = (l/r2 )(dr/d) =

= JAHE H IA AC= =

ldu/d @
A JA =

@A u = 1/r O @AHEL= @

u +u=
@ @A = FHE = @A J= d/d

GM 3GM + 2 u2 , 2 l c
GKA @AI?HE>A A

111  LE EA J

IJ= AI = A?K=?E = ?

@A =I F=HJ ?K =I A K ?= F CH=LEJ=?E F=H= I? = A?K=?E

IE AJH = AIB HE?= 5E = ? I GKA = HA =JELE@=@ K = ? HHA??E F=H= HA

? IE?= AGKEL= A JA 111 # LA =@E?E = 3GM u2 /c2 ? AI KO FAGKA

CA AH= E JH @K?A K J H E

=JELEIJ= @A H@A c2 -IJA J H E HA =JELEIJ=I A F = AJ= AH?KHE = @ A J H E

LE EA J I

KAIJH 5EIJA = 5 =H IK ABA?J IA FKA@A @AJA?J=H F=H= A

- AH?E?E 6
FHE AH H@A

3GM u2 /c2 ?

K = FAHJKH>=?E

@A

@A KAIJHA GKA K = I K?E

=FH NE =@= @A = A?K=?E

111 

JEA A = B H = @A K = ANF= IE

@A . KHEAH 111   NE

u=
@

GM [1 + e cos(K)] cos(2K), l2
JAIA GKA r AI

@A K 1 3(GM/lc)2 O (GM )3 e2 /2l4 c2 E F=H= L= HAI @A GKA I=JEIB=?A =? @E?E

u =K
7 = I K?E

GM e sen(K) + 2 sen(2K) = 0. l2
AI = 0 IE BKAH= F H

111 ! IJ H E I

>LE= @A AIJ= A?K=?E

? HHA?JEL I A 1 K O D=>H = JH= I K?E FAH @A>E@ = AIJ=I ? HHA??E B H = = 2 + AI @A 1er H@A

= 2 ?=I @A = A EFIA
= IACK @= I K?E =K JA @H CK =

?K= E F E?= GKA A FAHEDA E =L=

A ?=@= LKA J= .EC 1:  ,A KAIJHA GKA

=
@ @A a AI A IA EA A

6GM , a(1 e2 )c2

=@ ? A A J

=O H @A F = AJ= GKA AIJ HA =?E

= CK =H F H = B H K = ? IE?= l2 = GM a(1 e2 ) ,A KAIJHA GKA F=H= AH?KHE

= " ' IACK @ I F H IEC

!$

+)2 67

111 1: +) 2

/4)816)+1

) +

51 -64 ) -5. 41+)

A AH?E?E - ? HHE EA J @A FAHEDA E @A AH= ? E ?E@A @AI@A A IEC @A -E IJAE

111 LE EA J @A B J AI

AH?KHE FHA@E?D F H = HA =JELE@=@ CA AI =IJH @A E?=I GKA IA ? ?=

KO >EA ?

=I >IAHL=?E

:1: -IJA HAIK J=@ BKA K

I FHE AH I NEJ I @A = JA H =

=I A?K=?E

AI GKA @AI?HE>A

= JH=OA?J HE= @A H=O I K E

I I A K ?= = IA??E K JEA

F @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ I = JAHE H ? F FH FE IE @A>E@ = = ?

AN=?J= A JA =I

EI =I >JA E@=I A

= @EBAHA ?E= @A GKA O= ? @E?E =C JH F=H AJH

FKA@A E JAHFHAJ=HIA ?

= JH= @EBAHA ?E= > IE?= AI GKA 111 ' IA LKA LA

1

ds2 = 0 = A?K=?E

1
+ AIJ=

2GM 2 2 2GM c t + 1 c2 r c2 r

r 2 + r2 2 = 0.
CA>H= F=H=

111 " >JA AH =

@E ?=?E 111 

IA IECKA AN=?J= A JA A ?K= @A = I? K A AH?E?E

A?K=?E

- AH?E?E
A?K=?E

,A KAIJHA GKA = JH=OA?J HE= @A K

B J

AIJ @=@= F H =

u +u=
@ @A u = 1/r A AH?E?E

3GM 2 u, c2

111 #

- AH?E?E
IA HA@K?A =

= =FH NE =?E

AMJ

E= = (c ) = A?K=?E

111 #

u + u = 0,
?KO= I K?E ? AI IE F A A JA u = a1 cos GKA AI = A?K=?E HECA @A K = HA?J= - J H E @A

AH= @A AIFAH=HIA GKA F=I= = K = @EIJ= ?E= a @A = A?K=?E 111 # AI = ? HHA??E

= @AHA?D= A @A = K

HA =JELEIJ= = = JH=OA?J HE= 111 #AI 111 $

,A KAIJHA GKA K = I K?E

=FH NE =@= @A = A?K=?E

u=

1 GM cos + 2 2 1 + sen2 . a ca

111 ! )

1515 ,- )

641+) ,- 5+09)4 5+01 ,

!%

+K= @ r , u 0 O A = K= A = I K?E I K?E

CK

JEA @A =IE J JE?= A JA = L= H GKA

5E = ? HHA??E HA =JELEIJ= HA =JELEIJ= =

EA >H @AHA?D @A AIJ= A?K=?E

IAH = IE F A A JA = /2 ,A>E@ = J H E @A 111 $ F=H= u 0 AI

=
@ @A A K = FHE AH= =FH NE =?E

+ , 2 2

111 %

=
A AH?E?E

4GM . c2 a

111 &

= B H K = 111 & E F E?= GKA = F IE?E

=F=HA JA @A K = AIJHA = GKA CK

IA LA ?AH?= @A @EI? I =H GKA@= @AIF= =@= K ?A JH @A 5 J= ? IA LA A

?
=a?

HAIFA?J = A H=@E

= .EC 1:  5E IA J

I =H  = JH=OA?J HE= @A = K F=I= H = @ = 5  HAIK J=

= 1 ,75.
= B H K = = JAHE H IA FKA@A ? ?=IE =?E '' O A GKA IA FKA@A FH >=H @KH= JA K A? EFIA = E?= H

LAH AIJHA =I ?AH?= @A 5

= FHE AH= ?

@A ABA?J BKA HA= E =@= @KH= JA K A? EFIA I =H GKA JKL I HAIK J=@ I ? ? H@=H ? = FHA@E??E

KC=H A I

JA HE?= @A JH @A

H= C I @A AHH H F IE> AI A AI= F ?= ,AI@A A J D= HAFAJE@ @A @ELAHI=I B H =I E ? KIELA ? = LA J= = @A IAH @AJA?J=> AI A F A I HAIK J=@ I ?
111 !

?AI =I >IAHL=? E AI IA @=I @A H=@E GKA JEA A

@ = IE

A?AIE@=@ @A AIFAH=H A? EFIAI =I FHA@E??E AI @A = JA H =

?KAH@= FAHBA?J= A JA ?
) EIEI @A =

JHE?= @A 5?DM=H I?DE @

-IJK@EA

I =D H= IE =FH NE =?E @A F=I A ?E

AI A

LE EA J A A AIF=?E JEA F

@A 5?DM=H I?DE @ F=H= =I CH=LEJ=?E = rg 2GM/c2

A K?E@=H A ?=H ?JAH B IE? @A H=@E = I = JAHE H A JA GKA = E MI E JHE?=

@A 5?DM=H I?DE @ JEA @A =IE J JE?= A JA = = @A E@A JE ?=H = t ? A JEA F A@E@ F H K

?K= FAH EJA 5E A >=HC

>IAHL=@ H A =

!&

+)2 67

111 1: +) 2

/4)816)+1

) +

51 -64 ) -5. 41+)

AIA JEA F @E AHA ? JE K=?E ) = E?A ?=I IA

J=> A A JA @A

A@E@ ?AH?= @A rg ?

LAHA

I =

LE EA J @A K B J IJ= JAI F H

GKA IA

KALA H=@E=

A JA - AIJA

ds = 0 O = = ?

GKA IA JEA A IE F A A JA
1

rg 2 2 rg 1 c dt + 1 r r
OF H J= J

dr2 = 0,

111 '

c
= I K?E @A AIJ= A?K=?E

dt rg = 1 dr r
AI

111 

ct = r + rg ln
5E r

r 1 rg

+?

IJ.

111  @A @ I

rg

= A? 111  E F E?= cdt/dr = 1 GKA AI = A?K=?E @A K A K AIF=?E JEA F F =

HA?J=I GKA @A E EJ= A ?

5E A >=HC

A@E@= GKA

I =?AH?=

I = rg IA FH @K?A K = IEJK=?E I= cdt/dr

KAL= = FA @EA JA @A =

A= @A K ELAHI @A K = IA = K E

? A ?

?K= E F E?= GKA A ?

