Patronization of Islamic Sciences in the History of Islam

Ismail Yurdakok

ismailyurdakok@gmail.com

Introduction. After established the institutions of the Islamic State, muslims

began to support researches of sciences. Before the end of the first century of
Islam, science studies were patronized by muslims. ‘Starters: First Abbasid
Calips’ is mentioned in the first part of the paper. ‘Two Bayt al-Hikma’s are
noted in the first and second parts. Patronages of Buwayhids, Andalusians,
Marinids and others are seen in the second part. And ‘Ottomans:Last Patrons of
Islamic Sciences’ was stated in the third part.

1- Starters: First Abbasid Caliphs

Umayyad Prince Khalid b. Yazid (d.85A.H/704 A.D) is the first that made translated
medicine, astronomy and chemistry books from Greek and Coptic languages into
Arabic.(1) Prince had paid a salary to two monks Staphon and Marianos from
Alexandria. Umayyad Sultans Marwan b. Hakam and Umar b. Abdulaziz also supported
the translations but only in the medicine. But it is a reality that Abbasid Caliph
Ca’far Mansur (754-75 A.D) gave acceleration this movement: Mansur’s secretary (a
native Iranian) Ibn Muqaffa translated the first three books of Aristo’s Organon
and Porphyrios (Furfuriyus) and Eisagoge (Isagoji). Ptolemy’s Sintaksis (as al-
Majisti) and Euclid’s Elemento Geometricae (as Usul al-Handasa) were translated
into Arabic in this period.(2) Two books on mathematics and astronomy that an
Indian tourist brought them to Baghdad also were translated and muslims got
acquainted Indian numbers. Fazari (d.190 A.H/806 A.D) the first muslim astronomer
that made the first astrolobe in Islamic world; Mansur had wanted from Fazari to
translate the astronomy book that written in Sanskrit language and brought by an
Indian envoy to Baghdad. Fazari and the other Arab astronomer Yaqub b. Tariq
completed the translation of this book into Arabic in 153 A.H/770 A.D. This book
(its original name Siddhanta, and in Islamic astronomy literature:Zij al-Sind-Hind
Zij or Kitab al-Sind-Hind) was used to the reign of Ma’mun. Fazari was one of
the famous astronomers that Ca’far Mansur had supported this group that Abu Sahl
Fadl b. Nawbakht, MashaAllah b. Athari al-Basri and Umar b. Farrukhan al-Tabari
are the members of this study team. Fazari wrote 9 books on astronomy with
sponsorship of Mansur.(3)

Christian physician Buhtishu the head of the Gundishapur Medical School was
invited to Baghdad and he translated some books from Greek and Persian medicine
books into Arabic as a chief physician in the Palace of Mansur. And then
physicians from his descendants translated the books of medicine. This rapid
movement went on in the time of Harun Rashid. Abu Sahl al-Fadl b. Nawbakht
translated some books from Persian with the encouragement of Harun Rashid.
Astronomer and mathematician Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Nihawandi began his observations
in 790 in Jundishapur (in Huzistan of today’s Iran) and Yahya b. Barmak (Grand
Vizier (of Harun Rashid) betwen 786-803 A.D) was giving support his studies and
wrote at least three books (al-Zij al-Mushtamil, al-Madkhal ila Ilm al-Hay’a,
Kitab al-Jam’a wa al-Tafriq) in this term. Harun Rashid’s son Ma’mun made built
two observatory in the district of Shammasiya of Baghdad and the other on the
Qasiyun Mountain near Dimashq. (4) Ma’mun established Bayt al-Hikma (in 830 A.D)
Although Mansur had established Khizanat al-Hikma as a library of the Palace, but
Ma’mun (813-833 A.D) gave a new identity to Khizanat al-Hikma and assigned great
funds for new Bayt al-Hikma. Bayt al-Hikma became an Academy of Sciences under the
patronage of Ma’mun. Ma’mun sent culture envoys to Byzantium Empire for assuring
books that director of Bayt al-Hikma Salm and Ibn al-Bitriq, Hajjaj b. Matar and
Yuhanna b. Masawayh were in this envoy.(5) Bayt al-Hikma gained an identity of as
the biggest research center of Medieval Age. At the beginning, Bayt al-Hikma was a
translation office and a library but in the course of the time it growed from the
physical and functional aspects and became a research center and an education
institution. Ibn Nadim says there were approximately 70 translators in Bay al-
Hikma. 47 of them were translating from Greek to Syriac , from Syriac to Arabic or
directly from Greek to Arabic; 16 of them were translating from Persian to Arabic;
3 of them from Sanskrit to Arabic and the other from Nabatian language to Arabic.
(6)

Which aids (were include) to patronization? As an example Ma’mun also was giving
support to famous Arabic syntax scholar Farra (144-207 A.H/ 761-822) and a room
had been assigned to Farra in the palace of Ma’mun and some servants and
secretaries were working for only Farra.(7) Bayt al-Hikma also was in the Palace
of Abbasid caliphs. There were rooms for books, rooms for authors, translators,
secretaries, transcribers and bookbinders and a reading-hall. Ibn al-Nadim had
seen and used the facilities of Bayt al-Hikma that he gives valuable notes(8)
Ma’mun had paid 300,000 dinar (gold coins) for only translations from Greek.(9)
Even some translations used to be put on one of the two pans of balance and gold
dusts on the other pan and the scholar was being awarded in this way. More than
500 years, Bayt al-Hikma went on its activity to Mongol occupation.

