r

X PREFACE
Within the United States, satellites are not used for telephone (voice) links. The de-
velopment of terrestrial optical fiber links has made satellite transmission of telephone
traffic uneconomic, and the delay associated with GEO satellite link is a nuisance.
Domestic satellites serving the United States now carry video signals for distribution to
cable TV companies or direct to homes and serve networks of VSAT stations linked to
central hubs in major cities. The development of direct'to home satellite broadcast tele-
vision (DBS-TV) has had a major impact on the marketplace. In rhe United States, digi-
tal DBS-TV transmissions are nw received in 15 million homes (2001 figure), and in
Europe a similar number of homes receive satellite television programming. Video distri-
bution, to cable companies and direct to home, accounts for more than half of all the
worldwide earnings from satellite communication systems.
The authors would like to thank
heir colieagues and students who, over the years,
have made many valuable suggestions to improve this text. Their advice has been heeded,
and the second edition of Satellite Communication is the better for it. Many more worked
examples have been added to the second edition to illustrate how calculations are carried
out for each topic.
CONTEN']
--t
Preface ix
1. Intr
l.l Bacl
1.2 A Br
I.3 Sate
l.:l Over
1.5 Slrm
Relerence:
2. Orbi
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Orbi
Deve
Kepl
l)esc
Loca
Loca
Orbit
Exan
Exan
Exan
Look
The I
Elev
Azirn
Speci
Visib
Exan
Orbit
Long
Inclir
Exarr
Orbit
Launr
Expei
Placir
Orbitr
Dopp
Exarn
Rangr
Sola
Sun 1
CONTENTS
'oice) links. The de-
ission
of telePhone
link is a nuisance'
s for distribution
to
T stations
linked to
llite broadcast
tele-
United
States,
digi-
1001 figure),
and in
nming.
Video distri-
than half of all the
vho, over the
Years'
ce has been heeded'
ManY more worked
:ulations are carried
Preface ix
1- Introduction I
1.1 Background 1
1.2 A Brief History of Satellite Communications
3
1.3 Satellite Communications in 2000 6
I 4. Overview of Satellite Communications
15
1-5 Summary l6
Refercnces l6
2. Ortlital Mechanics and Launchers 17
Orbital Mechanics 11
Developing the Equations of the Orbit l1
Kepler's Three Laws of Planetary Motion 22
Describing the Orbit of a Satellite 23
Locating the Sateilite in the Orbit 25
Locating the Satellite with Respect to the Earth 21
Orbital Elements 29
Exampie 2.1.1 Geostationary Satellite Orbit Radius 29
Example 2.l.2Low Earth Orbit 29
Example 2.1.3 ElliPtical Orbit 30
Look Angle Determination
30
The Subsatellite Point 31
Elevation Angle Calculation 32
Azimuth Angle Calculation 34
Specialization to Geostationary
Satellites 35
Visibil Test 36
Example 2.2.1 Geostationary
Satellite Look Angles 36
OrbitalPerturbations
38
Longitudinal Changes: Effects of the Earth's Oblateness 39
Inclination Changes: Effects of the Sun and the Moon 40
Example 2.3.1 Drift with a Geosttionary Satellite 42
2.4 Orbit Determination
42
2.5 Launches and Launch Vehicles 43
Expendable Launch Vehicles
(ELVs) 44
Placing Satellites into Geostationary Orbit 48
2.6 Orbital Effects in Communications
Systems Performance 49
Doppler Shift 49
Example 2.6.1 Doppler Shift for a LEO Satellite 50
R.ange Variations 51
Solar EcliPse 51
Sun Transit Outage 53
2.1
2.2
2.3
I
i
!
t
I

I
t

l
t*
xt
XTI SONTENTS
2;7 Summary 54
References 54
Problems 55
3. Satellites 57
3.1 Satellite Subsystems 51
Attitude and Orbit Control Systern
(AOCS)
57
Telemetry, Tracking, Command and Monitoring (TTC&M)
Power System 59
Communications Subsysterns 59
Satellite Antennas 59
3.2 Attitude and Orbit Control System
(AOCS)
60
Attitude Control System 60
Orbit Control System 66
3.3 Telemetry, Tracking, Command, and Monitoring 68
Telemetry and Monitoring System 68
Tracking 68
Command 10
3.4 Power Systems 71
3.5 Communications Subsysterns 12
Description of the Communications Systeur 12
Transponders 75
3.6 Satellite Antennas 80
Basic Antenna Types and Relationships 80
Example 3.6.1 Global Beam Antenna 82
Example 3.6.2 Regional Coverage Antenna 83
Satellite Antennas in Practice 83
3.7 Equipment Reliability and Space
Qualification
87
Space
Qualification
87
Reliability 88
Redundancy 90
3.8 Summary 92
References 93
Problems 93
4. Satellite Link Design 96
4.1 Introduction 96
4.2 Basic Transmission Theory 100
Example 4.2.1 lO4
Exanryle 4.2.2 104
4.3 System Noise Temperature and G/T Ratio
Noise Temperature 105
Calculation of System Noise Temperature
Example 4.3.1 110
Example 4.3.2 110
Noise Figure and Noise Temperature 111
Example 4.3.3 112
GIT Ratio for Earth Stations 112
Example 4.3.4 ll2
59
4.4 Der
Lin
Lin
4.5 Sar
Dir
Ex;
1.6 Upl
E,I;,
4.7 Dei
Exa
Ove
upl
upl
Dor
Syst
Satf
4.8 Srsl
Sysl
Ku
Ku.
Rair
S urr
Syst
L,
Inbo
Mot
Sate
Outt
Dow
Opti
Linl
Rain
Path
Sum
4.9 Sum
References
Problems
105
rc1
5.1
5.2
5. Mod
Freqr
Wave
Band
Basel
Pre-e
Pre-e
Anal
Telel
S/N
Exan
v
4.4
4.5
.t*l*l::
,,,f,fi
OONTENTS
Xi
Design of Downlinks ll2
Link Budgets I 13
Link Budget Example: C-Band Downlink for Earth Coverage Beam 115
Satellite Systems Using Small Earth Stations 117
Direct Broadcast TV 118
Example 4.5.1 123
Uplink Design 124
Exampie 4.6.1 121
Design for Specified C/N: Combining C/N and C/I Values in Satellite Links 121
Example 4.7.1 129
Overall (C/N)o with Uplink and Downlink Attenuation 129
Uplink and Downlink Attenuation in Rain 130
Uplink Attenurtion and (C/N),, 130
Downlink Attenuation and (C/N)u" 131
Systern Design tbr Specihc Performance 131
Satellite Communication Link Design Procedure 131
System Design Examples 132
System Design Example 4.8.1 133
Ku Band Uplink Design 133
Ku Band Downlink Design 134
Rain Effects at Ku Band 135
Summary of Ku Band Link Performance 131
System Design Example 4.8.2 Personal Communication System Using
Low Earth Orbit Sateilites 131
Inbound Link: Mobile Terminal to Gateway Station l4I
Mobile Terminal ro Satellite Link 142
Satellite to Gateway Station Link 143
Outbound Link 144
Downlik C/N Budget 145
Optimizing System Performance L46
Link Margins with FEC 147
Rain Attenuation at Ku Band 147
Path Blockage at L-Band 149
Summary of L-band Mobile PCS System Performance 149
46
A1
+-t
4.8
4.9 Summary 150
References 150
Problems 151
5. Modulation and Multiplexing Techniques for Satellite Links 156
Frequency Modulation l5l
Waveform Equation for FM 158
Bandwidth of FM Signals: Carson's Rule 159
Baseband S/N Ratio for FM Signals 159
Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis 16l
Pre-emphasis 162
Analog FM Transmission by Satellitc l&
l*l*ision Siguals io5
S/N R.atios for FM Video Transmissior i6i
Example 5.2.1 168
5.1
5.2
i
I

F
t
L
w
,ii'
.::'
t:
5.3
XIV CONTEITTS
FM Threshold
168
SCPC FM Links 169
Example 5.2.2 L70
Data Transmission Using Analog FM Channels 170
Example 5.2.3 171
Digital Transmission 112
Baseband Digital Signals 172
Ba-ehand Transrnission of Digital Data 112
Band-pass Transmission of Digital Data 119
Example 5.3.1 181
Exarnple 5.3.2 18l
Transmission of
QPSK
Signals through a Bandlimited Channel
Exarnpie 5.3.3 185
Example 5.3.3 185
Digitai Modulation and Demodulation 187
Terminology 187
Modulation and Coding 187
Bit and Symbol Error Rates 188
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) 189
Probability of a Symbol Error 191
BPSK Bit Error Rate 194
QPSK
Bit Error Rate 194
Example 5.4.1 195
Exarnpie 5.4.2 191
Generation of
Quadrature
Phase Shift Ke-ving (QPSK) Signals
QPSK
Variants 199
5.5 Digital Transmission of Analog Signals 201
Sampling and
Quantizing
2Al
Nonuniform Quantization:
Compression and Expansion 204
Signal-to-Noise Ratio in Digital Voice Systems 206
Digital Television 208
5.6 Time Division MulPlexing 209
TDM Terminology: The U-S. T1 24-Channel System 29
other TDM Systems zll
Channel Synchronization in TDM 212
5.7 Summary 212
References 213
Problems 214
6. Multiple Access 221
6.1 Introduction 22I
6.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) 223
Intermodulation 226
Intermodulation ExamPle 228
Calculation of C/N with Intermodulation Z3O
Example 6.2.1 Power Sharing in FDMA 231
Example 6.2.2 Channel Capacity with Demand Access FDMA 232
Tirne Division Multiple,{"ccess
(TDMA) 233
Bits, Symbois, and Cbarels 234
TDMA Frame Structure 235
Ex
Re
Un
Gu
Sy
T.,
Ex
Ex
Sa
6.4 Or
Ba
Sa
6.5 De
Ex
6.6 Ra
6.1 Pa
6.8 Cc
Sp
D:
Ex
Ex
Ex
6.9 Su
Reterencr
Problems
7. Er
182
-5.-1
r98
6.3
1.t Er
1.2 Cl
1.3 Er
E)
Li
Gr
1.4 Pe
1.5 Ct
7.6 in
E)
7.7 Cr
1.8 Tt
7.9 St
Referenc
Problemr
8. Pr
8.1
8.2
8.3
In
a
L.
PI
A
C
ooNTEtTS XV
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.1
6.8
Example 6.3.1 TDMA in a Fixed Station Network 231
Reference Burst and Preamble 238
Unique Word 239
Guard Times 241
Synchronization in TDMA Networks 242
Transmitter Power in TDMA Networks 243
Example 6.3.2 TDMA in a VSAI Network 244
Example 6.3.2 TDMA in a Fixed Earth Station Network 244
Satellite Switched TDMA 246
Onboard Processing 246
Baseband Processing Transponders 241
Satellite Switphed TDMA with Onboard Processing 248
Demand Access Multiple Access
(DAMA) 249
Example 6.5.1 FDMA-SCPC-DA
252
Random Access 254
Packet Radio Systems and Protocols 254
Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) 251
Spread Spectrum Transmission and Reception 258
DS-SS CDMA CaPacitY 262
Example 6.8.1 CDMA in a Fixed Earth Station Network 263
Example 6.8.2 CDMA in an LEO Sateilite Netu'ork 263
Example 6.8.3 GPS 264
6.9 Summary 266
References 261
Problems 261
7. Error Control for Digital Satellite Links 273
7.1 Error Detection and Correction 213
7.2 Channel CapacitY 275
7 -3 Error Control Coding 271
Example 7.3.1 278
, Linear and CYclic Block Codes 279
Golay Codes 280
7 -4 Performance of Block Error Correction Codes 281
7.5 Convolutional Codes 282
7.6 Implementation of Error Detection on Satellite Links 284
Example 7.6.1 287
7.7 Concatenated Coding and Interleaving 288
7.8 Turbo Codes 290
7.9 Summary 292
References 292
Problems 293
8. Propagation Effects and their Impact on satellite-Earth Links 295
8.1 Introduction 297
8.2 Quantifying
Attenuation and Depolarization 298
Example 8.2.1 301
8.3 Propagation Effects that Are Not Associated with Hydrometeors 306
Atmospheric AbsorPtion 307
Cloud Attenuation 308
8.4
8.5
Xr, GoNTENTS
Tropospheric Scintillaon and [,ow Angle Fading 308
Faraday Rotation in the Atrnosphere 310
Ionospheric Scintillations 312
Rain and Ice Effects 312
CharacterizingRain 312
Rain Climate Maps 314
Rainfall Rate Exceedance Contour Maps I l5
Raindrop Distributions 315
Prediction of Rain Attenuation 317
Example 8.5.1 319
Example 8.5.2 323
Calculation of Long-Term Statistics for NGSO Systems
Scaiing Attenuation with Elevation Angle and Frequency
Cosecant Law 325
Example 8.5.3 325
Squared Frequency Scaling Law 326
Example 8.5.4 326
ITU-R Long-Term Frequency Scaling of Rain Attenuation 326
8.6 Prediction of XPD 326
Canting Angle 328
Tilt Angle 328
Example 8.6.1 330
Example 8.6.2 331
Ice Crystal Depolarization 332
Rain Effects on Antenna Noise 332
Example 8.6.3 333
Propagation Impairment Countermeasures 333
Attenuation 333
Power Control 334
Signal Processing 335
Diversity 335
Depolarizatior 337,
8.8 Summary 338
References 339
Problems 340
9. VSAT SYSTEMS 343
9.1 Introduction 343
9.2 Overview of VSAI Systems 345
9.3 Network Architectures 347
One-Waylmplementation 347
Spt-Two-Way (Split IP) Implementation 347
Two-Way Implementation 348
9.4 Access Control Protocols 349
Delay Considerations 351
9.5 Basic Techniques 354
Multiple Access Selection 355
Signal Forrnats 362
Modulation, Coding, and Interference Issues 362
9.6 VS
Ant
Tra
9.1 Cal
9.8 Sys
Des
sys
Prel
Linl
Inbr
Inb<
Out
Sysr
9.9 Son
9.1 0 Sun
References
Problerns
10. Lon
10. I Intrc
IA.2 Orbi
Equi
Inclr
Eilip
Molr
Radi
Sun
10.3 Covr
Gen<
Freq
Elevl
Num
Off-r
Dete,
Radi;
Proje
10.4 Dela'
10.5 Syste
Incre
Interi
Replt
End-t
10.6 Operi
Ellipr
Globr
New
Iridii
Orbci
Skyb:
324
325
8.1
Wi
16
,,
OONTENTS XrlII
9.6 VSAI Earth Station Engineering 366
Antennas 366
Transmitters and Receivers 367
9.7 Calculation of Link Margins fbr a VSAI Star Network 370
9.8 Systeln Design Procedure: Example 9.1 372
Description of System 313
Systern Parameters 373
Preliminary Calculations 371
Link C/N Ratios 315
Inbound Links 316
Inbound Links with 270 Channels 378
Outbound Links 379
Systern Analr sis 380
9.9 Sorne New Developments 383
9.10 Sulttttrar .rSl
References 385
Problems
-185
10. Lorv Earth Orbit and Non-Geostationar' Satellite Systems 388
10. I Introduction 389
10.2 Orbit Considerations 391
Equatorial Orbits 391
inclined Orbits 392
Elliptical Orbits 394
Molniya Orbit 396
Radiation Effects 398
Sun Synchronous Orbit 403
10.3 Coverage and Frequency Considerations 406
General Aspects 406
Frequency band 406
ElevationAngle Considerations 408
'
Number of Beams per Coverage 4ll
Off-Axis Scanning 412
Determination of Optimum Orbital Altitude 418
Radiation Safety and Satellite Telephones 420
Projected NGSO System Customer Service Base 420
10.4 Delay and Throughput Considerations 421
10.5 System Considerations 423
Incremental Growth 424
Interim Operations 424
Replenishment Options 424
End-to-EndSystemlmplernentation 425
10.6 Operational NGSO Constellation Designs 425
Ellipso 425
Globalstar 426
New ICO 428
Iridium 428
()rbcomm
429
Skybridge 429
,
1r
xvi coNrENrs
Teledesic 430
Example 10.6.1 System Design 432
10.7 Summary 434
References 434
Problems 435
11. Direct Broadcast Satellite'Ielevision and Radio 439
I1.1 C-Band and Ku-Band Home Sateliite TV 440
ll.2 Digital DBS TV 141
11.3 DBS-TV Systern Design 441
ll.4 DBS-TV Link Budget 449
I 1.5 Error Control in Digital DBS-TV
I 1.6 Master Control Station and Uplink
I I .1 Installation of DBS-TV Antennas
I 1.8 Satellite Radio Broadcasting 455
1i.9 Summary 4-56
References 45'7
450
452
454
Appendir
Appendir
Glossary
lndex 5i
12. Satellite Navigation and the Global Positioning System 458
l2.l Introduction 458
12.2 Radio and Satellite Navigation 461
12.3 GPS Position Location Principles 463
Position Location in GPS 464
GPS Time 466
12.4 GPS Receivers and Codes 467
The C/A Code 468
12.5 Satellite Signal Acquisition 470
L2.6 GPS Navigation Message 472
12.1 GPS Signal Levels 413
12.8 Timing Accuracy 475
12.9 GPS Receiver Operation 476
12.10 GPS C/A Code Accuracy 480
Dilution of Precision: HDOP, VDOB and GDOP 481
l2.ll Differential GPS 482
12.12 Summary 484
References 485
Problems 485
Appendix A Decitels in Communications Engineering 487
Appendix B FDM/I1\,I/FDMA Analog Telephone TFansmission 491
Baseband Voice Signal 491
Voice Signal Multiplexing 493
Frequency Modulation with Multipiexed Telephone Signals 496
Bandwidth Caiculation for FDM/FM Telephone Signals 497
Telephone Performance Specihcations 498
PracticalExarrples 499
Example B.1 499
ExamPle 8.2 503
References 503
Appendix c complementary Error Function erfc(x) and
Q
Function
O(z)
Equivalenee Forrnuls and Tables of \Ialues 504
Referenees 504
'.
Appendix D The Simple Attcnuation Model
57
ExamPle D.l 511
References 51?.
Glossary 513
Index 522
.96
INTRODUCTTON
1.1 BACKGBOUND
Two developmerts in the tuentieth centurl changed the r.vay people lived: the automobile
and telecommurications. Prior to the wide.spread availability oi personal automobiles, ir-
dividuls hael to travel on lbot. hy bicycle, c.rr on horsehack. Trains provicled faster travel
between ciies. bx he lire.s of nrost people werc cenlered on their honretowns and inr-
mediate surr<rundingi. A
joume_r'of 100 ruiles sas a major e.rpedition tbr nost people.
and the eary mohilitl' that u e all take for sranted in the twen!'"first century was unknown.
Before the telegraph and telephone canle into u'idespread use. all communication was
face-to-face, or in uriiing, tf you wanted to talk Io solleone..vou had to travel to meet
with that perrion. ,n6 1r,el $'as slo' and arduous. If you rvanted to send informatisn, it
had to b,e
',vritten
don'n and the papers hand carried to their destination.
Telecomnunication svster'rs hart norv made it possible to colnmunicate with virtu-
ally anyone at any time. Earll'telegraph and telephone svstems used copper wire to carry
signals over the earth's surtace and acros oceans. and high tiequency (HF) radio, also
commonly called short rvave radio, made possible intercontinental telephone links. Arti'
ficial earth satellites have been used in communications systems for more than 35 years
apd have become an essential part of the world' telecommunications infrastructure. Sa1ell
litss allow people to talk by telephone and exchange electronic mail from anywhere in
tle world and to receive hundreds of TV channels in rheir homes.
The origins of satellite comrnunications can be traced to an article rvritten by
Arthur C. Clarke in the British radio magazine Wireless World in 1945. At the time,
ClarkE was serving in the British Royal Air Force, and was interested in long-distance
radio eommunieation. He later beeame famous es the author of 2001: A pace Qdyssey,
aud other scienco fico4 booksr. In 1945, HF radio was the only available method for
radio communicarion over transconnental distances, and it was not at all reliable.
unspots and ionospheric disturbances could disrupt HF radio links for days at a time.
Telegraph cabtes had been laid across the oceatrs as early as the mid-lE00s, but cables
capable of carrying voice signals across the Atlantic did not begin service until 1953.
Clarke susgesrd tbar a radlo rclay satellite ir an equatorial orbit with period of.24 h
would remain stationary with rcspect to the eamh's surface and make possible long.
distance radio nks. At the time Clarke wrote, there were no satellites in orbit nor rockets
powerful enough to laucb them. Buf his ideas fpf
yhat we now knov as a ggesIstienery
satellite syslem were ilol sclence flction. as the launch of the Russian satellite putnik
in 1957 was to prove. In 1965 the first geostationary satellite, Early Bird, began
to provde telephone service across the Atlantic Ocean, fullling Clarke's vision of
20 years eadier.
Satellite cornmunication systems were originally developd to provide long-distance
telephone service. In the late 1960s, launch vehicles had been developed that could place
a 500 kg satellite in geastationaqy earth orbii ICEO with a capacity of 5000 telephone
circuits, marking e stat of an era of expansion for telecommunication satellites.
Geostationary satellires were soon carrying transoceanic and transcontinental telephone calls.