@A K IA L= ?AHH= @

D=IJ= ?AHH=HIA F H

F AJ A r = rg .EC 1: ! = HACE

r < rg IK?A@A = C =

I ?KHE I

=I @ I HA?J=I GKA B H = =I ? F A JAI g00 H@A =@=I t @A K = .EC JEA A

@A K IA LKA LA = =>HEH FAH I - ?

A AI= HACE

O g11 ?= >E= IKI IEC

IA?KA ?E= F=H= r < rg =I ?

O r E JAH?= >E= IKI F=FA AI = ? ? JEA A = A A r GKA AI A I=

H@A =@= JA F H= AI r O A ? IA LA A @A K ?

KAL A A JA F H= J= ? = J @ ?

1: !

@A JH @A H=@E CH=LEJ=?E - ?

= FK J r = 0 A IK BKJKH H=@E CH=LEJ=?E

IA?KA ?E= J @= F=HJ ?K = GKA FA AJHA A = IE CK =HE@=@ r = 0 @ E CK = IA = K E @A I=

= JAH E =H B H I= A JA A =HA="

IAH @AIJHKE@= F H =I BKAH =I @A =JAHE= FKA@A I= EH @A = HACE

" 5A FKA@A @A IJH=H GKA =I BKAH =I @A AIJA ?=I @ELAHCA ? rg /r3

I=

r < rg 5A JH=J= @A
FH F H?E

GKA IA = = K
A ?K= A

=HA= I

= AI = JA I H @A 4EA =

111 ! )

1515 ,- )

641+) ,- 5+09)4 5+01 ,

!'

D O
I

ACH  = IKFAH ?EA @A

E@= F H r = rg AI A D HE

JA @A ALA J I GKA

IA FKA@A ?HK =H A K = @EHA??E = =F=HA JA IE CK =HE@=@ @A = JHE?= A r = rg AI K = IE CK =HE@=@ =I ? H@A =@=I

B IE?= IE

GKA IA @A>A = IEIJA = @A ? I

H@A =@=I KJE E =@=I

@A 5?DM=H I?DE @ JH I IEIJA =I @A ? F H AA F F AH = =I

KO =@A?K=@=I F=H= = HACE

r rg FAH D=O

H@A =@=I GKA FAH EJA GKEJ=H = IE CK =HE@=@ ?JE?E= H@A =@=I @A -@@E CJ =B H =
#

= =@=I ?

-IJ=I HAIK J=

@A

JHE?= @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ A

ds2 = 1

rg r

cdt +

dr 1 rg /r

cdt

dr + r2 d2 + sen2 d2 , 1 rg /r 111 

O @A

EH K = KAL= ?

H@A =@=

V = ct + r + rg ln
IA=

r 1 , rg

111 !

dV = cdt +
= JHE?= 111 J = =I = B H =

dr . 1 rg /r

111 "

ds2 = 1
@ @A = ?

rg dV 2 + 2dV dr + r2 d2 + sen2 d2 , r

111 #

H@A =@= V IKIJEJKOA = = t - AIJ=I KAL=I ? JHE?= @A 5?DM=H I?DE @

H@A =@=I IA LA

? =H= A JA GKA = A r = rg 7JE E?A

JEA A E CK = IE CK =HE@=@

I AIJ= B H = @A =

JHE?= F=H= = = E =H A

LE EA J FKH= 111 # @E?E

A JA H=@E= @A B J

AI 5A JEA A d = 0 = d =I GKA = A?K=?E AI GKA I=JEIB=?A = ?

E F E?= GKA D=O @ I JH=OA?J HE=I @A B J

ds2 = 0 7 = AI dV = 0 O = JH= dV 2 = . dr 1 rg /r
? = HACE 111 $

rg

=I @ I I K?E

AI I

V =?

IJ= JA O V = 2r+ @A K A A AIF=?E

IJ= JA GKA HAFHAIA J= @ I HA?J=I GKA E EJ= A ?

# ) 5 -@@E CJ && '"" =IJH ?= .KA GKEA HA= E = FHE AH= A@E?E

O =JA JE? E C I ? IE@AH=@ A BK @=@ H @A = =IJH B IE @A = @AILE=?E @A = K FHA@E?D= F H -E IJAE

"

+)2 67

111 1: +) 2

/4)816)+1

) +

51 -64 ) -5. 41+)

@A

MI E -

= .EC 1: " IA D= JH= =@ A A A V = "# ?

HAIFA?J

= A A r F HGKA V = ct + r F=H= r

rg IAC

= A?K=?E

111 "

2=H= ?K= GKEAH r E ? KI A r rg @AI?HE>A K B J IF @A = K B J

=?

@E?E =?

V =?
@E?E

IJ= JA IEA FHA

GKA L= D=?E= r = 0 2AH

111 $ GKA ? HHA

GKA IA = A = @A r = 0 @AI?HE>A A =@ @AHA?D @A ? IA KAIJH= A = .EC 1: " = A= @A K ELAHI @A AIA =

@A K O J= ? B J

IA A FEA = = A FE =H =

A@E@= GKA IA =?AH?= = H=@E CH=LEJ=?E

O =?=>= J J=

A JA LAHJE?= A r = rg 2=H= r < rg A ?

@A K =FK J=

IEA FHA D=?E= r = 0 )I GKA@= ? =H GKA K = F=HJ ?K = FKA@A FA AJH=H A

H=@E @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ FAH O= ACH
111 " + =FI CH=LEJ=?E =

FKA@A I= EH @A =D 5A JH=J= @A K D O

-NEIJA D O I ACH I A A 7 ELAHI I AI A ? =FI CH=LEJ=?E @A A AHC = @A K = AIJHA = I A IK ?A JH C=I A FAH ?K= @ A ? FKA@A ?

7 F IE> A

A?= EI

F=H= B H =H = BKA JA

= @A =I AIJHA =I = =I HA=??E

= @A IK LE@=

AI @A BKIE

K? A=H GKA ?KHHA @A

>KIJE> A K? A=H IA =C J= = FHAIE

= AIJHA =

FA I=H IK FH FE= CH=LA@=@ O IJ= A FEA = = IJH GKA K = AIJHA = ?KO= =I=

? =FI=HIA - '! +D= @H=IA D=H$ @A AN?A@A  " LA?AI = @A K ?A J I" E E =I= @A 5

JAH E = ? ?

A = = > = ?= K = AIJHA =
E E CH= IF H

AJH I @A H=@E

K = @A IE@=@ @A @A

AJH ? >E?

A AIJ=I AIJHA =I = FHAIE

I A A?JH =

AI HA =JELEIJ=I = IEJK=?E @A

@ACA AH=@ I AI IK ?EA JA F=H= @AJA AH A ? =FI CH=LEJ=?E AI @EIJE J= F=H= AIJHA =I IKFAH I =IEL=I

IJ=I JAH E = A K = ANF IE E F HJ= JA @A IK

L= =HH = @ = AIF=?E K = BH=??E

=JAHE= O

@A = @ A

? A @AI K@ @A = AIJHA = A B H = @A K = AIJHA = @A AK > AJ @A I @EA E AJH I @A H=@E ? K = =I= = C =O H

AI = KO I >HA =I

JH AI K

$ 5 +D= @H=IA D=H ' ''# =IJH B IE? DE @ = GKEA IA @A>A K AH I=I ? JHE>K?E @ELAHI I ?= F I @A = =IJH B IE?= 4A?E>E A 2HA E >A @A B IE?= A '&! F H IK JH=>= A = =I > = ?=I

111 " +

)25

/4)816)+1

"

GKA =

=I= I =H O K = @A IE@=@ @A ? A =J

I @A 1012 E CH=

I F H ?A J AI

AJH I

? >E?  = @A IE@=@ @A K FH J AI IA D= BKIE =@ ?

E?  - K = AIJHA = @A AKJH AI F=H= FH @K?EH AKJH @A I AKJH

I A A?JH

AI O A

? =FI CH=LEJ=?E 5E A >=HC = =I= @A 5 IE =

= IA @AJEA A F H = FHAIE

AI @ACA AH=@ I

=I= @A = AIJHA = @A AKJH

AI AN?A@A K =I @ I LA?AI

AIJ= FHAIE

HAIK J= E IK ?EA JA O = AIJHA =I IACKEH ? IK FH FE= BKAH = @A CH=LA@=@ D=IJ= B H =H

JH=O @ IA E @A ALA JK= 7 D O

E@= A JA >= ACH

%

A JA K D O

ACH IA FKA@A @AJA?J=H F H

I ABA?J I GKA FH @K?A I >HA =

JAHE= = IK = HA@A@ H 2 H A A F AIJA =H K = @A =I AIJHA =I AL K?E L= D O A D O ACH 5E

FKA@A IK?A@AH GKA A K IEIJA = >E =HE A I H FE@= A JA GKA = JH= O IA LKA @A JH

I @ I ?KAHF I CEH= IK ?EA JA A JA ?AH?= K F= AH= A ?K=

ACH =>I H>A A C=I @A IK ?