Mathematician Thabit b. Qurra, his son and grandsons were supported by Abbasid
Dynasty. Thabit b. Qurra was in the researcher team of Bayt al-Hikma. He was a
non-muslim a (pagan) Sabean of Harran but was supported by Ma’mun like similar
cases are seen a lot in Islamic history. Thabit and his son Sinan (supported by
Qahir Billah), and son of Sinan, Ibrahim; this ‘three’ are famous mathematicians.
Ibrahim also an astronomer and his father Sinan is also a physician. Ibrahim wrote
his first booklet Kitab Alat al-Adlal when he was 16 years old. Ibrahim was in
the fourth generation of Islamic sciences after Banu Musa and he had got a very
rich scientific legacy from his father and grandfather. He wrote ten books on
astronomy and geometry.(10) Another mathematician (and astronomer) Habash al-
Hasib was also supported by Abbasid caliphs. He was born in Marw(Turkistan) and
his life passed in Baghdad. Probably he was in the observation team of Ma’mun that
his observations had lasted 35 years. He had fixed the latitudes of Venus and
Mercury.He went on his studies in the periods of Ma’mun and Mu’tasim Billah. He
applied trigonometrical functiones on the problems of spherical astronomy.(11)
Ali b. Isa al-Usturlabi is the other member of Ma’mun’s team. He wrote one of the
first booklets on astrolabe (Risala fi Ma’rifati al-ilm al-Usturlab) with
sponsorship of Ma’mun and participated the scientific observations in Baghdad in
829, in Dimashq in 832, with the other scholars Yahya . Abu Mansur, Sind b. Ali,
Abbas b. Said al Jawhari and Khalid b. Abd al-Malik. He also participated the
measurement of one degree of longitude of meridian circle in Sinjar Plain between
the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers.(12)

Four Abbasi caliphs sponsored the studies of Hajjaj b. Yusuf b. Matar. He was the
one of Syriac translators of this period. He was from Kufa city and in the years
of caliphs Harun al-Rashid, Amin, Ma’mun and Mu’tasim (786-833 A.D) he lived in
Baghdad.He was in the team of five scholars of Ma’mun that was sent to Byzantium
Empire by Ma’mun to provide scientific books. He translated Euclid’s Elements
first time into Arabic as Usul al-Handasa. Hajjaj translated this book first time
for Harun al-Rashid, and second time for Ma’mun; that’s why ‘al-Haruni’ was named
the first translation and ‘al-Ma’muni’ the second. He also was in the team of that
they translated Ptolemy’s al-Majisti.(13)

Philanthropist Banu Shakir (Banu Musa) family is mentioned by Ibn al-Nadim and Ibn
Abu Usaybia. This three rich brothers Muhammad, Ahmad and Hasan sent Hunayn b
.Ishaq and other scholars to Byzantium cities to buy books. They brought rare
science books and began to translate them. Banu Shakir family was paying 500 gold
coins monthly for these translators that Hunayn b. Ishaq and Habash b. Hasan were
in this team. (14)

Ali b. Rabban al-Tabari (d.247A.H/861 A.D) was also sponsored by two Abbasid
caliphs. He began to write Firdaws al-Hikma (that this book is one of the oldest
sources of Islamic medicine) in Tabaristan under the patronage of governor of
Tabaristan Mazyar b. Qarin. But the governor was killed after a revolt, and Ali b.
Rabban went to Samarra and first Mu’tasim Billah and then Mutawakkil ala-Allah
supported him and he completed his book in 850.(15) In the 9th century, Fath b.
Haqan governor of Samarkand of Abbasid dynasty, he was also a scholar himself and
wrote three books and he supported the scientific studies and established a great
library in Samarkand that astronomer Ali b. Yahya al-Munajjim was appointed by him
to find new science books for this library. (16)

2- 10th-15th Centuries: Buwayhids, Andalusians, Marinids and Others

(The second) Bayt al-Hikma had been established in Qayrawan, in the beginning
years of 10th century in Tunisia. Aglabids State in Tunisia reached important
level in different disciplines but especially in medicine and philosophy from 800
to 909(A.D) Science books were provided from the cultural centers of Egypt,
Dimashq, Iraq and Khorasan. Christian scholars from Sicily was invited and they
translated books from Greek. A vast library was establisted. Bayt al-hikma of
Qayrawan was established by Sultan Zıyadatullah III (his reign 903-909.) Bayt al-
Hikma was on the longest street of Qayrawan near Great Mosque.There were rooms
near libary for the teams of authors and translators. And there were departments
of mathematics, astronomy, geometry, pharmacology, medicine and botany and
residents for scholars and social centers for them. Ibrahim b. Ahmad al-Shaybani
(al-Riyazi) (d.298 A.H/ 910A.D) had encouraged Sultan Ziyadatullah III to build
this center and library.(17)

Farabi and Saif al-Dawla. Ibn Abu Usaybia writes 113 books of (al) Farabi and 64
of them were translated into different languages and Farabi (282-350 A.H/ 895-961
A.D) wrote from chemistry (Wujubu Sinaat al-Kimya) to logic, classification of
science and on every topics of philosophy. Although a lot of non-true stories were
fabricated on Farabi that he had a guard in vegetable-garden in Dimashq and he
used tostudy under the lantern of this garden but in reality Farabi was a very
famous scholar when he came to Dimashq that his last eight years passed there and
Sultan of Hamdanids Sayf al-Dawla respected Farabi, Sultan gave dinners for Farabi
in his palace and wanted to give a very high salary to him but Farabi did not
accept this wage and said ‘only 4 dirhams (silver coin) are sufficient’ for his
daily expenses. (18)