2 cHAPTER.. !rgsDucfloN
For the first time; live television links could be established across the Aantic and Pacific
oseans to cany news and spoing events.
The geostationary orbit is prefened for all high capacity comrnunieation satellite
systems because a satellite in GEO appears to be stationary over a fixed point on the
ground. It can estlblish lirrks to one-third of the earth's surface using tixed antennas at
the earth s(ations. This is particularlv valuable for bfoadcasfing. as a single satellite can
sL'r've an entire conlincnl. Direct broadcast satellite television (DBS-TV) and the distri-
hution oi vicieo sigrtal: for cablc' tclevision reirvorks a'e thc largest single revenue soi"ce
for geostationary satelli{e.. riccounting for $ l 7 B in revenues in I998. By year 200 1. nearly
200 GEO communication satellites rvere
jn
orbit, serving every part of the globe. Although
television accourrts for much of the tratfic caried by these satellites. international and
regional telephon,. data trrrnsmission. and lnternet access are also irnportant. ln the pop-
ulated parts of the u.orld. the geostalionary orbit i.s trlled with sateliiies every l" or 3o
opcrating in almost ever) ltr-ailatrle frequency band.
GEO satellites have sroun steadily in weight. size, iit-etime. and cost over the vcars.
Sorne ol the largest satellitcs launchc'd to date are the KH and Lacrosse surr,eillance satel-
lites of the U.S. Nationai Rcconnaissance Ofce weighing an estinrated 1.1,600 kg t"10.1100
lb)'t. Bi 2000. connicrcial teleconiilrunications satellites weighirrg 6000 kg with lit'etimes
of 15 years u'ere being ltrnched irrto geostationary orbit at a typical cost around Stl,5 i\,f
for the satellite anrl launch. The revenue earning capacity of these satellites must r-xceed
$2O M per year lor the lenture to be prof,rtable, and they nrust colnpete
rith
optir-:rl trbers
in carrying voice. data. and lideo signals. A single optical hber can carrv 4.5 Gbps. a ca-
pacity similar to that r:f the largest GEO satellites" and optical fibers are never laid singl,
but always in bundles. But GEO satellites can compete effeetively on fleribility of delii'ery
point- Any place rvithin the .saellite co!'erage can be sened by simply installin-e ar earfh
terminal. To do the same x ith a tiber-optic link requires hber to be laid. Fiber-optic trans-
mission systems compeJe effectively with satellites where there is a requirement for high
capacity or, equivalently. shen the user density exceeds.the required economic theshoid.
GEO satellites har,e been supplemented by low and medium earth orbit satellites for
special applications. Low earth orbit
(LEO)
satellites can provide satellite telephone and
data services over continents or over the entrre world, and by 2000 three systems were in
orbit or nearing pompletion, with a total of 138 LEO satellites. LEO satellites arc also
used for earth imaging and surveillance. Althopgh not strictly a satellite csmmunications
system, the Global Positioning System (GPS), which uses 24 medium earth orbit (MEO)
--
1.2 I
EOM1
t
t.
'l
d
tl
a
o
C
u
1
tl
tr
a
^:
tl
The high capacity of both optical ben arid satellites,
and the steady move of telecomnunicaoas traffic
from analog sigaals to digital has lowercd e cqst of
long-distance telephone calls and increased enor-
mously the nuruber of cicuits available. In 1960, prierr
to thc sdvcnt of satcllitc comnrunications, e United
States had 550 or.erseas telephone cicuits. Calls to
Europe cosl more than $1 per minute at 1960 prices.
and had to be placed through an opemtor. u'ith delays
of manv hours being comnror. In 2000. virtually all
international calls could be dialed b-v the end user. and
rates to Europe had dropped to beiow.0.10 perminute.
Ib put the reduction in thc cost of an international tele-
phone call in perspecr'g we must remember at in'
comes have risen sipicantly over fhis time period.
In the 1950s, a typical blue-collar wage was $1.50 per
hour, so a blue-collar worker hd tn work for 40 min
to pay for a call to Eumpe, ignoring any tar deduc-
tions. ln 2000, fhe average worker in the United States
earned $l 1.00 per hour, and had to work less than I
min to pay for the international call.
'Ihe
Unired Slates
norv has hundreds of thousands of overseas relephonr
cicuits. and video Iinks daily carry live news rerron
lrom a.ll over the globe.
ol
ol
AT
T,
ic
s
ve
tir
in
St
CC
mtic and kcific
rication
satellite
ed
point on the
xgu alltlllla5 t
gle satellite can
) and the distri-
: revenlle
sQulce
'ear 2001, nead"
globe. Although
nternationll
and
tant. In the
PoP-
i etery 2" or 3o
it over the
Year.
rrveillancc satel-
t.00 kg
(30.000
rg with lifetimes
around $125 M
ites must exceed
'i optical fibets
'
4.5 GbPs, a ca-
never laid singl-v
Lili+', af .loli.rcn,
ulrlJ vr uw MJ
xtalling an earth
Fiber-Qptiq trans-
rsmeQt
for high
omic threshold.
rrbit satellites for
te telephone and
systems were in
.atellites are also
e,omnunicatiols
rrth oit
(MEO)
n international tele-
: remem'be hal ill-
x this me period.
,age was $1.50
per
to
work for 40 min
ing any tax deduc-
in the United Sates
s work less than I
t. Ths United taes
ci'erseas telephone
1
live news reports
r.2 A EEEHS$gx E!ilEt.l"rrEffiffirffims
3
atcllit& has rsolutioaiasil navigatih. GPS eivrs hate bcomc a sonsumer product.
Ewntually every car and cellular telephone will,have a GH resciver built into it so that
driyers will ro get lost and emergenry calls from cellular phones will automatically carry
infoYian bout the phone's location.
1"2 A ERIEF HISTORY OS,SATELLITE
COMMUIUICATION
Satellite communicalions began in October 1957 with the launch by the USSR of a small
satellite called Sprrrni& /. This was the first articial earth salellite, and it sparked the space
,
race berween the United Sttcs and the USSR. Spumik,l carried only a beacon transmi-
ter and did not have communications capability, but demonstrated that satellites could be
placed in orbit try powerful rockets. The first satellite successfully launched by the United
States was Explorer l.lofted f'rom Cape Canar,eral on Ja*uary 31. 1958 on a Juno I rocket.
The lirst voice heard frorn space rvas that of President Eisenhower, who recorded a brief
Christmas Rlessage that was transmitted back to earth frorn the Project Score satellite in
December 1958. The corz satellite was essentialiy the core of the Atlas ICBM
(inter-
continental ballistic missile) booster with a small payload in lhe nose. A tape recorder on
core had a storage capacil' that allowed a 4 nin message received from an earth station
to trc.retransmitted. The batteries on eo'e failed after 35 days in orbit.
After sorne,earJy anempts to use large balloons (Echo I and /I) as passive reflec-
fors for communication signals, and sqmc sruall experinrcntal
.latellite
launshe.
the first
flue commllnisatiq4s satellites, Telsrar
/
aq4 {,
wqfe
latr-ne.trp-.{ i!.,lub
1962 and May 1963.
The Telstar satellites w,ere built by Bell Telephone Laboratories and used C-band tanspon-
ders adapted frora terrestrial microwave link equipment. The uplink ias at 6389 MHz and
the dounlink war at 4169 MHa with 5&MHz hnd!#idth. Ttre satelli$s canied solar cells
ad batteries that allowed continuous use of the single'transponder, and demonstrations
of live television links and multiplexed telephone circuirs were made across the Atlantic
Ocsani srphatieeltry demcnstrang thc feauibility sf satellite eommunicatiors.
The llelstar satellites were launched into what i$oow called a medirm earth orbit,
with priods of 158 and 225 min. This allowed;Eansaflantic links to cpe,r*te for about 20 min
while the sanllite w6 mutually visible. The arbis chosen for the I-blstar satcllites took
themthrough several bands of high energr radiation vhich'caused miy failure of the eiec-
tronics on board. However, the value of communication satellites had been demonstrated
of u.. poticy in regard to satellite cornmunicaons,amd made the fint r*rmrnbiguaus r_ef-
ersncss to a siugle rrorfdwide system. 0 De.cennber 20. 196tr, the U. Cqqgress rec-
ommended that *te Intemational Telecomnrunications Union
(ITU) trordd exarne the
aspects of space communicaons for which international cooperation would be necessary.
The most critical step was in August 1962, when the U.S. Congress prssed tle Cammun-
icafions Satellite Ac. This set the stage for commercial investment in an irrternational
satellite organization and, oq July 19, 1964, representatives of the first 12 countries to in-
vat in what becane Intclsat
(the
Internaonal Teleeommunications atellite Organiza-
tion) signed an initial agreement. The company that represented the Uniled Sates at this
initial signing ceremony was Comsa:. an entity specifically created tc act for the United
States within lntelsat. lt should be remembered that, at this point, the Bell System had a
complete monopoly of all longdistance telephone communications within the United
4 CHAPTER r lNTRoDUcrtoN
States. When Congress passed the Communications Satellite Ac, the Bell System was
specifically barred from directly participating in satellite communications, although it was
permitted to invest in Comsat.
Comsat essentially managed Intelsat in the fonlative years and should be credited
rvith the remarkable success of the international venture. The llrst five Intelsat series of
satellites
(INTELSAI I through V) w'ere selected. and their procurement managed. b'
teams put in place under Comsrt leadcrship. Over this saure phase. though. laree portions
of thc Cornsat engineering and operations groups transt'erred oYer to Intelsat so that. hen
the Permanent Management Amangements came into force tn 1919. manv fomer Comsat
groups were now part of lnlelsat.
In mid- 1963. 99Vo of all satellites had been iaunched into LEO. LEO. and the sli.uht11'
higher medium earth orbit (MEO), were much easier to reach than GEO ivith the srall
launchers available at that time. Thc intensc debate was eventualiv settled on launcher rc-
liability issues rather than on payload capabilities. The first 6 vears ofthe so-called space
itge w'as a period ol both parlclad and launcher deveioprnent. The nerv fronticr \\ils \cr\
risky, with about one launch in four being fully successful. The svster architecturt- of thc
tlrst proposed courntercial conrmunications satellite system empkryed l2 satellites in an
equatorial MEO constellation. Thus, with the launch failure rate at the tit.ne.
,18
launches
u,ere envisioned to suarantee l2 operational satellites in orbit. Without ll satellites in or-
bit. continuous 24-h coverage could not be offered. Twenty-lbur hours a daY. seven day-s
a week-refen-ed to as 24/7 operation-is a requirement for any successful comtnunica-
tions service. A GEO systems architecture requires only one satellite to proride )4 11 op'
eration over essentially one-third of the inhabited world. On this basis. four launches * rulcl
be required to achier,'e coverage of one third of the earth: l2lbrthe entire irthabited rrorld.
Despite its unproven technological approach, the geostationary orbit was selected b1' the
entities that became Intelsat-
The first Intelsat satellite, INTELSAI I (formerly Earh Bird

was iaunched on April
16, 1965. The satellite weighed a mere 36 kg (80 lb) and incorporated two 6/4 GHz
transponders, each with 25-MHz bandwidth. Commercial operations commenced betrveen
Europe and the United States on June 28, 1965. Thus, about 2 decades after Clarke's land-
mark article in Wireless WorM, GEO satellite communications began. Intelsat was highly
successful and grew rapidly rs many countries saw the value of improved telecommuni-
cations, not just internationally but for national systems that provided high quality satellite
communications within the borders of large countries.
Canada was the first country to build a national telecommunication system using
GEO satellites. Anik lA was launched in May 1974,
just 2 months before the frst U.S.
domestic satellite, WESTAR 1. The honor of the first regional satellite system, howeveq
goes to the USSR Molniya system of highly elliptic orbit (HEO) satellites, the hrst of
which was Iaunched in April 1965 (the same month as INTELSAI I). Countries that are
geographically spread like the USSR, which covers 11 time zones, have used regional
satellite systems very effectively. Another country that benefited greatly from a GEO re-
gional system was Indonesia, which consists of more than 3000 islands spread out over
more than a thousand miles- A terrestrially Lrased telecommunication system was not eco-
nomically feasible for these countries, whiie a single GEO satellite allowed instant com-
munications region wide. Such ease of communications via GEO satellites proved to be
very profitable. Within less than 10 years, Intelsat was self-supporting and, since it u's
not allowed to make a profiL it began retuming substantial revenues to what u'ere knot', l
as its Si-natories.
rrVithin
25
1'e:irs,
lnteisa; h:iti inore than t;i Sigiratoriesl and. in eai..
2000, iilere were 143 memixr countries and Sigiiatories thal fonned part of the intema-
tiolal Intelsat cornntunity.
s
pl
In
l!
br
bc
ci,
to
in
Nr
llll
S1r
I Ll
for
C
]lt(
sll-
Kr-
the
SF
lo
has
]-E
CO\
a1ll
of
cos
The first step
the establishn
New Skies. Ir
and, on 30 Nc
ferred from Ir
was one INT
183" E). one
at 57" E). t\
US-803 at 33
INTELSAT-K
and a new sate
ices l(-./ at
businesses pia
distribution ar
crr
sat
Bell System was
rs, although it was
;hould be credited
: Intelsat series of
nent rnanaged, bY
lgh, large portions
elsat so that" when
ny former Comsat
O. and the slightlY
lO with the small
ed on launcher re-
he so-ca1led sPace
frontier
was very
architecture of the
12 satellites in an
time, 48 iaunches
I 2 satellites in or-
a day; seven daYs
:ssful communica-
'
provide 2411 oP-
rur launches rvould
:e inhabited
rvorld.
,as
selected by the
launched on APril
fed two 614 GHz
lnmenced between
rfter Clarke's land-
.ntelsat was highlY
rved telecommuni-
gh quality satellite
rtion system using
:fore the first U.S.
) system, however,
ellites, the first of
Countries that ae
rave used regional
ly from a GEO re-
ds spread out over
/stem'was not eco-
owed instant com-
,llites proved to be

and, since it was
what were known
rriesa and, in eady
rart of the interna-
1.2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF SATELUTE COMMUNtcAnoNS
5
The astonishing commercial success of Intelsat led many nations to invest in eir
satellite systems. This was particularly true in the United States. By the end of 1983, tele-
phone trafc carried by the U.S. domestic satellite systems earned more revenue than the
Intelsar system. Many of the original lntelst Signatories had been privatized by the early
1990s and were, in effecf, competing not only with each other in space communications,
but with Intelsat. It was clear tht some mechanisn-r had to be tbund whereby lntelsat could
be tumed into a for-profit, privte entity, which could then compete with other commer-
cial organizations while still safeguarding the interests of the smaller nations that had come
to depend on the remarkably low communications cost that Intelsat offered. The first step
in the move to privatizing Intelsat was the establishment of a commercial cot.npany called
New Skies and the transfer of a number of Intelsat satellites to New Skies'
In the 1970s and i980s there was rapid development olGEO satellite slstems tor
international, regional, and domestic telephone trathc and video distribution. ln the United
States, the expansion ol fiber-optic links with very high capacity and low delay caused vir-
tually all telephone trafhc to move to terrestrial circuits by 1985. However. the demand
for satellite systems grew steadily through this period, and the available spectrurn in
C band was quickly occupied, leading to expansion into Ku band. ln the United States.
most of the expansion after 1985 was in the areas of video distribution and VSAf
(\'ery
small aperlure temrinal) networks. By 1995 it was clear that the GEO orbit capacity at
Ku band would soon be filled, and Ka-band satellite systerns would be needed to handle
the expansion of digital traffrc, especially wide band delivery of high-speed Internet data'
SES, based in Luxemburg, began two-way multimedia and Internet access service in west-
em and centrai Europe ai Ka band using ihe Astra I H satellite in 20016. Several Ka-band
sateliite systems are expected to be operational in the United States by 2003-'.
The ability of sateilite systems to provide communication with mobiie users had
long been recognized, and the International Maritime Satellite Organization
(Inmarsat)
has provided service to ships and aircraft for several decades, although at a high price'
LEO satellites were seen as one way to create a satellite telephone system with worldwide
coverage; numerous proposals were floated in the i990s, with three LEO systems eventu-
ally reaching completion by 2000 (kidium, Globalstar, and Orbcomm). The implementation
of a LEO and MEO satellite system for mobile communication has proved much more
costly than anticipated, and the capacity of the systems is relatively small compared to
The fust step in the move to privazing Intelsat was
the establishment of a commercial company called
New Skies. New Skies is based in the Neerlands
and, on 30 November 1998, six satellites were tr2ns-
ferred from Intelsat ownership to New Skies. There
was one INTELSAT V series satellite
(15-5/3 at
183' E), one INTELSAT VII series satellite (IS-703
at 5?' E), two INTELSAI VIII series satellites
(IS-503 at 338.5' E and 15-806 at 319-5" E), the
INTELSAT-K satellite
(in inclined orbit at 338.5'E),
and a new satellite designed for direct broadcast serv-
ices
(K-TV at 95" E). New Skies has as their prime
businesses plan the provisioning ofTV sert'ices. both
distribution and direct to home.
Intelsat is current (2000) in the process of re-
newing its major asses through the purchase of up to
seven INTELSAI IX satellites from SS-Loral to re-
place the curent fleet of INTELSAT VI, and some of
the INTELSAT VII, satellites. Each of these satellites
carries the equivalent of 96 units of 36 MHz band-
width. The satellites will be located at 62' E,60" E,
335.5'E, 3?5.5" 8.332.5" E, 342" E, and 328.5" E'
More details on the Intelsat fleet of satellites can be
found at http://www.intelsat.int. Intelsat is moving
forward with plans to privatize the remainder
of the
organization inthe20O2l2O03 time frame' AIY reor-
ganization will coiain strong safeguards
for smaller
users [o the system.
6 cluPTEB r E{TRoDrrGRoN
GEO sateite sys&rtrs, leadiug to a higtrcrcost per transmittcd bit. Satellite telep}rrc.sys-
tems were unable to compce with cellular tclephone systcrns because of e high cost
and relatively low capacity of the space ssgment. The Iridium system, for example. cost
over $5 B to irnplement, but provided a total capacity for the United States of less than
10.000 telephorre cirsujts.. lridiq.rr.
!4c.,
dec.lqred ba+krqptcy in early 2000. having friled
to eslablish a .sufficiently large custorner ba.e to make the venture viable. The entire lrid-
ium system was sold to lridiuur Satcllite LLC for a reported $25 M, approxinratell' 0.5"
of the system's constnrction cosi. The future of the other LEO ancl MEO satellite telephone
systems also seemed uncefain at the time this book was written.
atellite navigation systeihs, rrotbly tlie Global Positioi ystm. haVe fevolu-
tionized navigation and surveying. The Global Positioning System took almost 20 years
to design and fully implement. at a cost of $12 B. By 2000. GPS receives could be built
in Original Equipment Manulacturer (OEM, form for less than $25, and the rorldu,ide
GPS industr-v was earning billions of dollars from equipment sales and sen,ices. In the
United States. aircraii navigation rvill depend almost entirely on GPS by'1010, and blind
landing systems using GPS rvill also be available. Accurate nvieation of shirs. especiall
in coastal rvaters and bad weathet is also heavily reliant rn GPS. Europe is building a
comparable satellite navigation systurr calieti Callileo.
.
1.3 ATELLIT COMil'lUNrCf,lOrS rN 200f}
fables LI, 1.2, and 1.3 list the rnajority of the GEO. MEO, and LE communication
satellites in orbit in 2000. The list is rrot exhaustive, and qxq\ldqs
ia.tgtlltes.
rse{ soiqil,
for milirary cornrnunjcations and .surveillance. and those u.sed primarily for lveather fore-
sti d i1h iinaig. Not all the communications satellites are includgd, and exper-
imental aad scietific satellites are omitted.,In all, Thbles 1.1 and 1.2 list a total of 172
geosttionary comrmrnication satellites. When other satellites in geostatindry orbit are
considered, there rvere close to 200 CEO satellites in operation in 2000 (Tab,le 1.4).
GEO satellites have always been the backbone of the cqr-r_E_nprQial safellite cqrnrnu-
nications industry. Large GEO satellites can serve op,e-third of the earth's surface, and can
carry up to 4 Gbps of
data o-r fa$mit up to 16 high power dircct hodcast satellite tele-
vision (DBS-TV) signals, each of which can devsr- seeral video channels. The weight
and pewer ef E0'.sateilites have also increasixl In 2000 a large GEO satellite could
weigh 10,000 kg
(10
!ons), might generate.l2 kW of power, and carry 60 transponders,
with a tred toward even higher po\sers but lower weight For examplg,in 200I pace
ystem/Loral contracted wirh APT atellite Company Ltd. in Hong Kong to build the
Apsr-V satelte, a GEO satelte serving Asia with a mass of
f845
kg,when injected
into geastationpry orbit and an expected feue of 13 years. Apstar-V will generate an
ititial
pgler CIf ltl,6li
ead c6qy 38 C-balld,anspoad.ers wih 6trlf output power
and
16 Ku-band trantponders at 141 W eachs. Satellites generating 25 kW and carrying
antennas with hundreds of beams are planed for the time frame 2005-2010.