?=A @EHA?J= A JA =JAHE= FHE

= D O IE

GKA B H = K @EI? @A =?HA?E = L=HE I E

 = IK = HA@A@ H A

IA ?= EA J= F H BHE??E ?EF= A JA A

AI @A CH=@ I O A EJA H=@E=?E

B H = @A H=O I : = JAI @A IAH A CK E@ @A IEIJA = >E =HE @A GKA I D O

EJ=L= A JA IA >IAHL= ACH ,AI@A @A H=O I

= A EIE

@A H=O I : @AI@A K >KA

K = AIJHA = AI K '% ?K= @ IA =

E @E?E @A = FHAIA ?E= @A K

F H FHE AH= LA K I=J EJA @A >IAHL=?E A

: IA D= @AJA?J=@ L=HE=I BKA JAI @A H=@E=?E ? HHAIF @AH = AI?A =HE @AI?HEJ A?= EI

= C= =NE= GKA F @H =

JH F IE> A CH=

F=H= B H =H D O I ACH I AI A ? =FI @A K = E AI @A LA?AI = =I= @A K = AIJHA = ?K= @ : 5A FK@EAH B H =H =I

=I= @A C=I @A L=HE I K?D

A 7 ELAHI AH=

I @A I LAH ?=F JK

D O I ACH I CEC= JAI? I GKA F IJAHE H A JA =JH=OAH O @EAH CH= @A

A C=I = IK = HA@A@ H

HECA = =I C= =NE=I -IJA AI?A =HE IA IKIJA J= A A DA?D @A GKA = =O H = @A =I C= =NE=I ANDE>A A IKI ?A JH I CH= @AI ? ?A JH=?E AI

=I= GKA >EA F @H = IAH D O I ACH I IKFAH =IEL I

I @AJ= AI LAH 5 0=?O=

% 2=H=

I D O I ACH I O = ?KHL=JKH= @A AIF=?E JEA F ''

"

+)2 67

111 1: +) 2

/4)816)+1

) +

51 -64 ) -5. 41+)

A?= EI

@A ? =FI CH=LEJ=?E

= GKA FKA@A @=H HECA = K D O =H? @A = HA =JELE I IK = K EIEI @A

ACH BKA AIJK@E=@ F H @=@ CA AH= A K =HJ ?K GKA ? IA ?E IEIJA A HAFH @K?EH

FFA DAE AH O 5 O@AH A A FE AH

&

)?

JE K=?E

IACKEHA

I H=IC I AIA ?E= AI @A ? =FI ? JHE?= @A F L GKA IA ?

K = K>A AIB HE?= A JA IE

JH=A @A>E@ = E JAH = A A

IK FH FE= CH=LA@=@ F H F L IA A JEA @A K C=I IE FHAIE GKA + I ?D GKAI A JHA =I F=HJ ?K =I AI @AIFHA?E=> A IA A ?E = JAHE H A JA A JA HA = @A *EH D = =BKAH= @A ?K= GKEAH @EIJHE>K?E

E F E?= GKA A JHE?=

?= F CH=LEJ=?E @A

AIB HE?= A JA IE

=I= AIJ @AI?HEJ F H = =I= IA ? A JEA F JH=A

JHE?= @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ E @AFA @EA JA A JA =IEL= JEA A K H=@E R GKA

@A IE AI= L=H = ?

@E =J= 5E = AIBAH=

A ?= F IAH @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ F=H= r > R O JA @H

= CK = JH= B H = A A E JAHE H r < R 5E IA JH=J= @A K = AIBAH= @A F L E JAHE H AI A JA I H @A =JAHE= GKA @AI?HE>A IK

T = c2 u u ,
@ ? @A AI = @A IE@=@ @A = = =JAHE= A A IEIJA = ?

111 % LE GKA IA KALA

=JAHE= O u AI A LA?J H J= CA JA = = JH=OA?J HE= @A ?=@= CH=

@A F L =I @ I ? @E?E AI T ; = 0 O (u ); = 0 GKA ? HHAIF IAHL=?E @A A AHC = A J O @A @A HAIFA? >E =@=I

JEL= A JA = = ? E F E?=

=I= ?

u u; = 0,
GKA AI KIJ= A JA = A?K=?E F=HJ ?K =I @A F L IA D=O K = BKAH = =@E?E KALA @A =I CA @ IE?=I 4AIK J= FKAI GKA =I = = =HC @A CA @ IE?=I @A>E@ = GKA GKA =?JKA I >HA A =I = IKFAH ?EA @A = AIBAH= AI @EI? JE K =D +

= @A FHAIE

- JA I H T JEA A K = @EI? A r=R OF H

& 5A HA?

JE KE@=@ BE EJ= A

J= J A JA I H @A 4E??E J= >E

EA @= AAH A =HJ ?K HECE = AI >=IJ= JA ? FHA IE> A 4 FFA DAE AH O 0 5 O@AH JE KA@ CH=LEJ=JE = ? JH=?JE  2DOIE?= 4ALEAM #$ F C "## "#' '!'

111 " +

)25

/4)816)+1

"!

AIJA JA I H AIJ B H =@ @A IACK @=I @AHEL=@=I @A g J= J g ? FHE AH=I @AHEL=@=I @A>A IAH ? JE K=I A

IKI

= IKFAH ?EA r = R -IJ E F E?=

GKA IE E F HJ=H = B H = GKA JA C= A AIF=?E JEA F @A JH @A = AIBAH= KIJ A 2AH ? IK IKFAH ?EA = JHE?= ? HHAIF @EA JA AI = @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ KALA

=@A

I K FK J I >HA = IKFAH ?EA @A = AIBAH= @A F L IA

K = CA @ IE?= F H

GKA AI= IKFAH ?EA @A>A IACKEH = JH=OA?J HE= @A

K = CA @ IE?= A A AIF=?E JEA F @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A GKA IK?A@= A A E JAHE H I FKAI A LE EA J CA @ IE? @A K = F=HJ ?K = GKA IA A ?KA JH=??E -IJ ? HHAIF @A AI

) = E?A

JH= KIJ I >HA = IKFAH ?EA @A = AIBAH= A ? = ?=I A GKA A CA @ IE?=I GKA LE

A J = CK =H l = 0 O = 0 =I GKA =I A?K=?E I = JAHE H A JA IA HA@K?A =

1 rg 1 r dt d
2

rg r

dt E = 2 d c
1

111 &

c
@

rg 1 r

dr d

= c2 ,

111 '

@A E AI = A AHC = F H K E@=@ @A

=I= @A = F=HJ ?K = - JEA F FH FE A@E@ A - ?= >E =@ ? =I A?K=?E K HA

@A = F=HJ ?K = AI = GKA AI KIJ= A JA A JEA F ? ?=@ I >HA = IKFAH ?EA @A = AIBAH= A ? A@E@ F H K >IAHL=@ H A = JH=??E

t AI A
A JH AI @A

JEA F

A ?K= AIJ HA =?E >E = @

JEA F F H

A@E @A = HA =?E

111 & +

LE EA J 111 & O 111 ' IA >JEA A

r0

= c
r

dr , E 2 c4 (1 rg /r)

111 !

@A r0 AI A H=@E E E?E= @A = AIBAH= -IJ= B H K = @= A JEA F GKA J=H@= K H=@E E E?E= @A r0 A ? =FI=HIA = K FK J A@E@ F H

K = AIBAH= ? K >IAHL=@ H

J=@ I >HA = IKFAH ?EA @A = AIBAH= AI K JEA F @ELAHCA F=H= r 0 = ?

EJ

F HGKA = E JACH= + JEA F

IA LA A FH ?AI @A ? =FI @AI@A A I A@E@ F H K >IAHL=@ H A =

H@A =@= t AI A EI = A?K=?E AI

) F=HJEH @A =I

""

+)2 67

111 1: +) 2

/4)816)+1

) +

51 -64 ) -5. 41+)

@A

LE EA J = JAHE HAI HAIK J=

t = t0

E c

r0 r

dr , (1 rg /r) E 2 c4 (1 rg /r)
= @ELAHCA ?E= AI

111 ! C=H J

FAH AIJ= E JACH= I @ELAHCA A r = rg ,A DA?D E?=

c t t0
IA=

rg ln

r 1 , rg

111 ! 

r 1 ec(tt0 )/rg . rg
8EIJ F H K = rg = >IAHL=@ H A = A H=@E @A = AIBAH= JA @AH =IE J JE?= A JA K ?= = ?= =H AIA L= H = AIBAH= A ? =FI J =H K

A@E@= GKA t IE

2=H= K JEA F ?= >E EJ

>IAHL=@ H GKA ?=A K J ? E ? KOA @ A K IE >IAHL=@ H A = K ?= AC=H = I

A J A GKA ?HK = A H=@E @A 5?DM=H I?DE @ LAH =?AH?=HIA =IE J JE?= A JA = AIA 8EIJ @AI@A A I A JEA F I >HA = I IK?AI I =D F=HA?A GKA@=H ? I H = 5A JH=J= @A ?=I CA =@ I I ANJHA

H=@E ?H JE?