Sultan of Buwayhids Adud al-Dawla sponsored the studies of physician Ali b. Abbas
al Majusi in the second half of 10th century. Al Majusi (d. 994[?]) dedicated his
books Kamil al-Sinaat al-Tibbiyya (or in short Kitab al-Malaki (Ruler’s Book) to
Adud al-Dawla. Kamil al-Sinaa was followed as a classical textbook in Europe to
13th century. Its name in Westen World was Liber Regius(Ruler’s Book) and first
part of this book was about theories and the second was on practical medical
knowledges. Ali b. Abbas had emphasized the importance of psychotheraphy befor Ibn
Sina and called attention to the relation between psychology and medicine. Ali b.
Abbas’s book was translated partly to Latin language by Constantine d’African in
XI th century and followed in Salerno Medicine College as a textbook; Stephan of
Antioch did the completed translation to Latin in 1127, and was published first in
Venice in 1492 as Liber regalis disposito nominatus ex arabico venetiis; and in
Lyon in 1523 as Liber totius medicinae necessariae continents, quem Haly filius
Abbas edidit regique inscripsit.(19) Sultan of Buwayhids Fakhr al-Dawla(his reign
983-997 A.D) also supported astronomy researches. After his demand, scholar Abu
Mahmud Hamid al-Hujandi made a big sextant (instrument used for measuring the
altitude of the sun.) to observe the entering of the sun to the longitude of (the
capital city) Ra’y. (20)

High buraeucracy of Buwayhid dynasty also supported scientific studies.

Mathematician Karaji (d.after 410 A.H/1019 A.D) was patronized by grand vizier of
Buwayhids Fakhr al-Muluk Abu Ghalib Muhammad b. Ali. Karaji wrote one of the most
important studies of Islamic algebra ‘al-Fakhri’ after encouragement of this
grand vizier that Karaji notes in the introduction of the book that he had planned
a book on this matter but not realized and after grand vizier Fakhr al-Muluk
encouraged him to write he began to write and gave his name to the book as ‘al-
Fakhri.’ Karaji dedicated his second book al-Kafi fi al-Hisab also to Fakr al-
Muluk. (Al-Kafi was translated into German by Adolf Hochheim in three volumes as
Kafi fi al-Hisab des Abu Bekr Muhammed Ben Ali Husain al-Karkhi, Halle in 1878-
1880.) Karaji is also an expert on hydrology that he is the first hydrology
engineer in the world. His studies on hydrology also was patronized by another
Buwayhid grand vizier Abu Ghanim and Karaji dedicated his book of hydrology Kitab
Inbat al-Miyah al-Khafiyya to Abu Ghanim.(21)

Qabisi (d.after 380 A.H/ 990 A.D) that Europeans used to name him as Alcabitius or
Alchabitius was born in Qabisiye in Northern Iraq and he used the rich library of
mathematician-astronomer Ali b. Ahmad al-Imrani and learned Islamic and rational
sciences and then he studied under the patronage of Sultan of Hamdanids Saif al-
Dawla Ali(his reign 944-67.) His book al-Madkhal ila Sinaati Ahkam al-Nujum was
translated into Latin language in 1144 by Johannes Hispalensis as Alcabitii liber
introductorius and published in Venice in 1481-85-91 and 1521; and into French in
1362 by Pelerin de Pousse in Paris. Qabisi dedicated his books to Saif al-Dawla
Ali and his studies on mathematics influnced great muslim mathematicians Karaji
and Abdulqahir al-Baghdadi.(22)

Although Syriac physician and philosopher Ibn al-Khammar (d.410 A.H/1019 A.D) was
a christian but three muslim dynasties supported him in his long life that lasted
more than one hundred years. Ibn al-Khammar was first patronized by Buwayhids and
he was working as surgeon in the hospital of Bimaristan al-Adudi in Baghdad. He
trained muslim physician and philosopher Abu al-Faraj Ibn Hindu and christian
physician Abu al-Faraj b. Tayyib and famous scholar Ibn Miskawayh. Ibn al-Khammar
went to Ra’y (city) in 1002 and dedicated one of his books to Grand Vizier of
Buwayhids Abu Sa’d Muhammad al-Hamadani. Ibn al-Khammar entered the patronage of
Kharzamshas when he went to central Asia and dedicated his book Maqala fi Imtihan
al-Atibba to Sultan Abu al-Abbas Ma’mun. Approximately 15 years, Ibn al-Khammar
lived under the support of Abu al-Abbas, Sultan Mahmud al-Gaznawid entered Harizm
country and invaded and took Biruni, Abu Nasr b. Iraq and Ibn Khammar to capital
city Gazna. Sultan Mahmud wanted from Ibn Khammar to become muslim but he refused.
But no any pressure was on him. But after a dream Ibn al-Khammar became muslim
some months later. Sultan Mahmud had given him a land that the name of this land
was Khumaru and that’s why he was named Ibn al-Khumar and then Ibn al-Khammar.(23)

Ibn Sina’s magnum opus al-Qanun fi al-Tib that it is also one of the masterpieces
of World Medicine History was written with the patronage of Buwayhid Dynasty. Ibn
Sina (d. 428 A:H/ 1037 A.D) wrote this book in more than ten years and began to
write in Jurjan. In this term, he stayed in the palaces of Buwayhis dynasty in the
cities Ra’y, Hamadan and Isfahan as a physician. (24) After Sultan Mahmud al-
Ghazvawi invaded the country of Buwayhids, Ibn Sina went to Gurganj. Gurganj was
the administrative and economic center of Khawarazm and Ma’munids Dynasty was
supporting scholars. A lot of scholars from Islamic world came to Gurganj and
Ma’muni family patronized them. Ibn Sina, Biruni, Abu Sahl al-Masihi, Ibn Iraq,
Ibn al-Khammar, Abu Mansur al-Thaalibi are from these scholars. Gurganj went on
this patronage more than a hundred years to the invasion of Mongols in 1221 (A.D/
618A.H) and Mongols destroyed all of the libraries and schools. (25)