Television program distribxion *nd DBS-TV havc.become'the mqlot sourceof rev-
enue for commercial satellite system operators, eamitrg:more than half of the indusry's
$30 B'revenues for 1998. By the end of 2ffi:thre ,ere over
14
rnilA DBS-TV us-
tomers in the United States. The high capacity of GEO satellites results from the use of
high-power terrestrial transmitters and relatively high gain earth station antennas. Eanh
station antcnfla gain translates directly inlo communieation capacity, and therefore inro
rsvenue. Increased capacity lowers the delivery cost per bit for a customer. Systems with
fixed directional antennas can deliver bits at a signi-rcantly lower cost than systerns using
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TABLE t,[ Othor atellito 8yt13
Sy3tem Satellites Type and lifetime Application Orbhs
Global positoning
System
(GPS),
operated by U.S.
Air Force
Useful web sites:
www. navcen. uscg.m il
www.laafb.af.mil/SMC/
CZlhomepage/
http://gps.faa.gov/
http://www-spacecom.
af"mil
Navstar GPS
13 through 21
22 through 40
43, 44, 45
Design lifetime 7.5 years
Design lifetime 10 yeors
Design lifetime 10 years
All satellites broadcast
CDMA signals on two
L-band frequencies
Navigation,
early warning
Six orbital
planes with
four satellites
per plane at
20,200 km
altitude.
lnclination
of orbital
plane is 55"
II
ti
al
o
ltl
al
is
ol
low gain antennas, such as those designed for use by mobile users. Consequently. GEO
satellites look set to be the largest revenue earners in space for the foreseeable fulure.
Figure 1.1 shows the estirnated growth in revenue from all satellite communication
services, projected to 2010.
All radio systems require frequency spectrum, and the delivery of high-speed data
requires a wide bandwidth. Satellite communication systems started in C trand. with an
allocation of 500 MHz, shared with terrestrial microwave links. As the GEO orbit fi1led
up with satellites operating at C band, satellites were truilt for the next available tiequency
Lrand, Ku band. There is a continuing demand for ever more spectrun to allow satellites
to provide new services, with high speed access to the Internet forcing a move to Ka-band
and even higher frequencies. Access to the Internet from small transrnitting Ka-band earth
stations located at the home offers a way to bypass the terrestrial telephone network and
achieve much higher bit rates. SES began two-way Ka-band Internet access in Europe in
1998 with the Astra-K satellite, and the next generation of Ka-band satellites in the United
States will offer similar services.
1 980 1 990 2010
Year
FIGUBE 1,1 Growth of worldwide revenue from satellite communications
1980 through 2010. Beyond 2000, the curve is a projection.
200
-
1.4 0
COMM
Sr
in
re
pl
ar
e(.
its
-s(
SC
al
3t
el,
ea
w
co
OU
co
by
).
= @
o
6
c
.9
E
c
3
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c
o
(l)
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E
.E
E'
E
o
3
SII
ne
ch
st
ce
US
ati
an
in
tht
wi
lor
,
,
,
t
Orbits
Six orbital
planes with
four satellites
per plane at
20,200 km
altitude.
I ncli nation
of orbital
plane is 55"
f .r OVERIVIEW OF SATEIIJTE OOMI/|U|!|CATIONS
15
Successive World Radio Conferences have allocated oew frequency bands for com-
mercial satellite services that now include L, S, C, Ku,
K
Ka Y and
Q
bands. Mobile satel-
lite systems use vhf, uhl L, and S bands with carrier frequencies from 137 to 2500 MHz,
and GEO satellites use frequency bands extending from 3.2 to 50 GHz. Despite the growth
of fiber-optic links with very high capacity, the demand for satellite systerns continues to in-
crease. Satellites have also become itegrated into complex comrunications achitectures that
use each element of the network to its best advantage. Examples iue VSAI/WLL
1very
srnal1
apefture terminalVwireless local loop) in countries where the communications infrastructure
is not yet mature and GEO/LMDS (local multipoint distribution s)'stems) tbr the urban fringes
of developed nations where the build-out of fiber has yet to be an econotnic proposition.
1.4 OVERVIEW OF SATELLITE
COMMUNICATIONS
iequentl)'. GEO
)seeable future.
communication
high-speed
data
I band. rvith an
iEO orbit fiUed
ilable frequencY
allow satellites
rove to Ka-band
g Ka-band earth
'ne
network and
:ss in Europe in
:es in the United
Sateliite communication systems exist because the earth is a sphere. Radto r.vaves travel
in straight lines at the microwave frequencies used for wideband colnntunications, so a
rcpeater is needed to convey signals over long distances. Sateilites. because they can link
places on the earth that are thousands of miles apart, are a good place to locate a repeater,
and a GEO satellite is the best place of all. A repeater is simpll a receiver linked to a
transmitter, always using different radio frequencies. that can receive a signal from one
earth station, amplify it, and retransmit it to another earth station. The repeater derit'es
its name from nineteenth century telegraph links, which had a maximum length of about
50 miles. Telegraph repeater stations were required ei'ery 50 miles in a long-distance link
so that the Morse code signals could be re-sent before they became too weak to read.
The majority of communication satellites are in geostationary earth orbit, at an
altitude of 35,786 km. Typical path length from an earth station to a GEO satellite is
38,500 km. Radio signals get weaker in proportion to the square of the distance trav-
eled, so signals reaching a satellite are always very weak. Similarly, signals received on
earth from a satellite 38,500 km away are also very weak, because of limits on the
weight of GEO satellites and the electrical power they can generate using solar cells. It
,
costs roughly $25,000
per kilogram to get a geostationary satellite in orbit. This obvi-
ously places severe restrictions on the size and weight of GEO satellites, since the high
cost of building and launching a satellite must be recovered over a 10 to 15 year lifetime
by selling communications capacity.
Satellite communication systems are dominated by the need to receive very weak
signals. In the early days, very large receiving antennas, with diameters up to 30 m, were
needed to collect sufficient signal power to drive video signals or multiplexed telephone
channels. As satellites have become larger, heavier, and more powerful, smaller earth
station antennas have become feasible, and Direct Broadcast Satellite TV (DBS-TV) re-
ceiving systems can use dish antennas as small as 0.5 m in diameter.
Satellite systems operate in the microwave and millimeter wave frequency bands,
using frequencies between 1 and 50 GHz. Above 10 GHz, rain causes significant attenu-
ation of the signal and the probability that rain will occur in the path between the satellite
and an earth station must be factored into the system design. Above 20 GHz, attenuation
in heavy rain (usually associated with thunderstorms) can cause sufficient attenuation that
the link will fail.
For the rst 20 years of satellite commurications, analog signals were *'ideiy used,
with most links employirrg frequency modulation (FM). Wideband FM can operate at
Iow carrier-to-noise ratios (C/N), in the 5 to 15 dB range, but adds a signal-to-noise
rith signal-to-noise
Cio frequencY
(RF)
satellite
links, that
t in signal-to-noise
rne and data trans-
rssion
over satellite
rs the major analog
g seems destined
to
llow six TV signals
dual standards Per-
n TV
(HDTV), will
radio broadcasting,
the LEO and MEO
: compression
tech-
stream at 4'8 kbPs.
r video comPression
; less then 6.2 MbPs.
righ gain fixed anten-
:es the caPacitY of the
has been a trend away
using verY large earth
ery from more
Power-
:rs using much smaller
:llites are used for mo-
Lvigation sYstems and,
Information
SYstems
cations, LEO earth im-
:ntial to provide strong
hnology, AerosP ace Source
York. Vol. 154, No. 3,
, Jan. 15, 2001.
.4.::.1:
ORBITAL
MECHANICS
AND
LAUNCHERS
ORBITAL MECHANICS
2.1
Developing
the Equations
of the Orbit
This chrrpter is about horv earth orbit is achieved' the laws that cle scribe the rnotion of an
object orbiting anorher boclv, hor'v satellites mancuver in space, ancl the deternlination of
the look angle to a .atellite from the earth using epherneris data that describe the orbital
trajectory ol the satellite.
Tc achieve a stable orbit around the ear-th, a spacecraft must first be beyond the bulk
ol the earlh's atmosphere. t.e., in what is popularly called space There are many deflni-
tions of space. U.S. astronauts are awardec
''.heir ''space wings" if they fly at an altitude
that exceeds 50 ntiles 1*80
km), some international treaties hold that the space frontier
above a
given counrr\ begins at a height of i00 miles
(-160 krn)' Beiou' 100 miles' per-
missio, must b. sought t o'er-fly any portion of the country in question On reentry' at-
mospheric drag srarts to be felt ai a height of about 400,000 fi(.-16 miles
:
122 km).
Most satellites, fbr any mission of more than a few months, are placed into orbits of at
least 250 miles
(:-100 km) above the earth' Even at this height' atmospheric
drag is sig-
nificant. As an exampte, the initial payload elements of the International
Space Station
(ISS) were injected into orbit at an aitiiude of 397 km when the shuttle mission left those
modules on 9 June 1999. By the end of L999, the orbital height had decayed to about
360 km, necessitating
u
^-Luu",
to raise the orbit. Without onboard thrusters and suffi-
cient orbital *ur"uu"riog
fuel, the ISS would not last more than a few years at most in
such a low orbit. To apprlciate the basic laws that govern celestial mechanics'
we will be-
gin first with the funamental
Newtonian equations that describe the motion of a body'
we will then give some coordinate
axes within which the orbit of the satellite can be set
and determine the various forces on the earth satellite'
Newton,slarvsofmotioncanbeencapsulatedintofourequations:
s:ut+(l)at'1
u2:u2+zat
t:ulat
P: ma
(2.1a)
(2.1b)
(2.1c)
(2.td)
where s is the disrance traveled from time t
:
0; u is the initial velocity of the object at
time f
:
0 and o the final velocity of the object at time ; a is the acceleration
of the ob-
".t;ristheforceactingontheobject;andmisthemassoftheobject.Notethattheac-
celeration can be positir,"e or negative, depending on the direction it is acting with respect
to tire veiocify vector. Of these four equations, It is the }as[ one thal he]ps us understand
the motion of a sarellite in a stable orbit (neglecting any ,jrag or other penurbing
forces)'
Putintowords,Eq.(2.1d)Statesthattheforceu"tingonabodyisequaltothemassof
17
fB cHAprER2 oRBITALMECHANICSANDLAUNcHERS
the body multiplied by the resulting acceleration of the body. Alternatively, the resulting
acceleration is the ratio of the force acng on the body to the mass of the body. Thus, for
a given force, the lighter the mass of the body, the higher the acceleration
will be. When
in a stable orbit, there are two main forces acting on a satellite: a bentrifugal force due to
the kinetic energy of the satellite, which attempts to fling the satellite into a higher orbit,
and a centripetal force due to the gravitational attraition of the planet about which the
sateilire is orbiting. which artempts to pull the salellite dorvn toward the planet. lf these
nvo forces are equal, the satellite will rernain in a stabie orbit. It will continually fail to-
u,ard the planet's surface as it lnoves forwad in its orbit but, by virtue of its orbital ve-
locity. it rviil have moved foru,ard
just far enough to compensate fbr the "lall" toward the
planet and so it u i11 remain iit the salrie orbital height. This is why an object in a stable
orbit is sorltetimes described as being in
"free
lall." Figure 2.1 shows the two opposing
fbrces on a satellite in a stable orbitr.
Force
-
mass X acceleration and the unit o[ force is a Newton,
,,vith
the notation
N. A Ner.,,ton is the force required to accclerate a mass of I kg with an acceleration of
I n/sr. The unclerly,ing units of a Newton are thcrefore
(kg) x m/sr. ln hnperial Units,
one Neu,ton
-
0.1248 ft lb. The standard acceleration due to gravity at the earth's sur-
face is 9.80665 x l0'r kn,/sr, which is often quoted as 98i cnr./s2. This value decreases
The satellite has a mass, m
and s traveling with velocity,
4
in the plane of the orbt
FTGURE 2.1 Forces acting on a satellite in a stable orbit around the eah
(from Fig. 3.4 of
reference 1). Gravitational force is inversely proportional to the sguare of the distance between
the centers of gravity of the satellite and the planet the satellte is orbiting, in this case the
earth. The gravitational force inward
(EN, the centripetal force) is directed toward the center of
gravity of the earth. The kinetc energy of the satellite (Four, the centrifugal force) is directed
dianretrically opposite tc the gravtationai force. Knetic energy is proportional to the square r:f
the veiocity of the satelite. When these inward and outward forces are balanced. the satellite
moves around the earth in a "free fall" trajectory: the satellite's orbit. For a description of the
units, please see the text.
wi
frt
In
wh
Ifr
wi
of
ic
l0
for
her
If{
-\-
dis
orb
Gir
occ
TAI
ofl
Sat,
I nte
Nev
skv
lridi
Mea
eartl
ely, e resulng
e body. Thus, for
rn will be. When
ugal force due to
to a higher orbit,
about which the
e planet. If these
rntinually fall to-
of its orbital ve-
"fail" toward the
cbject in a stable
.he two opposing
with the notation
n acceleration of
r Imperial Units,
.t the eanh's sur-
i vaiue decreases
rom Fig. 3.4 of
distance between
this case the
ard the center of
rce) is directed
I to the square of
:ed, the satellite
lscription of the
2.toRBrrALMEcHANtcs
19
with height above the earth's surface. The acceleration, a, due to gravity at a distance r
from the center of the earth isl
o
:
tf
12 kmls2 (2.1)
where the constant
,r
is the product of the universal gravitational constant G and the mass
of the earth Mu.
The producf GMu.is called Kepler's constant and has the value 3.9860044i8 X
105 kmr/sr. The universal gravitational constant is G
:
6.612 X 10
Ir
Nmr/kg) ot 6.612 X
l0
r0
krr/kg sl in lhe older units. Since force
:
mass X acceleration, the centripetal
force acting on the satellite, F, is given by
Fw:mx(t/r-)
:
m x (GM6/r2)
In a similar fashion. the centrifugal acceleration is given byr
o
:
ut/,
which will give the centrifugal force, F61, as
Four: mx(/r)
(2'4)
If the forces on the satellite are balanced, FrN
:
F61 and, using Eqs. (2.2a) and
(2.4)'
mxp./r2:mxul/r
hence the velocity ' of a satellite in a circular orbit is given by
,
:
Q"/r)rP
If the orbit is circular, the distance traveled by a satellite in one orbit around a planet is
2zr, where r is the radius of the orbit from the satellite to the center of the planet. Since
distance divided by velocity equals time to travel that distance, the period of the satellite's
orbit, Z, will be
7:
{2rr)/o
:
(nr)/l(p./r)1a)
T: (Zrr3P)/(t"rP)
Table 2.1 gives the velocity, u, and orbital perio4 7n, for four satelte systems that
occupy typical LEO, MEO, and GEO orbits around the earth. In each case, the orbits are
TABLE 2.1 Orbital Velocity, Height, and Period
of Four Satellite Systems
Orbital height Orbital velocity Orbital period
Satellite system 1*ml lkm/sl lh min sl
Giving
(2.2a)
(2.2b;
(2.31
()
5\
(2.6)
lntelsat
(GEO)
New-lCO
(MEO)
Skybridse
(LEO)
iridium {LEO}
35,786.03
10,255
1,469
78
3.O7 47
4.8954
7.1272
1.4824
23 56
555
155
i40
4.1
48.4
11.8
27.4
Mean earth radius is 6378.137 km and GEO radius from the center of the
earth is 42,164.17 km.
20 cHAprER 2 oRBrrAL MEcHANtcs Ar{D LAIJfnERs
Satellite
FIGUBE 2.2 The inital coordinate
system that could be used to de-
scribe the rplationship between the
earth and a satellite. A Cartesian
.
coordinate
system with the geo-
graphical
axes of the earth as the
'principal
axes s the simplest coor-
dinate system to set up. The rota-
tional axis of the earth is about the
axis c where c is the center of the
earth and cz passes through the
geographic
north pole. Axes cx, c
and cz are mutually orthogonal
axes, with cx and cy passing
through the earth's geographic
equator. The vector r locates the
moving satellte with respect to the
center of the earth.
circular and the average radius of the earth is aken as 6378.137 kmr. A number of coor-
dinate systems and reference planes can be used to describe the orbit of a satellite around
a planet. Figure 2.2 illustrates one of these usin-e a cartesian coordinate s),stem * ith the
earth at the center and the reference planes coincidine with the equator and the pol;lr a-ris.
This is referred to as a geocentric coordinate s),stem.
with the coordinate system set up as in Figure 2.2, and with the satellite mass ,??
located at a vector distance r from the center of the earth, the gravitational force F on the
satellite is given by
(
be
ax
ere
Eqr
aC
GMnti
F:-
I
Where M6 is the rnass of the earth and G
:
6-672 x
aceeleration and EC. (2-7) can be wrien as
,1-
cl'r
F:m-
dt'
i d2l
- 1l:
- r' d-
d'r r
-
*;r.
:
o
dt' r'
(2.1)
lO-tr Nm?kg2. But force
:
mass x
(2.8)
(2.e)
(2.10)
and
Which yields
From Eqs. (2.7) and (2.8) we have
This is a second-order linear differential equation and its solution will involve six
undetermined constants called the orbital elements. The orbit descritred by these orbital
elements can be shown to lie in a plane and to have a constant angular momentum. The
solution to Eq. (2.10) is difficult since the second derivative ofr involves the second de-
rivative of e unit vector r. To remove this dependence, a different set of coordinates can
zo
, nitial coordinate
be used to de-
ship between the
ie. A Cartesian
with the geo-
.he earth as the
re simplest coor-
;et up. The rota-
)arth is about the
the center of the
ls through the
pole. Axes cx, cY,
ly orthogonal
cy passing
s geographic
)r r locates the
,ith
respect to the
l.
number of coor-
a satellite around
I system with the
nd the polar axis.
: satellite mass ,?x
ral force F on the
(2.1)
t force
:
mass X
(2.8)
(2.e)
(2.10)
n will involve six
d by these orbital
'momentum.
The
'es the second de-
rf coordinates can
d'ro ( do\
dr-"\a,):
2.1 oRBtrAL MEcHAflrcs
21
FIGURE 2.3 The orbital plane coor-
dinate system. ln this coordinte sys-
tem, the orbital plane of the satellite
is used as the reference plane. The
orthogonal axes xo and yo lie in the
Yo orbital plane. The third axis. zr, is
perpendicular to the orbital plane.
The geographical z-axis of the earth
(which passes through the true
i'lorth
Pole and the center of the earth, c)
does not lie in the same direction as
the z6 axis except for satellite orbits
that are exactly in the plane of :he
geographical equator.
be chosen to descibe the location of the satellite such that the unit vectors in the three
axes are constant. This coordinate system uses the plane of the satellite's orbit as the ref-
erence plane. This is shown in Figure 2.3.
Expressing Eq. (2.10) in terms of the new coordinate oXes -t,
-y,,,
and give::
r(roio
+
loin)
:
0
,2.1 1)
(xfr +
v:z:
Equation (2.1 1) is easier to solve if it is expressed in a pglar coordinate system rather than
a Cartesian coordinate system. The polar coordinate system is shown in Figure 2.'1.
With the polar coordinate system shown in Figure 2.4 and using the transformations
(2.12a)
(2.r2b)
(2.12c)
{2-t2d)
and equating the vector components of r and
@p
in turn in Eq. (2.11) yields
,.(?j)
,.(i;t)-
x6
:
16 cos
@s
y6
:
r sin
@e
,i
.in
:
io cos@e
- {e
sin@6
9o
:
ocos {o
f i6 sin
{6
Q.r3)
FIGURE 2.4 Polar coordinate system in the plane
of the satellite's orbit. The plane of the orbit coin-
cides with the plane of the paper. The axis z6 is
straight out of the paper from the center of the
earth, and is normal to the ptane of the satellite's
orbit. The satellite's position is described n terms
of the radius from the center of the earth ro and the
x
" angle this radius makes with the x6 axis, $6.
_t,
r2g
22 cHAprER2 oRBTTALMEcHANTcsANDLAUNcHERs
and
,,(#).,(*)(#):,
Q'4,
Using standard rnathematical procedures, we can develop an equation for the radius
of the satellite's orbit. ru, namely
n
t'
I
-ecos(f6
0o)
(2. I 5)
Where 0u is a constant and is the eccentricity ol an ellipse whose semilatus rectum p is
given by
,
: qtt))/u (1.16)
and /i is magnitude of the orbital angular momentum of the satellite. That the equation of
the orbit is an ellipse is Kepler's first larv oi planetary n.lotion.
Kepler's Three Laws of Planetary Moton
Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630)
was a German astronomer and scientist who developed his
three laws of planetary motion by careful observations of the behavior of the planets in
the solar s)'stem over many years, with help from some detailed planetary observations
br the Hungarian astronorner Tycho Brahe. Kepier's three laws are
1. The orbit of any srnaller bocly about a larqer body is always an ellipse, with the cen-
ter of mass of the larger body as one of the trvo fbci.
2. The orbit of the smaller body sweeps out equal areas in equal time (see Figure 2.5..
FIGURE 2.5 lllustration of Kepler's second faw of planetary motion. A satellite is in orbit
about the planet earth, E. The orbit is an ellipse with a relatively high eccentricity, that is,
it is far from being circular. The figure shows two shaded portons of the elliptical plane in
which the orbit moves, one is close to the earth and encloses the perigee while the other
is far from the earth and encloses the apogee. The perigee is the point of closest ap-
proach to the earth while the apogee is the point in the orbit that is furthest from the
earth. While close to perigee, the satellite moves in the orbit between times t, and f, and
sweeps out an area denoted by A.r. While close to apogee, the satellite moves in the orbit
between times f3 and to and sweeps out an area denoted by A.o. lf
\
tz = f3
-
f1 then
Art = Azr.