AIBAH= IA ANF= @A ?=@= LA

O = K A EJE@= IA LKA LA ?=@= LA @A HA =JELE@=@ @A JEA F

18 : + 5

/)

= HA =JELE@=@ CA AH= @A -E IJAE

AI = >=IA JA HE?= @A = ? I

C=

@AH = O= GKA FAH EJA = = E =H A ? AI?= = 1 E?E= = = @AI?HEF?E ? I CE? A JA A @E EI

F HJ= EA J @A 7 ELAHI = CH= @A IK JA H = @A JH LAHIE=

-E IJAE >KI? K = =F E?=?E

E?= @A 7 ELAHI = E JA ?E E EJ

)I A '% FH FKI K @A HAI LAH = LEA = ? ?AF?E

KO IE F A ? EJ

I >HA IE A 7 ELAHI AI

A IK ?

HECE = A AIF=?E EJ= FAH IE =I AIJHA =I IA = E JH @K?E@= AI

? I E? AH= IA A = JA = = IKFAH ?EA @A K = AIBAH= GKA AI BH JAH=I = JA = @A ? I CE? @A -E IJAE AH= AIJ JE? CH=LEJ=?E


=I CH=?E=I = K = AIFA?EA @A HAFK IE A ' " .HEA@ =

A B H = =@ D ? 5E A >=HC

IJH GKA =I A?K=?E

@A = HA =JELE@=@ CA AH= J= >E LAHI @E E? A ANF= IE

=@ EJA I K?E ? KIE

AI GKA @AI?HE>A K K E A = JHA

O=?

AI IA A = JAI AC

A ' % A B H = E @AFA @EA JA ) FHE ?EFE A = JHA BKAH J =@ I A IAHE

I JH=>= I @A .HEA@ = O CH A@EH

FAH A ' ' 0K>> A!

F H FHE AH= LA

= @EIJ= ?E= = =I C= =NE=I O @AI?K>HE GKA A 7 ELAHI AIJ ) F=HJEH @A A J >IAHL=?E ?AI = ? I C= @AH = IA

ABA?JEL= A JA A ANF= IE L LE K = ?EA ?E= >=I=@= A A = JHA FH FKI A '!

AI =IJH FHE

E?=I O JA H =I B IE?=I H@E=  IAC = ?K=

= JA H = @A  J

A 7 ELAHI D=>H = A FA =@ = ANF= @EHIA = F=HJEH @A K AIJ=@ @A CH= @A IE@=@ 5ECKEA @ ? AI= E@A= /= I AH= M" B H K K I = I @AIFK I = IE J=

DEF JAIEI @A GKA A 7 ELAHI >E

I @A I A A F=I=@ HECE = @A /=

ANJHA =@= A JA ?= EA JA - FH F IEJ

M AH= ANF E?=H

B IE? HKI &&& ' # /A HCA A = JHA &'" '$$ B IE? =IJH O I=?AH@ JA >A C= ! -@ME 0K>> A &&' '#! =IJH HJA= AHE?= -IJ=> A?E @A EJEL= A JA = =JKH= A = @A =I C= =NE=I O E@E =I @EIJ= ?E=I ? I E?=I += >E H=@E?= A JA = LEIE @A 7 ELAHI GKA IA JA = D=IJ= FHE ?EFE I @A IEC :: " /A HCA /= M '" '$& B IE? @A HECA K?H= E= AIJ=> A?E@ A I - 7 ) GKA DE E F H J= JAI ? JHE>K?E AI = = B IE?= K? A=H O = ? I C= "#

 ) AN= @AH ) .HEA@ =

"$

+)2 67

18 : + 5

/)

= B H =?E GKA HAGKEAHA

@A

I A A A J I GK

E? I F H

A@E @A HA=??E BK ?E

AI K? A=HAI F=H= AIA

KO = J=I JA FAH=JKH=I @ I /= M FHA@E

= E@A=

FAH @A J @ I IAH A IA

GKA = JA FAH=JKH= ? I E?= @A>AH = ?K=

= =?JK= E@=@ @A K

I ?K= J I CH=@ I I >HA A ?AH =>I KJ @A E?H A ?

= EBAIJ=H = ?

K = H=@E=?E

@=I FH LA EA JA K EB H A I= I IAIA J= L=HE I CHKF I ? I E?=

A JA @A J @=I =I HACE @A B IE? I O =IJH FAH BKAH ) 2A

AI @A 7 ELAHI I IA FH FKIEAH

JH=H AIJ= H=@E=?E

E=I O 4 9E I A B H =

E LAIJEC=@ HAI @A

I => H=J HE I *A HECE = BK @EH =I

GKEA AI = @AI?K>HEAH

I >EA =??E@A J= IK E JA ?E F=H= ?

AH= ? =IE ?=H =I IA = AI @A H=@E FH LA EA JAI @A ?EA ? =I KJE E =@=I A = ANF= IE = /H= -NF IE =I H=@E ? K E?=?E AI ? I E?=

@A 7 ELAHI O = H=@E=?E *EC *= C A E C I IAC

JEL=H

= JA H = @A

= ?K= A 7 ELAHI  =?E  A EJ=I# =I >IAHL= @= O JA A LE ?A JA = I

K AIJ=@ @A @A IE@=@ O JA FAH=JKH= FH ?JE?= A JA E ?E AI HA= E =@=I A =I JE =I @ ?=@=I ?

I=J EJAI C > I I KO ?

I? FE I @A KAL= JA?

C = JEA @A = HAB H =H A B H =

JA H = @A = /H= -NF IE

-IJ= JA H = D= FHA@E?D ? HHA?J= A JA ? I E?= IE J= >E

=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I @A = H=@E=?E H@E= AI @A DE@H CA ANF @H

=I =>K @= ?E=I FHE E? I ) ? JE K=?E IA C=

DA E O JH I A A A J I GK

>HALA A JA =I >=IAI JA HE?=I GKA @= IKIJA J = = ? I

@AH =
18  -?K=?E AI BK @= A J= AI

KO CH= AI?= = ? HHAIF C

@EA JA = @A ?

K I @A C= =NE=I$ A 7 E 

LAHI F=HA?A D

A A EI JH F

5A JH=J= @A K FHE ?EFE ? FAH E?= AI E @EHA??E AI FHELE ACE=@=I A

ANJA @E@ GKA E F E?= GKA

D=O HACE

# -IJHE?J= A JA D=> = @ IA FKA@A D=> =H @A K JEA F ?AH  F HGKA I ABA?J I ?K JE? I @A>EAH @ E =H A FI FHE AH I E IJ= JAI @A 7 ELAHI -I ? =H A FHE ?EFE @A JEA F  A A JEA F Gh/c5 1044 IACK @ I @ @A h AI = ? IJ= JA @A 2 = ? ) = A AHC = @A 2 = ? @A 2 = ?  F hc3 /G ? HHAIF @A K = JA FAH=JKH= @A 1032 GKA IA IKA A J =H ? = JA FAH=JKH= E E?E= @A 7 ELAHI 8AH 5 0=?O= ,A K @ ?K JE? = 7 ELAHI A ANF= IE $ 4A? H@A I GKA =I AIJHA =I IA =CHKF= A C= =NE=I GKA ? IJ= @A E AI @A E AI @A AIJHA =I O =I C= =NE=I B H = = IK LA ? K I @A C= =NE=I IJ=I IA @EIJHE>KOA A = A J I A B H = >=IJ= JA D C A= = KO CH= AI?= =

18  -+7)+1

-5 .7 ,) - 6) -5

"%

A AIF=?E ? I E?

I=

KO CH= AI?= =

I FHA?EI= A JA A AIF= = D C A A

?E ? I E? @A JHAI @E A IE EI JH F

AI AI K AIF=?E JHE@E A IE A B H = K EB H A

GKA AIJ A F A = ANF= IE

- @ I @E A IE F I A AIF=?E F = - IK JH=>= ?=I ?

AI ANEIJA @ I ? =IAI @A AIF=?E I D @A = CA

A I A EI JH

AJH = AK? E@E= = O = IKFAH ?EA @A K = AIBAH= = E@A= @A J - IK =H AIJA IACK @ @A A 7 ELAHI = @A K =

HECE = @A '% -E IJAE JKL

K = = = C = F=H= A AIF=?E ? I E?

= CH= AI?= = JA = = CA

AJH = @A = DEFAHIKFAH ?EA JHE@E A IE AI K AIF=?E HEA = E=

DEFAHAIBAH= A ?K=JH @E A IE IE AI GKA AI D EI C

@A JHAI @E A IA ?EAHH= I >HA

A A EI JH F

O GKA IEA @ ?KHL

I >HA I =

JHE?= @A AIF=?E JHE@E A IE E?E

= ?