In the same years, Caliph Abdurrahman III was giving support science in
Andalusia. Mathematician and astronomer Majriti (d. 398/1007) had come Qurtuba
(Cordoba) in his early ages and learned mathematical sciences from Abdulgafir b.
Muhammad and was appointed astronomer of the Palace of Abdurrahman. There was a
Society of Scholars Acquainted with Old Cultures that this group was doing
researches under the patronage of Abdurrahman. Majriti changed some parts of
Harizmi’s Zij after his studies. Majriti had been named as ‘Euclides of
Andalusia’ that his studies on mathematics and astronomy influenced the studies
in Andalusia and the other parts of Europe and he was accepted as a great expert
in these sciences after him.(26) Majriti was also supported by Mansur (grand
vizier of Hisham II, Abdurrahman III.and Hakam II (as the powerful man of
Andalusia in thirty years 362-392 A.H/973-1002 A.D that Mansur also supported the
education and astronomy education in Andalusia.)(27)

Historian Ghars al-Ni’ma (416-480 A.D/1025-1088 A.D) he was also a rich tradesman
and high bureaucrat in the administration of Qaim bi-Amrillah, he established a
library in west Baghdad. He gave more than 1000 books from different disciplines
to this library, and scholars and students used to come and discuss scientific
matters here.
Andalusian astronomer Ibn Zarqala was first supported by chief judge of Tulaytula
(Toledo) Said al-Andalusi. After making original observation instruments, chief
judge provided vast opportunities for Ibn Zarqala and new books were provided for
him. In the year 1062 (454 A.H) ruler of Tulaytula Yahya b. Ismail organized an
observation group of astronomy and Ibn Zarqala was appointed as a member of this
group and then head of this group. Ibn Zarqala made clepsydras(water clocks) and
the style of him were used to 17th century in Europe. After Alphonso VI invaded
Tulaytula, Ibn Zarqala went to Qurtuba(Cordoba) and he was also was patronized by
the ruler of this city and he went on his studies that he determined the longitude
of Regulus star, and wrote six books on astronomy.(28)

The Gorids was a dynasty in Afghanistan, Khorasan and Northern India in 11th-12th
and first years of 13th centuries. Especially Sultan Ghiyas al-din (1163-1202 A.D)
made built madrasas in all over the country and invited scholars from Khorasan and
Mawara al-Nahr. Firuzghah (capital city for summers) became a scientific and
cultural center. In this term scientific and cultural activities removed from
Baghdad to Harat region. Madrasas of Harat became famous at the end of 12th
century that religious and scientific disciplines were being taught. Fakhr al-din
al-Razi and Fakhr al-din Mubarak Shah also came to Sultan Ghiyas al-din’s country.
(29)

Artukogullari (Artukids) was a regional dynasty in Iraq, Syria and Southern Turkey
in 12th century. Artukoglu Najmuddin had conquered Qudus and had established a
country of tolerance in this regions. Members of the family were governors of
different cities. Scholar Ibn al-Salah (Najmuddin Abu-l Futuh Ahmad b. Sirri) was
giving philosophy courses under the patronage of this dynasty. And Ruler Artukoglu
Husamuddin was even a philosopher. Famous physician and philosopher of this period
Fakhruddin al-Mardini was supported by this family. Fakhruddin al-Mardini took
philosophy courses from Ibn Salah and medicine from Ibn al-Tilmiz (chief physician
of Baghdad Adud al-Dawla Hospital.) Ibn al-Tilmiz and Fakhruddin studied on Ibn
al-Sina’s al-Qanun and Fakhruddin became an expert of al-Qanun. Fakhruddin Mardini
lived in Hani city long years to his death under the patronage of Artukoglu
Najmuddin Ilgazi and even he taught Najmuddin medicine. Mardini went to Damascus
for a short time and a higher salary was offered to him for teaching al-Qanun but
he refused and when he was returning to Mardin city, on the way, he visited Aleppo
and with the insist of the ruler of Aleppo al-Malik al-Zahir Gazi he stayed two
years in this city that the ruler payed a very good salary for him. After his
death Artukoglu dynasty supported the studies of Ibn al-Raqiqa that he was the
student of Fakhruddin al-Mardini(30)

Journal of Medical Sciences in 13th Century. In the same region Ayyubids

patronized medicine, botany and pharmacology in 12th and 13th centuries. Muslim
and non-muslim physicians were in a prosperous life. Physicians of internal
diseases, surgery and eye complaints used to together their empirical studies in
the Journal of Kunnash. Ibn al-Nafis (d.687 A.H/1288) had found small circulation
of the blood in this period and Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi wrote the first book on
diabetes in the history of medicine under the patronage of Ayyubid dynasty. (31)
Ibn al-Nafis had been sponsored by Ayyubids and then in Egypt by Baybars I Sultan
of Mamluks. He was in a life of comfortable in Cairo and wrote 15 books on
medicine.(32)

A lot of members of Rasulid Dynasty in Yemen were famous scholars and also they
supported scholars. Astronomer, mathematician and physician Muhammed Farisi
(d.677AH/1278 AD) had been sponsored by Sultan of Yemen al-Malik al-Muzaffar Yusuf
b. Umar and Farisi had dedicated some of his books to the Sultan.(33)