Kepler's lawr
years later, b
ematical mor
ton was one
(
ential calc!lltl
was able ro
mathematical
De
De
The
axe
and
di sc
The
of tl
and
and
chos
therr
time
Rem
the r
is Kt
the
peric
24 cHAprER 2 oRBtrAL MEcHANrcs AND LAUNcHERs
Apogee
r+a(1 +e) a(1-e) .i
ltt
ltt
FIGURE 2.6 The orbit as it appears in the orbital plane. The point O is the center of
the earth and the point C is the center of the ellipse. The two centers do not coincide
unless the eccentricity, e, of the ellipse is zero (i.e., the ellipse becomes a circle and
a
:
b). The dimensions a and b are the semimajor and semiminor axes of the orbital
ellipse, respectively.
This equation is the mathematical expression of Kepler's third law of planetary mo-
tion: the square of the period of revolution is proportional to the cube of the semimajor
axis. (Note that this is the square of Eq. (2.6) and that in Eq. (2.6) the orbit was assumed
to be circular such, that semimajor axis a
:
semiminor axis
:
circular orbit radius
from the center of the earth r.) Kepler's third law extends the result
from
Eq. (2.6), which
was derived
for
a circular orbit, to the more general case of an elliptical orbit. Equa-
tion (2.21) is extremely important in satellite communications systems. This equation
determines the period of the orbit of any satellite, and it is used in every GPS receiver
in the calculation of the positions of GPS satellites. Equaon (2.21) is also used to find
the orbital radius of a GEO satellite, for which the period Imust be made exactly equal
to the period of one revoluon of the earth for the satellite to remain stationary over a
point on the equator.
An important point to remember is that the period of revoluon, I, is referenced to
inefial space, namely, to the galactic background. The orbital period is the time the or-
biting body takes to retum to the same reference point in space with respect to the galac-
tic background. Nearly always, the primary body will also be rotating and so the period
of revolution of the satellite may be different from that perceived by an observer who is
standing still on the surface of the primary body. This is most obvious with a geostation-
ary earth orbit (GEO) satellite (see Table 2.1). The orbital period of a GEO satellite is ex-
actiy equal to the period of rotation of the earth,23h56 min4.l s, but, to ax observer
on the ground, the satellite appears to have an infinite orbital period: it always stays in
the same place in the sky-
(a)
cor
tor
sat(
rec{
not,
toa
_-1 I
CTOS
mea
I ong
a[ o]
the :
:i der
Loc
Cons
rnay
The
alv.
L
from
term r
itive .r
to the
are gi
olutior
is thus
If the
the sat,
cle of t
a const
Ias th
C
the poir
intersec
(A) n:al
rrgee
the center of
not coincide
ir circle and
of the orbital
v of planetary mo-
: of the semimajor
orbit was assumed
rcular orbit radius
m Eq. (2.6), which
ttical orbit. Equa'
ms. This equation
very GPS receiver
s also used to find
nade exactly equal
r stationary over a
Z, is referenced to
is the time the or-
)spect to the galac-
I
and so the period
rn observer who is
with a geostation-
IEO satellite is ex-
but, t0 an observe
it aiways stays in
2.1 oRBnAL MEcHANtcs
Zs
To be perfectly geostationary, the orbit of a satellite needs to have three features:
(a)
it must be exactly cicular
(i.e., have an eccentricity of zero); (b) it must be at the
correct altitude
(i.e., have the correct period); and (c) it must be in the plane of the equa-
tor (i.e., have a zero inclination with respect to the equator)" If the inclination of the
satellite is not zero and/or if the eccentricity is not zero, but the orbital period is cor-
rect. then the satellite will be in a geosynchronous orbit. The position of a geosynchro-
nous satellie .ill appear to oscillate about a mean look angle in the sky with respect
to a stationary bserver on the earth's surface. The orbital period of a GEO satellite,
23 h 56 rnin 4.1 s, is one sidereal day. A sidereal day is the time between consecutive
crossings of any particular longitude on the earth by any star, other than the sunr' The
,r,..n ,olr, day of 24 h is the time between any consecutive crossings of any particular
Iongitude by the sun, and is the time between successive sunrises (or sunsets) observed
at one location on earth, averaged over an entire year. Because the earth movcs round
rhe sun once per 365 z days, the solar day is 1440/365.25
:
3.94 min longer than a
sidereal day.
Locating the Satellite in the Orbit
Consider now rhe problern of locating the sateliite in its orbit. The equation of the orbit
may be rewritten b1'combining Eqs.
(2. 15) and (2'18) to obtain
a(t
-
d)
'o-t+".oso
The angle
$o
(see Figure 2.6) is measured from the xs axis and is called the true anont-
aly.
f,Anomall,
was a measure used by astronomers to mean a planet's angular distance
frm its perihelion
(closest approach to the sun), measured as if viewed from the sun' The
tenn wai adopted in celestial mechanics for all orbiting bodies.l Since we dehned the pos-
itive -r:s axis so that it passes through the perigee,
4|
measures the angle from the perigee
to the instantaneous position of the satellite. The rectangular coordinates of the satellite
are given by
t) ))
(2.23)
(2.24)
xs
:
16 cos
@s
y6
:
re sin
{6
As noted earlier, the orbital period Z is the me for the satellite to complete a rev-
olution in inertial space, traveling a total of 2t tadians. The average angular velocity
4
is thus
,
:
(Zr)/T
:
1tl
/2)/(a3/2) (2.25)
If the orbit is an ellipse, the instantaneous angular velocity will vary with the position of
the satellite around the orbit. If we enclose the elliptical orbit with a circumscribed cir-
c/e of radius rz (see Figure 2.1), thert an object going around the circumscribed circle with
a constant angular velocity
4
would complete one revolution in exactly the same period
I as the satellite requires to complete one (elliptical) orbital revolution.
Consider the geometry of the circumscribed circle as shown in Figure 2.7. Locate
the point (indicated as A) where a vertical line drarvlt throLlgh the posliion of the satellie
inteisects the circumscribed circle. A line fron the center of the eilipse (C) to this point
(A) makes an angle E with the x6 axis; E is called the eccentric anomaly of the satellite'
yoax|s
Crrcumscribed Circle
i;
26 cHAprERz oRBITALMEcHANEsANoLAUNcHERs
xo axis
FIGURE 2.7 lhe circumscribed circle and the eccentric anomaly E. Point O is the cente of
the earth and point C is both the center of the orbital ellipse and the center of the circum-
scribed circle. The satellte location in the orbital plane coordinate system is specified bv,x,,
y). A vertical line through the satellite ntersects the circumscribed circle at point A. The
eccentric anomaly E is the angle from the x0 axs to the line
joining
C and A.
lt is related to the radius
I
by
No
l-o
to
At
the
cat
wh
We
frol
torl
za
the
Thi
bit
lhe
firsr
equ
cali
Thus
We can also develop an expression that relates eccentric anomaly E to the average
angular velocity
4,
which yields
Tdt:(l-rcosD)dE
(2.28)
Let ro be the time of perigee. This is simultaneously the time of closest approach to the
earth; the time when the satellite is crossing the
"16
axis; and the time when E is zero. If
we integrate both sides of Eq. (2.28), we obtain
rs:a(L-ecosE)
a
-
fo: ae cosg
(2.26)
(2.27)
(2.2e)
(2.30)
rt(t
-
tp): E
-
esinE
The left side of Eq. (2.29) is called the mean anomaly, M. Thus
M:rtQ-lo):E-esinE
The mean anomaly M is e arc length (in radians) that the satellite would have traversed
since the perigee passage if it were moving on the circumscribed circle at the mean an-
gular velocity
4.
trf we know the time of perigee, fo, the eccentricity, e, and the length of the serni-
major axis, , we now have e necessary equations to deterrnine the coordinates (ro,
$o)
rt O is the center of
er of the circum-
r is specified bY
(x6,
at point A. The
14.
(2.26)
(2.27)
tiy E to the average
(2.28)
;est approach to the
: when E is zero. If
(2.2e)
(2.30)
ould have traversed
:cie at the mean an-
lengih of the semi-
coordinates
(ro,
o)
2.1 oRBfrAL mEcHANtcs
27
and (xs, yo) of the satellite in the orbital plane. The process is as follows
1. Calculate
4
using Eq. (2.25).
2. Calculate M using Eq. (2.30).
3. Solve Eq.
(2.30) for E.
4. Find r,, from E using Eq'. (2-21).
5. Solve Eq. Q.22) for
@s.
'
6. Use Eqs.
(2.23) and
(2.24) to calculate -r"6 and
'r'n'
Now we must locate the orbital plane with respect to the earth.
Locating the Satellite with Respect
to the Earth
At the encl of the last section, we summarized the process for locating the satellite at
the point (-r..
-),,,
.:r) in the rectangular coordinate svstem of the orbitai plane. The lo-
cation was with respect to the center of the earth. In most cases, we need to knou'
where the satellite is from an observation point that is not at the center of the earth.
We will therefore develop the transformations thet permit the satellite to be located
from a point on the rotating surface of the earth. \\ rvill begin with a geocentric eqtru'
torial coordinate s)-stem as shown in Figure 2.8. The rotational axis of the earth is the
z axis, which is through the geographic North Pole. The ,r axis is from the center of
the earth roward a fixed location in space called the.first point of Aries
(see
Figure 2.8,).
This coordinate system moves through space: it translates as the earth moves in its or-
bit around the sun, but it does not rotate as the eanh rotates. The
"t
direction is always
the same, whatever the earth's position around the sun and is in the direction of the
first point of Aries. The (x, y,) plane contains the earth's equator and is called the
equatorial plane.
Angular distance measured eastward in the equatorial plane from the x axis is
called right ascension and given the symbol RA. The two points at which the orbit
FIGURE 2.8 The geocentric
equatorial system. This geocentric
system differs from that shown in
Figure 2.1 only in that the xi axis
points to the first point of Aries.
The first point of Aries s the di-
rection of a line from the center
of the earth through the center of
the sun at the vernal equinox
(about March 21 in the Northern
Hemisphere), the instant when
,,
the subsolar
Pont
crosses the
'' equator from south to north. ln
the above system, an object maY
be located by its right ascension
frA and its declination .
2a CHAPTER 2 ORBITAL MECHANICS AND LAUNCHEBS
penetrates the equatorial plane are called nodes; the satellite moves upward through
the equatorial plane at fhe ascending node and downward through the equatirrial
plane at the descending node, given the conventional picture of the earth, with north
at the top, which is in the direction of the positive
axis for the earth centered coor-
dinate set. Remetnber that in space there is no rrp or down; that is a concept we are
familiar with because of gravity at the earth's surface. For a weightless body in space,
such as an orbiting spacecraft, up and do*n have no meaning unless they are defined
with respect to a reference poinl. The right ascension oJ the ascendirtg ttode is called
f). The angle that the orbital plane makes rvith the equatorial plane (the planes inter-
sect at the line joining the nodes) is called the inclincuion, i- Figure 2.9 illustrates these
quantities.
The variables l) and i together locate the orbital plane with respect to the equato-
rial plane. To locate thc orbital coordinate system with respect to the equatorial coordi-
nate system we need a, the urgunrent o.f'perigee v'est. This is the angle measured along
the orbit fiom the ascending node to thc pcligee.
Standard time for space opcrations rLntl niost other scientific and engineering pur-
poses is univer.ral tintc (UT, also knowr as;.ulu tine (z). This is essentially the mean
solar time at the Gree nwich Observatory near London. England. Universal time is meas-
ured in hours, minutes, and seconds or in fractions of a day. It is 5 h later than Eastern
Standard Time, so that 07:00 EST is l2:00:00 h UT. The civil or calendar day begins
at 00:00:00 hours UT, frequently written as 0 h. This is. of course, midnight (24:00:00)
on the previous day. Astronomers employ a second dating system involving Julian day,t
and Jttlian dates. Iulian days start at noon UT in a counting system whereby noon on
December 3 I
,
I 899, was the beginning of J ulian day 24 15020, usualiy written 241 5020.
These are extensively tabulated in reference 2 and additional information is in reference
14. As an example, noon on December 31, 2000, the eve of the twenty-first century, is
the start of Julian day 245 1909. Julian dates can be used to indicate time by append-
ing a decimal fraction; 00:00:00 h IJT on January l, 2001-zero hour, minute, and
xi
FIGURE 2.9 Locating the orbit in the geocentric equatorial system. The satellite penetrates
the equatorial plane (while
moving in the positive z drection) at the ascending node" The
right ascension of the ascending node is O and the inclination i is the angle between the
equatorial plane and the orbitai plane. Angle o, measured in the orbtai piane, locates the
perigee with respect to the equatorial plane.
se
e)
rh
0
'l-"
k:
tic
ar(
orl
ha
ity
inr
tin
E)
Thr
ofr
A
D--
For
Thir
EX
The
250
mos
perir
velo
An
662t
Henr
2.1 ORBTAL MECHANCS
second for the third milleniurn 6.p--is given by Julian date 245 1909.5. To find the
exact position of an orbiting satellite at a given instant in time requires knowledge of
the orbital elements.
Orbital Elements
To specify the absolute (i.e., the inertial) coordinates of a satellite at time I, we need to
know six quantities. (This was evident earlier when we determined that a satellite's equa-
tion of motion was a second order vector linear differential equation-) These quantities
are called the orbital elements. More than six quantities can be used to describe a unique
orbital path and there is some arbitrariness in exactly which six quantities are used. We
have chosen to adopt a set that is commonly used in satellite communications: eccentric-
iry (r), semirnajor axis (r), time of perigee (1p). right ascension of ascending node
(O),
inclination (i), and argutnent of
rerigee
(.r). Frequently, the mean anomaly
(M) at a gir en
linie is substituted fbr n.
EXAMPLE 2.1.1 Geostationary Satellite Orbit Radius
The carth rorafes once per sidereal day of 13 h
-56
min -1.09 s. Use Eq. {?.21) to show that the radius
of the GEO is 42,164.1 7 km as given in Table 2.l.
Answer Equation (2.21t gives the square of the orbital period in seconds
T)
:
(4:t)/tL
Rearranging the equation, the orbital radius a is given by
'
a1
:
T2p,/(4n2)
For one sidereal day, T
:
86,164.09 s. Hence
dr
:
(86,164.1.r x 3.9a600n418 x 105/(4172):7.4920251
x 101r km3
a
:
42,164.17 km
This is the orbital radius for a geostationary satellite, as given in Table 2.1- f
EXAMPLE 2.1-2 Low Earth Orbit
The Space Shuttle is an example of a low earth orbit satellite. Sometimes, it orbits at an altude of
250 km above the earth's surface, where there is still a finite number of molecules from the at-
mosphere. The mean earth's radius is approximately 6378.14 km. Using these figures, calculate the
period of the shuttle orbit when the altitude is 250 km and the orbit is cicular. Find also the linear
veloc of the shuttle along its orbit.
Answer The radius of the 250-krn altitude Space Shuttle orbit is (r" + h) = 6379.14 + 250.0
:
6628.14 km
From Eq. 2.21, the period of the orbit is I where
7z
:
(4tr1a3)/p:4r2 x (662s.A)3/3.986004418 x 10-5 s2
:
2.88401145 x 107 s2
Flence the period of the orbit is
f
:
5370.30 s
:
89 min 30.3 s"
29
r upward
through
h
the equatorial
earth, with north
th centered coor-
a concePt
we are
ss bodv in sPace.
; they are defined
rtyi nttde is called
(the planes inter-
9 illustrates these
rect to the equ1to-
equatorial
coordi-
le rneasured alons
I en-uineering Pur-
ientiali)' the lllean
'rsal time is I'neas-
later than Easierl.t
rendar daY begins
idnight
(2'1:00:00 )
:r:ing Jultur dat s
u,hereby noon on
'nvritten 2-1 I 5020.
ion is in reference
ty-first centurY, is
r time bY aPPend-
hour. minute, and
satellite penetrates
rding noie. The
ile between the
ane, locates the
3O.. cHAprER 2 oRBfrAL MEcHANlcs AND T.AUNcHERs
This orbit period is about as small as possible. At a lower altitude, friction with the earth's atros-
phere will quickly sl,ow the Shuttle down and it will retum to earth. Thus, all spacecraft in'stable
earth orbit have orbital periods exceeding 89 min 30 s.
The circumference of the orbit is 2a'
:
41,645.83 km.
Hence the velocity of the Shuttle in orbit is
2ra/T
-
41,645.83/5370.13
=
7.755 kn/s
Alternatively.youcoulclusc Eq. {1.5): r
-
ttL,t t)".Thetermr
-
3.98600-1418 x l05kmr/srand
the ternr r
:
(6378.14 + 250.0) km, yielding r - 7.7-55 kn/s.
Note: If
,r,
and r had bce n quoter-i in units of m'/sr and m, respectively, the answer r,ould havc bcen
in meters/second. Be sure to keep the units thc same during a calculation procedure.
A velocity of about 7.8 knlis is a typical velocity tbr a low ear-th orbit satelltte. As the alti
tude of a satellite increases, its rclocity becomcs smaller. I
EXAMPLE 2.1.3 Elliptical orbit
Frequencir
registered
tration Bo
Geneva. T
or contFaa
made to lil
tion and u
United St
prove the
IFRB. The
A satellite is in an elliptical orbit rvith
mean eafih radiu.s of 178. l4 km. llnd
the eccentricity of the orbit.
a perigee ol' 1000 km and an aposee of 4000 km. Using a
the penod of the orbit in hours. urinutes. and seconcls. rnd
n
rl
b
G
-
r1
T
ti
-:
t(
P
o
r
A
1i
rt
tt
Answer The major axis of the elliptical orbit is a straight line betw,een the apogee and perigee.
as seen in Figure 2.7. Hence. fbr a semimajor axis length r, eah radius r-. perigee height /rn. and
apogee height ft,,
2a
:
2r" * hp t lt.,
:
2 x 6318 11 + 1000.0 + 4000.0
:
17.756.28 kni
Thus the sernimajor axis of the orbit has a length r
:
8878. i4 km. Using this vaiue ol o in Eq. (2.21 I
gives an orbital period f seconds where
7t
:
(4r1at)/*: 47 x (98i8.07)38.986004418 x 105 sr
:
6.930872802 X 107 sl
f
:
8325.1864s
:
138min45.19s
:
2h 18min45.19 s
The eccentricity of the orbit is given by e, which can be found from Eq.
(.2.27
)
by consider-
ing the instant at which the satellite is at perigee. Referring to Figure 2.7, when the satellite is at
perigee, the eccentric anomaly E
:
0 and ro
:
re + o. From F4.
Q.27),
at perigee
rt): a(l
-
e cosE) and cosE
:
1
Hence
r. * hr: a(l
-
e)
e:1-(r"+hr)la:1-'7,378.14/8878.14:0.169 I
2.2 LOOK ANGLE DETERMINATION
Navigation around the earth's oceans became more precise when the surface of the globe
was divided up into a gridlike structure of orthogonal lines: latirude and longitude. Lat-
itude is the angular distance, measured in degrees, north or south of the equator and
longitude is the angular distance, measured in degrees, from a given reference
longitudinal line. At the tire that this
.srid
reference became popular. there were tu,o
rrlajor sea{'aring nations 1,ying for dcnir:;nce: England and France. Engla*d d;'ew its ref-
ererlce zero longitude through Greenw,ich, a town close to f-ondon, England, and France,
c
a!
a
m
pi
ul
F]
lo
p(
T
TI
rh
lir
ge
22 LooK ANcrE DETERMNAoN ,i;i:.
h the earth's atmos-
spacecraft in stable
i8 x 10s kmr/sr and
ver would have been
edure.
;ateliite. As the alti-
I
Frequencies and orbital slots for new satellites are
registered with the International Frequency Regis-
tration Board (IFRB), part of the ITU located in
Geneva. The initial application by an orgaization
or company that wants to orbit a new satollite is
made to fhe nationil body that controls the allcca-
tion and use of radio frequencies-the FCC in the
United States, for example-which must first ap-
prove the application and then forward it to the
IFRB. The first organization to frle with the IFRB
for a particular service is deemed to have protection
fr<jm newcomers. Any other organization filing to
carTy the same service at, or close to, that orbital 10-
cation (within 2') must coordinate their use of the
frequency bands with the irrst organization. The first
user may cause interference into subsequent liler's
satellite systems. since they were the first to be
awarded the orbital slot and frequencies, but the later
filers' sateliites must not cause interference with the
first user's slstem.
l
-1000 km. Using a
:s. and seconds, and
;lpogee and perigee,
:rigee height hn, and
l.28 km
lue of a in Eq. (2.21)
.l
(2.27)by consider-
ren the satellite is at
lrigee
rface of the globe
nd longitude. Lat-
,f
e equator and
. given reference
r, there were two
gland drew its ref-
gland, and France,
I i9
not surprisingly, drew its reference longitude through Paris. France. Since the British
Admiralty chose to give away their maps and the French decided to charge a fee for
theirs, it was not surprising that the use of Greenw'ich as the zero reference longitude
became dominant within a few years.