=I FH FEA@=@AI = JAHE HAI IA

FKA@A >JA AH @A = @A ?E @A ?K=JH @E A IE

@A K = DEFAHAIBAH= @A H=@E R A K AIF=

%

AI 5E AIA AIF=?E

=@ EJA ?

H@A =@=I ?=HJAIE= =I

{x, y, z, w} = IKFAH ?EA @A = DEFAHAIBAH= AIJ @=@= F H x = R sen sen cos y = R sen sen sen z = R sen cos w = R cos ,
0  ?K= I=JEIB=?A = ? @E?E 18 

R 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + w 2
JHE?=

- AH?E?E ,A KAIJHA = F=HJEH @A =I A?K=?E AI = JAHE HAI GKA =

@A AIF=?E CA AH=@ AI

dl2 = R2 d2 + sen2 (d2 + sen2 d2 ) .

18 

,A@K ?= A A A A J @A L K A O ?= ?K A A L K A J J= @A AIJA AIF=?E A AH?E?E = DEFAHIKFAH ?EA @A K = DEFAHAIBAH= ? = FH FEA@=@ @A IAH D

% 5A JH=J= @A K

AI A

E? AIF=?E JHE@E A IE

A A EI JH F
AI ?

>LE= A JA ?K= GKEAH AIF=

JHE?= ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 + dw2

AIF=?E AK? E@E=

@A " @E A IE

"&

+)2 67

18 : + 5

/)

?E AK? E@E=

AI @A?EH F =

 JEA A J= >E

AIJ=I FH FEA@=@AI )IE EI = =@ DEFAH> E? ? =I

ANEIJA A JHAI @E A IE

AI JH JEF @A AIF=?E

EI =I FH FEA@=@AI 7 = B H = JHE@E A IE = D C

E?= @A AI?HE>EH =

JHE?= @A K AIF=?E

A A EI JH F AI 18 !

dl2 = R2 d2 + f 2 ()(d2 + sen2 d2 ) ,

@ @A f () = {sen(), , senh()} IAC F= DEFAH> E?

IE IA JH=J= @A K AIF=?E DEFAHAI

B HE?

HAIFA?JEL= A JA 5A @E?A GKA AIJ I JHAI ?=I I

? HHAIF

@A = AIF=?E I ?

?KHL=JKH= /=KIIE= = F IEJEL= ?AH

AC=JEL=

- F=HJE?K =H @A L K A - ? I EJ

I JHAI AIF=?E I A DEFAHAIB HE? AI A

E? GKA JEA A K

C = A DA?D @A GKA A AIF=?E IA= D

A A EI JH F IA

FKA@A E JAHFHAJ=H @A = IECKEA JA B H = ANEIJA K JEA F ? I E? t J= GKA A A AIF=?E JEA F @A ?K=JH @E A IE IKFAH ?EA t =? C IJ= JA ? HHAIF AI GKA HAFHAIA J= A 7 ELAHI AI D K =

@A = K AIF=?E @A JHAI @E A IE

A A EI JH F

+=@= FK J @A AIA AIF=?E GKA HAFHAIA J= K ? H@A =@=I AIF=?E= AI

@A C= =NE=I JEA A ?

=I O IK ?K=@HELA?J H @A LA ?E IJ= JA O= GKA @A FAH =

@=@ u @A>A IAH FAHFA @E?K =H = = DEFAHIKFAH ?EA t =? ? JH=HE u JA @H = K = FH OA??E

I >HA @E?D= IKFAH ?EA GKA H = JAHE H F @A

= EI JH F = @A K ELAHI .EC :  ,A

I @A@K?EH GKA =

JHE?= @A AIF=?E JEA F @A 7 ELAHI JEA A = B H =

ds2 = c2 dt2 + R2 (t)dl2 ,

@ @A t AI A JEA F FH FE @A K >IAHL=@ H A A AIF=?E ?

18 " K = A=

@A K ELAHI GKA AI u = {1, 0} - B=?J H @A AI?= = R(t) @AI?HE>A = ?KHL=JKH= @A = DEFAHIKFA ?EA AIF=?E= t = ? A = A?K=?E AI @A = ? I IJ= JA O KAC= K F=FA BK @= A J= =@ ? = @EIJ= ?E= H@A =@=I I

C = O= GKA AIJ HA =?E I K FK J A A

A JHA C= =NE=I 5E E =CE A O JH FK J A =?

HECA @A =I ?

H@A =@= AIF=?E= = @EIJ= ?E= AIF=?E= A JHA

18  -+7)+1

-5 .7 ,) - 6) -5

"'

@ I

A@E@= I >HA = DEFAHIKFAH ?EA t = ?

IJ= JA AI IAC

18 " 18 #

l(t) = R(t),
@A @ @A IA LA GKA = ANF= IE

@A 7 ELAHI AIJ @AI?HEJ= F H = BK ?E

R(t)
5A FKA@A @A CA AH= ? IJH=H HECKH I= A JA GKA = JHE?= AIF=?E JA F H= C I

= FH FEA@=@ @A GKA IK IA??E

AIF=?E= IA= D

A= A EI JH F= JHE?= @A

AI KIJ= A JA = 4 >AHJI

JHE?= @=@= F H = A? 18 " = ?K= IA = =

9= AH 7 = B H = = JAH =JEL= @A AI?HE>EH = AI

ds2 = c2 dt2 + R2 (t)

@ @A K0 AI K = ?

du2 + u2 (d2 + sen2 d2 ) , 1 K 0 u2

= I L= HAI   AC=JEL=

18 $ IE = ? =

IJ= JA GKA J

1 IAC
= HA =?E

IA??E ?

AIF=?E= JEA A ?KHL=JKH= F IEJEL= ?AH

H@A =@= AIJ @=@= A FH >=H B ?E

I JHAI ?=I I F H u = {sen , , senh } ? A JA JAIA GKA @A =?KAH@ ? =@E A IE AIJ= ? LA ?E

IA FKA@A ? =I JHAI ? @A 8A= 2=H= A CEJK@ I? ?

H@A =@=I AIF=?E= AI I

= AI O R(t) JEA A @E A IE

IA FH F=C= = K A A AIF=?E JEA F @A 4 >AHJI LEA A D=?AH K ?= >E @A ? H@A =@=I t @A

9= AH E@ ? 18 %

d = c
@ @A AI K F=H = AJH =@E A IE = =B H =

dt , R(t)
=@ ?

= GKA AIJ HA =?E

A JEA F

? I E?

JHE?= J

ds2 = R2 ( ) d 2 + d2 + f 2 ()(d2 + sen2 d2 ) ,

@ ? @A =D H= IA E JAHFHAJ= = R ? K = BK ?E

18 & =@=

@A L=HE=> A HA =?E AH =

tF H

A@E @A 18 %

= LA J= = @A F

JHE?= A AIJ= B H = @=@= F H ds2 = 0 A EJE@ IJ= JAI

AIJHE>= A GKA = A?K=?E J =K =B H =

F=H= = JH=OA?J HE= @A = K

KO IE F A O= GKA =

A= @A K ELAHI @A K B J

@AI@A A

HECA @A =I ?

H@A =@=I AIF=?E= AI AIJ @=@= F H O ?

#

+)2 67

18 : + 5

/)

O A ?

IA?KA ?E= IK JH=OA?J HE= ?

IEIJA IE F A A JA @A K = @A =I @ I JH=

HA?J=I = ?

IJ= JA A K @E=CH= = ? J

= JAHE H E F E?= GKA IE K K E A= I=I ? A K = IAF=H=?E

A K = C= =NE= Gem A EJA @ I IA = AI H@A =@= JA F H= K = >IAHL=@ H

A IK ?

JH= C= =NE= Gobs HA?E>EH AI=I @ I IA = AI ? I JEA F I FH FE I 18 % F H

EI = @EBAHA ?E=

2AH

A@E@ I A Gem O A Gobs @E AHA A JHA I J= J = H= A JHA I @ I JEA F I

@A>E@ = = HA =?E

FH FE I AIJ @=@= F H

tobs R(tobs ) = . tem R(tem )

5E A 7 ELAHI AIJ ANF= IE E F E?= GKA

18 ' = JAHE H A

R(tobs ) > R(tem ) O = A?K=?E

I FH ?AI I B IE? I @A F=I=@ IA LA A

= =?JK= E@=@ ?

JEA F ANF= @E@ ,A>E@ = = LA ?E@=@ 7 ELAHI =I EJ= @A = K A JEA F EA JH=I - = I A I IA LA A A

I =JH I IA LA A

EIEI = JAHE H E F E?= GKA I @AI@A C= =NE=I A = =I

A=I AIFA?JH= AI @A = K A EJE@= F H J K ? HHE EA J = H EI = @= 5E = I AIJ

I AC= ?