Ghazan Khan, Sultan of Il-Khan Dynasty (his reign 1295-1304), after he became
muslim, and Islam became the official religion of (Mongol) Il-Khan Empire; he
built a knowledge-city near the capital-city of Tebriz. Construction of the campus
began in 1297 and after completed it was named Abwab al-Birr and then Ghazaniyya.
There were a great mosque in the center of the campus and two religious colleges
for Hanafis and Shafiis, a primary school for children, an observatory and the
other social buildings. Observatory, great library and religious colleges were
working together under the principle of tawhid of Islamic education(unity of
knowledge.) Great endowments had been assigned for the expenses of these
institutions. (34)

The Proceedings of the International Conference on Urbanism in Islam, Tokyo 1989,

II, 283-99)
Famous mathematician Ibn al-Khawwam (643-724 A.H/1245-1324 A.D) was also a jurist
in Shafii school and physician that produced books on medicine. He studied under
patronage of Rashid al-Din Fadlullah Grand Vizier of Il-Khan Dynasty. He had been
been appointed as the President of Waqf of Dar al-Zahab in Baghdad and great
funds were assigned for using of Ibn al-Khawwam. He wrote famous book on
mathematics al-Fawaid al-Bahaiyya and the others Fusul ala Fahm Maqalat al-Ashira
min Kitab Oklidis, al-Risalat al-Shamsiyya fi al-Qawaid al-Hisabiyya; and
Muqaddima fi al-Tib on medicine and three books on Islamic subjects.(35) He also
provided a lot of scholarships for the students and a lot of books for the library
from the incomes of Waqf of Dar al-Zahab.

In the 14th century, a medicine book Kitab Tuhfa-i Mubarizi was translated with
the support of a local ruler Mehmed Bey in Aydinogullari principality, in western
Turkey.(36)

In the second half of 14th century, a another local ruler in western Turkey,
Aydinoglu Isa Bey (that in that time there were approximately ten small states in
Turkey’s land) had given a scholarship to Haji Pasha (Haci Pasa, 740-827 A.H/
1339-1424 A.D) when he was a student in Cairo. Haci Pasa completed his education
in Islamic subjects and medicine and worked as a physician in Cairo
hospital(Bimaristan-i Cairo). He returned to Turkey and was appointed as judge of
Ayasuluk (Selcuk) city. He also was giving Islamic courses in the madrasas of
Aydinogullari principality and was working as a physician in the Palace and for
people. In this period, he wrote more than ten books that majority of them are on
medicine and some on Islamic theology and logic. He mentiones the patronage of Isa
Bey in the introduction parts of his two books Shifa al-Asqam and Sarh al-Tawail
al-Anwar saying: “After completed my education with great aids and patronage of
Isa Bey, I also found respect and honour in his State” (37)

In the same period, another principality in western Turkey, Mentese Ogullari also
supported scientific studies. Muhammad b. Mahmud al-Shirwani dedicated his book on
medicine Ilyasiya fi al-Tib to the local ruler Sultan Ilyas (d. 824 A.H/1421
A.D)(38)

In the Northern Africa, Banu Marin (Marinides) Dynasty patronized science studies
from 13th century to second half of 15th century. Sultan of Marinides Abu Inan al-
Marini established a great library in the campus of Qarawiyyin Madrasas. It was
opened in 1349(A.D/750 A.H) that this library is one of the richest manuscript
libraries of Islamic world. Abu Inan put a lot of valuable books include
translations done in Abbasid period in this library. There were/are a lot of
valuable books on mathematics, philosophy and medicine. Great mathematicians and
astronomers of Morocco Ibn Marzuq al-Khatib, Ibn al-Ahmar, Ibn al-Banna al-
Marraqushi, Ibn al-Sabil al-Taalimi, Abdurrahman .b. Muhammad al-Jadiri, Ali al-
Marraqushi and famous physicians Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Jaznai, Muhammad b. Yahya
al-Azafi and Qasim al-Qurashi used this library and produced a lot of studies
under the patronage of Banu Marin Sultans. Ibn al-Sabil al-Taalimi made an
astrolobe and presented to Sultan Abu al-Hasan and Sultan gave him gold coins as
much as the weight of his astrolobe. (39)

Thousands miles away from Northern Africa, in India, Sultan of Delhi (Sultan of
Tughluqs) Firuz Shah Tughluq (his reign 1351-1388 A.D) also was patronizing
scientific studies. He made built thirty madrasas in different parts of India for
progress of Islamic subjects but also made translated a lot of books that they
were found in a Budist temple in Sanskrit language. They were translated into
Persian language with the fund of Sultan Firuz.(40)

Jamshid al-Kashi (d.832A.H/ 1429A.D) was born in a Persian family. He was busy
with medicine but after a period he began to study astronomy and mathematics. He
lived in Kashan some period and visited Western Iraq cities and then Sultan Ulug
Bey invited him to Samarkand.He met a sufficient financial and scientific milieu
in Samarkand. He wrote his famous astronomy books Sullam al-Sama, Mukhtasar dar
Ilm al-Hay’a, Risala dar Sharh al-Alat al- Rasad and Nuzhat al-Hadaiq in this
period and Observatory of Ulug Bey was built on the advises and projects of Kashi.
His book on mathematics Miftah al-Hisab that was the peak of the books of
mathematicians in the world in long centuries that he applied Rufini-Horner method
centuries ago. He dedicated some of his books to grand vizier Kamal al-din Mahmud
and Sultan Iskender of Governor of Shiraz; it is understood that a lot of muslim
statesmen had given support for the studies of Kashi.(41)