[It
was the start of .com market dominance through
giveaways three centuries before E-commercell Geometry was a much older science
than navigation and so 90" per quadrant on the map rvas an obvious selection to make.
Thus, there are 360' of longitude (measured from 0' af the Greenx'ck Meridian, the
line drawn from the North Poie to the South Pole through Greenwich, England. and
+90'
of latitude, plus being measured north of the equator and minus south of the equa-
tor. Latitude 90" N (or +90") is the North Pole and latitude 90' S
(or
-90')
is the South
Pole. When GEO satellite systems are registered in Geneva, their
(subsatellite) location
over the equator is given in degrees east to avoid confusion. Thus, the INTELSAT pri-
mary location in the Indian Ocean is registered at 60" E and the primary location in the
Atlantic Ocean is at 335.5" E (not24.5" W). Earth stations that communicate with satel-
lites are described in terms of their geographic latitude and longitude when developing
the pointing coordinates that the earth station must use to track the apparent motion of
the satellite.
The coordinates to which an earth station antenna must be pointed to communi-
cate with a satellite are called the look angles. These are most commonly expressed
as azirnuth (Az) and elevation (El), although other pairs exist. For example, right
ascension and declination are standard for radio astronomy antennas. Azimuth is
measured eastward (clockwise) from geographic north to e projection of the satellite
path on a (ocally) horizontal plane at the earth station. Elevation is the angle meas-
ured upward from the local horizontal plane at the earth station to the satellite path.
Figure 2.10 illustrates these look angles. In all look angle determinations, the precise
location of the satellite is critical. A key location in many instances is the subsatellite
point.
The Subsatellite Point
The subsatellite point is the location on the surface of the earth that lies directly between
the satellite and the center of the earth. It is the nadir pointtng direction from the satel-
Iite and, for a satellite in an equatorial orbit, it will aiways be located on the equator. Since
geostationary satellites are in equatorial orbits and are designed to stay "siationary" over
Local vertical
Projection of
path onto iocal
horizontal plane
32 cHAprER2 oRBTTALMEcHANtcsANDLAUNcHERs
East
FIGURE 2.lO The definition of elevation lEl) a:d azimuth (Azl.fhe
elevation angle is
measured upward from the local horizontal at th? earth station and the azimuth angle is
measured from true north in an eastward directior to the projection of the satellite path
onto the local horizontal plane.
the earth, it is usual to give their orbital locarion in terms of thei subsatellite point. As
noted in the example given earlier, the Inte1.;t prin'rary satellite in the Atlantic Ocean
Region (AOR) is at 335.5' E longitude. Operarors of international geostationary sateilite
systems that have satellites in all three ocean regions
(Atlantic,
Indian, and Pacihc) tend
to use longitude east to describe the subsatellite points to avoid confusion betrveen using
both east and west longitude descriptors. For L.S. geostationary satellite operators, all of
the satellites are located west of the Greenu,ich meridian and so it has become accepted
practice for regional systems over the United States to describe eir geostationary sateliite
locations in terms of degrees W.
To an observer of a satellite standing at the subsatellite point, the satellite will ap-
pear to be directlj, overhead, in the zenth diection from the observing location. The
zenith and nadir paths are therefore in opposite directions along the same path (see
Figure 2. 1 1). Designers of satellite antennas ret'erence the pointing direction of the satel-
lite's antenna beams to the nadir direction. The communications coverage region on the
earth from a satellite is defined by angles measured from nadir at the satellite to the
edges of the coverage. Earth station antenna designers, however, do not reference their
pointing direction to zenith. As noted earlier they use the local horizontal plane at the
earth station to define elevation angle and geographical compass points to define az-
imuth angle, thus giving the two look angles for the earth station antenna toward the
satellite (Az, El).
Elevation Angle Galculation
Figure 2.12 shows the geometry of the elevarion angle calculation. In Figure 2"12, r,
is the vector from the center of the earth to the satellite; r" is the vector from the cen-
ter of the earth to the earth stafion; and d i-i the vector from the eatil station to the
satellite. These three vectors lie in rhe sanie plane and form a triangle. The central
angle
7
measured between r" and r, is the angle between the earth station and the
I
i
Fr(
cer
poi
poi
tio r
bea
sub
two
nun
thos
%
n angle is
th angle s
tellite
path
ellite point. As
,\tlantic Ocean
:ionary satellite
rd Pacific) tend
between using
rperators, all of
rcome accepted
tionary satellite
rtellite will ap-
1
location. The
rame path (see
on of the satel-
o region on the
satellite to the
reference their
,al plane at the
s to define az-
rna toward the
Figure 2.12, r,
'from
the cen-
station to the
e. The central
tation and the
22 LOOI( ANGLE DETERMINATION 33
FIGURE 2.f 1 Zenith and nadir pointing directions. The line
loining
the satellite and tle
center of the earth, C, passes through the surface of the earth at point Sub, the subsatellite
point. The satellte is directly overhead at this pont and so an observer at the subsatelte
point would see the saellite at zenth (i.e.,
at an elevation angle of 90"). The pointing direc-
tion from the satellte 10 the subsatellite point is the nadir direction from the satellite. lf the
beam from the satellte anfenna is to be pointed at a location on the earth that s not at the
subsatellite point, the pointing dlrection is defined by the angle away from nadir. ln general,
two off-nadir angles are given: the number of degrees north (or
south) from nadir; and the
number of degrees east (or west) from nadir. East, west, north, and south directions are
those defined by the geography of the earth.
FIGURE 2.12 The geometry
of elevation angle calculation.
The plane of the paper is the
plane defined by the center of
the earth. the satellite, and the
earth station. The central angle
is y. The elevation angle E/ is
measured upward from the
local horzontal at the earth
station.
rir
Satellite
d
Loc
a
13
horizontal
rs
(
Earth station
'\v
-\\
-.,,\r"
-.o
Center
of earth
34 cHAprER 2 oRBrrAL MEcHANtcs AND LAUNcITEBs
satellite, and ry' is fhe angle (within the triangle) measured from r" to d. Defined so that
it is nonnegative,
7
is related to the earth station north latitude I" (i.e., L" is the num-
ber of degrees in latitude that the earth station is north from the equator) and west lon-
gitude l" (i.e., /" is the number of degrees in longitude that the earth station is west
from the Greenwich meridian) and the subsatellite point at north latitude l, and west
longitude 1* by
cos (y)
:
cos (L") cos (1,) cos (/.
-
1") + sin (L.) sin (L,)
The law of cosines allows us to relate the rnagnitudes of the vectors joining the cen-
ter of the earth, the satellite. and the earth station. Thus
r ) 1)r
Since the local horizontal plane lt the earth station is
airgle E1 is related to the central anrle
g
by
El
-r!-90'
Bv the law of sines we have
perpendicular to re, the elevation
( ].JJ,)
d
:
..1'
.'
(;)' -,(r).".r,r]'"
tl.-11 i
(1.3-+)
(2.3s)
/!
sin(r/)
Combining the last three equations yields
cosll)
:
trII(7)
d
sin(7)
sin(7)
, .
(;)'-
,(t)"",1,,r]'"
Equations (2.35) and (2.31) permit the elevation angle El to be calculated from knowl-
edge of the subsatellite point and the earth station coordinates, the orbital radius r,, and
e earth's radius r.. An accurate value for the average earth radius is 6378.137 kml but
a common value used il approximate determinations is 6370 krn.
Azimuth Angle Galculation
Because the earth station, the center of the earth, the satellite, and the subsatellite point
all lie in the same plane, the azimuth angle Az from the earth station to the satellite is the
same as the azimuth from the earth station to the subsatellite point. This is more difficult
to compute than the elevation angle because the exact geometry involved depends on
whether the subsatellite point is east or west of the earth station, and in which of the hemi-
spheres the earth station and the subsatellite point are located. The problem simplifies
somewhat for geosynchronous satellites, which wiil be treated in the next section. For the
general case, in particular for constellations of LEO satellites, the tedium of calculating
the individual look angles on a second-by-second basis has been considerably eased b,v a
range of commercial software packages that exist for predicting a variety of orbital
A popular
launch serv
alvtical Crr
program in
subseries. r,
g
hen that :r
cal orbit lol
Su
the
e1e
For
diu
me(
azit
(bar
Ca-s
Cas
dr
pr
S
Fo
an
Eq
Defined
so that
,
l" is the num-
r) and west lon-
station is west
rde L, and west
tl.3l.l
joining the cen-
12.32)
r., the eletation
t2.33)
(2.34)
(2.3s)
arcd from knowl-
ital radius rs, and
;378.L37 kmr but
subsatellite
Point
the satellite is the
.s is more diffrcult
olved depends on
vhich of the hemi-
rroblem simPlihes
xt section. For the
ium of calculating
lerably eased bY a
variety of orbital
2 L)r ANGI.E DEIEEiIuNAnoN 35
A popular suite of software employed by many
launch service contractors is that developed by An-
alytical Graphics: fhe Satetlite Tool Kir1. The core
program in early 2001. STK 4.0. and the subsequent
subseries, was used by Hughes to rescue AsiaSat3
u hen that satellite was stranded in a highly ellipti-
cal orbit following the failure of an upper stage in
the launch vehicle. Hughes used two lunar flybys to
provide the necessary additional velocity to circu-
larize the orbit at geostationary altitude. A number
of organizations offer web sites that provide orbital
plots in a three-dimensional graphical format with
rapid updates for a variety of satellites (e.g.,
the
NASA sitel).
dynamics and intercept solutions
(see reference 13 for a brief review of l0 software
packages available in early 2001).
Specialization to Geostationary Satellites
For most geostational'y satellites, the subsatellite point is on the equator at longitude /',
and the latude L. is 0. The geosynchronous radius r. is 42,164-11 kmr. Since l,. is zero.
Eq.
(2.31)
simplilles to
v
\
cos(7)
:
cos(L")cos(i,
-
1l) Q-36)
Substituting r,: 42,164.17 km and r,
:
6,378.137 km in Eqs' (2'32) and
(2'35) gives
the following expressions for the distance d from the earth station to the satellite and the
elevation angle El at the earth station
(2.31)
(2.38)
d
:
42,164.1711.A2288235
-
0.30253825 cos(7)ir/r km
,-,,
-
'in(f
.=
t"'/ -
[
t.ozzll23s
-
0.30253825 cos(7)]'
,f
tanl(/,
-
rJll
a: tan
L
*,(J l
cos
For a geostationary satellite with an orbital radius of 42,164.L7 km and a mean earth ra-
dius of 6378.L37 km, the rutio r"f r.: 6.6107345 giving
El: tan-1[(6.6107345
--
cosfl/sinr]
- z
(2.39)
To nd e azimuth angle, an intermediate angle a must first be found. The inter='-
"-
mediate angle permits the correct 90o quadrant to be found for the azimuth since the
azimuthal angle ian lie anywhere between 0o (true north) and clockwise through 360"
(back to true north again). The intermediate angle is found from
(2.40)
Having found the intermediate angle a, the azimuth look angle Az can be found from:
Case 1: Earth station in the Northern Hemisphere with
(a) Satellite to the SE of the earth tation: Az
:
180o
-
a
(b) Satellite to the SW of the earth station: Az
:
180' * a
Case 2: Earth station in the Southem Hemisphere vith
(c) Satetlite to the NE of the earth station: ?tz
:
n
(d) Satettite to the NW of the ear"th station: ;
:
360"
-
a
(2.41a)
(2.41b)
(2.41c)
(2.41d)
'
ttr
, r' gl'
[,
,l
"i
3 cHAprER 2 oRBtrAL MEc[tANtcs AND LAUNcHERs
Subsatelite
pont
Earth
station
FIGURE 2.13 The geometry of the
visibility calculaton. The satellite is said to
be visible from the earth station if the
elevation angle E/ is positive. This requires
that the orbital radius r. be greater than ihe
ratio relcos(7) where r" is the radius of the
earth and
7
is the central angle.
Visibility Test
For a satellite to be visible from an earth station, its elevation angle El must be above
some minimum value, which is at least 0o. A positive ar zero elevafion angle requires that
(see Figure 2.13)
r"
>l
.
-
cos(7]
This rneans that tle maximum central angular separation between tle earth station and
the subsatellite point is mited by
(2.43)
For a nominal geostationary orbit, the last equation reduces ta y
=
81.3" for the satellite
to be visible.
EXAMPLE 2.2.1 Geostationary atellite Look Angles
An eath station situated in the Docklands of [,ondon, England, needs to calculate the iook angle
to a geostationary satellite in e Indian Ocean operated by Intelsat. The details ofthe earth station
site and the satellite are as follows:
!r-" o.E_
Earth station latitude and longitude are 52.0' N and O'.
Satellite longitude (subsatellite point) is 66.0" E.
_T
l
re
cos 7
(2.42)
,
=
*.-,(f)
Sr
St
Str
Re
in
is)
cu!
sat
an(
Sur
eas
wh
visr
tha
gen
b"r
ifr
pos
Thi
ope
gen
nol
cati
trac
the
stan
Tho
com
etry of the
;atellite is said to
;tation if the
ve. This requires
3 gi-eater than the
:he radius of the
angle.
i'l must be above
ngle requires that
(2.42)
earth station and
(2.43)
i" for the satellite
late the look angle
of the earth station
2.2 LOOK ANGLE DETERMINATION 37
Step 1: Find the central angle
7
cos(7)
:
cos(L")cos(l.
-
/.)
:
cos(52.0)cos(66.0)
:
0.2504
Yiclding Y
= 75'4981'
Thc centrrl angle yis lesslhan 8l.J'so the satellite is risible from the earth station.
Step 2: Find the eleralion angk- E1.
El
:
tan
r[(6.6107345
cosT)/:inl
-
-
y
:
tan
r[(6.6107345
0.3501)/srn(75 4981)] - 75 l9El
= 5 847'
Step 3: Find thc intermediate angle a
,[ran'1
r r-
n -liln I
-
I .rlr.1-
-
-
tan
rf(tani6.()
()rtr'sin(51.t-))
- 7t).661'
Step 4: Find the azimuth angle
The earth station is in the Nolthern He misphere and the satellite is to the southe asi ol the
carth station From Eq.
(2.41.a). this gives
,,1:
:
l3fl,
-
r
:
180
-
10.667
-
199.1-r-l'(cltckuisc iroir lrue norrh) I
Note that. in the example above. the eleretion engle is relatil'el1'1ou
(-5.85-').
Refractive efiects in rhe atmosphere wiii cause the lnean ray path to the satellite to bend
in the elevation plane (making the satellite appeff to be higher in tlie sky than it actually
is) and to cause the amplitude of the signal to flucruate with time. These aspects are dis-
cussed more fully in the propagation etl-ects chapter. While it is unusual to operate to a
satellite below established elevation angle minima
(typically 5' af C band, 10" at Ku band.
and in most cases, 20o at Ka band and above), many times it is not possible to do this.
Such cases exist for high latitude regions and for satellites attempting to reach extreme
east and west coverages from their given geostationary equatorial location. To establish
whether a particular satellite location can provide service into a given region, a simple
visibility test can be carried out, as shown earlier in Eqs.
(2.42)
and
(2.43).
A number ofgeosynchronous orbit satellites have inclinations that are much larger
than the nominal 0.05'inclination maximum for current geosynchronous satellites. (In
general, a geosynchronous satellite with an inclination of <0.1o may be considered to
be geostationary.) In extreme cases, the inclination can be several degrees, particularly
if the orbit maneuvering fuel of the satellite is almost exhausted and the satellite's
position in the nominal location is oniy controiled in longitude and not in inclination.
This happens with most geostationary communications satellites toward the end of their
operational lifetime since the reliability of the payload, or a large part of the payload,
generally exceeds that of the lifetime of the maneuvering fuel. Those satellites that can
no longer be maintained in a fully geostationary orbit, but are still used fbr communi-
cations services, are referred to as inclined orir satellites. While they now need to have
tracking antennas at the earth terminals once the inclination becomes too large to allow
the satellite to remain r.,,,ithin the l-dB bearnrvidth of the earth station antennas, sub-
stantial additioral revenue can be earned beyond the normai lifetime of the sateiiite "
Those sateilites that eventually reach significantly inclined orbits can also be used to
communicate to parts of the high latitude regions that were once beyond reach, but only
3a cHAprER 2 oRBrrAL ,lEcHANlcs
ANo LAUNcHERS
for a limited
part of the day. The exceptional reliability of electronic components in
space, once they have survived t}te launch and deployment sequences, has led space-
craft designers to manufacture satellites with two end-of-life criteria. These are: end of
design life
(EODL), which ret'ers to the lifetirne expectancy of the payload components
and end of maneuvering life (EOML), which refers to the spacecraft bus capabilities,
in particular the anticipated lil-etime of the spacecraft with full maneuver capabilities in
longitude and inclination.
Current spacecraft are ciesigned with fuel tanks that have a capacity that usually
significantly exceeds the requirement for EODL. Once the final mass of the spacecraft
(without fuel) is known, a decision can be made as to how much additional fuel to load
so that the economics of the launch and the anticipated additional return on investlnent
can be balanced. Having additional. fuel on board the spacecraft can be advantageous
for many reasons, in addition to adding on-orbit lifetime. In many cases, satellites are
moved to new locations during their operational lifetime. Examples for this are open-
ing up service at a new location with an older satellite or replacing a satellite that has
had catastrophic failure with a satellite from a location that has fewer customers. Each
maneuver, however, consumes tuel. A rule of thumb is that any change in orbital loca-
tion for a geostationary sateliite reduces the maneuvering lifetirne by abot"lt 1 lnonth.
Moving the satellite's location by l'in longitude takes as much additional fuel as Inov-
ing the location by I80": both changes require an acceleration burn, a drift phase, and
a deceleration burn. The 180' location change n'ill clearly take longer. since the drift
rates are the same in both cases. Another use for additional fuel is to allow for orbital
perturbations at anY location.
2.3 ORBITAL PERTURBATIONS
The orbital equations developed in Section 2.1 modeled the earth and the satellite as point
masses influenced only by gravitational attraction. Under these ideal conditions, a "Kep-
lerian" orbit results, which is an ellipse whose properties are constant with time. In prac-
tice, e satellite and the earth respond to many other influences including asyrnmetry of
the earth's gravitational field, the gravitational fields of the sun and the moon, and solar
radiation prssure. For low earth orbit satellites, atrnospheric drag can also be importanl
All of these interfering forces cause the true orbit to be different from a simple Kepler-
ian ellipse; if unchecked, they would cause the subsatellite point of a nominally geosyn-
chronous satellite !o move with time.
Historically, much attention has been given to techniques for incorporating addi-
tional perturbing forces into orbit descriptions. The approach normally adopted for com-
munications satellites is fust to derive an osculating orbit far some instant in time (the
Keplerian orbit the spacecraft would follow if all perturbing forces were removed at that
time) with orbital elements (a, e, t* O,
j,
ar). The pernrrbations aro assumed to cause the
orbital elements to vary with time and the orbit and satellite location at any instant are
taken from the osculating orbit calculated with orbital elements corresponding to that time.
To visualize the process, assume that the osculating orbital elements at time to arc (a6, e,
fp, f}0, i0, are). Then assume that the orbital elements vary linearly wi time at constant
rates given by
(da/dt, de/dt, etc.). The satellite's position at any time /1 is then calculated
from a Keplerian orbit with elements
da. de
as +
\tt
-
r,eo +
\tt
-
t. etc.
Th
thr
bit
lut
ela
fer
c1-
m:t
Lo
Ef
Th,
tri
MC
noi
tor
ave
c0r
tori
Tht
riur
poi
Ifa
AY
at tl
hiII.
and
252
slig
any
poit
onc
(cer
gral
ag(
spe
rvit
nor
the
satr
wil
wa!
the
off
on'
celt
components
in
,
has led space-
hese are: end of
oad comPonents
bus capabilities,
:r capabilities
in
city that usuallY
rf the spacecraft
cnal fuel to load
'n
on investment
rc advantageous
es, satellites are
rr this are oPen-
satellite that has
customers. Each
: in orbital loca-
about I month.
nal fuel as mov-
drift
phase, and
r, since the drift
allow for orbital
satellite as point
nditions, a "Kep-
ith time. In prac-
ng asymmetry of
moon, and solar
lso be important.
a simple Kepler-
rminally geosyn-
:orporating addi-
dopted for com-
;tant in time (the
: removed at that
med to cause the
rt any instant are
rding to that time.
ime f6 are (ao, eo,
time at constant
is then calculated
..*.,
:.::,-1i1.ff..i,
2.3 oRarrAL
pERTURSATToNS
,tsg
This approach is particularly useful in practice because it permits the use of either
theoretically calculated derivatives or empirical values based on satellite observations.
As the perturbed orbit is not an ellipse, some care must be taken in defining the or-
bital period. Since the satellite does not retufn to the same point in space once pr revo-
lution. the quantity most frequently specified is the so-called anomalistic period: the
elapsed time betrveen successive perigee passages. In addition to the orbit not being a per-
fect Keplerian ellipse, there will be other influences that will cause the apparent position
of a
-qeostationary
satellite to change with time. These can be viewed as those causing
rnainly longitudinal changes and those that principally affect the orbital inclination.