CEJK@ @A

@= HECE =

A JA

A EJE@= AH= 0 AI=

AC= @ D O = JEA F ? I E?

thoy ?

K E ?HA A J @=@ F H

1+z
@ @A z A = J=?E AIJ

0 + R(thoy ) = , 0 R(tem )
C= @AH = AI =

18  =C EJK@

@=H @A = ? I

@A ? HHE EA J = H 0K>> A @AI?K>HE = ANF= IE @A 7 ELAHI = J=H GKA ANEIJA K = HA =?E

@EHA?J= A JHA A ? HHE EA J = H

z O = @EIJ= ?E= @A =I C= =NE=I 5E AIA

FEA I= = =O H = @A I =I

? HHE EA J IA @A>A = ABA?J , FF AH ? JH B IE? I A

= =?JK= E@=@ = LA ?E@=@ @A HA?AIE A z

@A K = C= =NE= A = =

AI V = cz A K = FHE AH= =FH NE =?E ANFHAI=H A = B H = JH=@E?E =

= AO @A 0K>> A IA FKA@A

V = H0 l,

18 

18

,1

1+) + 5 1+)

#

@A l AI = @EIJ= ?E= = = C= =NE= O H0 AI = = =@= ? = B H K = 18 # FAH EJA HA =?E =H HA =?E

IJ= JA @A 0K>> A
=

=H A B=?J H @A AI?= = ?

IJ= JA @A 0K>> A IE = @EIJ= ?E= A JHA @ I C= =NE=I L=H = IAC J= @AHEL=@= ? ?AI HAIFA?J = t O = ? IJ= JA

(t) l = R
L=H = F=H=

A FK J @A

?=@= C= =NE= A J

H0 =
E F HJ= JA AI GKA J= J

(thoy ) R . R(thoy ) z ?
=

18   =I @EIJ= ?E=I

I ? HHE EA J I = H

= =I C= =NE=I IA FKA@A @AJAH E =H >IAHL=?E =?JK= A JA F=H= = ? IJ= JA @A 0K>> A AI&

A JA - L= H =?AFJ=@

H0 = 67 7 kms1 Mpc1 .
JAIA GKA H0 JEA A =I K E@=@AI @A E LAHI @A K JEA F GKA AGKEL= A =

(15 2) 109 =
7 ELAHI

?K= ? HHAIF

@A A

H@A

=C EJK@ = = A@=@ @A

18

,E

E?= ? I E?=

2=H= @AI?HE>EH = AL K?E

B IE?= @A 7 ELAHI A A

=H? @A = HA =JELE JHE?= 18 $ A A J GKA @AI?HE>= A = AI?= = ? I E?= KE@ FAHBA?J @=

@=@ CA AH= D=O GKA E JH @K?EH = B H = CA AH= @A = =I A?K=?E AI @A -E IJAE ? K JA I H @A A AHC = @A =JAHE= O H=@E=?E

=FH FE=@= A JA = @EIJHE>K?E 2=H= J=

IA KJE E = A JA I H @A A AHC =

A J @A K

@ F H = A? 81 $ ? A =I ?

K ?K=@HELA?J H K EJ=HE @A LA ?E@=@ u = (1, 0) 9= AH @A =?KAH@ ? A ?E =@ A

H@A =@=I @A 4 >AHJI = JAHE H >

= IA??E

,AIFK I @A ?= ?K =H I JHE?= @A 4 >AHJI IA AC= =

I @A +DHEIJ

A O JA I HAI @A 4E??E F=H= = =I A?K=?E AI @A -E IJAE

9= AH O IKIJEJKEH I A

A JA = =I IECKEA JAI B H K =I BK @= A J= AI F=H= A B=?J H @A

AI?= = R(t)

R 4G = 2 (e + 3p) R 3c

18 !
I K OK AC=

& I =IJH I FHA AHA A@EH @EIJ= ?E=I A F=HIA?I K F=HIA? AGKEL= A = ! $ = F=HIA?  F? AI K E @A F=HIA?I

+)2 67

18 : + 5

/)

R R
@A e AI = @A IE@=@ @A I =? @E?E

8G K 0 c2 c2 e + , 3c2 R2 3
@A

18 " KE@ ? I E?

=I= A AHC = O p = FHAIE @K?A = = HA =?E

)@A

T ; = 0 ?

R e = 3 (e + p). R
JAIA GKA AIJ=I JHAI 5 JE =I A?K=?E AI I

18 # E @AFA @EA JAI A JHA I A = FHAIE

B= J= AIFA?E ?=H K = A?K=?E

@A AIJ=@ GKA HA =?E

p?
I

= @A IE@=@ @A @ I ?=I I  4 CE A ? HHAIF

=I= A AHC = e F=H= =I HAI LAH =I A?K=?E @A = @ I HAC = FHAIE A AI AI

AI = JAHE HAI

I E F HJ= JAI ? HHAIF

E =@ F H =

=JAHE=

K = p = 0 -IJ A A

@A A K = >KA = =FH NE =?E AI @A = ?

= AIJ=@ =?JK= @A 7 ELAHI I

GKA =I FHAIE A ? F=H=?E

=JAHE= O @A = H=@E=?E

@A J @ @AIFHA?E=> AI = A? 18 # IA

= @A IE@=@ @A

=JAHE= - AIJA ?=I

FKA@A E JACH=H O IA JEA A

e(t) R3 (t),
?K= IE F A A JA E F E?= GKA = @A IE@=@ @A E LAHI= = L K A  4 CE A =I= IA @E KOA A FH F H?E

E =@ F H = H=@E=?E

= FHAIE

IA @A>A = F=HJ ?K =I AI

HA =JELEIJ= O = A?K=?E

@A AIJ=@ AI A AIA ?E= = @A K C=I @A B J @A = AIJ=@ E E?E= @A 7 ELAHI =O H A

p = e/3 -IJA H CE A ? HHAIF

= FHAIE @A H=@E=?E AH= K?D

?K= @

=C EJK@ GKA = @A IE@=@ @A = A? 18 # E F E?=

A AHC = A B H = @A

=JAHE= - AIJA ?=I

e(t) R4 (t).
5A JH=J= @A = ANF= IE =@E=> JE?= @A K C=I @A B J AI = @A IE@=@ @A

A AHC = IA @E KOA A FH F H?E " ! @

E LAHI= = L K A A AL=@ = = F JA ?E= @E E?= e = aSB T 4

I FHA?EI= A JA = B H K = > IE?= @A = JAH @A aSB AI = ? IJ= JA @A 5JAB= * J =

E F E?= GKA = JA FAH=JKH=

18

,1

1+) + 5 1+)

#!

@A 7 ELAHI A

=I F ?=I FHE

H@E= AI AH= E LAHI= A JA FH F H?E

= =

B=?J H @A AI?= = R AI @A?EH T R1 ALE@A JA GKA =JH I A A JEA F GKA = @A IE@=@ @A H=@E=?E @A IE@=@ @A =JAHE= GKA L= ? IJ= JA ? I A A

F=HJE?K =H @A = A? 18 " AI EJA R 0 DK> K = F ?= A = = R4 @ = IJ H E E =>= = = I =I ?E=@ I

GKA AI FH F H?E

R3 =I ?
CE?=

= ?KHL=JKH= O ? 8A= 

I =D H= = CK =I I K?E

AI IE F AI @A =I A?K=?E @A ? I

AI = JAHE HAI CE? GKA BKA

@A

@A -E IJAE

-IJA AI A FHE AH

FH FKAIJ F H -E IJAE A '% = JAI @A GKA IA @AI?K>HEAH= = ANF= IE ? I E?= 5A JH=J= @A K @A

AIJ JE? ?

R = ?

IJ= JA K0 = 1 O

p=0

=I A?K=?E

AI E F E?= GKA A H=@E @A K ELAHI AI R = 1/2 O IK = E@A= HECE = @A -E IJAE AH= K JAH=I 2=H= A IE A >=HC JKL

@A IE@=@ @A @A

=JAHE= AI = c2 /(4G)

@A K ELAHI ?AHH=@ FAH IE BH IJ= JA ? I

GKA E JH @K?EH = ? >=

CE?= F=H= @AJA AH A ? =FI @A K ELAHI ?

IK FH FE= CH=LA@=@ - J H E

=I A?K=?E

AI @A -E IJAE =  = AI?= =

? HHAIF

@A B IE?= A JA = K = AIFA?EA @A HAFK IE =JAHE=

CH=LEJ=?E

? I E?= E @AFA @EA JA @A =

@A
J J=

@A @A 5EJJAH' -I K K ELAHI AIF=?E=

A JA F =

K0 = 0

A JA L=? I

e = 0 O p = 0 + HHAIF
HACE@ F H = ?