In the first years of 15th century, science education in Ottoman lands was not
sufficient. One of famous scholar of this period, Qadizade completed his Islamic
education and although took some courses of astronomy from Munajjim Faydullah in
Konya (city in Central Turkey) but his teacher (and famous scholar) Molla Fanari
advised him to go to Central Asia saying: “Legacy of Maraga mathematics-astronomy
school is still very alive, and you should go Mawara al-Nahr and Khorasan.”
Qadizade went to Samarkand and participated some courses of Sayyid Sharif Jurjani
on mathematics and Islamic theology. But after a short time he met the ruler Ulug
Bey and he became a tutor for him. After that, he was appointed chief professor of
Madrasa of Ulug Bey (Academy of Ulug Bey) and after death of Jamshid al-Kashi,
Qadizade also was appointed as the head of Observatory of Samarkand. Qadizade used
to give importance to autonomy of schools. That’s why he resigned from his posts
when Ulug Bey dismissed a professor from the Madrasa. But Ulug Bey returning that
professor to his post appointed again and promised to Qadizade that not to
interfere the Madrasa’s administration. Qadizade taught mathematics and astronomy
more than 30 years in Samarkand to his death and wrote three famous books on
mathematics and the other three on astronomy. He dedicated his famous mathematics
textbook Tuhfat al-Rais fi Sarh al-Ashkal al-Ta’sis to Ulug Bey.(42)

3- Ottomans: Last Patrons of Islamic Sciences

Ottoman Sultan Yildirim Bayezid (his reign 1389-1402 A.D) patronized scientific
studies and Ali b. Hibatullah dedicated his book Khulasat al-Minhaj fi ahl-
alHisab to the Sultan (43) and Bayezid had brought physician from Cairo for Dar
al-Sifa(hospital.) (44) Bayezid’s son Celebi Sultan Mehmed (his reign 1411-1421)
patronized for writing a book scholar Abdulwahhab b. Yusuf al-Mardini on medicine
Kitab al-Muntakhab fi al-Tib. (45) Sultan Murad II (his reign 1421-1451)
supported the translation of Mufradati Ibn Baytar on medicine and Tuhfa-i Muradi
fi asnaf al-jawahir written by Mehmed b. Muhmud Shirwani, and partly translation
another book on medicine Kamil al-Sinaa.(46) Mercimek Ahmed translated a geometry
book Ka’busname in this period (in 835 A.H/1431 A.D) and dedicated to Sultan
Murad II.

Ali Kushci and Fathullah al-Shirwani begun the education of mathematics, astronomy
and geography in Ottoman Empire. Although science education was being taught
before and geometry and cosmography were the most important of them but Ali
Kushji, first time, opened a private and intensive course on mathematics.
Fathullah al-Shirwani (820-891 A.H/ 1417-1486 A.D) first was supported by ruler
Ulug Bey in Samarkand five years (1435-40) and then a local ruler Candaroglu
Ismail Bey (in Kastamonu city in the central Turkey.) Ismail Bey patronized
Shirwani more than 15 years (1450-65); and a short time in 1453 Ottoman Grand
Vizier Candarli Khalil Pasha also supported Fathullah al-Shirwani. With the
patronage of the local ruler Candaroglu Ismail Bey, Kastamonu city became a
scientific and cultural center of the region. Khalil b. Mu’min wrote a book on
eye-diseases Miftah al-Nur that dedicated also to Ismail Bey.(47) Shirwani
trained a lot of students in Ottoman madrasas and wrote books on astronomy (al-
Faraid wa-l Fawaid fi tawdih al-Sharh al-Mulakhkhas, Shar al-Tazkira fi ilm al-
Hay’a) and geometry (Hashiya ala Sharhu Ashkal al-Ta’sis) and the books on Arabic
grammar and on Islamic religious subjects. (48)

Ali Kusjhi’s coming to Ottoman Empire is a milestone for the Ottoman madrasas. He
also brought his students and assistants to Istanbul. His book al-Muhammadiyya was
a textbook approximately two centuries to the second part of 17th century.(49) Ali
Kushji’s first teacher was Sultan Ulug Bey in Samarkand. Ulug Bey as a great
scholar in mathematics
and astronomy educated Ali Kushji and gave financial support to him. Qadizade and
Jamshid al-Kashi were also the teachers of Ali Kushji. Ali Kushji went to Kirman
and completed some courses in this city and after returning to Samarkand he
presented his book Hall al-Ashkal al-Qamar to Ulug Bey. Ulug Bey was pleased with
this book and he sent Ali Kushji to China for advanced education.

After killed Ulug Bey, Ali Kushji came to Tabriz and met Sultan Hasan of Akkoyunlu
dynasty. Sultan Hasan also respected him and Ali Kushji was sent as an extra-
ordinary ambassador to Istanbul that there were some problems between Ottomans and
Akkoyunlu Sultanate. (Fatih) Sultan Mehmet II of Ottoman Empire admired Ali
Kushji’s knowledge and invited him to Istanbul and insisted. After completed the
duty of ambassadorship, Ali Kushji went to Istanbul. Ali Kushji brought synergy to
the studies of mathematics and astronomy in Istanbul and not only students but
also scholars followed his courses. He was also a scholar of ‘unity of knowledge’
and wrote six books on astronomy and mathematics; one on Islamic theology; one on
methodology of Islamic law; and seven on Arabic grammar.(50)