Longitudinal Changes:
Effects of the Earth's Oblateness
The earth is neither a perfect sphere nor a perfect ellipse; it can be better described as a
triaxial ellipsoidr . The earth is flattened at the poles; the equatorial diameter is about 20 kn'r
more than the average polar diarneter. The equatorial radius is not constant, although the
noncircularity is sm:all: the radius does not vary by more than about 100 m around the equa-
torr. In addition to these nonregular features of the earth, there are regions where the
average densit, of the earth appears to be higher. These are referred to as regions of mass
concentrarion or Mctscons. Th"
ryrphgJg
of the earth, th. ,tglgulu.iy of the equa-
torial radius, ar.rd rhe Masconslead-to a rtg-udf-o-rr-glaJllalreua!-figlg*alggtd-"t}-g-eal-th-
The force on an orbiting satellite will therefore vary with position-
For a low earth orbit satellite, the rapid change in position of the satellite with re-
spect to the earth's surface will lead to an averaging out of the penurbing lorces in iine
with the orbital velocity vector. The same is not true for a geostationary (or geosynchro-
ncus) satellite.4. gggqfong_ry_"8U1lg.igC-ry]gylrS!.is-q!1,
The smallest force on
the satellite will cause it to accelerate and then drift away from its nominal location. The
satellite is required to maintain a constant longitudinal position over the equator, but there
will generally be an additional force toward the nearest equatorial bulge in either an east-
ward or a westward direction along the orbit plane. Since this will rarely be in line with
the main gravitational force toward the earth's center, there will be a resultant component
of force acting in the same direction as the satellite's velocity vector or against it, depending
on e precise position of the satellite in the GEO orbit. This will lead to a resultant ac-
celeration or deceleration component that varies with longitudinal location of the satellite.
Due to the position of the Mascons and equatorial bulges, there are four equib-
rium poiqg in the geostationary orbit: tyg-g"-thea[sfahland#s-gLs-lable. The stable
p[nTlre analogous to the bottom of a valley, and the unstable points to the top of a hill.
If a ball is perched on top of a hill, a small push will cause it to roll down the slope into
a valley, where it will roll backwards and forwards until it gradually comes to a final stop
at the lowest point. The satellite at an unstable orbital location is at the top of a gravity
hill. Given a small force, it will drift down the gravity slope into the gravity well (valley)
and frnally stay there, at the stable position. The stable points are at about 75o E and
252' E and the unstable points are at around 162" E and 348" E1. If a satellite is perturbed
slightly from one of the stable points, it will tend to drift back to the stable point without
any thruster firings required. A satellite that is perturbed slightly from one of the unstable
points will immediately begin to accelerate its drift toward the nearer stable point and,
once it reaches this point, it will oscillate in longitudinal position about this point until
(centuries later.) it stabilizes at that point. These stable points are sometimes called the
graveyard geosynchronous orbit locations (not to be confused with the graveyard orbit for
a geosynchronous satellite, which is the orbit to which the satellite is raised once the
40 CHAPTER 2 ORBITAL MECHANICS AND LAUNCHERS
satellite ceases to be useful). Note at, due to the nonsphericity of the earth, etc., the sta-
ble points are neither exactly l80o apart, nor are the stable and unstable points precisely
90o apart.
lnclination Changes:
Effects of the un and the Moon
The plane of the earth's orbit around the sun-the ecliptir:-is at an inclination of 7.3' to
the equatorial plane of the sun (Figure 2.1-1). The earth is titled about 23" away from the
normal to the ecliptic. The moon circles the earth with an inclination of around 5o to the
equatorial plane of the earth. Due to the fact that the various planes-the sun's equator.
the ecliptic, the earth's equator (a plane normai to the earth's rotational axis), and thc
moon's orbital plane around the earth-are all different, a satellite in orbit around the earth
will be subjected to a vuiety ol out-of-plane forces. That is, there will generally be a net
acceleration force that is not in the plane of the satellite's orbit, and this will tend to tr_r,
Io chiinge the inclination of the sateilite's orbit from its initial inclination. Llnder rhese
conditions. the orbit rvill precess and its inclination will change.
The rnass of the sun is significantly larger than that of the moon but the moon is con-
siderably closer to the earlh than the sun (see
-fable
2.2). For this reason. the acceleration
fbrce induced by the moon on a
-eeostationary
satellite is about twice as large as that of the
sun. The net effect of the acceleration forces induced by the moon and the sun on a
FIGURE 2.14 Relationship between the orbtal planes of the sun, moon, and earth. The
plane of the earth's orbit around the sun isthe ecliptic. The geostationary orbit plane (the
earth's equatorial plane) is about 23" out of the ecliptic, and leads to maximum out-of-
geostationary-orbit-plane forces at the solstice periods (approximately
June 21 and
December 21). The orbt of the moon is inclined about 5" to the earth's equatorial plane. The
moon revolves around the earth in 27.3 days, the earth
(and
the geostationary satellite)
rotates once about 24 h, and the earth revolves around the sun every 365.25 days. ln
addtion, the sun-which has a greater girth
at the equator than at the poles-has its equator
inclined about 7.3' to the ecliptic. All of these various angular differences and orbital periods
lead to conditions where all of the out-of-plane gravitational forces are in one drection with
respect to the equatorial (geostationary orbitali plane at a given time as well as to conditions
where the various gravitational out-of-plane forces partiaily cancel each other out. The
precessional forces that cause the nclination of the geosiationary satellite's orbit to move
away from the equatoral plane therefore vary with time.
Moon
T,
Sr
M
I
rja
ge
ol
ral
ilg
slil
(u.
o1'
rvl
tia
clir
rhi
_\'e

fue
in
for
nec
to2
Thi
grei
oft
con
clin
sate
sot
in l
rect
neu,
bur
char
reas
of ar
of a.
abot
attin
the r
to c(
2.3 OREITAL PERTURBANONS
41
TABLE 2.2 Comparative Data for the Sun, Moon, and Earth
Mean radius Mass Mean orbit radius Spin period
rth, etc., the sta-
points precisely
Lnation of 7.3o to
l" away frorn the
around 5" to the
he sun's equator,
al axis), and the
. around the eafih
i:nerally be i net
s wiil tend to tr)'
ion. Uncler these
the moon is con-
. the accelelation
trge as that of the
nd the sun on a
nd earth. The
rbit plane (the
um out-of-
21 and
itorial plane. The
lry satellite)
5 days. ln
;-has its equator
rd orbital periods
re direction with
il as to conditions
er out. lhe
orbit to move
Sun 696,000 km
Moon 3,476 km
Earth 6,378.14 km
333,432 units
0.012 units
1.0 units
30,000 light years 25.04 earth days
384,500 km 27.3 earth days
149,597,870 km 1 earth day
The orbit radius refers to the center of the home galaxy (Milky Way) for the sun, center
of earth for the moon, and center of the sun for the eah, respectively.
geostationary satellite is to change the plane ofthe orbit at an initial averase rate ofchanse
o1'0.S5"/ycar from the equatorial planer.
When both thc sun and moon are acting on the sanre sidc ol the satellitc's orbit. the
rate of change of the plane of the geostationary satellite's orbil will be higher than aver-
age. Whe n they are on opposite sides of the orbit, the rate of change of the piane of thc
stellite's orbit will be less than average. Examples of rnaxirrurn years are 1988 and 20{l
10.94'lyear)
and cxartples of nrinimurn ycars are 1997 and 2015 $.l5"lyear)r. These rrle-r
of change are neither constant with time nor with inclination. They are at a nraxinir.im
u,hen the inclination is zero and they are zero when the inclination is 1.1.67". Fon'r an ini-
tial zero inclination, the plane of the geostationary orbit will change to rr maxirnulr in-
clination of 14.61" over 26.6 years. The acceleration tbrces lviil then chan-qe direction at
this maxinum inclination and the orbit inclination will move back to zero in another 26.6
vears and out to
-
14.67" over a further 26.6 years, and so rn.
In sorne cases, to increase the orbital maneuver lif'etirne of a satellite for a sivet't
fuel load, rnission planners deliberately place a satellite planned fclr geostationary orbit
into an initial orbit with an inclination that is substantially larger than the nominal 0.05'
for a geostationary satellite. The launch is specifically timed, however, so as to set up the
necessary precessional forces that will automatically reduce the inclination "error" to close
to zero over the required period without the use of any thruster firings on the spacecraft.
This will increase the maneuvering iifetime of the satellite at the expense of requiring
greater tracking by the larger earth terrninals accessing the satellite for the hrst year or so
of the satellite's operational life.
Under normal operations, ground controllers command spacecraft maneuvers to
correct for both the in-plane changes (longitudinal drifts) and out-of-plane changes (in-
clination changes) of a satellite so that it remains in the correct orbit. For a geostationary
satellite, this means that the inclination, ellipticity, and longitudinal position are controlled
so that the satellite appears to stay within a "box" in the slry that is bounded by 10.05"
in latitude and longitude over the subsatellite point. Some maneuvers are designed to cor-
rect for both inclination and longitude drifts simultaneously in the one burn of the ma-
neuvering rockets on the satellite. In others, the two maneuvers are kept separate: one
burn will correct for ellipticity and longitude drift; another will correct for inclination
changes. The latter situation of separated maneuvers is becoming more cornmon for two
reasons. The first is due to the much larger velocity increment needed to change the plane
of an orbit (the so-called north-south maneuver) as compared with e longitude/ellipticity
of an orbit (the so-called east-west maneuver). The difference in energy requirement is
about 10:1. By alternately correcting for inclination changes and in-plane changes, the
attitude of the satellite can be held constant and different sets of thrusters exercised for
u;re required laneiiver.
The second rea-scn is the increasing use of two corepleiely different types of thruster-s
to control N-S maneuvers on the one hand and E-\Y naneuvers on the other. In the
lillll
irliri
:t,i
42 cHAprER 2 oRBlrAL MEcHANtcs AND LAUNcHERS
mid-1990s, one of the heaviest items that was carried into orbit on a large satellite was
the fuel to raise and control the orbit. Abqut 9Q7o g-f
lhiq fuel load, once on orbit, was to
control the inclination of the sateltite. Newer rocket motors, particularly arc
jets
and ion
thrusters, offer increased efficiency with lighter mass. In generai, these low thrust, high
efficiency rocket rnotors are used for N-S tllaneuvers leaving the liquid propellant thrusters,
with their inherently higher thrust
(but
lower efficiency) for orbit raising ancl in-planc
changes. In order to be able to calculate the required orbit maneuver lor a given satellitc,
the controliers irust have an accurate knowledge of the satellite's orbit. Orbrt delemrina-
tion is a malor aspe ct of satellite control.
EXAMPLE 2.3.1 Drift with a Geostationary Satellite
A quasi-GEO sar!.llir is in a circular equatorial orbit closc to geosynchronous altitudc. Thc quasi-
GEO satellite. horve','cr. dtcs not have a per-iod of one sidereal day: its orbital period is exactly
2-1 h-one solar dar'. Calculate
(i) thc- r'adius o1'thc r>r'bit
(ii
) the ratc of drilj :round thc e.lurtor rf lhc subsatcllitc point in de_srecs per (so1ar de,.
An obsen'er on the rrrrth sees that the satellitc is driliin._e across thc sk)/.
(iii) Is the satellite moving toward the east ol'toward the rvestl
Answer Pan (i) The orbital radius is ibund fiom Eq. (2.21). as in u'orked Example 2.1.1. Equa-
tion
(1.11) gives the squarr' of the orbital period in seconds (remembering that I here is one solar day)
T)
_
(4)aJ)/p
Rearranging the equation. the orbital radius r is given by
u'
:
T)p/(4rr)
:
(86,400)r x 3.986004418 x lo'/hr:
:
7.537 1216 x 10rr kmr
a
:
42-241.095 km
Parf (ii) The orbital period of the satellite (one solar day) is longer than a sidereal day by 3 min
55.9 s
:
235.9 s. This will cause the subsateliite point to drift at a rate of 360" x 235.9/86400 per
day or 0.983' per day.
Part (iii) The earth moves toward the east at a faster rate than the satellite, so the drift will appear
to an observer on the earth to be toward the west. I
2.4 OBBIT DETERMINATION
2.5 I

Orbit determination requires that sufficient measurements be made to determine uniquely

the six orbital elements needed to calculate the future orbit of the satellite, and hence cal-
culate the required changes that need to be made to the orbit to keep it within the nomi-
nal orbital location. Three angular position measurements are needed because there are
six unknowns and each measurement will provide two equations. Conceptually, these can
be thought of as one equation giving the azimuth and the other the elevation as a function
of the six (as yet unknown) orbital elements.
The control earth stations used to measure the angular position of the satellites also
carry out range measurements using unique time stamps in the telemetry stream or com-
munications carrier. These earth stations are generailv relerred to as the TTC&M (teleme-
try tracking comnand and monitoring) stations of the sateiiite netrvork. Major satellite
netrvorks maintain their orvn TTC&M stations around the rvortrd. Srnller satellite systems
generally contract for such TTC&M functions from the. spacecraft manufacturer or from
I
I
:
t
i
l
I
I
t
r
i
i
I
i
I
I
I
I

t
t
t
I
I
I
I
i
I
:
I
I
I
I
i
a

t
I
t
I
t
[*.
large satellite was
ce on orbit, was to
rly arc
jets and ion
se low thrust, high
rropellant thrusters,
ising and in-plane
tr a given satellite.
t. Orbit determina-
; altitude. The quas-
tal period is exactlY
r
(solar) da).
i.xanrple 2.2.1. Equa-
here is one solar day)
rlereal day by 3 min
x 235.9/864A0 per
the drift will appear
I
etermine uniquely
ite, and hence cal-
t within the nomi-
because ere are
eptually, these can
ation as a function
the satellites also
ry
stream or com-
TTC&M (teleme-
rk. Major satellite
:r satellite systems
rufacfurer or from
',,r,,. "-
q_,.
ryf,.:_:r;.
t
,]
the larger satellite system operators, as it is generally uneconomic to build advanced
TTC&M stations with fewer than three satellites to control. Chapter 3 discusses TIC&M
systems.
2.5 LAUNCHES AND LAUNCH VEHICLES
A satellite cannot be placed into a stable orbit unless two parameters that are uniquely
coupled together-the velojEJ"gg.tor and the o:IslJ.lgb-are simultaneously correct.
There is little point in obtaining the correct height and not having the appropriate veloc-
ity cornponent in the correct direction to achieve the desired orbit. A geostationary satel-
lire, for example, must be in an orbit at a height of
-3-.786.0-i
km above the surtace of the
earth (:+2,164. I7-km radius from the center of the earth; uith an inclination ol zero de-
grees. an ellipticity of zero, and a velocity of 307-1.7 m/s tangential to the earth in the
plane of the orbit, which is the eafth's equatorial piane. The iurther out from the earth the
orbit is. the greater the energy required frorn the launch vehicle tr reach that orbit. In any
eanh satellite launch, the largest fraction ofthe energy expended b the rocket is used to
accelerate the vehicle fron rest until it is about 20 miles
(31
kln)abole the earth. To make
the most efficient use of the fuel, it is comrnon to shed excess mass fiom the launcher as
it moves upward on launch: this is called staging. Fi-eure 2. 1-5
_eir
e; a schematic of a Proton
launch from the Russian Baikonur complex at Kazakhstan. near T,uratam.
Most launch vehicles have multiple stages and. as each stage is completed. that por-
tion ofthe launcher is expended until the final stage places the satellite into the desired tra-
jectory.
Hence the term'. e.tpendnble launch vehicle (ELV).The Space Shuttle. called the
Stace Trutsportatiott System (SfS) by NASA, is partially reusable. The solid rocket boosters
are recovered and refurbished for future missions and the shunle vehicle itself is flown
back to earth for refurbishment and reuse. Hence the term: reusable launch vehicle (RLV)
for such launchers. More advanced launch vehicles are being developed that would pro-
vide both single stage to orbit (SSIO) and RLV capabilities. The )'iASA series of X-33 and
X-34 test vehicles form the public portion of this quest (see
the NASA home pagea).
F%

2s:oo4th
.
05:34 Payload
fairing jeison
a#
;,"?"1i'j^*'"
iii[i',n"
05:41 2ndstage
separation
06:10 3rd stage
ignition
00:21 Roll
02:07 1st stage
Separation/
2nd stage gnton
FIGURE 2.15 Schematic of a Proton launch (after reference 5).
U ctrApTER 2 oRBrrAL MEcsANrcg ANo LAUNcHERs
There are also a number of private ventures that aim to achieve RLV capabilities in
e first decade of the twenty-first century. T[vo excellent web sites to keep abreast of
these, and related space issues, are those maintained by spaceviews6 and orbrepofT. of
equal importance to the orbital height the satellite is intelied for ii tliij-i"tination of the
orbit that the spacecraft needs to be launched into.
The earth spins toward the east. At the equator, the rotational velocity of a sea level
site in the plane of the equator is (2z x radius of the garth)l(one
sidereal day)
:
0.4651
knvs. This velocity increnrenl is approxirnately 1000 mph (-1610 km/h). An easrerly
launch trom the equator has a velocity increment of 0.465 km/s imparted by the rotation
of the earth. A satellite in a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 900 km requires an
orbital velocity of about Z4*(nls-tangential to the surface of rhe earrh.Xl-6;re1aii?
fiom the equator needs to irnpart an additional velocity of (7.4
-
0.4i) km/s
:
6.93 km/s:
in other rvords, the equatorial launch has reduced the energy required by about 6Vo.This
equatorial launch "bonus" led to the concept of a sea launch by Hughes and Boeing8. If
the launch is not to he intc an equatorial orbit. the payload capabilities ofany given rocket
uili reduce as the inclination increases.
A sate.llite launched into a prograde orbit from a latitude of @ degrees will enter an
orbit with an inclination of @ degrees to the equator. If the satellite is intended for geo-
stationarv orbit, the satellite must be given a signihcant velocity increment to reorient the
orbit into the earth's equatorial plane. For example, a satellite launched from Cape
Canaveral at 28.5" N latitude requires a velocity increment of 366 rrls to attain an equa-
torial orbit from a geosynchonous orbit plane of 28.5'. Ariane is launched from the Guiana
Space Center in French Guiana, located at latitude 5' S in South America, and Sealaunch
can launch from the equator. The lower latitude of these launch sites results in significant
savings in the fuel used by the apogee kick motor (AKM).
Expendable Launch Vehicles
(ELVs)
1998 was an important year for ELVs: it was the year when the number of commercial
launches in the United States surpassed the number of government launches for the first
timee. The gap between commercial and govemment launches will continue to grow. The
Teal Group estimated in mid-1999 thef 1447 satellites would be launched worldwide be-
tween 2000 and 2009 on 850 to 900 launch vehiclesro. At an average cost of $100 M per
launch, this represen8 a business wsrth about $ 90 B over 10 years. Ofthese 1447 satel-
lites, 893 were considered commercial ventures with the remainder spt between *itary
and civilian government spacecraft. There is therefore a healthy market for ELVs and a
number of companies, consortia, and national entities are seeking to enter this expanding
eld. Reference 15 conteins a good survey of the ELVs being developed for the twensr-
fust century Figure 2.16 presents a rough eornparison between thp main launch vehicles
o
(o
{/t
o
r)
@
The STS can launch approrimately 65,000Ib. (29,478
kg) into a standard 28.5'orbital inclination at an or-
bital height of about 200 km from te Kennedy Space
Flight Center in Cape Canaveal. If the Vandenburg
Air Force Base launch sile in Califomia still had the
capability of launching the Shuttle, e payload ca-
pabiiity ofthe Shunle for a polar launch (inciination
90") would be reduced to
-32,000
Ib (14,512 kg).
Since the Challenger accident in January 1996, he
shuttle is rarely used to lauach civilian payloads, its
mission being confined to military payloads
[e.g.,
TDRSS (Tracking and Data Relay Satellite Sysrem)
satellitesl, joint ventures with other ageneies
[e.g.,
ESA (European Space Agency) Spacelab facilityl,
"big sciencd' missions (e.g-, the X-ray telescope
Chandra), and lnternational Space Station flights. The
vast majoriiy of e satellite launches are theefore
conducted by expendable launch vehicles.
o
Gs
E
rof
(
-!
c, r
rA
RLV capabilities in
to keep abreast of
and OrbreportT. Of
e inclination of the
ocity of a sea ievel
real day)
:
0.4651
kri/h). An easterlY
'ted
by the rotation
)00 km requires an
A rocket launched
kn/s
:
6.93 km/s:
by about 6Vo.This
res and Boeing3. If
of an given rocket
:grees rvill enter an
; intended for geo-
nent to reorient the
rnched from Cape
i to attain an equa-
ed from the Guiana
ca. and Sealaunch
:sr.rlts in significant
ber of commercial
rnches for the flrst
itinue to grow. The
hed worldwide be-
:ost of $100 M per
rf
these 1447 satel-
it befween military
et for ELVs and a
rter this expanding
rcd for the twenty-
n launch vehicles
civilian payloads, its
itary payloads
[e.g.,
iay Sateite System)
rther agencies
[e.g.,
)
Spacelab facilityl,
the X-ray telescope
e Starii'r flights. The
nches are therefore
r vehicles.
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i
46 CHAPTER 2 ORBTAL MECHANICS AND LAUNCHERS
$M
200
180
160
140
120
100
Atlas llAS
ia o
Atlas llA f Ariane ++L
Ariane 5
T
Zenit 3
| I
rl
Atlas ll
BO
60
40
20
0
Long March 3B
!