@A =

EJA E@A= E =@ @A K CE?= = I K?E @A =

K ELAHI L=? A?K=?E IE ANF ? I

IJ= JA ? I

CE?= AI R(t) exp{(/3)1/2 ct} GKA HAFHAIA J= K = ANF= = JHE?= @A @A 5EJJAH BKA E F HJ= JA A IK @A KO IE F A @A K AIF=?E A ANF= IE A J IE

A ?E=

F HGKA HAFHAIA J=>= K =JAHE= ! ?E= @

@A

@A -E IJAE @A 5EJJAH + HHAIF

=? IJ= JA ? I = FHAIE

@A = J

=H = ?KHL=JKH= AIF=

K = K0 = 0 =I ? E =@ F H =

CE?= = 0 - A H CE A J J= AI @AIFHA?E=> A IA JEA A

=JAHE= ?K= @

R t2/3

EA JH=I GKA A A H CE A @
O =JA

E =@ F H = H=@E=?E
JE? D = @ I E JAHAI=@ A

p = e/3

' 9E A @A 5EJJAH &% '!" =IJH JELE@=@ CA AH=

= JA H = @A = HA =

#"

+)2 67

18 : + 5

/)

IA JEA A R t1/2 -IJA ? JE K=?E

@A

AI >=IJ= JA HA= EIJ=I O= GKA ?

IA LAH =

= ?KHL=JKH= @A K ELAHI F=HA?A IAH ABA?JEL= A JA K = @A @A -E IJAE @A 5EJJAH ?

- AH?E?E ,A KAIJHA GKA A A

2 1 = A@=@ @A K ELAHI AI 3 H0

p=0

A AH?E?E JAIA GKA A A?K=?E A ?=I @A K K ELAHI ? ?KHL=JKH= AIF=?E= ?AH =

> IE?= 18 " E F E?= GKA = @A IE@=@ @A =@= ?

2 H0 =

=I= A AHC = @A 7 E

LAHI AIJ HA =?E

=?

IJ= JA @A 0K>> A IE

8G e(thoy ) 3c2

K0 = 0 = ,

?K= ?

@K?A = @A

EH K = @A IE@=@ ?H JE?= ?

ecrit =

3c2 2 H . 8G 0

18 $

- IA JE@ B IE? @A AIJ= ?= JE@=@ AI = IECKEA JA = F=HJEH @A = A?K=?E 18 " IA FKA@A LAH GKA A A ?=I IE ? H= @A 7 ELAHI AI F IEJEL= =I= AI =O H A AC=JEL= IAC IJ= JA ? I CE?=  = ?KHL=JK

IE IK @A IE@=@ HA= @A A AHC = =O H = FH FE= CH=LA@=@ @A JH=??E ? I E?=

H GKA = ?H JE?= 5E AI

7 ELAHI @AJA @H IK ANF= IE 5E AI IE A H = ANF= IE

F=H= @=H E E?E = K = ?

? I E?= EH A BHA

@ IA FH CHAIEL= A JA FAH K ELAHI EJ A A

K ?= @AJA AHIA E EJ

A FHE AH ?=I IA JEA A K JAH= A JHA

IACK @ K L=JKH= ?AH

= BH

I @ I ?=I I ? HHAIF =HCE =

@A = K = ?KH AJAH =

GKA E F E?= K K ELAHI @A

A JA A ANF= IE

IA JH=J= KIJ= A JA @A

@A -E IJAE @A 5EJJAH I @A ?= JE@=@AI =@E IJ= JA @A

-I ? IJK >HA AI?HE>EH =I L=HE=> AI B IE?=I A J H E A IE

= AI KJE E = @ A L= H @A = @A IE@=@ ?H JE?= O = ? A

0K>> A )I IA @A

mat = mat c2 /ecrit , rad = erad /ecrit ,

2 = c2 /3H0 .

18

,1

1+) + 5 1+)

##

2 2 K = c2 K0 /H0 R (thoy ).

-IJ I F=H

AJH I ? I

CE? I I AI =IJH

KO E F HJ= JAI F HGKA IA FKA@A @A E?=I - J H E I @A A I = A?K=?E

@K?EH = F=HJEH @A >IAHL=?E 18 "J = =B H =

R R
@

z 1+z

2 2 = H0 mat (1 + z )3 + rad (1 + z )4 + + K (1 + z )2 ,

18 % @A IA D= J =@ A ?KA J= GKA = A AHC = AIJ ? =JAHE= O JH= = = H=@E=?E IA ? ?A ? FHA?EIE FKAIJ= @A @ I F=HJAI

K = =I ?E=@= = = - F=HJE?K =H ? I

AI @A?EH e = mat c2 + erad = JA FAH=JKH= @A 7 ELAH

= @A IE@=@ @A A AHC = @A = H=@E=?E = O ? HHAIF = =?JK= E@=@

IA FKA@A @A@K?EH @A = AO @A

5JAB= * J @AIFHA?E=> A A

@A = K L= H @A rad 5 105 @A J @

- AH?E?E ,A KAIJHA = A?K=?E

K = BK ?E @A JEA F ? I E?

18 % @

@A IA D= KJE E =@ = z ?

1 + z = R(thoy )/R(t) 4A?KAH@A GKA mat

R3 O erad R4
A AH?E?E ,=@ GKA z = 0 = JEA F =?JK= = A? 18 % E F E?= = HA =?E IE F A 18 & 2 H JH= F=HJA ?K= @ z @EA JA

mat + rad + + K = 1,
A = GKA IA FKA@A =FHA?E=H = ? EI = A?K=?E JHE>K?E @A ?=@= J H E J

AI ALE@A JA @A = A J H E @

GKA A A F=I=@ HA I @A

E = JA I >HA J @ I = FAI=H @A GKA A = AL K?E

I AH= = F=HJA ? HHAIF

= = H=@E=?E @AIFHA?E=> A A @A = ? @E?E

= =?JK= E@=@ KAC= K

F=FA @A J @

? I E?= A ?

IA?KA ?E= E @AFA @EA JA A JA KO JA FH= AIJ=>= @AI?HEJ

AI B IE?=I =?JK= AI A 7 ELAHI F H =

A K = >KA = =FH NE =?E

JHE?= @A -E IJAE @A5EJJAH ?

R(t)

t1/2 -IJ IA FKA@A LAH J= >E

=@ @AHA?D @ J H E E =A J H E

@EHA?J= A JA @A = A?K=?E @A H=@E=?E FH F H?E

18 " A IK I JH I

= = R4 =

I ?K= @ R 0

#$

+)2 67

18 : + 5

/)

- AH?E?E F H? F AJ

I FHE AH I E IJ= JAI @A 7 ELAHI =I JH=I B H =I @A A AHC = 6

= H=@E=?E

E =>=

= @ A ?KA J= GKA erad

R4 @A KAIJHA = IECKEA JA HA =?E

7 ELAHI t

A JHA = JA FAH=JKH= T O = A@=@ @A

T4 =
L E@= A I FHE AH I  E =

3c2 , 32GaSB t2
I =FH NE =@= A JA -NF ?EJ= A JA T

(1010

)t1/2 IE A JEA F IA
A AH?E?E
18 

E@A A IACK @ I

= JA H = @A = /H= -NF IE

A ?E

I = JAHE H A JA GKA K = @A =I ALE@A ?E=I AI = H=@E=?E

I E F HJ= JAI @

= B=L H @A = JA H = @A = /H= -NF IE ,A DA?D =I A@E?E AI D= = ?=

? I E?= @A B

=@ K CH=@ @A FHA?EIE

J= GKA HA @A K ?KAHF

FH @K?A AN=?J= A JA = B H K = @A 2 = ? F=H= = H=@E=?E ACH ? K AHH H @A =FA =I K = F=HJA A  E

?K= FAH EJA AIJ=> A?AH A LE @KH= JA IKI

= JA FAH=JKH= FHAIA JA @A 7 ELAHI A 2,728 CH=@ I ,A =?KAH@ ? FHE AH I = JA H = @A = /H= -NF IE I IA A ? AI O A A?JH I A A?JH

A 7 ELAHI

E AI @A =

JH=>= A K AIJ=@ @A F =I = K C=I E AI E>HAI = =@ = LA?AI A .KAC 2HE JE K= A JA ? AI JH= IF=HA JA = KO ? HJ I A A?JH I A J 2AH AI IA ?AI

E =@ B H =@ @A E

H@E=  ,A>E@ = GKA IB J AI F H

AI E>HAI E JAH=?J = ? FI K F =I = IB J

A@E @A ABA?J 6D E>HA

= H=@E=?E ?K= @ FK@EAH

O= GKA A ?= E

A@E @A =K =I I$

AI AI

= JA FAH=JKH= ? I E?= >= K EH = IE AI O IA B H =H

E CH=@ I

I FHE AH I J

A C=I ? I E? 2HE

= @A =H @A AIJ=H E

E =@

IA L LE JH= IF=HA JA A .KAC = FH F=C=HIA E>HA H@E=

H@E= IA =F=C  ) F=HJEH @A A J

?AI = K A FA

A JA F H A 7 ELAHI IA A ?KA JH= =?JK=

A A?JH
 = E JAH=??E

,A>E@ = = ANF= IE A JA =
A A?JH

? I E?= A .KAC 2HE E AI @A =

J AKJH AI

I @A !
=C JE?= ?