(Fatih) Sultan Mehmed’s son Sultan Bayezid II had been trained in geometry and
astronomy by his tutor Salahuddin. And Mirim Celebi that is the greatest scholar
after Ali Kushji in mathematics in Ottoman academic milieu, he dedicated his
booklets to Bayezid II.(51) Bayezid II (his reign 1481-1512) also supported
medical education and famous physician of Timurids Qutbuddin Ahmad (d.903A.H/ 1497
A.D) was invited to Istanbul, and a great salary: 500 aqce(silver coins) daily
pay and in addition to a 20,000 monthly salary was assigned for him. When this
news was heard in the world, physician Shukrullah from Shirwan, Hojah Ataullah,
physician Lari, and physician Kamal al-Tabrizi and others came to Istanbul.(52)

Gelenbevi Ismail Efendi (1143-1203 A.H/ 1730-91 A.D) is one of the last great
Ottoman matmematicians (he was an expert in Islamic subjects and sciences.) A
French engineer had come to Istanbul and after some of his claims, Gelenbevi
Ismail Efendi wrote Sharh al-Luguritma (Sharhu Jadawil al-Ansab, on logorithm) as
a response against him and Rais al-Kuttab (Secretary of State of Ottoman Empire)
gave sable-skin coat as a gift to Ismail Efendi in a ceremony that the Frech
engineer also had participated this meeting. After that, Gelenbevi was invited by
Sultan Selim III to correct the unsuccessful artillery fires in a religious
festival in Istanbul; Gelenbevi corrected angle faults with mathematical
calculations and artilleries hit the marks. Sultan gave Gelenbevi a lot of gifts
and appointed as a judge (of Larissa city, now in Greece.) (53)

Qasirizade Muhammad Emin al-Uskudari dedicated his book Sharhu Khulasat al-Hisab
to Kaptan Mustafa Pasa the chief general of Ottoman Navy in 1140 A.H/1727 A.D and
took a sufficient patronage.(54) In the last years of 18th century with the
decree of Sultan Selim III, hendesehane (college of geometry) was opened in
Sutluce district of Istanbul and the students expressed the kindly interests of
Sultan to them.(55) One of these students was Seyyid Mustafa that after religious
education he had begun to search the (old style) geometry books translated to
Arabic and Turkish. And then he learned logarithm from Gelenbevi Ismail Efendi.
After that Seyyid Mustafa studied French and followed the texts of Johann
Christian Wolf(1679-1754), Jacques Ozanam(1640-1717), Bellidor etc. And noticed
that his knowledge on geometry was not less the authors of 18th century western
science scholars. He gave up to go to France and at that time, when Sultan Selim
III ordered to open a college of geometry in Istanbul, he was one of the very
joyful students of that time.(56)

Conclusion. Brilliant examples are seen for patronization of Islamic sciences in

Islamic history. Some rulers did not only give financial support but some of them
also had got a vast horizon and powerful vision for development of sciences in
Islamic lands.Discrimination was not known by muslim rulers that they gave
financial support muslim and non-muslim scholars. Patronage of muslim rulers
caused development of sciences in Europe and made begun reformation and
renaissance periods in Europe, and then Industrial Revolution came. That is,
patronage of muslim rulers for sciences changed the flowing of the history.