F.t""
Dfa
4 6 8
.1
A 12
Pounds into Geostationary Transfer Orbii
FIGURE 2.17 Launch vehicle market price vs performance, 1996 prices (after reference 5).
The launch vehicles have been normalized to a launch into geostationary transfer orbit at an
inclination of 28". The trend line for launchers is shown as $12,000
per pound. Note that
Long March, Zenit, and Proton are well below this trend line, mainly due to aggressive pric-
ing objectives to break into a market long dominated by U.S. and European launchers.
used for Geostationary Transfer Orbit
(GTO)
injection during the 1990s. plus the Ariane 5
launcher. The 1996 pricing of these vehicles is shown in Figure 2.17. Not included in these
data are the advanced Chinese launch vehicles being developed for both unmanned and
manned missions in the twenty-fi.rst century. The largest of these Chinese launch vehicles
rivais the Ariane 5 vehicle with a geostationary transfer orbit capability of 26,000 lb.
TABLE 2.3 Some Next Generation Launehers Gompared with Ariane 44
and Atlas IIAS Baseline Vehicles (1999 Pices)
Launcher
Weight to Total cost Lead time
orbit {kgl
($Ml (months}
Max. payload Launch
diameter {m) lattude ('}
Ariane 44
Ariane 5
Atlas llAS
Atlas lllA
Atlas lllB
Atlas V
Delta lll
Delta lV(small)
Delta lV(med.)
Delta lV(heavy)
Itan lll
-l'itan
lV
Proton M
4000
6800
3700
4120
4500
6500
3800
2177
4173
13200
4500
5700
4800
130
120
100
125
135
1 50*
130
60*
120*
400*
260
435
80
36
Jb
36
36
48
48
36
36*
36*
48n
36
48
z4
3.65
4.57
3.45
4.19
4.19
5.40
4.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
3.65
4-57
3_68
tra
5.2
28.5
28.5
28.5
28.5
28.7
28.7
28.7
28.7
28.6
28.6
51.6
*
These data are estimaied val--s.
The Atlas V and Proton M vehicles are planned for operational flights beginning in 2002 or
2003. The Delta V family of launch vehicles will become operational from 2002 to 2004.
TI
Pr
Re
I
De
t
tr^
Sp
F II(
Sul
Lat
Av
Ma
s25
Rus
flec
was
GT(
laur
the
and
tury
varir
Laur
.
Pric
.
Reli
.
Dep
.
Perf,
'Spai
.
Fligi
.
Safe
.
Laur
.
Avail
.
Marl
FIGUI
given
13.9
---+-
Ariane 5
.4L
T
:nit3
{ I
rl
FffiD-l*I
1a
fter reference 5).
?nsfer orbt at an
nd. Note that
aggressive pric-
rlaunchers.
plus the Ariane 5
included in these
th unmanned and
,e launch vehicles
of 26,000 lb.
se 44
Launch
titude {"}
'... .
Bi1fs''.'i i
,
,P
I
z.s r-AUNcHEs AND LAuNcH vEHtcLEs
,4V
,,
'
TABLE 2.4 Some Launch Vehicle Selection Factors
Price/cost
Reliability
Recent launch success/failure historY
Dependable launch schedule
Urgency of your launch requirement
Performance
Spacecraft fit to launcher (size, acoustic, and vibration environment)
Flight proven (see recent launch history)
Safety issues
Launch site location
Availability
What is the launcher Lracklog of orders?
What is the launch site backlog of launches?
Market issues
What will the market bear at this particular time?
It can be seen frorn Figure 2.17 that there was a well-established trend line of about
525,000 per k_u into GTO prior to the introd-Lrction of the Chinese Lclg March and the
BUSsian
Z_enit and Prolon vehicies. The pricing of the Chinese and Russian launchers re-
tlected an agqressjve marketing strategy to break into the launch services he1d. Ariane 5
was the tlrst of the next-generation launchers aimed at both large, single payloads into
GTO and rnultiple payload injection into LEO.and MEO. Some more next-generatlon
launchers are shown in Table 2.3 on the previous page. It is anticipated that the bulk of
the large satellite launches will be conducted with Atlas V, Delta IV and Ariane vehicles
and their Russian and Chinese equivalents over the first 2 decades of the twenty-first cen-
tury. The decision on which particular rockei to use in a given situation wili depend on a
variety of factors. Some of these are set out inTable 2.4.
The decision-making routine using the above criteria is shown in Figure 2.18.
Launch Vehicle Selection Factors
.
Pricelcost
.
Fteliability
-
Flecent failures
.
Dependable launch schedule
-
Urgency of the customer
.
Pedormance
.
Spacecraft flt
.
Flight proven
.
Safe
.
Launch site locaton
.
Availabili--Launch site; vehcle; schedule;
"
li,sr:.:.,: ;ol',;i:,.r1-:-l-'v'vh': ii
--
i:'i3ike1 \^.'ii: fiE:ii
FIGUHE 2.f I Schematic of the decisior rnaking prccess to seieci a rocket ior a
given satellite requirement
(after reference 5).
5.2
5.2
28.5
28.s
28.5
28.5
28-7
28.7
28.7
28.7
28.6
28.6
5 t.b
2or
t.
-
llt*' ;
I
l
48 cHAprER z oRHTAL i,EctlAt{lcs AND I.aUNcHERS
FIGURE 2.f 9 lllustration of the
't
Gto/AKM aPProach to geosta-
tionary
qrbit (not to scale). The
combined sPacecraft and final
.
rocket stage are
Placed
into low
earth orbit
(LEO) around the
'
earth. After careful orbit determi-
GEo
nation measurements, the final
stage is ignited in LEO and the
spacecraft inserted into a transfer
orbit that lies between the LEO
and the geostationary orbit alti-
tude: the so-called geostatonarY
transfer orbit or GTO. Again, af-
ter more careful orbit determna-
tion, the apogee kick motor
(AKM) is fired on the satellite
and the orbit is both circularized
at geostationary altitude and the
inclination reduced to close to
zero. The satellite is then in GEO.
Some of the launch vehicles deliver the spacecraft directly to geostationary orbit
(called a direct-insertion launch) while others inject the spacecraft into a geostationary
transfer orbit
(GTO).
Spacecraft launched into GTO must carry additional rocket motors
and/or propellant to enable the vehicle to reach the geostationary orbit. There are three
basic ways to achieve geostationary orbit.
Placing Satellites into Geostationary Orbit
Geostationary Transfer Orbit and AKM The initial approach to launching geo-
stationary satellites was to place the spacecraft, with the final rocket stage still attached,
into low earth. orbit. After a couple of orbits, during which the orbital elements are measured,
the final stage is reignited ard fhe spaceeraft is launChed iato a geostatioRary trarisfer or-
bit. The GTO has a perigee that is the original LEO orbit altitude and an apogee that is the
GEO altitude. Figure 2.19 illustrates the process. The position of the apogee point is close
to the orbitl longitude that would be the in-orbit test location of the satellite prior to it be-
ing moved to its operational position. Again, after a few orits in the GTO while the or-
bital elements are measured, a rocket motor (usually contained within the satellite itselfl
is ignited at apogee and the GTO is raised until it is a circular, geostationary orbit. Since
the rocket motor fiIes at apogee, it is commonly referred to as the apogee kick motor
(AI
nati
Ge
rath
utes
bun
the
sola
ing
hou
raisr
bit,
orbi
to r:
the r
Di
the l
the r
ifs o
2.6 oRt
SYSTEM
apol
lon
ogee:
AKM fires at this point
The first successful GEO satellite was Syncom,
launched in 1963. Hughes Corporation built the
satellite and the spacecraft was spin-stabilized
while it was in geostationary transfer orbit. In this
way, the satellite was correctly aligned for the
apogee motor firing. The apogee motor was fairly
powerful and the apogee burn was only for a few
minutes. During this apogee burn, all of the satel-
lite's deployable elements (e-g., solar panels, an-
tennas) were stowed and iocked in place to avoid
damage rvhile the AKM accelerated the satellite to
GEO. Hughes patented the technique of spin stabi-
Iizing the spacecraft in GTO. To avoid infringing
this patent, other satellite manufacturers developed
a new way to achieve GEO, known as a slow orbil
raising technique.
Dol
Toa
mittt
) lllustration of the
)roach to
geosta-
not to scale). The
rcecraft and final
re placed nto low
:O) around the
rreful orbit determi-
rements, the final
,d
in LEO and the
erted into a transfer
between the LEO
ationary orbt alt-
alled geostationarY
or GTO. Again, af-
ful orbit determina-
ree kick motor
on the satellite
is both circularized
rry altitude and the
.luced to close to
rllite is then in GEO.
qeostationary orbit
rto a geostationary
rlnal rocket motors
rit. There are three
h to launching geo-
,tage sII attached,
rlents are measured,
tionary transfer or-
n apogee that is the
ngee point is close
ellite prior to it be-
GTO while the or-
the satellite itself)
tionary orbit. Since
apogee kick motor
.,
solar panels, an-
ld in place to avoid
;rated the satellite to
hnique of spin stabi-
To avoid. infringing
rfacturers developed
rown as a slow orbit
2.6 ORBTTAL EFFECT n.l OOMMUNICATu)NS SYSTEMS PERFORffIAT'C
FIGURE 2.2O lllustration of slow orbit
raising to geostationary orbit
(not
to scale),
The combined spacecraft and final rocket
.
stage are placed into low earth orbit (LEO)
around the earth. As before
(see
Figure
2.19), the spacecraft ls iniected into GTO but,
in this case, once the satellite is ejected from
the final rocket stage, it deploys many of the
elements that it will later use in GEO
(solar
panels, etc.) and stabilizes its attitude using
thrusters and momentum wheels, rather
than being spin-stabilized. The higher power
thrusters are then used around the apogee
to raise the pergee of the orbt until the
orbit is circular at the GEO altitude. At the
same tme as the orbit is being raised, the
thruster firings will be designed
gradually to
reduce the inclination to close to zero.
(AKM). The AKM is used both to circularize the orbit at GEO and to remove any incli-
nation error so that the final orbit of the satellite is very close to geostationary'
Geostationary Transler Orhit with Slow Orbit Raising ln this procedure,
raer than employ an apogee kick motor that imparts a I iqorous acceleration over a few min-
utes, the spacecraft thrusters are used to raise the orbit from GTO to GEO over a number of
burns. Since the spacecraft cannot be spin-stabilized during the GTO (so as not to infringe
the Hughes patent), many of the satellite elemnts are deployed while in GTO, including the
sohr pLels. 1'he satellite has two power levels of thrusters: one for more powerful orbit rais-
ing maneuvers and one for on-orbit
(low thrust) maneuvers. Since the thrusters take many
hours of operaon to achieve the geostationary orbit, the perigee of the orbit is gradually
raised over successive fhruster firings. The thruster fuings occur symmetrically about the
apogee alttrough they could occur at the perigee IS well. The bums are typically 60 to 80 min
tong on succeisive orbits and up to six orbits can be used. Figure 2.20 illustrates th process-
I the first two cases, AKM and slow orbit raising, the GTO may be a modified or-
bit with the apogee well above the required altitude for GEO. The excess energy of the
orbit due to the higher-than-necessary
altitude at apogee can be traded for energy required
to raise the perigee. The net enelgy to circularize e orbit at GEO is therefore less and
the satellite can retain more fuel for on-orbit operations'
Direct lnsetion to GEO This is similar to the GTO techrique but, in this case,
the launch seryice provider contracts to place the satellite into GEO. The final stages of
the rocket ue used to place the satellite directly into GEO rather than the satellite using
its own propulsion system to go from GTO to GEO'
2.6 ORBITAL EFFECTS
IN COMMUNICATIONS
SYSTEMS PERFORMANCE
Doppler Shft
To a stationary observer, the frequency of a moving radio transmitter varies with the trans-
mitter's velocity relative to the observer- If the true transmitter frequency
(i'e'' the
1l
ll
l'
tr
I

\rl
lrll
,ir
l
50 cHAprER 2 oRBmAL MEcHANlcs AND lruNcHERs
frequency that the transmitter would send when at rest) isfi, the received frequency/ is
higher than/r when the transmitter is moving toward the receiver and lower thanfi'when
the transmitter is moving away from the receiver. Mathematically, the relationship
[Eq.
(2.44a)l between the transmitted and received frequencies is
Lf:Vf/c:V/t
(2.14a
(2.44b)
where V1 is the component of the transmitter velocity diected toward the receiver. u,
:
c
the phase velocity of light (2.9979 X lOs
:
3 X 10E m/s in free space), and,tr is the u'ave-
length of the transrnitted signal. If the transmitter is moving away from the receir er. then
7 is negative. This change in frequency is called fhe Doppler shi;t't,the Doppler etf'ect, or
more coll-ulonly
just "Doppler" after the Gemran physicist who first studied the phenome-
non in sound waves. For LEO srtellites, Doppler shift can be quite pronounced. requiring
the use of frequency-tracking receivers. For geostationa+' safellites, the effect is negligible'
EXAMPLE 2.6.1 Doppler Shift for a LEO Satellite
A 1or.v earth orbit satellitc is in a circular polar orbit with an altitude, ft. oi 1000 km. A tlnsmitter
on the sateilite has a frequency of 2.65 GHz-. Find
(i) The velocity of the satellite in orbit
(ii) The component of velocity toward an tbserver at an earth station as the satellite appears over
the horizon, for an observer vvho is in the plane of the satellite orbit.
(iii) Hence, find the Doppler shift of the received signal at the earth station. Use a mean earth ra-
dius value. r.. oi 6178 km.
The satellite also carries a Ka-band transmitter at20.0 GHz.
(iv) Find the Doppler shift for this signal when it is eceived by the same observer.
l\nswer Pa (i) The period of the satellite is found from Eq. (2-21):
,
T2:14n2a3)/u
T2
:4r2
x (6378 + 1000)3/3.986004418 x lOs
:
3.977754 x 107 s2
T
:
6306.94 s
The circumference of the orbit is 2ra
:
46,357.3 km so the velocity of the satellite in orbit is u.
where
a,
:
46,357.3/6306.94
:
7.350 km/s
Parf (ii) The component of velocity toward an observer in the plane of the orbit as e satellite ap-
pears over the horizon is given by ,,
:
t-r. cos0, where d is the angle between the satellite velocity
vector and the direction of the observer at the satellite. The angle 0 can be found from simple geom-
etry to be
cos0
:
r./(r"-r h): 6378/7378
:
0.8645
Hence the component of salellite velocity toward the observer is
u,: D,cos6
:
6.354knils
:
6354 m/s
Prt (ii The Doppler shilt of the received signal is given by Eq. (2.44b). Hence, for this satel-
lite and observer, with a transmitter frequency of 2.65 GH4 ,\
:
0.1132 m, and the Doppler shift
.f'*-.f,
-
A./-
f. .f ,'
Yl
t,
n
re
i ),
VC
R
Er
o[-
sit
i i
of
a
LE
bur
CAI
in.o
Sc
As
is.
OCC
abo
enc
ecli
earl
erat
ofd
the
cov(
pow
ofc
tull)
eclitr
cons
of dr
pOwt
exits
tivel
is su
ler n
,ed frequency/R
is
ower thanfi when
: relationshiP [Eq.
(2'44a)
(2.44b)
re receiver, Dp: c
and tr is the wave-
r the receiver, then
Doppler effect, or
died the phenome-
nounced, requiring
ffect is negligible.
:)0 km. A transmitter
iatellite appears over
Jse a mean eafih ra-
ierver.
satellite in orbit is r.r,
rit as the satellite aP-
the satellite velocity
d from simple geom-
llence, for this satel-
md the Doppler shift
I rTr!-ffiwl,i
2.6 ORBTTAL EFFECTS IN COMMUI{ICATIONS YSTEM PERFORMANCE
5I
in the received signal is
Af
:
vr/
:
6354rcJ13.2: 56,130 Hz
:
56'130 kHz
Part (iv) A Ka-band transmitter with frequency 20.0 GHz has a wavelength of 0.015 m. The cor-
responding Doppler shift at the receiver is
Lf
:
w/t:
6354/0.015
:
423.60 kHz
Doppler shilt at Ka band with a LEO satellite can be lery large and requires a fast frequency-
tracking receiver. Ka-band LEO satellites are better suited to widebnd signals than narrowband
volce communlcatlons
Range Variations
Even with the best station-keeping systems available for geostationary satellites, the position
of a sarellite wirh respect to the earth exhibits a cyclic daily variation. The variation in po-
sition will lead to a variation in range between the satellite and user terminals. If time di-
vision multiple access (TDMA) is being used, caretul attention must be paid to the timing
of the frarnes within the TDMA bursts
(see Chapter 6) so that the individual user frames
arrive at the satellite in the conect sequence and at the correct time. Range variations on
LEg satellites can be significant, as can path loss variations. Whiie guard times between
bursts can be increased to help in any range and/or timing inaccuracies, this reduces the
capacity of the transponder. The on-board capabilities of some satellites permit both tim-
ing control of the burst sequence and polver level control of individual user streams.
Solar Eclipse
A satellite is said to be it eclipse when the earth prevents sunlight from reaching it, that
is, when the satellite is in the shadow of the earth. For geostationary satellites, eclipses
occur during two periods that begin 23 days before the equinoxes (about March 21 and
about September 23) and end 23 days after the equinox periods. Figure 2.21 from tefet-
ence 11 and Figure 2.22from reference 12 illustrate the geometry and duration of the
eclipses. Eclipses occur close to the equinoxes, as these are the times when the sun, the
earlh, and the satellite are all nearly in the same plane-
During full eclipse, a satellite receives no power from its solar array and it must op-
erate entirely from its batteries. Batteries are designed to operate wi a maximum depth
of discharge; e better e battery, the lower the percentage depth of discharge can be. If
the battery is discharged below its maximum depth of discharge, the battery may not re-
cover to full operational capacity once recharged. The depth of discharge therefore sets the
power drain mit during ecpse operations. Nickel-Hydrogen batteries, long the mainstay
of communications satellites, can operate at about a 1A% depth of discharge and recover
fully once recharged. Ground controllers perform battery-conditioning routines prior to
eclipse operations to ensur the best battery performarce during the eclipse. The routines
consist of deberately discharging the ba[eries until they are close to their maximum depth
of discharge, and then fully recharging the batteries
just before eclipse season begins.
The eclipse season is a design challenge for spacecraft builders. Not only is the main
power source *ithdru*n (the sun) but also the rapidity with which the satellite enters and
exits the shadow can cause extreme changes in both power and heating effects over rela-
tively short periods. Just like a cortlmon light bulb is more likely to fail when the current
is switched on as opposed to when it is under steady state conditions, atellites
can suf-
fer many of their component failures under sudden stress situations. Eclipse
periods are
52 CHAPTER 2 ORBTAL MECHANICS AND I.AUNCHERS
Satellite in sun transit outage
Satellite in eclipse
Earth
shadow
Earth
Geostatonary orbit
FIGURE 2.21 Eclipse geometry (Source: J. J. Spilker, Jr., Digital Communications by
Satetlite, Prentlce Hall, p. 144, copyright A 1911 , Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River,
NJ, reprnted with permission). During the equinox periods around the March 21 and
September 23, the geostationary plane is in the shadow of the earth on the far side of the
earth from the sun. As the satellte moves around lhe geostationary orbit, it will pass
through the shadow and undergo an eclipse period. The length of the eclpse period will
vary from
few
minutes to over an hour (see Figure 2.22), depending on how close the
plane of the geostationary orbit is with respect to the center of the shadow thrown by
the earth.
the
me
o
Sun
t
Du
()n
of'
s{it
wit
(4
the
terl
occ
FIGI
does
the r
behi
SUN
cies
ten n
60
Day of the year
70 B0 90
.100
1 10
Day of the year
260 270 280 290
80
7A
60
.C
E50
o
E
E+o
6
:
so
,.:
.C
950
o
E
o
an
.s
E
ul 30
Full
shadow
Half
shadow
20
10
1 11 21
March
31 10 20
April
2871727717
August September October
Date Date
FIGURE 2.22 Dates and duration of eclipses. (Source:
James Martin, Communications
Satellite Systems, Prentice Hall, p.37, copyright O 1978 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River. NJ. Reprinted with permission.)
, Y
t, \\
il \ \
il \
unications
bY
)r Saddle River,
arch 21 and
,.e far sde of the
, it will
Pass
ipse
period will
how close the
w thrown bY
f the year
270 280 290
27717
)tember October
Date
Communicatians
ion, Upper Saddle
sional
\
\/
\.7
//
2.6 ORBITAL EFFECTS IN COMMT'MCATIONS SYSTEMS PERFORMANCE
therefore monitored carefully by ground controllers, as this is when most of the equip-
ment failures are likelY to occur.