E
K

I K @A @EIJ= ?E=
A I E JA I= GKA ? K

E>HA

@A = H=@E=?E

18

,1

1+) + 5 1+)

#%

A J @=I =I @EHA??E AIJ = A = @ @A

AI @A 7 ELAHI = KAIJH = HA@A@ H O =IE EI K = LA ?E@=@ H@E=

IA

I JH I ?

KO ?AH?= = = = @A = K  C I AC= ? A K = CH= @EI E K

:  - HAIF = @ H @A .KAC 2HE ?E

@A A AHC = @A>E@ = ? HHE EA J = H @A = I $  CH=@ I A LE HA?E>E

KC=H @A = K LEIE> A GKA I H=@E=?E @A E?H A LE @=I

? HHAIF

GKA ? HHAIF HECE = =

@A = = A EJE@= F H K ?KAHF A JA 2A E=I O 9E I D=> =

ACH = >IAHL=@

% & CH=@ I = H=@E=?E

A K =I J @ I I

CEJK@ @A

@= FAH

=I >IAHL=?E

AI IK>IA?KA JAI ? IECKEAH @AI=HH

H =H

I @AJ= AI = I LA J=

=I J ? E?=I @A >IAHL=?E I IA D=> = @A

@ IA O A AI K = F = ? GKA IA CH

IJH=@ GKA AIJ= H=@E=?E C A= = CH= AI?= = IE

E= = FAHBA?J= O AI FH ?JE?= A JA D A@EH FAGKA =I L=HE=?E CH=@ @EAH ? HHAIF GKA IA IKF

AI @A JA FAH=JKH= @A @A = HACE = JA H =

H@A @A @EA

E IE =I @A H@E= GKA = ?D=I F IJAHE

A ? HHAIF

AI @A .KAC 2HE I =?AFJ=@= AI=I JH= AH

HECA = =I C= =NE=I 5AC @A = =I ECAH= A JA

I @A I=I GKA IA ?

H A JA @A>E@ = IK AN?AI @A FH IECKE A FA A =C =?

=I= 5E =

=I= AH= IK ?EA JA A ? =FI O ?=@= FA@= I IA B H =H =I ECAH I K FAH E@A K I I

A J IA FH @K

K = BH=C A J=?E E AI @A =

@A I=HIA D=IJ= GKA = ?=> @A

=I FHE AH=I AIJHA =I =CHKF=@=I A C= =NE=I 1 E?E= = A JA I @A I=I JA = K J= = @A 7 ELAHI AI @A = IJ= I K J FE? @A K

A JA AI=I I  E =

@A>E@ = = ANF= IE =D H= K I ! E

=I AIJHK?JKH=I GKA HECE =H .KAH A HECA @A I IKFAH?

@A C= =NE=I GKA ? J= =

@A @A?A =I

?A JA =I @A C= =NE=I @A J @ I E AI @A AIJHA =I = /H= -NF IE

I O B H =I ?=@= K = ?

E AI @A

3K J=

A I IA FKA@A LAH A A 7 ELAHI A JA = K I " E 2AH E

GKA IA

A ?KA JH= =?JK= A D HE

AI @A =

I K @A @EIJ= ?E= AI

JA ?=KI= @A 7 ELAHI

A HA= E@=@ J= F ? AI =??AIE> A = AI E I A= EJ I= AIJ ?K J=

KAIJH= LEIE

F HGKA IK ? HHE EA J = H H@E= GKA AI

@AJH I @A .KAC 2HE

GKA F @A

I LAH LAH .EC

#&

+)2 67

18 : + 5

/)

:  )?JK= =I JEA A A JA A @A ? I CE? @A .HEA@ = I F=H GKA A H A ?= = ? CE? I

>IAHL=?E

AI =IJH

E?=I E F E?= GKA

AJH I ? I

I IECKEA JAI L= HAI

mat

osc

0,22

mat

bar

0,04

0,74

0.
O =

6= F=HA?A FKAI GKA A 7 ELAHI = CH= AI?= = AI AIF=?E= =JAHE= ? ? JHE>KOA ?

A JA F =

=FA =I K " F H ?EA J @A = =JAHE= = C I F=H

=I= A AHC =

J J= @A 7 ELAHI

IEA @ A HAIJ @A =

JEF @A F=HJ ?K = CE? I =

AN JE?= 2 H JH= F=HJA AIJ I L= HAI @A = A@=@ @A 7 ELAHI A ! % =F=C A .KAC 2HE = E

AJH I ? I I OA

AI @A =

A J A GKA IA E

H@E= O A AIF=?E IA L LE JH= IF=HA JA A !&

I @AIFK I @A = /H= -NF IE - DA?D @A GKA = ? EIJAHE IJ= JA ? I CE?= F=HA?A IAH K = AI K CH= @A 7 ELAHI

HA A = A @AI?K>HE A J HA?EA JA @A GKA = ANF= IE

F=HA?A =?A AH=HIA = CH= @EIJ= ?E=  = AO @A 0K>> A AI K = =FH NE =?E E A= F=H= ? K I @A C= =NE=I HA =JEL= A JA ?AH?= @A = ? IJ= JA ? I I 5A D= LKA J ? I =I A?K=?E AI @A

JK >HA =I ?E=H A J H E

CE?= A

-E IJAE = K JA I H @A A AHC = ?K= E F E?= K = A?K=?E AI AC=JEL= O @A = ) CK I ? I EI =

A J J= GKA (8G/3c2 )T = g = GKA = FHAIE 

@A AIJ=@ AN JE?= p = eV A

=C EJK@ GKA K = ?EAHJ= @A IE@=@ @A A AHC = eV FH @K?E

C I FEA I= GKA IA JH=J= @A = A AHC = @A L=? AI ?K

@= F H  K?JK=?E

JE?=I @A L=?  O = = = A AHC = I?KH= IK IK AJ I @A @A>=JAI @A = =JAHE= =I >IAHL=?E AI =IJH AI AKJH E AI O

F IE> A ANEIJA ?E= O HECA I - ?K= J = = ? JHE>K?E

?=I E @E?= GKA =  =JAHE= ? A A?JH AI I

 =GKA = DA?D= @A FH J

HAFHAIA J= K = FAGKA = BH=??E I F=H AJH I -IJA AI A B=

@A J @= =

=JAHE= A?A E?

I=HE= F=H= = KIJ=H @A = A

I FH > A = =IJH

=JAHE= B= J= JA GKA IKCEAHA = F IE>E E@=@ @A GKA A 7 ELAHI AIJ @A = C JEF @A  =JAHE= I?KH= >=HE E?= GKA A EJA E CK

18

,1

1+) + 5 1+)

#'

= K =JH=??E )

F H

GKA I

IA FKA@A @AJA?J=H E @EHA?J= A JA F H = BKAH = @A = GKA A AH?A I >HA JH I ?KAHF I LEIE> AI = =F=HA JA ANF= IE =?A AH=@= @A HAIKA J I

CH=LEJ=?E

A J @A AI?HE>EH AIJA JANJ

7 ELAHI O = =JKH= A = @A = I E F HJ= JAI @A = ? I

=JAHE= I?KH= I C= @AH =

I FH > A =I

$

+)2 67

18 : + 5
/4). )

/)

*1* 1

ELA @ELK C=?E

5 0=?O= 5 0=?O= 5 0=?O= 5 0=?O= '&$ - @AI?K>HE EA J @A 7 ELAHI '&& .+-

I D O I ACH I O = ?KHL=JKH= @A AIF=?E JEA F .+-

'&' 4A =JELE@=@ F=H= FHE ?EFE= JAI .+''" ,A

K @ ?K

JE? = 7 ELAHI A ANF= IE

.+-

ELA
,

I =L= =@
= @=K O EBIDEJ '%! +KHI @A .EIE?= 6A HE?= 8 =

6A HE=

+ =IE?= @A += F I 4ALAHJA *=H?A

2 2HAII 4

- 2AA> AI ''! 2HE ?EF AI B 2DOIE?= + I

CO 2HE ?AJ

7 EL

9= @ '&" /A AH= 4A =JELEJO 7 ELAHIEJO B +DE?=C 2HAII

5 9AE >AHC '%

/H=LEJ=JE

= @ + I

CO 2HE ?EF AI = @ =FF E?=

I

JE

I B JDA CA AH= JDA HO B HA =JELEJO

D 9E AO = @ I