1-Ibn al-Nadim, al-Fihrist, p, 340

2-Cevat İzgi, Osmanli Medreselerinde İlim, v, I, p, 285
3-Cevat İzgi, “Fezari”, Diyanet Islam Ansiklopedisi, v, XII, p, 540 (from: Ibn al-
Nadim, p, 332.) DIA will be used below for Diyanet Islam Ansiklopedisi
4-Sadettin Okten, “Ahmed b. Muhammed en-Nihavendi”, DIA, v, II, p, 103(from Ibn
al-Nadim, al-Fihrist, p, 393; D. Pingree, “Ahmad Nehavendi”, Encyclopaedia
Iranica, I, 653)
5-Mahmut Kaya, “Beytulhikme”, DIA, v, VI, p, 88-90 (from Said Diveci, Beytu’l-
hikma, Musul 1392/1972, p, 10-41)
6-Mahmut Kaya, “Felsefe”, DIA, XII, p, 311-19(from Ibn Nadim, 340-42)
7-Zulfikar Tuccar, “Ferra, Yahya b. Ziyad”, DIA, XII, 406-408
8-Ibn al-Nadim, p, 340-42
9-Mahmut Kaya, “Beytulhikme”, DIA, v, VI, p, 88-90(from Tirazi, Khazain al-kutub
al-Arabiyya fi-al-Khafiqayn, Cairo, v, 1, p, 101)
10-Rushdi Rashid, “Ibrahim b. Sinan b. Sabit”, DIA, XXI, 349-51; (Rushdi Rashid
produced a lot of studies on Thabit’s family.)
11-Ihsan Fazlioglu, “Habes el-Hasib”, DIA, XIV, 367-69(Aydin Sayili, The
Observatory in Islam, Ankara 1988, p, 57-60, 65-69, 75-81
12-Nuri Yuce, “Ali b. Isa el-Usturlabi”, DIA, II, 401-402 (from Ibn al-Nadim, 342-
43)
13-Mahmut Kaya, “Haccac b. Yusuf b. Matar”, DIA, XIV, 427(from Ibn al-Qifti,
Ikhbar al-Ulama, p, 46; Ibn al-Nadim, 243, 265; George Sarton, Introduction, I,
562)
14-Nihat Keklik, Felsefe, p, 277 (Ibn al-Nadim, 243; Ibn Abu Usaybia, Uyun al-
Anba, I, 186-87)
15-Mahmut Kaya, “Firdevsul-Hikme”, DIA, XIII, 131-32 (Ali b. Rabban al-Tabari,
Firdaws al-Hikma(publication: Muhammad Zubayr al-Siddiqi), Berlin 1928, preface of
publisher, p, 4)
16-Hakki Dursun Yildiz, “Feth b. Hakan el-Farisi”, DIA, XII, 452-53
17-Mahmut Kaya, “Beytulhikme”, DIA, VI, 88-90
18-Necip Taylan, Anahatlariyla Islam Felsefesi, p, 166; Mahmut Kaya, “Farabi”,DIA,
XII, 145-62
19-Aysegul Demirhan Erdemir, “Ali b. Abbas el-Mecusi”, DIA, II, 379-80(Ibn al-
Qifti, Ikhbar al-Ulama, Cairo 1326, p, 155-56; Ibn Abu Usaybia, Uyun al-Anba,
Cairo 1884, I, 236-37); C. Elgood, “Ali b. Al-Abbas”, The Encyclopaedia of Islam,
I, 381
20-Abdulkerim Ozaydin, “Fahruddevle”, DIA, XII, 98-99(Hasan Munaymina,Tarikh al-
Dawlat al-Buwayhiyya, Beirut 1407/1987, p, 138)
21-Cevat İzgi, Osmanli Medreselerinde İlim, I, 243; Melek Dosay Gokdogan,
“Kereci”, DIA, XXV, 277-78
22-Cemil Akpinar, “Kabisi”, DIA, XXIV, 39-41(Rushdi Rashid, Tarikh al-Riyaziyyat
al-Arabiyya beyn al-jabra wa al-hisab, Beirut 1989,p, 307-8; Suter, Die
Mathematiker, p, 57, 60-61)
23-Sahban Halifat, “Ibnu’l-Hammar”, DIA, XXI, p, 65-66; (Bayhaqi, Tarikh al-Hukama
al-Islam(publication:Mamduh Hasan Muhammad) Cairo 1417/1996, p, 36-38)
24-Esin Kahya, “el-Kanun fi’t-Tib”, DIA, XXIV, 331-32
25-Aydin Taneri,”Gurgenc”, DIA, XIV, 321-23(Ibn al-Athir, al-Kamil, XII, 394-95;
B.Spuler, “Gurgandj”, Encyclpaedia of Islam, II, 1141-42)
26-Omer Mahir Alper, “Mecriti”, DIA, XXVIII, 278-79; Sarton, Introduction, I, 668-
69
27-Mehmet Ozdemir, “Mansur, Ibn Ebu Amir”, DIA, XXVIII, 6-8
28-Muammer Dizer, “Ibnu’z-Zerkale”, DIA,XXI, 243-45(Ibn al-Qifti, Ikhbar al-Ulama,
p, 57); Ali Sevim, “Garsunni’me”, DIA, XIII, 386-87(from Ibn al-Qifti, Ikhbar al-
Ulama, p, 110,156, 211, 398)
29-Iqtidar Husain Siddiqoui, “Gurlular”, DIA, XIV, 207-11;
30-Ali Durusoy, “Fahreddin el-Mardini”, DIA, XII, 86-7; (Ibn al-Qifti, p, 189)
31-Ramazan Sesen, “Eyyubiler”, DIA, XII, 20-31
32-Esin Kahya, “Ibnu’n-Nefis”, DIA, XXI, 173-76
33-Sami Shelhub, “Farisi, Muhammed b. Ebu Bekir”, DIA, XII, 170-71(Suter, Die
Mathematiker, p, 139; Sarton, Introduction, II, 1000)
34-Abdulkadir Yuvali, “Gazan Han”, DIA, XIII, 429-31(Haneda Masashi, “Gazaniyya in
Tabriz”,
35-Ihsan Fazlioglu, Ibn el-Havvam ve Eseri:el-Fevaid el-Behaiyye fi el-Kavaid el-
Hisabiyye(master thesis, 1993), Istanbul University, Institute of Social Sciences,
p, 97-207
36-Ismail Hakki Uzuncarsili, Buyuk Osmanli Tarihi, v, I, p, 67
37-ibid, p, 70; Cemil Akpinar, “Haci Pasa”, DIA, XIV, 492-96
38-Uzuncarsili, I, 58
39-Ismail Ceran, “Meriniler”, DIA, XXIX, 192-99
40-Orhan F. Koprulu, “Firuz Sah Tugluk”, DIA, XIII, 141-42(B.P. Saksena, “Firuz
Shah Tughluq”, A Comprehensive History of India, I-XII, New Delhi 1970-85, v, V,
p, 566-621; Riaz al-Islam, A History of Firoz Shah Tughluq, Aligarh 1946)

41-Sadettin Okten, “Kasi”, DIA, XXV, 15-16

42-Ihsan Fazlioglu, “Kadizade-i Rumi”, DIA, XXIV, 98-100
43-Uzuncarsili, II, 595; I, 536
44-ibid, I, 323
45-ibid, I, 537
46-ibid, I, 540-41; Cevat İzgi, Osmanli Medreselerinde İlim, I, 131
47-Uzuncarsili, I, 89
48-Cevat Izgi, I, 282; Cemil Akpinar, “Fethullah es-Sirvani”, DIA, XII, 464-66
49-Cevat Izgi, I, 224
50-Cengiz Aydin, “Ali Kuscu”, DIA, II, 408-10
51-Uzuncarsili, II, 597
52-ibid, II, 599
53-Serafettin Golcuk-Metin Yurdagur, “Gelenbevi”, DIA, XIII, 552-55
54-Cevat Izgi, I, 221
55-ibid, I, 265
56-ibid, I, 270-72 (from Kemal Beydilli’s article: “Ilk Muhendislerimizden Seyyid
Mustafa ve Nizam-i Cedide Dair Risalesi”, Istanbul Universitesi Edebiyat Fakultesi
Tarih Dergisi, XIII (Istanbul 1987), p, 387-479

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