Sun Transit Outage
During the equinox periods, not.only does the satellite pass through the earth's shadow
on the
,.clark"
side of the earth, but the orbit of the sateiiite will also pass directly in front
of the sur on the sunlit side of ihe earth
(Figure 2.2i). The sun is a
"hot" microwave
source rvith an equivalent temperature of about 6000 to 10,000 K, depending on the time
r.vithin the l1-year sunspot cycle, at the frequencies used by communications satellites
(,1 to 50 GHz). The earth station antenna will therefore receive not only the signal from
the satellite but also the noise temperature transmitted by the sun' The added noise
temperature wiil cause the fade margin of the receiver to be exceeded and an outage will
occur. These outages may be precisely predicted. For satellite system operators with more
Communicatons
The sun
a
FIGURE 2.23 schematii of sun outage conditions. During the equinox
periods, not only
does the earth's shadow cause eclipse periods to occur for geostationary satellites' during
the sunlit portion of the orbit, there will be periods when the sun appears to be directly
behind the satellite. At the frequencies used by comrnunications satellites
(4 to 50 GHz)' the
sun appears as a hot noise sourCe. The effective temperature of the sun at these frequen-
cies is on the order of 10,000 K. The precise temperiure observed by the earth staton an-
tenna will depend on whether the beamwidth partially, or completely. encloses the sun'
54 cHAprER 2 oRBftAL MEcHANlcs AND LAUNCHEBS
than one satellite at their disposal, traffic can be off-loaded to satellites that are
just out
of, or are yet to enter, a sun outage. The outage in this situation can therefore be limited
as far as an individual user is concerned. However, the outages can be detrimental to op-
erators comlnilted to operations during davlight hours.
2.7 SUMMARY
PROBLE
\e\\ ton's lau s of rnotioir erplirin the lorces on a satcl
lite in orbit. Thc balance betuec'I.l thc forcc pulling a
ratellite inu'rrd to the eanh-i.c. sravir
-and
that
trling to tling a satellit.' 3\'. av tir)nl the eanh-kinctic
energy-is a fine one. Ti- achievc strble crbit. a satcl
lite must have the correct r e locitr'. be traleling in the
rieht direction. and be ei the right height ibr its
rr'lrrcit). As the orbiti hclsht tncreases. the gravila
tronal acceleiation dL-cr.rse>. ihc rrbital r clocitl'
dccreases. and the perioci oi the srltellite increases. Cl-
culation procedures tbr obtainins the penod cl r srtel-
lrte and its velocitv are s.I out. lt is .ecn that Kepier's
constant. the product of thc universal
graVitational
constant. G. ancl the nlass of the earth -11,.. i: funda
mental to n-iany of the equatirrns that eive the forces
on the satellite and thc relocitr ol the satellite in its
orbrt. Kepler's threc iil\\':
j:.cribing
the mtlion of tne
bodv orbitrn-s another ac
girer,
nii lhe ternllnology
employed in satellite ephemeri: data is erplained. The
relationship between the astronomers' use of Jrlia
dates and Julru r drzls and the L niversai Time Constant
REFERENCES
(UTC).
otherwisc rcfcred to as GNIT. is given. The
u.c ol Juiirn das. uhrch hcg.in at noon. \\3s inlro
duccd hv estronolners to allorv them 1() makc obser-
\,atrons overnight rvithout having the clay change on
them (as
normal UTC dat's clo at ndnight).
Locatin-c the satcllite in its orbit is a complex
proccss. rvilh a nunlber oi possible framcs of refer-
cncc. Difterent approachcs are discussed. Procedures
for calculating thc look ang)cs from the earth to a ge{)-
stationary satellite ac siven. Thc natural forces that
act on a satellile to cause orbrtal perturbations are set
out and the nccd tbl orbital maneuvers explaincd. The
important difterence befir'een orbilal maneuver liie
and orbital desi-en Iitt is explained. Details on launch
proccdures and launch vehicles are provided. *'ith
tvpical launch canrpaign information set oul. The to
basic methods of launching geoslational'\' satellites
are dcscrihed. one usiltg an apogee kick molor and
the other a slow orbit raising technique. Finalll',
Doppler shiti, range variations, solar eclipse, and sun
transit outage are revierved.
-r
1. Explain wl
mean
q'ith
re
earth.
A sarel1,1c
Thr rltitutl. l
oi'ihe erli, i.
and centrills
its orbit.' Cl1r,r
velocilr o1' th,
su'er in knr/,r.
satellitc in this
utcs. and secr
of the carth i t
the valuc
-l.tlE
2. A satcllir.:
termine:
a. The orhital
b. The orbrtal
c. The orhitel
Note: r\ssr"u-ne
6378.1-17 knr
-1.986()()l-+lY
l
3. The sanre :
circular orbit)
a. Deternrine
u,hich the rece
eftects il rr.cei
located in spac
both up and d,
lite is moving r
need to detern
frequency due
b. If an earth
mean sea level
can receive tl
an elevation a
Doppler shifr t
clude the eartt
the marimum
.
cicular orbit.
4. What are Kt
Give the mathe
lau, of planerer
and apogee me
a satellite orhit
A sarellite i
has an apogee .
\\'hat is the orb
answer in hour:
the earth is 6i'
the value 3.986
1. Genv D. GonooN and \k'ren L. Moncrx, Principles
of Communications Sotellies- John Wiley & Sons,
ISBN 0-471-55796-X. 1993.
2. The American Ephetneris and Natuical Alnnnac, U.S-
Govemment Printing Otrrce. \\ashington, DC (published
annually).
3. http://www.stk.com
,1.
The NASA liftoff home page is hnp:/Aiftoff.msfc.nasa.
gov/realtime/JTrack/Spacecraft .htm1 The home page al-
lows you to see the Intemational Space Station, weather
and research satellites, ad the Shuttle track if it is in
orbit. The page specializing in three-dimensional graph-
ical views of satellites is http://liftoff.msfc.nasa. gov/re-
altime/j tracU3d/J tracklC.hrnl
Private communication. EE -1&l-1 Sprin,e 1997. D.wto
WersH and Crlt Gnorrs.
http://ri'rvrv.spacevieu's.com
http://rvrvrv.orbrcport.com is a site dedicated r the
sJl.iiai lJirnsp(-r:itior inl:
jiry
a;.i,j :-. en elilnii::l'' ol l-q IR.
Inlern:iional Space Industry Reprir"
K. Rousornm.
"Launching Payloads by Seri." Inunclt-
space.pp.38-39, Ir{aylJune 1999; see also in the Hughes
web site at http://'ww.hcisat.com
9. R. Deror, "Spacelift in and beyond the next millen-
nirml' l,aunchspace, p. 6, May/June 1999.
10. As reported in jeff@spaceviews.com in luly i999,
the biweekly update from the web site'given in ref-
erence 6.
11. J. J. Sprrxn,h., Digital Communicatons by Satellite.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1977.
12. Jeves Mnmx, Communications Satellite Sysferns,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1978.
13. D. M. Russen-,
"Browsing orbital analysis tools,"
l-aunchspace, Vol. 3, No. 6, p. 24, December 1, 1998.
14. Jres R. Wenrz and WIlev J. LensoN, eds., Space Mis-
sion Anall:sis and Design,3rd Ed., Kluwer Academic
Publishes, 2001. ISBN O-'7 923 -5901 - 1.
15. Ay,iationWeek and Space Techrulogl', Vol. 151, No. 2'1,
December 13, 1999. Special issue on 21st century
launch vehicles.
16. "Chinese Rmkets and R&f) Advances." Aviation Week
n,,.! .\t,,tt,'Tccltt,'lo-', \h1 155. Nc. l').
f^
5:-55.
N{)}rnrber 12.2001.
5.
6.
7.
8.
PROBI."EMS 55
PROBLEMS
that are
Just
out
efore be limited
)imental
to oP-
MT. is gircn. Thc
t noon. uas itllro-
m to rnake tbser
he dal' changc tn
ridnight t.
rbit is a comPlcr
e tiatte I of rcicr
'ussed. Proccdurcs
. thc earth to a go0-
natural forccs that
:nurbations are sct
'crs erpl:rined. The
tal manuvcr liIe
. Details on launch
rre pror ided. u'ith
)n set out. The tlvtl
r ationar\ satelliles
:e kick motor ancl
echnique. FinallY,
ar eclipse, and sun
ond the next millen-
ine 1999.
;.com in July 1999,
eb site given in ref-
cations by Satellite,
NJ. 1977.
s Satellite .S,1'sferns,
NJ,1978.
rital analysts tools,"
..
December 1, 1998.
rsoN, eds.. Space Mis-
C., Kluu'er Academic
901- 1 .
rgr, Vol. 151, No. 2'1.
sue on llst century
lnces." .,1r'iaion trl''l'
. No. 1i.,. pp. 5.1-:5.
-
1. Explain what the terms centrifugal and centripetal
mean with regard to a satcllite in orbit around the
earth.
A satellile i: in a circular orhit around thc earth.
Thc altitudr' rl'lhe :rrlcllitc': orbit aborc thc sut-f:ice
of thc earth i.s 1-l()0 knr. il \\'hat arc thc ccntnfctal
and centrifugal accclrrrations cting on thc satellitc- in
its orbit'l Givc vour ansuer in n/s.
(ii)
What is thc
velocity ol the satcllite in this orbit? Givc vounn-
swer in knr/s. iiil \\'hat is the orbital pcriod of the
satellitc in this orbit I Civc r our answer in hours. nlin-
utes, and seconds. \r)tc: A\surllc the avcra-ge ladius
of thc earth is 6-37E.1-17 krtt arttl Kcplcr'\ constanl llits
thc value
-1.986f)1ll-1113
u' i()'km'/sr.
2. A satellitc i' in e
-lll-knr
hi!h crrculru orhit. Dt-
termine:
a- The orhital ansular ve locitv in radians pcr sect'rt.td:
b. Thc orbital periotl in minutcs. and
c. The orbital relocilv in nretcrs per sccond.
Notc: Assume the avcrage radius ol the earth is
6318.131 km and Kcplci's constant has the value
1.98b(lUlllS ln' krr
. .
3. Thc same satcliite in Prtblem 2 ahtic (322-km
cit'cular orbit) canjes a 100-\4Hz transmitter-
a. Determine the maximum frequency range over
which the eceived signai u'ould shift due to Doppler
effects if received by a stalionary observcr suitabil'
iocated in space. Noe: The frequency can be shifted
both up and down. depending on whether the satel-
lite is moving toward or away from the observer. You
need to,determine lhe mdmun possible change in
frequency due to Doppler (i.e., 2A).
b. If an earth station on the surface of the earth at
mean sea level, 6370 km from the center of the eafih.
can receive the 300-MHz transmissions down to
an elevation angle of 0o, calculate the maximum
Doppler shift that this station will observe. Note: In-
clude the earth's rotation and be sure you consider
fhe marimtm possible Doppler shift for a 322-kr
circular obit.
4. What are Kepler's three laws of planetary motion?
Give the mathematical foimulation of Kepler's third
laq, of pianetar)' motion. What do the terms perigee
and apogee mean u'hen used to describe the orbit of
a satellite orbiting the earth'l
A satellite in an elliptical orbit rround the elh
has an al-.i',tte ri 19. l!l l:nt :n'i : pr:-i-l'--e of 5rrr
j
-:
\lihat rs the oriital period o this sa'.el1;tc'l Gire iour
answer in hours. Note: Assume the average radius of
the earth is 6178.137 km and Kepler's constant has
rhe value 3.986004418 x 105 kmr/s2.
5. An observation satellite is to be placed into a
circula equatorial orbil so that it moves in the same
direction as the carth's rotation. Using a synthelic aper-
Iure radr svstem. thc srtcllitii rvill store data on sur-
l'ece haronrctric prcssilrL'. and othcr u'cather rclated pa-
nllrcters. as it tlies o\!'rhead. Thcse data rl,ill latcr be
playcd back to a controlling eaflh slation aftcr each trip
around the' u,orld. The orhit is to bc dcsigneti so that
thc salellite is drrectlv above thc controllinc earlh sta-
tion. rvhich is located r)n thc cquator. once n'ery 4 h.
The controlling earth stltion'-\ antL-nna is unablc to op-
crate belo* an elevatitn angic of 10' to the hozontal
in anv dircclion. Taking thc eanh's rotational penod to
be eractlr l-l h. tlnd the liillou'ing qurintitics:
e. Thc atellitc's ln{ullu r clocitl nt r:riiians
lter
sccontl.
b. Thc ,lbitai pcriod in hours.
c. Thc orbital radius in kiiometels.
d. The orbital height in kilornelcrs.
e. The satellitc's lineirr velocitl, in mclcrs per seconci.
i. The tirne intcrval in nrinutes for which the con-
trolling eerth station can comniuuicate w'ith the satei
lite on cach pass.
6. What is the diilce nce. or are the dil'terenccs. be-
t\veen a geosrtlch,"onous satellite and a geostationan
satellite orbit? What is thc period of a geostationary
satellite? What is the name given to this orbital pe-
riod? What is the velocity' of a geostationary sate llite
in its orbit? Give your answer in km./s.
A particular shuttie mission released a TDRSS satel-
lite into a circular low orbit, with an orbital height of
270 km. The shuttle orbit was inclined to the earth's
equator by approxirnately 28". The TDRSS satellite
needed to be placed hto a geostationary transfer orbit
(GTO) once released from the shuttle cargo bay, with
the apoge of the GTO at geostationary altitude and the
perigee at the height of the shuttle's orbit. (i) What was
the eccentricity of the GTO? (ii) What was the period
of the GT0? (iii) What was the difference in velocity
of e satellite in GTO between when it was at apogee
and when it was at perigee? Note: Assume the average
radius of the earth is 6378.137 km and Kepler's con-
stant has the value 3.986004418 x 105 krn3/s2.
7. For a variety of reasons, typical minimum eleva-
tion angles used by earth stations operating in the
commercial f-ixed services using satellites
(FSS' com-
munications bands are as follows: C band 5"; Ku band
le'; anri Ki
.rnd
?2..
(ii Deieminr th": nraxirnurn and minimuu rairge
in kiiomelers fronr an earth staiion to a geotationLr)'
satellite in the three bands- (ii) To what round-trit
signal propagation times do these ranges correspond?
lrj{
li
56 cHAprER 2 oRBfrAL MEcttANtcs AND LAUNcHERS
You may assume the signal propagates with the ve-
locity of light in a vacuum even when in the earth's
lower atmosphere.
8. Most commercial geostationary communications
satellites must maintain their orbital positions to
within 10.05' of arc. lf a geostationary satellite
meets this condition (i.e.. it has a apparent motion
+0.0i'
of arc N-S and
+0.05'
of rc E-W, as nreas-
ureci from the center of the earlh). calculate the nta.ri-
tllult range variation to this satellite from an earth
station with a mean elevation angl to the cenlcr of
the satellite's apparent mction of 5o. You may assume
that the equatorial and polar" diamcters of thc carth
are the same.
9. An interactive experiment is treing sct up bet\\,cen
the Universit, of York. England (approximatelv
359.5' E, 53.5" N) and tl.rc Tcchnical Universit_v ol
Craz, Austr ia (approximately 15" E, 17 .5" N) that u,ill
make use of a geostationary satellite. The earth sta-
tions at both universities are consfrained to work only
above elevation angles of 20o due to buildings. etc.,
near their locafions. The
,eroups
at the two universi-
ties need to tlnd a geostationary satellite that will be
vrsible to both universities simultaneously, with both
earth stations operatine at. or above, an eievation an-
gle of 20". What is lhe mnge of sub-satellite points
between which the selected geostalionary satellite
must lie?
10. The state of Virginia may be represented roughly
as a rectangle bounded by 39.5'i.I latitude on the
north, 36.5' N latitude on the south, 76.0'W longi-
tude on the east, and 86.3" W longitude on the west.
If a geostationary satellite must be visible throughout
Virginia at an elevation angle no lower than 20', what
is the range of longitudes within which the subsatel-
Iite point of the satellite must lie?
11. A geostationary satellite system is being built
which incorporates intersatellite links (ISLs) between
the satellites. This permits the transfer of information
between two earth stations on the surface of e earth,
which are not simultaneously visible to any single
satelte in the system, by using e ISL equipment to
link up the satellites. In.this question, the effects of
ray bending in the atmosphere may be ignored, pro-
cessing delays on the satellites mav initially bc as
sumed to tre zero. the earth mav be assumed to bc
pcrfectly ciicuiar *,ith a flat (i.e.. not hilly) surlacc.
and the velocitv of the signals in free spacc (u'hethcr
in the earth's lower atntosphere or essentiallv in a vac-
uum) may bc assumed to be the velocity of light in a
vacuum.
ri) Whal is the furthcst rpari two !e{)slalionarv
satellites may be so that thev can still communicate
with each other without the path between the 1wo
satellites being interrupted b the surface cfthc carth'l
Give vour answer in degrees longitude bctween thc
subsateliite points. (ii) If the longest. one-wa1, dly
permined by the ITU betu een two earlh stations
communicating via a space svstem is 400 ms, what
is the funhest apafi two geostatlonary satcllites may
be befbre the transmission delal of the signal fronr
one earth station to the other. s'hen connected through
the ISL system of the two satellites. equals 400 n-rs?
The slant path distance belu'een each eafih station and
the geostationary satellite it is communicating with
may be assumed to be 40.000 km. (iii) If the satel-
lites in part () employ onboad processing. which
adds an additional deiay of 35 ms in each satellite,
what is the mamum distance between the ISL-
linked geostationary sateliites nou ? (iv) If both of the
two earth stations used in parts (ii) and (iii) must ad-
ditionally now send the signals o'r,er a 2500-km opti-
cal fiber line to e end user on e ground, wi an
associated transmission delay in the fiber at each end
of the nk, what is the maximum distance between
the ISL-nked geostationary satellites now? You may
assume a refractive index of 1.5 for the optical ber
and zero processing delay in e earth station equip-
ment and end user equipment.
SAT
tl rl
LI,
pr(
In
I i)r
ele
tur
sys
als,
suc
mu
sat(
nec
con
abo
ope
add
3.1 SA
,\'1
lc
al
t()
in
5A
tai
lcr
tel
-
The
plod
indir
Afl
This
corT(
that
surface
of the eafh,
isible
to anY single
re ISL equiPment
to
.stion. the effects of
ray bc ignored. Pro-
may initiallY
be as-
y bc assumed
1o bc
.. not hiilY) surface.
{rce sPace
(r,r'hethcr
r esscntiallY
in a vac'
velocity
of light in a
:t t\'()
geostationuy
rn still communicatc
.th between
the tu'o
, surtace of the crth?
ngitudc betwecn tht-
rgest, one-waY delav
i 1w0 earth slations
iem is 400 ms. what
ionary satellites maY
'y
of thc signai from
ln connected
through
lites. equals 400 ms?
.ach earth stalion and
communicatins
with
km.
(iii) If the satel-
rd processing, which
ms in each satellite,
:e between the ISL-
rw? (iv) lf both of the
(ii) and (iii) must ad-
over a 2500-km oPti-
r the ground, with an
r e fiber at each end
.um distance between
tellites now? You maY
5 for the oPtical fiber
re earth station equiP-
,:t:l
SATELLITES
Maintaining a l'ntcrou.ave communication systeln in orbit in space is not a sirple prrib-
lem- so comlnunications satellites xre verY colnplex. extrelnelv expensive to purchase' and
also expensivc 1o launch. A ti,pical large geostirtionarl' satellitt-. lor cxanlple. is estirnated
to cost around s115 N.1. on )tation
(see Chapter 2). The cost of the satellite and launch are
increased by the need io de{-licafe rn earth station to the mollitoring and control ol the
satr-llite. at a cost of sc-r'eral r.nillion clolliirs per year' The rcvetlltc to pay these costs is ob-
tainecl by selling the conlnlunication
capacit-V of tl.re sate iiite lo users. cithe| by \\r1\ rri
leasing circuits or trallsPOnders' or b)' charging tor crrcuit ltsc' as itl thc itlternatlorlll
telephone and data trnlismission service.
Coinmunications sarellites are Llsually ciesignerl to have a typical operatin-s liic-
time of l0 to l5 r'e;.rrs' The operator of the s)steln hopes ttl recover the initial and op-
erating costs uell ri ithin the expected lifetinre of the satellite' and the desi-ene r niu-s1
providl a satellite thal can surr,ive the hostile environmenl of outer space for that lons'
ln orci"r to support the communications systeln, the sateliitc rnust provide a stable plat-
fonn on which to mounl the antennas, be capable of station ke eping. provide the require d
electrical porver for the ci.rmmunication sYSteln. and aiso provide a controlled telnpera-
ture environnent for the communications electronics. In this chapter rve discuss,the sub-
systems needed on a satellite to support its prirnary mission of communications'
\Ire
also discuss the communications
subsystem itself in some detail, and olher problems
such as reliabilit.v-.
. l
The ernphasis throughout this chapter is on satellites in geostationary orbiL.C-orI-
munications satellites for low earth orbit are in most cases quite similar to small GRO
satellites and have similar requirements. The discussion of satellites in this chapter is
necessarily brief. For more details of the many subsystems used on satellites and their
construction and operation the reader should refer to reference l
'
Much information
about individual satellites can be found on the web sites of satellite manufacturers and
operators. See Table 1.1-1.4 in Chapter I for an extensive listing, which includes Web
addresses.
3.1 SATELLITE ST.IBYTEMS
The major subsystems required on the satellite are given below. Figure 3.1 shows an ex-
ploded iier" ol a typical geostationary (GEO) satellite with several of the subsystems
indicated.
Attitude and Orbit Control System
(AOC)
Thi:; subsysielr; consist:-, f rocket lotors that are user} tu txve the sateilite
back to the
correct orbit *'hen external forces cause it to drift oif station and gas jets or inertial
cievices
that control the attitude of the satellite.
57